define essay in farsi

Hayyim Steingass FarsiDictionary Glosbe Tatoeba

Google Bing

Langenscheidt

Wiktionary pronunciation

Wikipedia Google search Google books

• Dehkhoda Lexicon Institute : لغت‌نامهٔ دهخدا ( Loghat Nāmeh Dehkhodā , Dekhoda Dictionary) Persian dictionary in 15 volumes, by Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda علی‌اکبر دهخدا

• Aryanpour : Persian-English dictionary & French, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, Arabic

• FarsiDic : Persian Dictionary & Persian-English, Arabic, German, Italian

• translation of phrases Persian-English

• Langenscheidt : Persian-German dictionary

• Free-dict : Persian-German dictionary

• Persian academy : Persian dictionary, words approved by the Persian language and literature Academy فرهنگستان زبان و ادب فارسی‎

→ online translation : Persian-English & other languages & web page

• Etymological dictionary of Persian , English & other Indo-European languages , by Ali Nourai

• An etymological dictionary of astronomy and astrophysics English-French-Persian, by Mohammad Heydari-Malayeri, Observatoire de Paris

• Loecsen : Persian-English common phrases (+ audio)

• Goethe-Verlag : Persian-English common phrases & illustrated vocabulary (+ audio)

• LingoHut : Persian-English vocabulary by topics (+ audio)

• Defense Language Institute : basic vocabulary (+ audio) - civil affairs - medical

• Persian-English dictionary by Sulayman Hayyim (1934)

• Comprehensive Persian-English dictionary by Francis Steingass (1892)

• Colloquial English-Persian dictionary in the Roman character , by Douglas Craven Phillott (1914)

• Persian for travellers by Alexander Finn (1884) (Arabic & Latin characters)

• English and Persian dictionary by Sorabshaw Byramji (1882)

• Concise dictionary of the Persian language by Edward Henry Palmer (1891) (Arabic & Latin characters)

• Dictionary, Persian, Arabic, and English by Francis Johnson (1852)

• Pocket Dictionary of English and Persian by William Thornhill Tucker (1850) (Arabic & Latin characters)

• Dictionary in Persian and English by Ramdhun Sen (1841) (Arabic & Latin characters)

• Vocabulary of the Persian language by Samuel Rousseau (1805)

• Grundriss der neupersischen Etymologie : elements of Persian etymology, by Paul Horn (1893)

• Persische Studien : etymological studies, by Heinrich Hübschmann (1895)

• L'influence de la langue française sur le vocabulaire politique persan by Mahnaz Rezaï (2010)

• Les emprunts lexicaux du persan au français  : inventaires et analyses , by Maryam Khalilpour, dissertation (2013)

→ Persian keyboard to type a text with the Arabic script

• Iran Heritage : Persian course (+ audio)

• EasyPersian : Persian course

• Persian alphabet

• University of Texas, Austin : Persian grammar (+ audio)

• Jahanshiri : Persian basic grammar & vocabulary

• verbs conjugation

• Dastur : Persian grammar, by Navid Fazel (in English, German, Persian)

• Anamnese : Persian grammar [PDF] (in French)

• Wikimedia : linguistic map, Persian language is spoken in Iran and in a part of Afghanistan

• The Persian system of politeness and concept of face in Iranian culture by Sofia Koutlaki (2014)

• Note sur le progressif en persan : Persian/English comparative study, by Monir Yazdi, in Cahiers de linguistique hispanique médiévale (1988)

• Higher Persian grammar by Douglas Craven Phillott (1919)

• Persian self-taught in Roman characters with English phonetic pronunciation , by Shayk Hasan (1909)

• Modern Persian conversation-grammar by William St. Clair Tisdall (1902)

• Modern Persian colloquial grammar & dialogues, vocabulary, by Fritz Rosen (1898)

• The Persian manual , grammar & vocabulary, by Henry Wilberforce Clarke (1878)

• Concise grammar of the Persian language , & Dialogues, reading lessons, vocabulary, by Arthur Henry Bleeck (1857)

• Grammar of the Persian language by Duncan Forbes (1844)

• Grammar of the Persian language by Mohammed Ibrahim (1841)

• Grammar of the Persian language by William Jones & additions by Samuel Lee (1828)

• Manuale della lingua persiana , grammatica, antologia, vocabolario , by Italo Pizzi (1883)

• Some remarks on Italo Pizzi's Manuale della lingua persiana by Riccardo Zipoli (2013)

• Principia grammatices neo-persicæ : Persian grammar, by Gabriel Geitlin (1845)

• Early new Persian langage : the Persian language after the Islamic conquest (8 th -12 th centuries) by Ludwig Paul, in Encyclopædia Iranica

• books & papers about the Persian language: Google books | Internet archive | Academia | Wikipedia

• Ham-mihan هم‌میهن - Mardom salari مردم سالاری

• Radio Zamaneh رادیو زمانه

• Radio Farda رادیو فردا

• BBC - RFI - DW

• LyrikLine : Persian poems, with translation (+ audio)

• Petite anthologie bilingue de littérature irano-persane (Medieval texts, with transcription & translation) by Denis Matringe (2021)

• Persian literature , an introduction , by Reuben Levy (1923)

• Persian literature by Claude Field (1912)

• Persian literature , ancient and modern , by Elizabeth Reed (1893)

• La Perse littéraire by Georges Frilley (1900)

• Les origines de la poésie persane by James Darmesteter (1887)

• Yek ruz dar Rostamabad-e Shemiran يک روز در رستم آبادِ شميران by Mohammad-Ali Jamalzade محمدعلی جمال‌زاده

• The Little Prince شازده کوچولو by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, translated into Persian by Ahmad Shamlou

• Primer of Persian , containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax , by George Ranking (1907)

• The flowers of Persian literature , Extracts from the most celebrated authors in prose and verse, with a translation into English , by Samuel Rousseau, William Jones (1805)

• Chrestomathia Persica : Persian texts, by Friedrich Spiegel (1846)

• glossary Persian-Latin

• The Quran translated into Persian

• Farsinet : translation of the Bible into Persian

• The New Testament translated into Persian (1901)

• The Bible translated into Persian (1920)

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights اعلامیه جهانی حقوق بشر translation into Persian (+ audio)

→ First article in different languages

→ Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Persian, English & other languages

→ Iran : maps, heritage & documents

→ Old Persian language

→ Arabic language

Total: $ 0.00

• Persian Learning Publications
• Farsi Children Books
• Persian Complete Course
• Persian Reading
• Persian For Beginners
• Intermediate Persian Learners
• Farsi Tutors

Understanding Persian Sentence Structure: A Step-by-Step Guide

Understanding Persian sentence structure is crucial for anyone learning the Persian language. A solid grasp of sentence construction is essential for effective communication and comprehension in Persian.

This step-by-step guide aims to provide a comprehensive overview of Persian sentence structure, breaking down its basic components, word order patterns, verb placement rules, and the role of various elements such as noun phrases, adjectives, and adverbs. Additionally, this article will explore complex sentence structures and highlight common mistakes to avoid. By the end of this guide, readers will have a clear understanding of Persian sentence structure and be better equipped to construct accurate and meaningful sentences in Persian.

Best Farsi Learning Resource!

Complete Farsi Resources Bundle: 30 Farsi Learning Books

Introduction to persian sentence structure.

Persian sentence structure is like a puzzle waiting to be solved. It’s the key to unlocking the beauty and richness of the Persian language. But fear not, dear reader, for understanding Persian sentence structure is not as daunting as it may seem. In fact, it can be quite an enlightening and rewarding journey!

1) Importance of understanding Persian sentence structure

Understanding Persian sentence structure is vital for anyone who wishes to master the Persian language. It forms the foundation upon which all communication is built. By grasping the intricacies of sentence structure, you’ll be able to express your thoughts and ideas more accurately and eloquently. So, buckle up, my friend, because we’re about to embark on an exciting adventure of language exploration!

2) Basic overview of Persian grammar

Before we dive into the nitty-gritty details of Persian sentence structure, let’s take a quick peek at the basic components of Persian grammar. At its core, the Persian language consists of nouns, verbs, and other parts of speech. Nouns are used to identify people, places, things, or ideas, while verbs express actions, states, or occurrences. This simple foundation sets the stage for constructing our sentences in Persian, and we’ll explore it further in the upcoming sections.

The main components of a Persian sentence

Now that we have a rough understanding of Persian grammar , let’s zoom in and explore the basic components that make up a Persian sentence.

The subject is like the star of the show in a sentence. It’s the noun or pronoun that performs the action or is being described. For example, in the sentence: “علی فوتبال بازی می کند” (Ali plays soccer), “علی” (Ali) is the subject.

The object is the receiver of the action in a sentence. It can be a noun or pronoun affected by the verb. In the sentence: “علی سیب می خورد” (Ali eats an apple), “سیب” (an apple) is the object.

The verb is the action word in a sentence that describes what the subject is doing or the state it is in. In our previous example, “می خورد” (eats) is the verb.

Word order in the Persian language sentences

Now that we know the basic components of a Persian sentence, it’s time to unravel the mystery of word order. In Persian, the most common word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV).

1) Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order

In the SOV word order, the subject comes first, followed by the object, and finally, the verb. For example, “Ali an apple eats” would be the Persian equivalent of “Ali eats an apple”.

2) Exceptions to the SOV word order

While SOV is the typical word order in Persian, there are exceptions to the rule. Adverbs, for instance, often appear before the verb. For example, sometimes in questions, the verb and subject might be reversed. But don’t fret! These exceptions are manageable and add a touch of charm to the language.

With an Adverb Before the Verb:

Persian: “من کتاب را زود می‌خوانم” (Man ketâb râ zood mikhânam) English Translation: “I (subject) the book (object) quickly (adverb) read (verb).” Explanation: Here, the adverb “quickly” is placed before the verb “read,” deviating from the strict SOV order.

With the verb before the subject

Persian: “بیدار شده است علی” (bidâr shode ast Ali) English Translation: “Ali has woken up”. Explanation: Here, the verb “has woken up” is placed before the subject “Ali”, deviating from the strict SOV order.

Understanding Persian verb placement

Now that we have a grasp of word order, let’s delve into verb placement in Persian sentences.

1) Verb position in simple sentences

In simple sentences, the verb usually comes after the subject and the object.

For example: “علی کتاب می خواند” (Ali reads a book).

Explanation: “علی/Ali” (subject), “کتاب/a book” (object), “می خواند/reads” (verb)

2) Verb placement in compound sentences

In compound sentences, where more than one verb is used, the main verb typically comes at the end. The auxiliary verbs, on the other hand, appear sometimes after the main verb and sometimes before the main verb.

For instance: “علی کتاب خرید کرد” (Ali bought a book). The main verb is: kharid (خرید) and the auxiliary verb is: kard (کرد).

Explanation: Kharid (خرید) + Kard (کرد) = Kharid kard (خرید کرد) – This translates to “bought” or “did buy”. It combines the verb “kharid”, meaning purchase, with the verb “kard”, which means (did). Together, they form a compound verb that means to engage in the act of buying.

YouTube Farsi Lessons :

Learn Farsi in 100 Days: The Ultimate Crash Course to Learning Farsi Fast

• Read and Write the Persian Language in 7 Days
• Farsi Conversation: Learn the Most Common Words and Phrases Farsi Speakers use Every Day
• 200 Absolutely Essential Persian Verbs

Noun Phrases and Their Role in Persian Sentences

In the Persian language, noun phrases play a pivotal role in constructing meaningful sentences. These phrases, composed of a noun and its accompanying modifiers, such as adjectives, possessive pronouns, or other nouns, provide depth and clarity to communication. Unlike English, where adjectives typically precede the noun, Persian places these modifiers after the noun, creating a unique syntactic structure.

For example, “ketâbe jâleb” (interesting book).

The Function of Adjectives and Adverbs in Persian Sentence Structure

1) role of adjectives in describing nouns.

Adjectives in Persian are like the spices that add flavor to your sentences. They describe and give more information about nouns. You can put them before or after the noun, and they’ll still do their job just fine. So, keep your adjectives on track and ensure they’re giving that extra punch to the right words!

2) Placement and Usage of Adverbs in Persian Sentences

Adverbs do not play a vital role in Persian sentences and even if they are removed, there will be no problem for the sentence. Unlike adjectives, Persian adverbs are pretty flexible when it comes to placement. So, feel free to get adventurous and play with the order of your adverbs!

Complex Sentence Structures in Persian

1) coordination of clauses.

Sometimes, we need to express more complex ideas in Persian. That’s where the coordination of clauses comes into play. You can link two independent clauses with conjunctions like “و” (and), “یا” (or), or “اما” (but). This way, you can build richer and more nuanced sentences.

2) Subordination of Clauses

When you want to show a hierarchical relationship between clauses, subordination is your friend. Subordinating conjunctions like “که” (that), “چون” (since), or “اگر” (if) help you connect dependent clauses to independent ones. By using subordination, you can showcase cause-and-effect relationships, and conditional statements, or simply add more depth to your writing.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Persian Sentence Construction

1) errors in word order.

Word order is not tricky in Persian, even if you’re used to a different language structure. One common mistake is placing the verb at the beginning of a sentence instead of after the subject (of course, we must say that sometimes the verb comes at the beginning of the Persian sentence, but it’s really not common). So, remember to keep your verbs in their proper place, unless you want to create some Persian poetry unintentionally!

2) Confusion with Verb Placement

Speaking of verbs, another common error is misplacing them within a sentence. Persian verbs usually like to hang out at the end of a sentence (also it has exceptions), so be careful not to place it in other parts of the sentence.

In conclusion, a solid understanding of Persian sentence structure is essential for mastering the Persian language. By following this step-by-step guide, learners can navigate the complexities of Persian sentence construction with confidence. Remember to pay attention to word order, verb placement, and the role of different elements within a sentence, such as noun phrases, adjectives, and adverbs. By practicing and avoiding common mistakes, learners can enhance their proficiency in constructing accurate and coherent Persian sentences. With dedication and practice, the mastery of Persian sentence structure will contribute to improved communication and fluency in the language.

So go forth and embrace the beauty of the Persian language with confidence and panache!

1) How important is understanding Persian sentence structure?

Understanding Persian sentence structure is vital for effective communication in the language. Proper construction of sentences ensures clarity and coherence, allowing speakers to convey their thoughts accurately. It also enables learners to comprehend Persian texts and conversations more proficiently.

2) Are there any exceptions to the Persian word order?

While Persian primarily follows the subject-object-verb (SOV) word order, there can be exceptions. Certain adverbs, prepositional phrases, and emphasis on specific elements can alter the word order in a sentence. It is important to familiarize yourself with these exceptions to construct grammatically correct sentences.

3) What are some common mistakes to avoid in Persian sentence construction?

Common mistakes in Persian sentence construction include errors in word order, incorrect verb placement, and confusion with the function of different sentence elements. It’s important to practice and review these concepts to minimize errors and enhance overall proficiency.

Special Offers!

Most Comprehensive Farsi Learning Resources Bundle: Beginners to Advanced

1000 most common farsi phrases: essential expressions for communicating in farsi, read and write persian language in 7 days: a workbook and step-by-step guide.

by: Learn Persian Online Team about 9 months ago (category: Blog )

Learn Persian Online Team

The little match girl, jack and the magic bean, lire et écrire le farsi en 7 jours, grammaire farsi en usage, read and write persian language in 7 days, 1000 most common farsi phrases, the ugly duckling, 100 short stories in persian, how to learn persian: your step-by-step guide from basics to fluency, 5 effective and efficient ways to learn persian in 2022, how to speak the persian language in 5 deliberate steps, how can i incorporate persian learning into my daily life, what people say about "understanding persian sentence structure: a step-by-step guide".

No one replied yet.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Login and use all of our services.

Learn Persian Online services are waiting for you. login faster!

Register Fast!

Password will be generated automatically and sent to your email.

After registration you can change your password if you want.

Children Books

• Publications

Skype Lessons

• Blog Articles
• Complete Course
• Skype Service
• Youtube Videos

English to Persian

• Farsi Translator
• Persian keyboard

Farsi to English

• French to Farsi
• German to Persian

English to Persian Translation

Translate English to Farsi with robust AI tool.

English to Persian Dictionary

Aryanpour Persian Dictionary the comprehensive English to Farsi dictionary with robust translation function.

Translate Farsi vocabulary and paraghraphs to English.

Aryanpour Persian dictionary is a comprehensive free English to Persian dictionary with a robust multi language Farsi transation tool that easily translates texts and documents from one language to the other with definitions and synonyms that you can understand. Aryanpour Farsi dictionary is a great reference for researchers of farsi language .

Aryanpour has the most concise and accurate online Persian dictionary which been widely used in Farsi institutes, universities, and colleges.

English to Persian Translation Tool is powered by machine learning Translation API. You can start typing on the text area and then click on the "Translate" button. Aryanpour robust app then translates your English word, phrase, or sentence into Persian. The translation is instant and unlimited. This translation software is intelligent and using latest machine learning techniques.

Buy Now Pay Later

Do not even think about it, sat vocabulary: claim.

ترجمه نوشتار

نوشتار مبدأ, نتایج ترجمه, بکشید و رها کنید.

ترجمه وب‌سایت

نشانی وب را وارد کنید

ترجمه تصویر

ذخیره‌شده‌ها.

Dictionary Persian - English

Translations from dictionary persian - english, definitions, grammar.

In Glosbe you will find translations from Persian into English coming from various sources. The translations are sorted from the most common to the less popular. We make every effort to ensure that each expression has definitions or information about the inflection.

In context translations Persian - English, translated sentences

Glosbe dictionaries are unique. In Glosbe you can check not only Persian or English translations. We also offer usage examples showing dozens of translated sentences. You can see not only the translation of the phrase you are searching for, but also how it is translated depending on the context.

Translation memory for Persian - English languages

The translated sentences you will find in Glosbe come from parallel corpora (large databases with translated texts). Translation memory is like having the support of thousands of translators available in a fraction of a second.

Pronunciation, recordings

Often the text alone is not enough. We also need to hear what the phrase or sentence sounds like. In Glosbe you will find not only translations from the Persian-English dictionary, but also audio recordings and high-quality computer readers.

Picture dictionary

A picture is worth more than a thousand words. In addition to text translations, in Glosbe you will find pictures that present searched terms.

Automatic Persian - English translator

Do you need to translate a longer text? No problem, in Glosbe you will find a Persian - English translator that will easily translate the article or file you are interested in.

It's nice to welcome you to the Glosbe Community. How about adding entries to the dictionary?

Add translation

Help us to build the best dictionary.

Glosbe is a community based project created by people just like you.

Please, add new entries to the dictionary.

Recent changes

Statistics of the persian - english dictionary, language persian, language english.

Academic Writing for Academic Persian: A Synthesis of Recent Research

• First Online: 18 September 2021

Cite this chapter

• Chiew Hong Ng 10 &
• Yin Ling Cheung 10  

Part of the book series: Language Policy ((LAPO,volume 25))

238 Accesses

Besides enhancing Persian academic reading, in an English only research world, Persian academic stakeholders have to master English and/or Persian academic writing to disseminate findings globally to members of different disciplinary communities through Persian and English language as a lingua franca. This chapter uses the method of qualitative meta-synthesis of 40 empirical studies specifically on academic writing in Persian in refereed journals, book chapters, and conference proceedings published during the period of 2005–2020. An inductive approach to thematic analysis synthesizes (a) the theoretical models for researching Academic Persian in academic writing and (b) the similarities and differences between academic writers from Persian and English for different disciplines. Theoretically and pedagogically, the findings from the comparisons and the systematic content analysis following Sandelowski et al. (Res Nurs Health 20:365–371. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-240X(199708)20:4<365::AID-NUR9>3.0.CO;2-E , 1997) contribute to our understanding of styles and genres specific to academic writing for Academic Persian, in terms of theoretical models for research as well as conventions or expectations of different disciplines in academic writing for Academic Persian.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Why Do I Write This Way? Tracking the Stylistic Leap from Professional to Academic Writing

A model of rhetorical markers competence in writing academic research articles: a qualitative meta-synthesis

Introduction: Understanding Academic Writing in the Context of Central and Eastern European Higher Education

Abdi, R. (2009). Projecting cultural identity through metadiscourse marking: A comparison of Persian and English research articles. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning Year, 52 (212), 1–15.

Google Scholar  

Adel, S. M. R., & Moghadam, R. G. (2015). A comparison of moves in conclusion sections of research articles in psychology, Persian Literature and applied linguistics. Teaching English Language, 9 (2), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.22132/TEL.2015.53729

Article   Google Scholar  

Aghdassi, A. (2018). Persian academic reading . Routledge.

Book   Google Scholar  

Allami, A., & Naeimi, A. (2010). A cross-linguistic study of refusal: An analysis of pragmatic competence development in Iranian EFL learners. Journal of Pragmatics, 43 (1), 385–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.07.010

Ansarifar, A., Shahriari, H., & Pishghadam, R. (2018). Phrasal complexity in academic writing: A comparison of abstracts written by graduate students and expert writers in applied linguistics. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 31 , 58–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2017.12.008

Ansarin, A. A., & Tarlani-Aliabdi, H. (2011). Reader engagement in English and Persian applied linguistics articles. English Language Teaching, 4 (4), 154–164. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v4n4p154

Attarn, A. (2014). Study of metadiscourse in ESP articles: A comparison of English articles written by Iranian and English native speakers. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 5 (1), 63–71.

Belcher, D. D. (2007). Seeking acceptance in an English-only research world. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16 (1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2006.12.001

Bennet, K., & Muresan, L.-H. (2016). Rhetorical incompatibilities in academic writing: English versus the romance cultures. SYNERGY, 12 (1), 95–119.

Bhatia, V. K. (1997). Introduction: Genre analysis and world Englishes. World Englishes, 16 (3), 313–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-971X.00066

Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Cortes, V. (2004). “Take a look at…”: Lexical bundles in university teaching and textbooks. Applied Linguistics, 25 , 401–435. https://doi.org/10.1558/wap.v8i1.30051

Biber, D., Gray, B., & Poonpon, K. (2011). Should we use characteristics of conversation to measure grammatical complexity in L2 writing development? TESOL Quarterly, 45 (1), 5–35. https://doi.org/10.5054/tq.2011.244483

Coffin, C. (2009). Incorporating and evaluating voices in a film studies thesis. Writing and Pedagogy, 1 , 163–193. https://doi.org/10.1558/wap.v1i2.163

Ebadi, S., Salman, A. R., & Ebrahimi, B. (2015). A comparative study of the use of metadiscourse markers in Persian and English academic papers. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2 (4), 28–41.

Ershadi, S., & Farnia, M. (2015). Comparative generic analysis of discussions of English and Persian computer research articles. Culture and Communication Online, 6 (6), 15–31.

Esfandiari, R., & Barbary, F. (2017). A contrastive corpus-driven study of lexical bundles between English writers and Persian writers in psychology research articles. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 29 , 21–42. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.JEAP.2017.09.002

Faghih, E., & Rahimpour, S. (2009). Contrastive rhetoric of English and Persian written texts: Metadiscourse in applied linguistics research articles. Rice Working Papers in Linguistics, 1 , 92–107.

Farahani, M. V. (2017). Investigating the application and distribution of metadiscourse features in research articles in Applied linguistics between English native writers and Iranian writers: A comparative corpus-based inquiry. Journal of Advances in Linguistics, 8 (1), 1268–1285. https://doi.org/10.24297/jal.v8i1.6441

Farzannia, S., & Farnia, M. (2017). Genre-based analysis of English and Persian research article abstracts in mining engineering journals. Beyond Words, 5 (1), 1–13.

Francis, G., Huston, S., Manning, E., & Patterns, C. C. G. (1996). Collins COBUILD grammar patterns 1; verbs . Harper Collins.

Ghasempour, B., & Farnia, M. (2017). Contrastive move analysis: Persian and English research articles abstracts in law. The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes, 5 (4), 739–753. https://doi.org/10.22190/JTESAP1704739G

Ghazanfari, F., & Abassi, B. (2012). Functions of hedging: The case of Academic Persian prose in one of Iranian universities. Studies in Literature and Language, 4 (1), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.3968/j.sll.1923156320120401.1400

Gholami, J., & Ilghami, R. (2016). Metadiscourse markers in biological research articles and journal impact factor: Non-native writers vs. native writers. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 44 (4), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1002/bmb.20961

Gholami, M., Tajalli, G., & Shokrpour, N. (2014). Metadiscourse markers in English medical texts and their Persian translation based on Hyland’s model. European Journal of English Language and Literature Studies, 2 (2), 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/bmb.20961

Gillet, A. (2020). Academic writing: Genres in academic writing . http://www.uefap.com/writing/genre/genrefram.htm

Hasrati, M., Gheitury, A., & Hooti, N. (2010). A genre analysis of Persian research article abstracts: Communicative moves and author identity. Iranian Journal of Applied Language Studies, 2 (2), 47–74. https://doi.org/10.22111/IJALS.2012.70

Hunston, S. (1993). Professional conflict: Disagreement in academic discourse. In M. Baker, G. Francis, & E. Tognini-Bonelli (Eds.), Text & technology: In honor of John Sinclair (pp. 115–133). John Benjamins.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Hyland, K. (1996). Nurturing hedges in the ESP curriculum. System, 24 (4), 477–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(96)00043-7

Hyland, K. (1999). Academic attribution: Citation and the construction of disciplinary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 20 , 341–367. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.3.341

Hyland, K. (2000). Disciplinary discourse: Social interactions in academic writing . Longman.

Hyland, K. (2004). Disciplinary interactions: Metadiscourse in L2 postgraduate writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13 , 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2004.02.001

Hyland, K. (2005). Metadiscourse . Continuum.

Hyland, K. (2008). As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. English for Specific Purposes, 27 (1), 4–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2007.06.001

Hyland, K., & Tse, P. (2004). Metadiscourse in academic writing: A reappraisal. Applied Linguistics, 25 (2), 156–177. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/25.2.156

Khajavy, G. H., Asadpour, S. F., & Yousef, A. (2012). A comparative analysis of interactive metadiscourse features in discussion section of research articles written in English and Persian. International Journal of Linguistics, 4 (2), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v4i2.1767

Keshavarz, M. H., & Kheirieh, Z. (2011). Metadiscourse elements in English research articles written by native English and non-native Iranian writers in applied linguistics and civil engineering. Journal of English Studies, 1 (3), 3–15.

Koutsantoni, D. (2005). Greek cultural characteristics and academic writing. Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 23 (1), 97–138. https://doi.org/10.1353/mgs.2005.0007

Lores, R. (2004). On RA abstracts: From rhetorical structure to thematic organization. English for Specific Purposes, 23 , 280–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2003.06.001

Marefat, H., & Mohammadzadeh, S. (2013). Genre analysis of literature research article abstracts: A cross-linguistic, cross-cultural study. Applied Research on English Language, 2 (2), 37–50.

Mauranen, A. (1993). Contrastive ESP rhetoric: metatext in Finnish-English economics texts. English for Specific Purposes, 12 (1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0889-4906(93)90024-I

Mohammadi, M. J. (2013). Do Persian and English dissertation acknowledgments accommodate Hyland’s model: A cross-linguistic study. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3 (5), 534–547.

Mozayan, M. R., Allami, H., & Fazilatfar, A. M. (2017). Metadiscourse features in medical research articles: Subdisciplinary and paradigmatic influences in English and Persian. RALs, 9 (1), 83–104.

Omidi, L., & Farnia, M. (2016). Comparative generic analysis of introductions of English and Persian physical education research articles. International Journal of Language and Applied Linguistics, 2 (2), 1–18.

O’Sullivan, Í. (2010). Using corpora to enhance learners’ academic writing skills in French. Revue française de linguistique appliquée, XV , 21–35.

Peacock, M. (2011). The structure of the methods section in research articles across eight disciplines. Asian ESP Journal, 7 (2), 97–124.

Pho Phuong, D. (2010). Linguistic realizations of rhetorical structure: A corpus-based study of research article abstracts and introductions in applied linguistics and educational technology. Language and Computers, 71 , 135–152. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789042028012010

Pooresfahani, A. F., Khajavy, G. H., & Vahidnia, F. (2012). A contrastive study of metadiscourse elements in research articles written by Iranian applied linguistics and engineering writers in English. English Linguistics Research, 1 (1), 88–96. https://doi.org/10.5430/elr.v1n1p88

Rahimi, S., & Farnia, M. (2017). Comparative generic analysis of introductions of English and Persian dentistry research articles. Iranian Journal of Research in English Language Teaching (RELP), 5 (1), 27–40.

Reza, P., & Atena, A. (2012). Rhetorical patterns of argumentation in EFL journals of Persian and English. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning , 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5861/ijrsll.2012.132

Reza, G., & Mansoori, S. (2011). Metadiscursive distinction between Persian and English: An analysis of computer engineering research articles. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2 (5), 1037–1042. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.5.1037-1042

Sadeghi, K., & Alinasab, M. (2020). Academic conflict in applied linguistics research article discussions: The case of native and non-native writers. English for Specific Purposes, 59 , 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2020.03.001

Samaie, M., Khosravian, F., & Boghayeri, M. (2014). The frequency and types of hedges in research article introductions by Persian and English native authors. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98 , 1678–1685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.593

Sandelowski, M., Docherty, S., & Emden, C. (1997). Qualitative metasynthesis: Issues and techniques. Research in Nursing and Health, 20 , 365–371. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-240X(199708)20:4<365::AID-NUR9>3.0.CO;2-E

Shokouhi, H., & Baghsiahi, A. T. (2009). Metadiscourse functions in English and Persian sociology articles: A study in contrastive rhetoric. Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 45 (4), 549–568. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10010-009-0026-2

Shooshtari, Z. G., Alilifar, A., & Shahri, S. (2017). Ethnolinguistic influence on citation in English and Persian hard and soft science research articles. The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 23 (2), 58–74. https://doi.org/10.17576/3L-2017-2302-05

Siami, T., & Abdi, R. (2012). Metadiscourse strategies in Persian research articles: Implications for teaching writing English articles. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 9 , 165–176.

Sorahi, M., & Shabani, M. (2016). Metadiscourse in Persian and English research article introductions. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 6 (6), 1175–1182. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0606.06

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings . Cambridge University Press.

Swales, J. M. (2004). Research genres: Explorations and applications . Cambridge University Press.

Taki, S., & Jafarpour, F. (2012). Engagement and stance in academic writing: A study of English and Persian research articles. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 3 (1), 157–168. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2012.03.01.157

Toulmin, S. (2003). The uses of argument (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Valero-Garces, C. (1996). Contrastive ESP rhetoric: Metatext in Spanish-English economics texts. English for Specific Purposes, 15 (2), 279–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(96)00013-0

Vande Kopple, W. J. (1985). Some exploratory discourse on metadiscourse. College Composition and Communication, 36 (1), 82–93.

Varastehnezhad, M., & Gorjian, B. (2018). A comparative study on the uses of metadiscourse markers (MMs) in research articles (RAs): Applied linguistics versus politics. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Learning, 4 (2), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.jalll.20180402.02

Yang, R., & Allison, D. (2003). Research articles in applied linguistics: Moving from results to conclusions. English for Specific Purposes, 22 , 365–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(02)00026-1

Yazdanmehr, E., & Samar, R. G. (2013). Comparing interpersonal metadiscourse in English and Persian abstracts of Iranian applied linguistics journals. The Experiment, 16 (1), 1090–1101.

Yeganeh, M. T., & Boghayeri, M. (2015). The frequency and function of reporting verbs in research articles written by native Persian and English speakers. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 192 , 582–586.

Yeganeh, M. T., & Ghoreyshi, S. M. (2014). Exploring gender differences in the use of discourse markers in Iranian academic research articles. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 192 , 684–689.

Zamani, G., & Ebadi, S. (2016). Move analysis of the conclusion sections of research papers in Persian and English. Cypriot Journal of Educational Science, 11 (1), 9–20.

Zand-Vakili, E., & Kashani, A. F. (2012). The contrastive move analysis: An investigation of Persian and English research articles’ abstract and introduction parts. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 3 (2), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n2.129

Zarei, G. R., & Mansoori, S. (2007). Metadiscourse in academic prose: A contrastive analysis of English and Persian research articles. The Asian ESP Journal, 3 (2), 24–40.

Zarei, G. Z., & Mansoori, S. (2010). Are English and Persian distinct in their discursive elements: An analysis of applied linguistics texts. English for Specific Purposes World, 31 (10), 1–8.

Zarei, G. R., & Mansoori, S. (2011). A contrastive study on metadiscourse elements used in humanities vs. non humanities across Persian and English. English Language Teaching, 4 (1), 42–50. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v4n1p42

Zhang, W. Y., & Cheung, Y. L. (2017). Understanding engagement resources in constructing voice in research articles in the fields of computer networks and communications and second language writing. The Asian ESP Journal, 13 (3), 72–99.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

Chiew Hong Ng & Yin Ling Cheung

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chiew Hong Ng .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

Abbas Aghdassi

Appendix: List of selected studies

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Ng, C.H., Cheung, Y.L. (2021). Academic Writing for Academic Persian: A Synthesis of Recent Research. In: Aghdassi, A. (eds) Perspectives on Academic Persian. Language Policy, vol 25. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75610-9_10

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75610-9_10

Published : 18 September 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-75609-3

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-75610-9

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

LinguaJunkie.com

A very cranky language blogger dishing out brutal language tips.

How to Introduce Yourself in Persian in 10 Lines

Want to speak Persian? Yes? Good – keep reading. This is for those that truly want to learn the language. Here’s how you introduce yourself in Persian in 10 easy lines … and this might take you 2 to 3 minutes or less. With this lesson…

• You get the Persian phrases and English translations.
• Read out loud to practice your speaking.
• Feel free to print this sheet out for extra review.

Here’s how you introduce yourself in Persian. Let’s go.

…if you REALLY want to learn Persian with effective audio & video lessons by real teachers – Sign up at PersianPod101 (click here) and start learning! I recommend it.

1) Hello, It’s nice to meet you.

Hello and Nice to meet you in Persian are a must-know phrases. And any introduction will probably will start with these words.

• Hello, it’s nice to meet you.
• Salaam, (az molaaghaat baa shomaa) khoshvaghtam.

2) My name is _____.

This is simple. To say “my name is” in Persian, you just follow this formula “Esm-e man ____ ast.” Then stick in your name your name. For example, if the name is Maryam, it would be like this…

• My name is Maryam.
• Esm-e man maryam ast.

For yourself, just add your name below.

• My name is ______.
• Esm-e man ______ ast.

3) I am from ______.

So, where are you from? America? Europe? Africa? Asia? Just stick the name of your country inside this phrase. We’ll use Iran as an example.

• I’m from Iran.
• Man irani hastam.

4) I live in ______.

What about now – where do you live? Just fill in the blank with the country or city (if famous) into this phrase. I’ll use Teheran as an example.

• I live in Teheran.
• Man dar tehraan zendegi mikonam.

5) I’ve been learning Persian for _____.

How long have you been learning Persian for? A month? A year?

• I’ve been learning Persian for a year.
• Man yek saal ast ke daram zabaan-e farsi yad migiram.

6) I’m learning Persian at _____.

Where are you learning Persian? At school? At home? This would be a great line to know and use when you’re introducing yourself. Here’s my example:

• I’m learning Persian at PersianPod101.com.
• Man daram zabaan-e farsi raa dar perzhen paad vaan o vaan yaad migiram.

7) I am ____ years old.

Here’s how to say how old you are in Persian.

• I’m 27 years old.
• Man bist-o-haft sal sen daram.

8) I am ______.

What about your position? Are you a student? Yoga teacher? Lawyer for the potato industry? Potato salesman? Super important question that people like to ask (and judge you about – Hey, I’m just a blogger! ).n.

• I’m a teacher.
• Man moallem hastam.

9) One of my hobbies is _____.

Now, let’s move onto personal interests – hobbies! My hobbies are languages, linguajunkieing and such. How about you? You’ll definitely need this line when introducing yourself in Persian.

Here’s an example to use:

• One of my hobbies is reading.
• Yeki az sargarmi-haaye man ketaab khaandan ast.

10) I enjoy listening to music.

Now, this is just another example line about your hobbies . You can use something else where.

• I enjoy listening to music.
• Az goosh daadan be mmoosighi lezzat mibaram.

So now you know how to introduce yourself in Persian in 10 lines. I’m sure there’s a ton more you can say – but this is an easy, simple start that any beginner can put to use. It’s all about starting easy.

See if you can introduce yourself below. Leave me a comment.

I read all comments!

Hope you enjoyed this!

– The Main Junkie

P.S. I highly recommend this for Persian learners. If you REALLY want to learn to Persian with effective lessons by real teachers – Sign up for free at PersianPod101 (click here) and start learning!

You cannot copy content of this page

• System of Transcription
• The Persian Alphabet
• Connecting Characters
• Earliest History
• The Old Persian Script
• The Avestan Script
• Middle Persian
• New Persian
• How to Type In Persian
• Dictionary of Idioms
• Adjective Conjunctions
• Abstractions
• Comparative
• Superlative
• Third Person Singular Pronoun
• The Indefinite Enclitic
• Interrogatives (5 W’s & H)
• Noun as a Predicate
• Counting Words
• To Tell the Time
• What is Diglossia?
• Diglossia Rules
• Direct Object Marker 1
• Direct Object Marker 2
• Ezāfe 1
• Ezāfe 2
• Short Vowels
• Long Vowels
• Silent and Consonantal /h/
• The Silent Letter vāv
• Basic Preposition Usage
• Prepositional Phrases
• Verbal Endings
• Possessive/Objective Endings
• Personal Endings
• Possessive Pronouns
• Simple Sentences
• Complex Sentences
• Sentence Types
• Verb “To Be”
• Long Copulas
• Complex & Compound Verbs
• Stationary Verbs
• Past Participle
• Past Perfect
• Past Perfect Continuous
• Present Perfect
• Present Perfect Continuous
• Infinitives
• Present Stem
• Imperatives
• Inanimate Plurals
• Present Subjunctive
• Past Subjunctive
• Perfect Subjunctive
• Nationality
• Greetings List
• Introducing Yourself List
• Numbers 1 – 100 List
• Numbers 100 – 900 List
• The Family List
• Personal Questions List
• Pastimes List
• Continents & Countries List
• Nationalities & Languages List
• Colors List
• Fruits List
• Vegetables & Herbs List
• Processed Foods List
• Drinks & Sweets List
• At The Table List
• On Campus List
• Fields of Study List
• Writing Numbers Quiz
• Picture Identification Quiz
• Fill in the Pronouns Quiz
• Word Order Quiz
• Pronouns and Verbs Quiz
• Name the Professions Quiz
• Name the Pastimes Quiz
• Countries Quiz
• Flags & Colors Quiz
• Cities Quiz
• What Color Is It? Quiz
• Food Recognition Quiz
• What Time Is It? Quiz
• Proverbs & Maxims
• Bibliography

Sentence structure refers to the many ways that different parts of speech are put together to create semantic meaning. One mark of fluency and proficiency is how naturally one constructs original sentences in the target language.

Fortunately in Persian, the sentence structure is generally very regular. Under normal circumstances the verb is always placed at the end of the sentence. Writing from right to left, the basic sentence structure in Persian is as follows:

More complex sentences may be constructed according to the following structure:

.من دیروز به سینما رفتم man diruz be sinamā raftam “I went to the movies yesterday.” .این مرد معلّم ماست in mard mo’allem-e māst “This man is our teacher.” .خانهٔ ما خیلی بزرگ است xāne-ye mā xeyli bozorg ast “Our house is very large/big.” .من یک خواهر بزرگتر دارم man yek xāhar-e bozorgtar dāram “I have an older sister.”

In Persian personal endings are used to mark the person, the number, and the tense. Therefore, from the technical point of view, a verb and the appropriate personal ending may be considered a complete sentence, or at least a clause. For instance, in the clause می‌روم mi ravam ‘I go, I am going, I shall go’ (in which the subject pronoun من man ‘I’ has been elided, and the personal ending م represents the person/subject), the two elements of subject and verb are present.

Farsi Language Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Farsi language in iranian classroom, iranian pronunciation in the english language, challenges of efl learning in iran, influences of english speaking on efl learners.

The purpose of writing this essay will be to examine the various varieties of English that exist in Farsi language classrooms and also to determine the type of English language pronunciation that Iranian learners are aiming for and the interference of Farsi language in attaining the desired pronunciation levels. The focus or context of the study will be on Iranian children between the ages of 16 and 18 years who are in high school and are learning English as a foreign language (EFL).

The reason for selecting high school students is that the teaching of English as a foreign language has been on the increase in most high schools in Iran for the past two decades. Despite this increasing interest in learning English within educational institutions, little knowledge exists on what actually happens within Iranian EFL classrooms in most high schools in the country (Rezvani and Rasekh 2011).

This study will seek to address this gap by determining the varieties of English that exist in Farsi language classrooms as well the type of pronunciation that most Iranian students seek to attain. The use of metaphors during English learning lessons within Iranian schools will also be explored as metaphorical expressions have contributed significantly to the pronunciation of Farsi speakers undertaking English language lessons.

The study will also address the influences of English which have mostly been attributed to the globalization process around the world and the growing need to communicate in English (Davis 2006). English as an international language (EIL) refers to how it is viewed as a global means of communicating within very many dialects and how the English language is viewed as an international language.

As a world-renown language, English mostly places importance on learning the diverse parlances and other forms of speaking, writing and reading English and it aims to provide individuals with the necessary linguistic tools which will allow them to communicate in a more global or international context.

English as an international language is also used to develop and nurture the communication skills of various people who exist in diverse cultures around the world because it is a common language (Acar 2006). There are very many varieties of English with some of the most common being American English and British English.

The British English dialect differs from American English in terms of accent, pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. The British dialect mostly accentuates the English grammar and pronunciation and their dialect differs from that of American English in terms of accent.

The pronunciation of English words varies significantly amongst British speakers when compared to American speakers of the language. American English, which is mostly used in many Iranian schools, incorporates differences in pronunciation and vocabulary and also the dialect.

The other dialects of English, which are used in the various countries around the world include Burmese English, which is spoken by people from Burma in the Asian continent, Portuguese English, Australian English, European English, Caribbean English and other forms of English (Wakelin 2008).

While American English is used in most English learning classes in Iran, the pronunciation of the language is basic or general English meaning that English learners in the country do not have any American or British accents when speaking the language.

In their analysis of how Farsi or Persian language is used in the classroom setting, Tucker and Corson (1997) noted that the type of tasks students were involved in during class time varied significantly in Farsi speakers that were studying English as a foreign language.

Varieties in English grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary were mostly notable in direct translations, visual descriptions and grammatical explanations. This demonstrated that an accurate measurement of inter-language competency was needed to take into account different conditions and stages of English speaking and learning within Farsi language classrooms (Majd 2008).

The strategic competence of Iranian students when it came to inter-language use was explored by Yarmohamadi and Seif in their 1992 study where they set out to determine the communicative ability of these students in handling problematic English concepts.

Iranian students that were studying English at the various levels and stages of high school were assessed based on their placement of primary stress and emphasis on English words and the use of morphological, syntactic and phonological hierarchies to determine the complexity of English words.

The results of their assessment demonstrated that the use of such measures was able to determine the communication proficiency of many of the students as well as their pronunciation of the varieties of English that were used during classroom instruction (Yarmohamadi and Seif 1992).

With regards to the varieties of English within Iranian classrooms, Taki (2010) conducted an assessment where two groups of Persian and English language teachers were selected to provide some correspondence for metaphorical equivalents based on their use of both Farsi and English languages during the instruction of students.

The criteria used by Taki was whether they taught the high school students with their native language, their familiarity with metaphorical languages, expressions and the basic knowledge that they had of concepts or figures of speech. A total of 40 animal terms were selected for comparison between English and Persian languages to determine the metaphorical variety that existed between the two languages.

The purpose of conducting this study was to determine whether the use of metaphorical expressions aided Iranian students in their English learning activities (Taki 2010).

The results of Taki’s study revealed that the metaphorical expressions used in both languages were 20% similar for animal terms that were presented to the respondents. This corroborated the idea many linguists have developed on the partial mappings or metaphorical expressions that exist between the same source of information and the target domains of both the Farsi and English languages.

The results also revealed that 50% of the metaphorical expressions used to describe animal images were similar for both the English and Farsi languages and they also differed in separate ways. This meant that the metaphors worked in different ways for both languages when they were used in different contexts as they elicited different meanings from both languages (Taki 2010).

The results of the study pointed to the various similarities and differences that existed between both languages, especially when used within the school context. Metaphors played a great role in enabling the Iranian students to better understand what was being communicated to them in the English lessons.

They heightened the comprehension abilities of the students while at the same time enhancing their understanding of the English language.

Rezvani and Rasekh (2011) conducted a study to determine the teaching patterns of four Iranian EFL teachers when it came to language alternation and Farsi speaking language within the classroom setting.

The results of their study demonstrated that the four EFL teachers used code-switching tendencies during classroom interaction sections and also in the discipline of students, which was otherwise known as classroom management.

The authors viewed code-switching to be an important activity for many Iranian teachers as it enabled them to successfully interact with their students who were mostly Iranian native speakers (Rezvani and Rasekh 2011).

Most of the teaching language used by these Iranian teachers was Farsi or Persian language and therefore teaching students without any code-switching strategies proved to be difficult in relaying the proper pronunciation, grammatical representation and vocabulary of certain words (Nilep 2006: Myers-Scotton 1997).

Another study conducted by Gholamain and Geva (1999) examined the extent to which basic reading skills in both the Farsi language and American English could be understood by students after considering their underlying cognitive processes and by understanding the unique characteristics of the alphabets between the two language systems.

Farsi or the Persian language makes extensive use of sound-symbol correspondences during the pronunciation of Persian words when compared to the English language which makes limited use of sound-symbols.

Gholamain and Geva (1999) examined Persian students who were enrolled in school systems where the language of instruction was English. The researchers noted that the students performed better in measures of English reading and cognitive capabilities when compared to Farsi reading and understanding of the Persian language.

Farsi or the Persian language has been the main tool that is used for literacy and scientific contributions in the eastern part of the Islamic and Muslim world. The language is similar to that of many contemporary European languages and it has considerable influence on various languages such as Turkic languages which are used in Central Asia, Caucasus and Anatolia.

Farsi language is classified to belong to the western group of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family and it is termed to originate from three periods of Iranian history which include the Old period where the Achaemenid language was introduced, the Middle period which was also known as the Sassanid era and the Modern or post-Sassanid period.

The Persian language has been termed as the only Iranian language that has a close genetic relationship will all the three historic periods (Katzner 2002).

Farsi language can be spoken in three dialects which include Iranian Persian or Farsi which is mostly spoken by many people in Iran, Afghan Persian otherwise known as Dari which is used by many people in Afghanistan and Tajik Persian or Tajiki which is a common Persian language spoken in countries such as Russia, Uzbekistan and Cyria (Henderson 1994).

All these three dialects are based on classical Persian literature, which was a period in Persian history that was marked with some of the world’s best Persian language poets and linguists from the eastern parts of the world such as Rudaki, Omar Khayyam and Varand (Clawson 2004).

The heavy influence of the Persian language from the classical period has mostly been witnessed in many parts of the Islamic world especially since it is viewed as an important piece of literary work as well as a prestigious language that is used amongst the educated elite in the fields of Persian art and literature as well as in Qawwali music (Perry 2005).

Educated people from most of the Middle Eastern countries are able to comprehend each other with an elevated level of clearness, but the differences are only noticeable in their vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. This has been termed by many linguistic scholars to be similar to the same differences in vocabulary or pronunciation that exist between British English and American English.

In terms of Farsi language morphology, Persian grammar is mostly made up of suffixes and a limited number of prefixes where there is no grammatical gender in Farsi language and there are no pronouns that can be used to denote natural gender.

The syntax that is used for the language involves declarative sentences that are structured as (S) (PP) (O) V which means that sentences can be made up of optional subjects, objects and phrases (Megerdoomian 2000).

The vocabulary that is used in Farsi languages involves the use of word-building affixes as well as nouns and adjectives. The language mostly makes the use of adding derived affixes to the base of a word so as to create a new word, noun or adjective (Perry 2005).

Since the Farsi language is part of the Indo-European languages, most of the words between English and Persian are similar like for example the English name of daughter in Persian is pronounced dokhtar, mother in English is pronounced as madar in Persian while the English name of brother is pronounced as baradar in Persian.

This demonstrates that many words that are of Persian origin have been incorporated into the English language. Most of the English vocabulary has been influenced by the Persian language and the Persian language has also had most of its grammar and pronunciation influenced by the English (Majd 2008).

This essay seeks to determine the varieties of English that are used within many high school classrooms in Iran as well as the other Middle Eastern countries that use Persian in speaking and learning activities.

In addressing the question of English pronunciation amongst Iranian high school students, Hayati (2010) notes that the pronunciation of Iranian high school students should be based on their ability to accurately and correctly pronounce different words of the English language correctly as well as hold proper dialogues with their peers.

Hayati (2010) notes that while the pronunciation of most Iranian high school students is poor, it can be improved further by sensitizing students in the conversational tactics that they use when they converse in their native language.

Most Iranian students as well as Iranian EFL learners aim to have “proper” English pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, which have been evidenced by the growing number of EFL learners within the country.

Hayati (2010) in his case study of how Iranian EFL high school students were taught on English pronunciation focused on various factors that influenced the pronunciation of most of the EFL learners within the Iranian classroom context.

Hayati (2010) divided the factors into direct and indirect factors where he identified the direct factors to be those that influenced the correct pronunciation of English words. These included the English proficiency of the English teacher and the English proficiency of the Iranian learners.

In most Iranian high schools, students were usually advised by their EFL instructors to read and translate English words that were mostly found in magazines, academic books, journals and articles. This was done to enable them collect important information which they would use for specific areas of interest during their English lessons.

Since English is viewed by most Iranians as a second language, the EFL programs in many of the high schools have directed their efforts towards teaching students how they can read and translate English words (Hayati 2010).

A lower emphasis has therefore been placed on the accurate pronunciation of English words, which has in turn registered a low proficiency for EFL learners. This further underlines the importance of understanding the English words that need to be pronounced as proper pronunciation ensures that the learner is able to understand the meaning of the words (Hayati 2010).

To counter this, English teachers in Iran need to concentrate on the language proficiency of their students by involving the use of language proficiency tests and English learning material that is meant to aide in the English pronunciation of the students.

With regards to the indirect factors, Hayati focused on aspects such as the time assigned for English classes, which was usually limited for most EFL classes taking place in Iranian high schools. The limited amount of time made it difficult for most EFL instructors to be able to complete the outlined English learning objectives in time which meant that most EFL learners emerged from these classes half-baked.

Hayati (2010) also identified another indirect factor which affected the pronunciation of high school students to be that of large numbers of students in one classroom session. The high number of students in most high school classrooms in Iran which ranges from 60 to 70 made it difficult for teachers to effectively monitor and control the performance of students during pronunciation exercises.

The large numbers also made it difficult for most teachers to follow their lesson plans properly which meant that certain parts of the EFL course were omitted (Hayati 2010).

Yarmohammadi (2000) conducted a study on the English pronunciation of Iranian students by examining their level of context-free sentences, where he assessed the phonological elements of the student’s native language (L1) and the elements of the English language (L2).

Yarmohammadi (2000) was able to make the observation that student’s were able to learn the proper pronunciation of English words because of the similarities and differences that existed between their native language (L1) and the English language (L2). Yarmohammadi was also able to measure the pronunciation efficiency of those students by measuring their contextualization abilities.

Contextualization during most EFL lessons involves integrating pronunciation instructions into other important elements of instruction that will enable the student or learner to grasp the meaning of the word in various contexts.

He was able to note that contextualization allowed teachers and students to be able to deal with different pronunciation problems that were presented through the use of different techniques. Yarmohammadi (2000) was able to note that storytelling enabled many of the EFL learners to contextualize their English pronunciation thereby improving their proficient communication of the language.

Despite the use of various EFL learning techniques, researchers such as Brown (2001) and Rifkin (2003) have noted that many Iranian EFL learners will be unable to acquire an accent-free command of the language because of the limited amount of pressure that has been placed on speaking the language.

The two authors noted that young English learners would be able to acquire as many foreign language skills as they could, but they would find it difficult to shed off their Iranian accents which would be made more difficult if they understood certain English concepts in their native languages.

Rifkin (2003) recommended that for students to be able to acquire the proper pronunciation of the language, parents had to begin teaching their children the language during their early or formative years. This would ensure that they did not have an accent when it came to speaking or pronouncing in English.

Based on his research, Ansari (2011) was able to note that a major challenge for most English learners in Iranian classrooms was their inability to properly express themselves through the English language. This is mostly attributed to their heavy use of their native language as a means for communication.

This means that they cannot properly communicate in English within the classroom setting which Ansari has attributed to the kind of instruction given to these children, the type of textbooks used for instruction, the procedures and techniques used by most instructors when teaching English and the poorly defined objectives that make it difficult for students to overcome English language learning problems.

The learning objectives set by most of the EFL teachers are poorly defined, which means that students do not know what their learning outcomes will be from the EFL lessons.

The challenge that continues to face most Iranian English learning classes is the focus on the traditional method of teaching foreign languages where students are required to write out the pronunciation of English words in their own language rather than speaking the language itself. This has contributed to the poor pronunciation skills that many high school students have of the language.

In pronouncing various English words; p, t and k are voiceless in Farsi language and they are commonly replaced with the words b and g in pronunciations that require the use of p, t, and k . Other words that Farsi speakers are unable to pronounce properly include t, f, s, z, h and d which are also voiceless.

These words are usually substituted with words such as n, m, b, and g because Farsi speakers find it easier to pronounce these words within sentences and also during speech exercises (Hall 2007).

Ferguson and Donno (2003) have recommended that in-service classes have to be introduced in many ESL programs to ensure that English tutors in Iran are able to collect the theoretical and practical information of the English language, which will enable them communicate appropriate course materials to their students.

Apart from these classes, textbooks can also play an important role in improving the English language proficiency of many Iranian EFL students.

Textbooks allow instructors to be knowledgeable on the material design of the course where they are able to refer to English textbooks as core resources during their instruction and also as supplemental materials that can be used to support the pronunciation activities of students within the programs (Ferguson and Donno 2003).

The major factor that has influenced the increasing number of high school students in Iran to take part in EFL lessons is globalisation and the changing cultural world where more and more young people are becoming ethnically diverse in their language background.

More young people are now taking time to experience different cultures while at the same time learning new languages that will enable them communicate with people from different cultures around the world.

Since most young people in Iran communicate in Farsi languages, the introduction of EFL programs within school systems in Iran has provided them with an opportunity to communicate in another language that is different from their native language.

The increasing internationalization of many activities performed within various countries around the world has also played a major role in influencing the English learning activities of many students and adults within EFL programs (Taki 2011).

Another major influence that has determined the English language capabilities of students in Iran has been the increasing growth of international relations that Iran has with the rest of the world.

After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the government that came into office strived to foster international relations with westernised countries to ensure that Iran would be able to enjoy a beneficial relationship with many developed countries in the world.

Some of the benefits that would be accrued from these relationships would be an improvement in the educational systems that within the country where subjects and course programs would be tailored to meet the international needs of the global market rather than the needs of the Iranian market (Clawson 2004).

The growing interest in the technological and scientific fields around the world has also played a contributing factor to the growing English learning activities in many Iranian high schools. In Iran, English is the dominant language that is mostly used in international conferences, foreign trade affairs and in other forms of communication within the country.

The growing number of international book fairs and foreign trade exhibitions that have taken place in the country have also influenced the increasing number of EFL programs in most of the high schools within the country. Such events have shown that Iran is capable of maintaining international relations with the international market through the use of the English language.

The cooperation of Iran with major international organizations such as the United Nations, OPEC, NATO and other regional offices around the world has increased the practicality of using English amongst the various nationals who work for these organizations (Clawson 2004).

The influence of Farsi language plays an important role in determining how language transfer will take place during the EFL lessons and also how pronunciation exercises will influence the language outcomes of students.

Katzner’s review of various studies has revealed that the differences in pronunciation of the target language can be used to measure the overall pronunciation accuracy of native speakers who use their mother tongue to communicate. Apart from transfer, other factors that influence the pronunciation of Farsi speakers include typological and universal factors which at times function separately from language transfer.

Typological and universal factors such as cultural backgrounds, religious affiliations and societal factors influence how the native speakers will be able to effectively utilise the target or foreign language (Katzner, 2002).

The focus of the study was on high school students in Iran who were undertaking English speaking lessons. By focusing on this group and analysing various research work conducting on the Farsi language, the paper was able to determine the varieties of English that are used in Farsi language classrooms with the most common being British English and American English.

The study has also focused on the type of pronunciation that many Iranian students and EFL learners want to achieve, which is American English. The study has also highlighted the factors or aspects that influence EFL learners to take part in English learning activities one of which being to gain a more global perspective of the world and also learn about other cultures apart from that of Iran.

Many Iranian students are influenced to participate in EFL learning programs in Iran because of the increasing nature of international relations within Iran as well the changing educational systems, which now require most students to be more conversant with the English language.

The study also addressed the challenges of English learning among Iranian students where one challenge of English learning was the inability of the students to properly express themselves in the English language. Because Iranian children are raised to talk and express themselves in their mother tongue, it becomes difficult for them to learn to communicate in another language apart from their own.

Another challenge of English learning, especially when it comes to pronunciation is that the students pronounce English words with a heavy Iranian accent. This is a challenge when communicating with proper English speakers who might find it difficult to understand what the speaker is saying.

While study was able to address the pronunciation and influences of most Farsi speakers in Iranian high schools, more research needs to be conducted on Farsi and English languages to determine the similarities and differences that exist in both languages. More research also needs to be conducted on whether Farsi speakers are able to lose their accents once they start communicating in the English language.

Acar, A., (2006). Models, norms and goals for English as an international language pedagogy and task based language. The Asian EFL Journal , Vol.8, No. 3.

Ansari, T. M., (2011) Evaluating Iranian high school textbooks . Web.

Brown, D., (2001) Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. New York: Addison Wesely Longman.

Clawson, P., (2004) Eternal Iran . New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Davis, R., (2006) Medieval Islamic civilization . New Jersey: Taylor and Francis.

Ferguson, G., and Donno, S., (2003) One-month teacher training courses: time for a change? English Language Teaching , Vol.57, No.1, pp 26-33.

Gholamain, M., and Geva, E., (1999) Orthographic and cognitive factors in the concurrent development of basic reading skills in English and Persian. Language Learning , Vol. 49, No. 2, pp 183- 217.

Hall, G., (2007) Phonological characteristics of Farsi speakers of English and L1 Australian English speakers’ perceptions of proficiency . Perth, Australia: Curtin University.

Hayati, A. M., (2010) Notes on teaching English pronunciation to EFL learners: a case of Iranian high school students. English Language Teaching , Vol.3, No.4, pp. 121- 126.

Katzner, K., (2002) The languages of the world . New Jersey: Routledge Publishers.

Majd, H., (2008) Persian cats: the Ayatollah begs to differ . New York: Doubleday Publishing Group.

Megerdoomian, K., (2000) Persian computational morphology: a unification-based approach . Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science. Paper MCCS-00-320.

Myers-Scotton, C., (1997) Code- switching: the handbook of sociolinguistics . London: Blackwell.

Nilep, C., (2006) Code switching in sociocultural linguistics. Colorado Research in Linguistics , Vol.19, No.1, pp 1-22.

Perry, J. R., (2005 ) Lexical areas and semantic fields of Arabic . New Jersey: Routledge.

Rezvani, E., and Rasekh, A. E., (2011) Code-switching in Iranian elementary EFL classrooms: an explanatory investigation. English Language Teaching , Vol.4, No.1.

Taki, S., (2011) Cross-cultural communication and metaphorical competence. International Journal of Language Studies , Vol.5, No.1, pp 47-62.

Tucker, R. G., and Corson, D., (1997) Second language education . Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Wakelin, M. F., (2008). Discovering English dialects . Oxford, UK: Shire Publications.

Yarmohamadi, L., and Seif, S., (1992) More on communication strategies: classification, resources, frequency and underlying processes. IRAL , Vol.30, No.2, pp 223-232.

Yarmohammadi, L., (2000) A constrastive phonological analysis of English and Persian . Iran: Shiraz University.

• An Evaluation of Complexities and Difficulties of Learning Second and Third Conditionals for Iranian Students
• Primary ESL Learners in Taiwan: English Literature Learning Syllabus
• Content-Based vs Level-Based Assessment Practices in EFL Learning
• Edmodo in Saudi Secondary School EFL Instruction
• Web Quests and Task-Based Learning in EFL Classrooms
• Curriculum Development for Learning and Teaching Activities
• Gifted Students and Special Education
• Proper Identification of Students With a Learning Disability
• Informal Reading Inventories (IRIs) in Modern Education
• The Effects of an Intensive Reading Program on Regressed Students Reading Performance
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, May 1). Farsi Language. https://ivypanda.com/essays/farsi-language-essay/

"Farsi Language." IvyPanda , 1 May 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/farsi-language-essay/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Farsi Language'. 1 May.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Farsi Language." May 1, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/farsi-language-essay/.

1. IvyPanda . "Farsi Language." May 1, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/farsi-language-essay/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Farsi Language." May 1, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/farsi-language-essay/.

IvyPanda uses cookies and similar technologies to enhance your experience, enabling functionalities such as:

• Basic site functions
• Ensuring secure, safe transactions
• Secure account login
• Remembering account, browser, and regional preferences
• Remembering privacy and security settings
• Analyzing site traffic and usage
• Personalized search, content, and recommendations
• Displaying relevant, targeted ads on and off IvyPanda

Please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy for detailed information.

Certain technologies we use are essential for critical functions such as security and site integrity, account authentication, security and privacy preferences, internal site usage and maintenance data, and ensuring the site operates correctly for browsing and transactions.

Cookies and similar technologies are used to enhance your experience by:

• Remembering general and regional preferences
• Personalizing content, search, recommendations, and offers

Some functions, such as personalized recommendations, account preferences, or localization, may not work correctly without these technologies. For more details, please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy .

To enable personalized advertising (such as interest-based ads), we may share your data with our marketing and advertising partners using cookies and other technologies. These partners may have their own information collected about you. Turning off the personalized advertising setting won't stop you from seeing IvyPanda ads, but it may make the ads you see less relevant or more repetitive.

Personalized advertising may be considered a "sale" or "sharing" of the information under California and other state privacy laws, and you may have the right to opt out. Turning off personalized advertising allows you to exercise your right to opt out. Learn more in IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy .

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

The achaemenid persian empire (550–330 b.c.).

Fluted bowl

Vessel terminating in the forepart of a fantastic leonine creature

Relief: two servants bearing food and drink

Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art , The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2004

The Achaemenid Persian empire was the largest that the ancient world had seen, extending from Anatolia and Egypt across western Asia to northern India and Central Asia. Its formation began in 550 B.C., when King Astyages of Media, who dominated much of Iran and eastern Anatolia (Turkey), was defeated by his southern neighbor Cyrus II (“the Great”), king of Persia (r. 559–530 B.C.). This upset the balance of power in the Near East. The Lydians of western Anatolia under King Croesus took advantage of the fall of Media to push east and clashed with Persian forces. The Lydian army withdrew for the winter but the Persians advanced to the Lydian capital at Sardis , which fell after a two-week siege. The Lydians had been allied with the Babylonians and Egyptians and Cyrus now had to confront these major powers. The Babylonian empire controlled Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean. In 539 B.C., Persian forces defeated the Babylonian army at the site of Opis, east of the Tigris. Cyrus entered Babylon and presented himself as a traditional Mesopotamian monarch, restoring temples and releasing political prisoners. The one western power that remained unconquered in Cyrus’ lightning campaigns was Egypt. It was left to his son Cambyses to rout the Egyptian forces in the eastern Nile Delta in 525 B.C. After a ten-day siege, Egypt’s ancient capital Memphis fell to the Persians.

A crisis at court forced Cambyses to return to Persia but he died en route and Darius I (“the Great”) emerged as king (r. 522–486 B.C.), claiming in his inscriptions that a certain “Achaemenes” was his ancestor. Under Darius the empire was stabilized, with roads for communication and a system of governors (satraps) established. He added northwestern India to the Achaemenid realm and initiated two major building projects: the construction of royal buildings at Susa and the creation of the new dynastic center of Persepolis , the buildings of which were decorated by Darius and his successors with stone reliefs and carvings. These show tributaries from different parts of the empire processing toward the enthroned king or conveying the king’s throne. The impression is of a harmonious empire supported by its numerous peoples. Darius also consolidated Persia’s western conquests in the Aegean. However, in 498 B.C., the eastern Greek Ionian cities, supported in part by Athens, revolted. It took the Persians four years to crush the rebellion, although an attack against mainland Greece was repulsed at Marathon in 490 B.C.

Darius’ son Xerxes (r. 486–465 B.C.) attempted to force the mainland Greeks to acknowledge Persian power, but Sparta and Athens refused to give way. Xerxes led his sea and land forces against Greece in 480 B.C., defeating the Spartans at the battle of Thermopylae and sacking Athens. However, the Greeks won a victory against the Persian navy in the straits of Salamis in 479 B.C. It is possible that at this point a serious revolt broke out in the strategically crucial province of Babylonia. Xerxes quickly left Greece and successfully crushed the Babylonian rebellion. However, the Persian army he left behind was defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 B.C.

Much of our evidence for Persian history is dependent on contemporary Greek sources and later classical writers, whose main focus is the relations between Persia and the Greek states, as well as tales of Persian court intrigues, moral decadence, and unrestrained luxury. From these we learn that Xerxes was assassinated and was succeeded by one of his sons, who took the name Artaxerxes I (r. 465–424 B.C). During his reign, revolts in Egypt were crushed and garrisons established in the Levant. The empire remained largely intact under Darius II (r. 423–405 B.C), but Egypt claimed independence during the reign of Artaxerxes II (r. 405–359 B.C). Although Artaxerxes II had the longest reign of all the Persian kings, we know very little about him. Writing in the early second century A.D., Plutarch describes him as a sympathetic ruler and courageous warrior. With his successor, Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 B.C), Egypt was reconquered, but the king was assassinated and his son was crowned as Artaxerxes IV (r. 338–336 B.C.). He, too, was murdered and replaced by Darius III (r. 336–330 B.C.), a second cousin, who faced the armies of Alexander III of Macedon (“the Great”) . Ultimately Darius III was murdered by one of his own generals, and Alexander claimed the Persian empire. However, the fact that Alexander had to fight every inch of the way, taking every province by force, demonstrates the extraordinary solidarity of the Persian empire and that, despite the repeated court intrigues, it was certainly not in a state of decay.

Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm (October 2004)

Further Reading

Briant, Pierre. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2002.

Wiesehöfer, Josef. Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD . London: I.B. Tauris, 1996.

Additional Essays by Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art

• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Hittites .” (October 2002)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Halaf Period (6500–5500 B.C.) .” (October 2003)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Ubaid Period (5500–4000 B.C.) .” (October 2003)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Ur: The Royal Graves .” (October 2003)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Ur: The Ziggurat .” (October 2002)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Uruk: The First City .” (October 2003)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Ebla in the Third Millennium B.C. .” (October 2002)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Ugarit .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Animals in Ancient Near Eastern Art .” (February 2014)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Urartu .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia .” (October 2000)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Parthian Empire (247 B.C.–224 A.D.) .” (originally published October 2000, last updated November 2016)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Nabataean Kingdom and Petra .” (October 2000)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Palmyra .” (October 2000)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Art of the First Cities in the Third Millennium B.C. .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Sasanian Empire (224–651 A.D.) .” (originally published October 2003, last updated April 2016)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Colossal Temples of the Roman Near East .” (October 2003)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Assyria, 1365–609 B.C. .” (originally published October 2004, last revised April 2010)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Lydia and Phrygia .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Akkadian Period (ca. 2350–2150 B.C.) .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Year One .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Early Dynastic Sculpture, 2900–2350 B.C. .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Early Excavations in Assyria .” (October 2004; updated August 2021)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Trade Routes between Europe and Asia during Antiquity .” (October 2000)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Phrygia, Gordion, and King Midas in the Late Eighth Century B.C. .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ Trade between Arabia and the Empires of Rome and Asia .” (October 2000)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Nahal Mishmar Treasure .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.) .” (October 2004)
• Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “ The Seleucid Empire (323–64 B.C.) .” (October 2004)

Related Essays

• Egypt in the Late Period (ca. 664–332 B.C.)
• Ernst Emil Herzfeld (1879–1948) in Persepolis
• Lydia and Phrygia
• The Rise of Macedon and the Conquests of Alexander the Great
• Tiraz : Inscribed Textiles from the Early Islamic Period
• Art and Craft in Archaic Sparta
• Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition
• Artists of the Saqqakhana Movement
• Assyria, 1365–609 B.C.
• Classical Cyprus (ca. 480–ca. 310 B.C.)
• Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period
• Geometric and Archaic Cyprus
• Greek Art in the Archaic Period
• Hellenistic and Roman Cyprus
• Hellenistic Jewelry
• The Middle Babylonian / Kassite Period (ca. 1595–1155 B.C.) in Mesopotamia
• Nineteenth-Century Iran: Continuity and Revivalism
• The Parthian Empire (247 B.C.–224 A.D.)
• Phrygia, Gordion, and King Midas in the Late Eighth Century B.C.
• Theseus, Hero of Athens

List of Rulers

• List of Rulers of Mesopotamia
• List of Rulers of Ancient Egypt and Nubia
• List of Rulers of the Ancient Greek World
• Anatolia and the Caucasus (Asia Minor), 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• Ancient Greece, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• Central and North Asia, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• The Eastern Mediterranean and Syria, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• Egypt, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• Iran, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• Mesopotamia, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• South Asia, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• 4th Century B.C.
• 5th Century B.C.
• 6th Century B.C.
• Achaemenid Empire
• Anatolia and the Caucasus
• Ancient Egyptian Art
• Ancient Near Eastern Art
• Architectural Element
• Architecture
• Babylonian Art
• Balkan Peninsula
• Central and North Asia
• Eastern Mediterranean
• Greek Literature / Poetry
• Hellenistic Period
• Late Period of Egypt
• North Africa
• Relief Sculpture

Introduction to Afghan Persian (Dari) – Part 1: General remarks and phonology

The phonology of Afghan Persian

It must be pointed out that, in reality, we can hardly speak of ‘one’ Afghan Persian. Although the linguistic and ethnic diversity of Afghanistan is as great as, if not more than, that of Iran, the standardisation of spoken Persian in Afghanistan is less than that in Iran. This is partly due to the decades of political unrest in Afghanistan, partly due to the lack of a centralised political and cultural space in the country, and partly due to the interethnic power dynamics in the relatively young nation-state.

• Preservation of the long   ē  and   ō  of Classical Persian

In this respect, Afghan Persian is identical with Central Asian Persian (Tajik). This is to say that, in Afghan Persian, for example, there is also a difference between شیر meaning ‘milk’ and شیر meaning ‘lion’, the former pronounced as   shīr   and the latter as   shēr , and the word for ‘day’, روز, is pronounced as   rōz   rather than   rūz , and آرزو ‘wish’ as   ār(e)zō   rather than   ārezū . The progressive aspect prefix می is pronounced as   mē   or even   mey ; the first person plural ending ایم and second person plural ending اید  (colloquially این) are pronounced as   ēm   and   ēd   (colloquially   ēn ) respectively. Unfortunately, there is no way to tell when a ی is pronounced as   ē   instead of   ī   and when a و is pronounced as   ō   rather than   ū,   unless one has been extensively exposed to Afghan Persian, or has substantial knowledge of Persian historical linguistics, or knowledge of other Iranian languages or Urdu or Turkic languages heavily influenced by Classical Persian. The best thing to do for learners interested in Afghan Persian is to watch out for these characteristics and commit them to memory. Many Afghans, however, under the influence of Iranian Persian, may consciously or subconsciously pronounce   ē   as   ī   and   ō   as   ū in some daily high-frequency or formal/literary words.

• Preservation of the diphthongs   aw ,  ay   of Classical Persian

Like Tajik Persian, the classical   aw   and   ay   have stayed in the phonology, whilst they have largely become   ow   and   ey   in Iranian Persian. Thus, نو ‘new’ is pronounced as   naw , and نی ‘flute’ as   nay . In Arabic loanwords, this means the preservation of the original Arabic pronunciation: موضوع is therefore   m aw zū   (or even   m aw z ō , with the و reinterpreted as the Persian long   ō ) instead of   mowzū , and حیوان is   h ay wān   rather than   heyvān . Again, this is not a hard and fast rule, as some speakers may pronounce the diphthongs in the Iranian way. The word برو, ‘Go!’, however, is not the expected   biraw as it would have been based on historical phonology, but   boro   like in Iranian.

• Preservation of the short  a   of Classical Persian

That is, in certain contexts where the short   a   has become a short   e   in Iranian Persian (perhaps under Turkic influence), the most prominent examples being the two verbs رسیدن ‘to arrive, to reach’, pronounced as   r a sīdan   (Ir.   r e sīdan ) and کشیدن ‘to pull, to drag’, pronounced as   k a shīdan   (Ir.   k e shīdan ). The numeral یک ‘one’ is pronounced as   yak   (Ir.   yek ). The present stem of the verb نوشتن ‘to write’, نویس, is pronounced as   n a wēs   in Afghan Persian rather than   n e ves   – here, the Iranian pronunciation is closer to Middle Persian, where the vowel after   n   was a short   i .

• The overwhelming presence of  w

In Afghan Persian, the letter و as a consonant is overwhelmingly pronounced as   w   (as in the   w   in English, not in German and Polish etc.) rather than   v   in   all positions   in a word. If you have read my introduction to Tajik Persian, you may recall that this sound in Tajik is almost always pronounced as   v , like in Iranian Persian, at the start of a word, and tends to be realised either as a   v   or as a   w   in the middle of the word depending on the speaker. In Afghan Persian, however, we have a nearly across-the-board realisation of و as   w , except perhaps in Herat, where many speakers say   v , due to the city’s proximity to Iran. Thus, we have و   wa   ‘and’, پیوند   paywand   ‘connection’, پروانه   parwāna   ‘moth’, گاو   gāw   ‘cow’, etc.

The word for ‘water’, آب, is consistently pronounced in colloquial Afghan Persian as   āw .

• The negative particle
• Elongation of the short a   before   h   and   ayn
• بعد ‘after’ is almost always pronounced as bād,  as if it was written as باد,
• قهر ‘anger’ is pronounced as   qār   (as if it was written as قار),
• قهرمان as   qāramān   (as if it was written as قارمان),
• شهد ‘honey’ as   shād   (as if it was written as شاد),
• لعنتی ‘cursed’ as   lānatī   (as if it was written as لانتی).
• میفهمم, which literally means ‘I understand’ but simply denotes ‘I know’ in Afghan Persian, is pronounced as   mēfāmom .
• When it comes to the word شهر ‘city’, many speakers say   shār , although the more universally Persian pronunciation   shahr   is equally common.
• Deletion of  h

The sound   h   is routinely omitted in Afghan pronunciation, and this is more clearly felt when   h   is at the start of the word. Therefore, هفت ‘seven’ becomes   aft , هشت ‘eight’ becomes   asht .

The deletion of   h   in speech can also mean that many speakers do not ‘realise’ that there is an   h   in the first place, thus resulting in pronunciations such as   mēkhā y om   for میخواهم ‘I want’ (Ir.   mīkhāham   or   mīkhām   for short). I will explain the ending – om   later.

• Deletion of word-final  n

This only occurs in some words, namely من ‘I’, which becomes   ma , and همین ‘this very’, which becomes   amī   (remember that the initial   h   is also omitted). این ‘this’, as you may have guessed, is pronounced as   ī . The second person singular imperative of the verb کردن in colloquial Afghan Persian is کو ko, rather than کن kon, without the final n.

• The treatment of the object marker را

In colloquial Afghan Persian, the object marker را  rā   is shortened to ره   ra   after a vowel and reduced to a short   a   after a consonant (compare with the Iranian situation where it becomes رو   ro   after a vowel and و   o   after a consonant). Therefore, مرا دیدی ‘you saw me’ is pronounced مره دیدی   mara dīdī   (compare with the colloquial Iranian منو دیدی   mano dīdī ), تورا دیدم ‘I saw you’ is تره دیدم   tura dīdom   (compare with the colloquial Iranian تورو دیدم   toro dīdam ), and من سیب را خوردم ‘I ate the apple’ is مه سیبه خوردم   ma sēb a   khōrdom   (compare with the colloquial Iranian من سیبو خوردم   man sīb o   khordam ).

• The deletion of syllable-final ر
• ‘Here’, ‘there’

In colloquial Afghan Persian, اینجا ‘here’ is pronounced as اینجه  īnja , which a short a in the end rather than a long   ā , and the stress is on   ī   rather than   a . The Iranian pronunciation, both formal and colloquial, places the stress on the unchanged   ā . Similarly, the Afghan pronunciation for the colloquial اونجا ‘there’ is اونجه   ūnja , with the stress on   ū   and the   a   cut short.

• To be and not to be

The negative stem, نیست, is pronounced as   nēst  in the majority of Afghan dialects.

The shortened form of the third person singular present, in particular, is not   e   like in Iranian Persian, but   as : او دوستم است‘he is my friend’ in colloquial Afghan Persian is او دوستم اس   ū dōstam as , whereas it is او(ن) دوستمه   ū(n) dūstame   in colloquial Iranian Persian (or perhaps more idiomatically in Iranian, او(ن) رفیقمه   ū(n) rafighame , with the Arabic word رفیق). The contraction of است to – s   after a vowel occurs in both colloquial Afghan and colloquial Iranian Persian: او در خانه است ‘he is at home’ becomes او ده خانه‌س   ū da khānas   in Afghan and او(ن) تو خونه‌س   ū(n) tū khūnas   in Iranian.

Those familiar with Tehrani Persian know that in colloquial Tehrani Persian, the third person singular present for هستن/بودن‘to exist, to be’, i.e. هست  hast , often has a little element   esh   attached to it, resulting in هستش   hastesh . The exactly meaning and grammatical function of this merits an entire volume, and I shall not delve into that in this post. The equivalent of this in colloquial Afghan Persian is استه   asta , i.e.   ast   (or hast with the initial   h   dropped) plus an extra element   a . I have also heard one Afghan friend consistently pronouncing this as استگ   astag , which is of great linguistic interest, as – ag   is the full Middle Persian form of the suffix – a ; but just how widespread   astag   is (it is not, in my experience, and I would like to hear another person who also uses   astag   instead of   asta ) awaits further investigation.

Logically, the Iranian نیستش   nīstesh   is the Afghan نیسته   nēsta .

• The historical و after خ

In some varieties of Afghan Persian, the w   sound after   kh   in certain words, which was historically pronounced, has been preserved. Thus, خوار ‘abject, lowly’ is pronounced as   khwār . The word for ‘sister’, خواهر, can be pronounced as   khwāhar  by some speakers, although this is rare; the more common pronunciation of خواهر is   khār , identical with the Iranian pronunciation with the exception of the dropped   h   and subsequently the merging of   ā   and   a . Some speakers will even pronounce خواستن ‘to want’ as   khwāstan , although this is also uncommon. خویش, the formal, literary word for ‘self’, however, is pronounced as   khēsh , without the historical   w , and it also seems that few people pronounce خواندن ‘to read’ as   khwāndan   and virtually no one says   dastarkhwān   for دسترخوان ‘tablecloth’. Nevertheless, Afghan Persian remains the only living variety of Persian to have retained the pronunciation of the historical   w   after   kh , even if it is only in some instances.

• The first person singular ending – om

Another prominent feature of Afghan Persian is the consistent pronunciation of the first person singular ending as – om , in contrast with the Iranian – am . We have seen a few examples of this above. Thus: رفتم is  raftom , دیدم ‘I saw’ is   dīdom , میرم ‘I go (colloquial)’ is   mērom , میشوم ‘I become’ is   mēshawom , میکنم ‘I do’ is   mēkonom , etc.

• No palatalisation of  k   and   g   before   e   and   a

Those familiar with Iranian Persian must have noticed that when Iranians pronounce the sounds   k   and   g   before   e , and   a , they say them as if there was a little   y   sound attached to it:   k y ardan   ‘to do’,   k y erm   ‘worm’,   ag y ar   ‘if’,   g y erd   ‘circle’, etc. This is further exaggerated in Azerbaijan, where کردن sounds almost like چردن. In linguistics, this is called ‘palatalisation’ – the tongue is too close to the upper palate when pronouncing ک and گ, therefore producing a ی like quality or even making the ک sound like چ and گ sound like ج.

• No merger of ق and غ
• The short  e   and   o

The short   e   and   o   in Iranian Persian evolved from the short   i   and   u   of Classical Persian respectively (I have mentioned this in my post about Tajik Persian). Whereas in Iranian Persian they are consistently pronounced as   e   and   o , in Afghan Persian their realisation fluctuates and shows a great variety of inconsistencies. Some speakers will say   e   and   o   in some words but the historical   i   and   u   in others, and it is difficult to pinpoint when exactly to expect the historical pronunciation. The general observation, however, is that the Afghan short   e   and   o   are ‘more like’ their historical forms, i.e. the   e   is pronounced more like an   i   and   o   more like an   u , both ‘narrower’ than their Iranian equivalents.

• The  ā  does not become   ū

Similar to Tajik Persian, the Iranian (or more precisely, Tehrani) phenomenon of the long   ā   becoming the long   ū   before a nasal ( n   and   m ) does not exist in Afghan Persian. Thus, مهمان ‘guest’ is always   mehm ā n   (never   mehm ū n ), نان ‘bread’ is always   n ā n   (never   n ū n ), آسمان ‘sky, heaven’ is always   ās(e)m ā n   (never   āsem ū n ). The shortened version of میتوانم ‘I can’ is   mēt ā nom   in Afghan Persian (never   mīt ū nam ); similarly, میخوانم ‘I read’ is   mēkh ā nom   (never   mīkh ū nam ). خانه‌مان ‘our house’ is   kh ā nam ā n   (never   kh ū nem ū n ), and میدانم ‘I know’ is   mēd ā nom   (never   mīd ū nam ; in fact, for ‘I know’, the more idiomatic Afghan expression is میفهمم   mēfāmom , of which the phonology is mentioned in point 6).

• The indefinite ی

The ی representing indefiniteness in Persian is mostly pronounced how it was in Classical Persian, i.e. as  ē . آهنگی ‘a (certain) song’ is therefore   āhang ē , rather than the Iranian   āhang ī . However, nowadays many Afghan Persian speakers have started pronouncing the indefinite ی in the Iranian way, but this depends on which word is used and also the speaker’s background.

This is a minor point, but دست ‘hand’ in colloquial Afghan Persian is often pronounced as something that sounds like the English word ‘dust’, rather than with a fully open  a .

To conclude this week’s post, I would like to invite you to train your ears by listening to a TV interview with a famous Afghan filmmaker, صحرا کریمی Sahraa Karimi, on the Afghan TV programme قاب گفتگو  Qāb-e Goftogō . Karimi grew up in Iran and her Persian pronunciation is rather mixed. Note how she sounds more Afghan when talking about informal topics but more Iranian when speaking on more formal subjects. Also pay attention to the differences between her accent and the hosts’ accents. Try to identify the points addressed in this post:

I think you left out the fact that Afghan Persian lacks the possessive suffix -مان for the first person plural and instead uses the ما pronoun, e.g. خانه ما instead of خانه امان. This is a feature I’ve also noticed in written Dari. Some people are very inconsistent when writing, using both ways.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

You must be logged in to post a comment.

Subscribe to Our Newsletter

Subscribe to the Persian Language online mailing list to receive details of forthcoming events and other relevant information.

© 2024 Persian Language Online. All Rights Reserved

For more information contact us at: [email protected]

• Cookie Policy
• Terms of Use

Privacy Overview

Username or Email Address

Remember Me

Password: Confirm Password:

Registration confirmation will be emailed to you.

Insert/edit link

Enter the destination URL

Or link to existing content