research documents examples

Research Paper Examples

Research paper examples are of great value for students who want to complete their assignments timely and efficiently. If you are a student in the university, your first stop in the quest for research paper examples will be the campus library where you can get to view the research sample papers of lecturers and other professionals in diverse fields plus those of fellow students who preceded you in the campus. Many college departments maintain libraries of previous student work, including large research papers, which current students can examine.

Embark on a journey of academic excellence with iResearchNet, your premier destination for research paper examples that illuminate the path to scholarly success. In the realm of academia, where the pursuit of knowledge is both a challenge and a privilege, the significance of having access to high-quality research paper examples cannot be overstated. These exemplars are not merely papers; they are beacons of insight, guiding students and scholars through the complex maze of academic writing and research methodologies.

At iResearchNet, we understand that the foundation of academic achievement lies in the quality of resources at one’s disposal. This is why we are dedicated to offering a comprehensive collection of research paper examples across a multitude of disciplines. Each example stands as a testament to rigorous research, clear writing, and the deep understanding necessary to advance in one’s academic and professional journey.

Access to superior research paper examples equips learners with the tools to develop their own ideas, arguments, and hypotheses, fostering a cycle of learning and discovery that transcends traditional boundaries. It is with this vision that iResearchNet commits to empowering students and researchers, providing them with the resources to not only meet but exceed the highest standards of academic excellence. Join us on this journey, and let iResearchNet be your guide to unlocking the full potential of your academic endeavors.

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Importance of Research Paper Examples

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A Sample Research Paper on Child Abuse

A research paper represents the pinnacle of academic investigation, a scholarly manuscript that encapsulates a detailed study, analysis, or argument based on extensive independent research. It is an embodiment of the researcher’s ability to synthesize a wealth of information, draw insightful conclusions, and contribute novel perspectives to the existing body of knowledge within a specific field. At its core, a research paper strives to push the boundaries of what is known, challenging existing theories and proposing new insights that could potentially reshape the understanding of a particular subject area.

The objective of writing a research paper is manifold, serving both educational and intellectual pursuits. Primarily, it aims to educate the author, providing a rigorous framework through which they engage deeply with a topic, hone their research and analytical skills, and learn the art of academic writing. Beyond personal growth, the research paper serves the broader academic community by contributing to the collective pool of knowledge, offering fresh perspectives, and stimulating further research. It is a medium through which scholars communicate ideas, findings, and theories, thereby fostering an ongoing dialogue that propels the advancement of science, humanities, and other fields of study.

Research papers can be categorized into various types, each with distinct objectives and methodologies. The most common types include:

• Analytical Research Paper: This type focuses on analyzing different viewpoints represented in the scholarly literature or data. The author critically evaluates and interprets the information, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.
• Argumentative or Persuasive Research Paper: Here, the author adopts a stance on a contentious issue and argues in favor of their position. The objective is to persuade the reader through evidence and logic that the author’s viewpoint is valid or preferable.
• Experimental Research Paper: Often used in the sciences, this type documents the process, results, and implications of an experiment conducted by the author. It provides a detailed account of the methodology, data collected, analysis performed, and conclusions drawn.
• Survey Research Paper: This involves collecting data from a set of respondents about their opinions, behaviors, or characteristics. The paper analyzes this data to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample was drawn.
• Comparative Research Paper: This type involves comparing and contrasting different theories, policies, or phenomena. The aim is to highlight similarities and differences, thereby gaining a deeper understanding of the subjects under review.
• Cause and Effect Research Paper: It explores the reasons behind specific actions, events, or conditions and the consequences that follow. The goal is to establish a causal relationship between variables.
• Review Research Paper: This paper synthesizes existing research on a particular topic, offering a comprehensive analysis of the literature to identify trends, gaps, and consensus in the field.

Understanding the nuances and objectives of these various types of research papers is crucial for scholars and students alike, as it guides their approach to conducting and writing up their research. Each type demands a unique set of skills and perspectives, pushing the author to think critically and creatively about their subject matter. As the academic landscape continues to evolve, the research paper remains a fundamental tool for disseminating knowledge, encouraging innovation, and fostering a culture of inquiry and exploration.

Browse Sample Research Papers

iResearchNet prides itself on offering a wide array of research paper examples across various disciplines, meticulously curated to support students, educators, and researchers in their academic endeavors. Each example embodies the hallmarks of scholarly excellence—rigorous research, analytical depth, and clear, precise writing. Below, we explore the diverse range of research paper examples available through iResearchNet, designed to inspire and guide users in their quest for academic achievement.

Anthropology Research Paper Examples

Our anthropology research paper examples delve into the study of humanity, exploring cultural, social, biological, and linguistic variations among human populations. These papers offer insights into human behavior, traditions, and evolution, providing a comprehensive overview of anthropological research methods and theories.

• Archaeology Research Paper
• Forensic Anthropology Research Paper
• Linguistics Research Paper
• Medical Anthropology Research Paper
• Social Problems Research Paper

Art Research Paper Examples

The art research paper examples feature analyses of artistic expressions across different cultures and historical periods. These papers cover a variety of topics, including art history, criticism, and theory, as well as the examination of specific artworks or movements.

• Performing Arts Research Paper
• Music Research Paper
• Architecture Research Paper
• Theater Research Paper
• Visual Arts Research Paper

Cancer Research Paper Examples

Our cancer research paper examples focus on the latest findings in the field of oncology, discussing the biological mechanisms of cancer, advancements in diagnostic techniques, and innovative treatment strategies. These papers aim to contribute to the ongoing battle against cancer by sharing cutting-edge research.

• Breast Cancer Research Paper
• Leukemia Research Paper
• Lung Cancer Research Paper
• Ovarian Cancer Research Paper
• Prostate Cancer Research Paper

Communication Research Paper Examples

These examples explore the complexities of human communication, covering topics such as media studies, interpersonal communication, and public relations. The papers examine how communication processes affect individuals, societies, and cultures.

• Advertising Research Paper
• Journalism Research Paper
• Media Research Paper
• Public Relations Research Paper
• Public Speaking Research Paper

Crime Research Paper Examples

The crime research paper examples provided by iResearchNet investigate various aspects of criminal behavior and the factors contributing to crime. These papers cover a range of topics, from theoretical analyses of criminality to empirical studies on crime prevention strategies.

• Computer Crime Research Paper
• Domestic Violence Research Paper
• Hate Crimes Research Paper
• Organized Crime Research Paper
• White-Collar Crime Research Paper

Criminal Justice Research Paper Examples

Our criminal justice research paper examples delve into the functioning of the criminal justice system, exploring issues related to law enforcement, the judiciary, and corrections. These papers critically examine policies, practices, and reforms within the criminal justice system.

• Capital Punishment Research Paper
• Community Policing Research Paper
• Corporal Punishment Research Paper
• Criminal Investigation Research Paper
• Criminal Justice System Research Paper
• Plea Bargaining Research Paper
• Restorative Justice Research Paper

Criminal Law Research Paper Examples

These examples focus on the legal aspects of criminal behavior, discussing laws, regulations, and case law that govern criminal proceedings. The papers provide an in-depth analysis of criminal law principles, legal defenses, and the implications of legal decisions.

• Actus Reus Research Paper
• Gun Control Research Paper
• Insanity Defense Research Paper
• International Criminal Law Research Paper
• Self-Defense Research Paper

Criminology Research Paper Examples

iResearchNet’s criminology research paper examples study the causes, prevention, and societal impacts of crime. These papers employ various theoretical frameworks to analyze crime trends and propose effective crime reduction strategies.

• Cultural Criminology Research Paper
• Education and Crime Research Paper
• Marxist Criminology Research Paper
• School Crime Research Paper
• Urban Crime Research Paper

Culture Research Paper Examples

The culture research paper examples examine the beliefs, practices, and artifacts that define different societies. These papers explore how culture shapes identities, influences behaviors, and impacts social interactions.

• Advertising and Culture Research Paper
• Material Culture Research Paper
• Popular Culture Research Paper
• Cross-Cultural Studies Research Paper
• Culture Change Research Paper

Economics Research Paper Examples

Our economics research paper examples offer insights into the functioning of economies at both the micro and macro levels. Topics include economic theory, policy analysis, and the examination of economic indicators and trends.

• Budget Research Paper
• Cost-Benefit Analysis Research Paper
• Fiscal Policy Research Paper
• Labor Market Research Paper

Education Research Paper Examples

These examples address a wide range of issues in education, from teaching methods and curriculum design to educational policy and reform. The papers aim to enhance understanding and improve outcomes in educational settings.

• Early Childhood Education Research Paper
• Information Processing Research Paper
• Multicultural Education Research Paper
• Special Education Research Paper
• Standardized Tests Research Paper

Health Research Paper Examples

The health research paper examples focus on public health issues, healthcare systems, and medical interventions. These papers contribute to the discourse on health promotion, disease prevention, and healthcare management.

• AIDS Research Paper
• Alcoholism Research Paper
• Disease Research Paper
• Health Economics Research Paper
• Health Insurance Research Paper
• Nursing Research Paper

History Research Paper Examples

Our history research paper examples cover significant events, figures, and periods, offering critical analyses of historical narratives and their impact on present-day society.

• Adolf Hitler Research Paper
• American Revolution Research Paper
• Ancient Greece Research Paper
• Apartheid Research Paper
• Christopher Columbus Research Paper
• Climate Change Research Paper
• Cold War Research Paper
• Columbian Exchange Research Paper
• Deforestation Research Paper
• Diseases Research Paper
• Earthquakes Research Paper
• Egypt Research Paper

Leadership Research Paper Examples

These examples explore the theories and practices of effective leadership, examining the qualities, behaviors, and strategies that distinguish successful leaders in various contexts.

• Implicit Leadership Theories Research Paper
• Judicial Leadership Research Paper
• Leadership Styles Research Paper
• Police Leadership Research Paper
• Political Leadership Research Paper
• Remote Leadership Research Paper

Mental Health Research Paper Examples

The mental health research paper examples provided by iResearchNet discuss psychological disorders, therapeutic interventions, and mental health advocacy. These papers aim to raise awareness and improve mental health care practices.

• ADHD Research Paper
• Anxiety Research Paper
• Autism Research Paper
• Depression Research Paper
• Eating Disorders Research Paper
• PTSD Research Paper
• Schizophrenia Research Paper
• Stress Research Paper

Political Science Research Paper Examples

Our political science research paper examples analyze political systems, behaviors, and ideologies. Topics include governance, policy analysis, and the study of political movements and institutions.

• American Government Research Paper
• Civil War Research Paper
• Communism Research Paper
• Democracy Research Paper
• Game Theory Research Paper
• Human Rights Research Paper
• International Relations Research Paper
• Terrorism Research Paper

Psychology Research Paper Examples

These examples delve into the study of the mind and behavior, covering a broad range of topics in clinical, cognitive, developmental, and social psychology.

• Artificial Intelligence Research Paper
• Assessment Psychology Research Paper
• Biological Psychology Research Paper
• Clinical Psychology Research Paper
• Cognitive Psychology Research Paper
• Developmental Psychology Research Paper
• Discrimination Research Paper
• Educational Psychology Research Paper
• Environmental Psychology Research Paper
• Experimental Psychology Research Paper
• Intelligence Research Paper
• Learning Disabilities Research Paper
• Personality Psychology Research Paper
• Psychiatry Research Paper
• Psychotherapy Research Paper
• Social Cognition Research Paper
• Social Psychology Research Paper

Sociology Research Paper Examples

The sociology research paper examples examine societal structures, relationships, and processes. These papers provide insights into social phenomena, inequality, and change.

• Family Research Paper
• Demography Research Paper
• Group Dynamics Research Paper
• Quality of Life Research Paper
• Social Change Research Paper
• Social Movements Research Paper
• Social Networks Research Paper

Technology Research Paper Examples

Our technology research paper examples address the impact of technological advancements on society, exploring issues related to digital communication, cybersecurity, and innovation.

• Computer Forensics Research Paper
• Genetic Engineering Research Paper
• History of Technology Research Paper
• Internet Research Paper
• Nanotechnology Research Paper

Other Research Paper Examples

• Abortion Research Paper
• Adoption Research Paper
• Animal Testing Research Paper
• Bullying Research Paper
• Diversity Research Paper
• Divorce Research Paper
• Drugs Research Paper
• Environmental Issues Research Paper
• Ethics Research Paper
• Evolution Research Paper
• Feminism Research Paper
• Food Research Paper
• Gender Research Paper
• Globalization Research Paper
• Juvenile Justice Research Paper
• Law Research Paper
• Management Research Paper
• Philosophy Research Paper
• Public Health Research Paper
• Religion Research Paper
• Science Research Paper
• Social Sciences Research Paper
• Statistics Research Paper
• Other Sample Research Papers

Each category of research paper examples provided by iResearchNet serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers seeking to deepen their understanding of a specific field. By offering a comprehensive collection of well-researched and thoughtfully written papers, iResearchNet aims to support academic growth and encourage scholarly inquiry across diverse disciplines.

Sample Research Papers: To Read or Not to Read?

When you get an assignment to write a research paper, the first question you ask yourself is ‘Should I look for research paper examples?’ Maybe, I can deal with this task on my own without any help. Is it that difficult?

Thousands of students turn to our service every day for help. It does not mean that they cannot do their assignments on their own. They can, but the reason is different. Writing a research paper demands so much time and energy that asking for assistance seems to be a perfect solution. As the matter of fact, it is a perfect solution, especially, when you need to work to pay for your studying as well.

Firstly, if you search for research paper examples before you start writing, you can save your time significantly. You look at the example and you understand the gist of your assignment within several minutes. Secondly, when you examine some sample paper, you get to know all the requirements. You analyze the structure, the language, and the formatting details. Finally, reading examples helps students to overcome writer’s block, as other people’s ideas can motivate you to discover your own ideas.

The significance of research paper examples in the academic journey of students cannot be overstated. These examples serve not only as a blueprint for structuring and formatting academic papers but also as a beacon guiding students through the complex landscape of academic writing standards. iResearchNet recognizes the pivotal role that high-quality research paper examples play in fostering academic success and intellectual growth among students.

Blueprint for Academic Success

Research paper examples provided by iResearchNet are meticulously crafted to demonstrate the essential elements of effective academic writing. These examples offer clear insights into how to organize a paper, from the introductory paragraph, through the development of arguments and analysis, to the concluding remarks. They showcase the appropriate use of headings, subheadings, and the integration of tables, figures, and appendices, which collectively contribute to a well-organized and coherent piece of scholarly work. By studying these examples, students can gain a comprehensive understanding of the structure and formatting required in academic papers, which is crucial for meeting the rigorous standards of academic institutions.

Sparking Ideas and Providing Evidence

Beyond serving as a structural guide, research paper examples act as a source of inspiration for students embarking on their research projects. These examples illuminate a wide array of topics, methodologies, and analytical frameworks, thereby sparking ideas for students’ own research inquiries. They demonstrate how to effectively engage with existing literature, frame research questions, and develop a compelling thesis statement. Moreover, by presenting evidence and arguments in a logical and persuasive manner, these examples illustrate the art of substantiating claims with solid research, encouraging students to adopt a similar level of rigor and depth in their work.

Enhancing Research Skills

Engagement with high-quality research paper examples is instrumental in improving research skills among students. These examples expose students to various research methodologies, from qualitative case studies to quantitative analyses, enabling them to appreciate the breadth of research approaches applicable to their fields of study. By analyzing these examples, students learn how to critically evaluate sources, differentiate between primary and secondary data, and apply ethical considerations in research. Furthermore, these papers serve as a model for effectively citing sources, thereby teaching students the importance of academic integrity and the avoidance of plagiarism.

In essence, research paper examples are a fundamental resource that can significantly enhance the academic writing and research capabilities of students. iResearchNet’s commitment to providing access to a diverse collection of exemplary papers reflects its dedication to supporting academic excellence. Through these examples, students are equipped with the tools necessary to navigate the challenges of academic writing, foster innovative thinking, and contribute meaningfully to the scholarly community. By leveraging these resources, students can elevate their academic pursuits, ensuring their research is not only rigorous but also impactful.

Custom Research Paper Writing Services

In the academic journey, the ability to craft a compelling and meticulously researched paper is invaluable. Recognizing the challenges and pressures that students face, iResearchNet has developed a suite of research paper writing services designed to alleviate the burden of academic writing and research. Our services are tailored to meet the diverse needs of students across all academic disciplines, ensuring that every research paper not only meets but exceeds the rigorous standards of scholarly excellence. Below, we detail the multifaceted aspects of our research paper writing services, illustrating how iResearchNet stands as a beacon of support in the academic landscape.

At iResearchNet, we understand the pivotal role that research papers play in the academic and professional development of students. With this understanding at our core, we offer comprehensive writing services that cater to the intricate process of research paper creation. Our services are designed to guide students through every stage of the writing process, from initial research to final submission, ensuring clarity, coherence, and scholarly rigor.

The Need for Research Paper Writing Services

Navigating the complexities of academic writing and research can be a daunting task for many students. The challenges of identifying credible sources, synthesizing information, adhering to academic standards, and articulating arguments cohesively are significant. Furthermore, the pressures of tight deadlines and the high stakes of academic success can exacerbate the difficulties faced by students. iResearchNet’s research paper writing services are crafted to address these challenges head-on, providing expert assistance that empowers students to achieve their academic goals with confidence.

Why Choose iResearchNet

Selecting the right partner for research paper writing is a pivotal decision for students and researchers aiming for academic excellence. iResearchNet stands out as the premier choice for several compelling reasons, each designed to meet the diverse needs of our clientele and ensure their success.

• Expert Writers : At iResearchNet, we pride ourselves on our team of expert writers who are not only masters in their respective fields but also possess a profound understanding of academic writing standards. With advanced degrees and extensive experience, our writers bring depth, insight, and precision to each paper, ensuring that your work is informed by the latest research and methodologies.
• Top Quality : Quality is the cornerstone of our services. We adhere to rigorous quality control processes to ensure that every paper we deliver meets the highest standards of academic excellence. Our commitment to quality means thorough research, impeccable writing, and meticulous proofreading, resulting in work that not only meets but exceeds expectations.
• Customized Solutions : Understanding that each research project has its unique challenges and requirements, iResearchNet offers customized solutions tailored to your specific needs. Whether you’re grappling with a complex research topic, a tight deadline, or specific formatting guidelines, our team is equipped to provide personalized support that aligns with your objectives.
• Affordable Prices : We believe that access to high-quality research paper writing services should not be prohibitive. iResearchNet offers competitive pricing structures designed to provide value without compromising on quality. Our transparent pricing model ensures that you know exactly what you are paying for, with no hidden costs or surprises.
• Timely Delivery : Meeting deadlines is critical in academic writing, and at iResearchNet, we take this seriously. Our efficient processes and dedicated team ensure that your paper is delivered on time, every time, allowing you to meet your academic deadlines with confidence.
• 24/7 Support : Our commitment to your success is reflected in our round-the-clock support. Whether you have a question about your order, need to communicate with your writer, or require assistance with any aspect of our service, our friendly and knowledgeable support team is available 24/7 to assist you.
• Money-Back Guarantee : Your satisfaction is our top priority. iResearchNet offers a money-back guarantee, ensuring that if for any reason you are not satisfied with the work delivered, you are entitled to a refund. This policy underscores our confidence in the quality of our services and our dedication to your success.

Choosing iResearchNet for your research paper writing needs means partnering with a trusted provider committed to excellence, innovation, and customer satisfaction. Our unparalleled blend of expert writers, top-quality work, customized solutions, affordability, timely delivery, 24/7 support, and a money-back guarantee makes us the ideal choice for students and researchers seeking to elevate their academic performance.

How It Works: iResearchNet’s Streamlined Process

Navigating the process of obtaining a top-notch research paper has never been more straightforward, thanks to iResearchNet’s streamlined approach. Our user-friendly system ensures that from the moment you decide to place your order to the final receipt of your custom-written paper, every step is seamless, transparent, and tailored to your needs. Here’s how our comprehensive process works:

• Place Your Order : Begin your journey to academic success by visiting our website and filling out the order form. Here, you’ll provide details about your research paper, including the topic, academic level, number of pages, formatting style, and any specific instructions or requirements. This initial step is crucial for us to understand your needs fully and match you with the most suitable writer.
• Make Payment : Once your order details are confirmed, you’ll proceed to the payment section. Our platform offers a variety of secure payment options, ensuring that your transaction is safe and hassle-free. Our transparent pricing policy means you’ll know exactly what you’re paying for upfront, with no hidden fees.
• Choose Your Writer : After payment, you’ll have the opportunity to choose a writer from our team of experts. Our writers are categorized based on their fields of expertise, academic qualifications, and customer feedback ratings. This step empowers you to select the writer who best matches your research paper’s requirements, ensuring a personalized and targeted approach to your project.
• Receive Your Work : Our writer will commence work on your research paper, adhering to the specified guidelines and timelines. Throughout this process, you’ll have the ability to communicate directly with your writer, allowing for updates, revisions, and clarifications to ensure the final product meets your expectations. Once completed, your research paper will undergo a thorough quality check before being delivered to you via your chosen method.
• Free Revisions : Your satisfaction is our priority. Upon receiving your research paper, you’ll have the opportunity to review the work and request any necessary revisions. iResearchNet offers free revisions within a specified period, ensuring that your final paper perfectly aligns with your academic requirements and expectations.

Our process is designed to provide you with a stress-free experience and a research paper that reflects your academic goals. From placing your order to enjoying the success of a well-written paper, iResearchNet is here to support you every step of the way.

Our Extras: Enhancing Your iResearchNet Experience

At iResearchNet, we are committed to offering more than just standard research paper writing services. We understand the importance of providing a comprehensive and personalized experience for each of our clients. That’s why we offer a range of additional services designed to enhance your experience and ensure your academic success. Here are the exclusive extras you can benefit from:

• VIP Service : Elevate your iResearchNet experience with our VIP service, offering you priority treatment from the moment you place your order. This service ensures your projects are given first priority, with immediate attention from our team, and direct access to our top-tier writers and editors. VIP clients also benefit from our highest level of customer support, available to address any inquiries or needs with utmost urgency and personalized care.
• Plagiarism Report : Integrity and originality are paramount in academic writing. To provide you with peace of mind, we offer a detailed plagiarism report with every research paper. This report is generated using advanced plagiarism detection software, ensuring that your work is unique and adheres to the highest standards of academic honesty.
• Text Messages : Stay informed about your order’s progress with real-time updates sent directly to your phone. This service ensures you’re always in the loop, providing immediate notifications about key milestones, writer assignments, and any changes to your order status. With this added layer of communication, you can relax knowing that you’ll never miss an important update about your research paper.
• Table of Contents : A well-organized research paper is key to guiding readers through your work. Our service includes the creation of a detailed table of contents, meticulously structured to reflect the main sections and subsections of your paper. This not only enhances the navigability of your document but also presents your research in a professional and academically appropriate format.
• Abstract Page : The abstract page is your research paper’s first impression, summarizing the essential points of your study and its conclusions. Crafting a compelling abstract is an art, and our experts are skilled in highlighting the significance, methodology, results, and implications of your research succinctly and effectively. This service ensures that your paper makes a strong impact from the very beginning.
• Editor’s Check : Before your research paper reaches you, it undergoes a final review by our team of experienced editors. This editor’s check is a comprehensive process that includes proofreading for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors, as well as ensuring that the paper meets all your specifications and academic standards. This meticulous attention to detail guarantees that your paper is polished, professional, and ready for submission.

To ensure your research paper is of the highest quality and ready for submission, it undergoes a rigorous editor’s check. This final review process includes a thorough examination for any grammatical, punctuation, or spelling errors, as well as a verification that the paper meets all your specified requirements and academic standards. Our editors’ meticulous approach guarantees that your paper is polished, accurate, and exemplary.

By choosing iResearchNet and leveraging our extras, you can elevate the quality of your research paper and enjoy a customized, worry-free academic support experience.

A research paper is an academic piece of writing, so you need to follow all the requirements and standards. Otherwise, it will be impossible to get the high results. To make it easier for you, we have analyzed the structure and peculiarities of a sample research paper on the topic ‘Child Abuse’.

The paper includes 7300+ words, a detailed outline, citations are in APA formatting style, and bibliography with 28 sources.

To write any paper you need to write a great outline. This is the key to a perfect paper. When you organize your paper, it is easier for you to present the ideas logically, without jumping from one thought to another.

In the outline, you need to name all the parts of your paper. That is to say, an introduction, main body, conclusion, bibliography, some papers require abstract and proposal as well.

A good outline will serve as a guide through your paper making it easier for the reader to follow your ideas.

I. Introduction

Ii. estimates of child abuse: methodological limitations, iii. child abuse and neglect: the legalities, iv. corporal punishment versus child abuse, v. child abuse victims: the patterns, vi. child abuse perpetrators: the patterns, vii. explanations for child abuse, viii. consequences of child abuse and neglect, ix. determining abuse: how to tell whether a child is abused or neglected, x. determining abuse: interviewing children, xi. how can society help abused children and abusive families, introduction.

An introduction should include a thesis statement and the main points that you will discuss in the paper.

A thesis statement is one sentence in which you need to show your point of view. You will then develop this point of view through the whole piece of work:

‘The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood.’

Child abuse is a very real and prominent social problem today. The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood. Most children are defenseless against abuse, are dependent on their caretakers, and are unable to protect themselves from these acts.

Childhood serves as the basis for growth, development, and socialization. Throughout adolescence, children are taught how to become productive and positive, functioning members of society. Much of the socializing of children, particularly in their very earliest years, comes at the hands of family members. Unfortunately, the messages conveyed to and the actions against children by their families are not always the positive building blocks for which one would hope.

In 2008, the Children’s Defense Fund reported that each day in America, 2,421 children are confirmed as abused or neglected, 4 children are killed by abuse or neglect, and 78 babies die before their first birthday. These daily estimates translate into tremendous national figures. In 2006, caseworkers substantiated an estimated 905,000 reports of child abuse or neglect. Of these, 64% suffered neglect, 16% were physically abused, 9% were sexually abused, 7% were emotionally or psychologically maltreated, and 2% were medically neglected. In addition, 15% of the victims experienced “other” types of maltreatment such as abandonment, threats of harm to the child, and congenital drug addiction (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006). Obviously, this problem is a substantial one.

In the main body, you dwell upon the topic of your paper. You provide your ideas and support them with evidence. The evidence include all the data and material you have found, analyzed and systematized. You can support your point of view with different statistical data, with surveys, and the results of different experiments. Your task is to show that your idea is right, and make the reader interested in the topic.

In this example, a writer analyzes the issue of child abuse: different statistical data, controversies regarding the topic, examples of the problem and the consequences.

Several issues arise when considering the amount of child abuse that occurs annually in the United States. Child abuse is very hard to estimate because much (or most) of it is not reported. Children who are abused are unlikely to report their victimization because they may not know any better, they still love their abusers and do not want to see them taken away (or do not themselves want to be taken away from their abusers), they have been threatened into not reporting, or they do not know to whom they should report their victimizations. Still further, children may report their abuse only to find the person to whom they report does not believe them or take any action on their behalf. Continuing to muddy the waters, child abuse can be disguised as legitimate injury, particularly because young children are often somewhat uncoordinated and are still learning to accomplish physical tasks, may not know their physical limitations, and are often legitimately injured during regular play. In the end, children rarely report child abuse; most often it is an adult who makes a report based on suspicion (e.g., teacher, counselor, doctor, etc.).

Even when child abuse is reported, social service agents and investigators may not follow up or substantiate reports for a variety of reasons. Parents can pretend, lie, or cover up injuries or stories of how injuries occurred when social service agents come to investigate. Further, there is not always agreement about what should be counted as abuse by service providers and researchers. In addition, social service agencies/agents have huge caseloads and may only be able to deal with the most serious forms of child abuse, leaving the more “minor” forms of abuse unsupervised and unmanaged (and uncounted in the statistical totals).

While most laws about child abuse and neglect fall at the state levels, federal legislation provides a foundation for states by identifying a minimum set of acts and behaviors that define child abuse and neglect. The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), which stems from the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003, defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum, “(1) any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation; or (2) an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk or serious harm.”

Using these minimum standards, each state is responsible for providing its own definition of maltreatment within civil and criminal statutes. When defining types of child abuse, many states incorporate similar elements and definitions into their legal statutes. For example, neglect is often defined as failure to provide for a child’s basic needs. Neglect can encompass physical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary food or shelter, or lack of appropriate supervision), medical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary medical or mental health treatment), educational elements (e.g., failure to educate a child or attend to special educational needs), and emotional elements (e.g., inattention to a child’s emotional needs, failure to provide psychological care, or permitting the child to use alcohol or other drugs). Failure to meet needs does not always mean a child is neglected, as situations such as poverty, cultural values, and community standards can influence the application of legal statutes. In addition, several states distinguish between failure to provide based on financial inability and failure to provide for no apparent financial reason.

Statutes on physical abuse typically include elements of physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures or death) as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise harming a child. Such injury is considered abuse regardless of the intention of the caretaker. In addition, many state statutes include allowing or encouraging another person to physically harm a child (such as noted above) as another form of physical abuse in and of itself. Sexual abuse usually includes activities by a parent or caretaker such as fondling a child’s genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, and exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials.

Finally, emotional or psychological abuse typically is defined as a pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance. Emotional abuse is often the most difficult to prove and, therefore, child protective services may not be able to intervene without evidence of harm to the child. Some states suggest that harm may be evidenced by an observable or substantial change in behavior, emotional response, or cognition, or by anxiety, depression, withdrawal, or aggressive behavior. At a practical level, emotional abuse is almost always present when other types of abuse are identified.

Some states include an element of substance abuse in their statutes on child abuse. Circumstances that can be considered substance abuse include (a) the manufacture of a controlled substance in the presence of a child or on the premises occupied by a child (Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Virginia); (b) allowing a child to be present where the chemicals or equipment for the manufacture of controlled substances are used (Arizona, New Mexico); (c) selling, distributing, or giving drugs or alcohol to a child (Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Minnesota, and Texas); (d) use of a controlled substance by a caregiver that impairs the caregiver’s ability to adequately care for the child (Kentucky, New York, Rhode Island, and Texas); and (e) exposure of the child to drug paraphernalia (North Dakota), the criminal sale or distribution of drugs (Montana, Virginia), or drug-related activity (District of Columbia).

One of the most difficult issues with which the U.S. legal system must contend is that of allowing parents the right to use corporal punishment when disciplining a child, while not letting them cross over the line into the realm of child abuse. Some parents may abuse their children under the guise of discipline, and many instances of child abuse arise from angry parents who go too far when disciplining their children with physical punishment. Generally, state statutes use terms such as “reasonable discipline of a minor,” “causes only temporary, short-term pain,” and may cause “the potential for bruising” but not “permanent damage, disability, disfigurement or injury” to the child as ways of indicating the types of discipline behaviors that are legal. However, corporal punishment that is “excessive,” “malicious,” “endangers the bodily safety of,” or is “an intentional infliction of injury” is not allowed under most state statutes (e.g., state of Florida child abuse statute).

Most research finds that the use of physical punishment (most often spanking) is not an effective method of discipline. The literature on this issue tends to find that spanking stops misbehavior, but no more effectively than other firm measures. Further, it seems to hinder rather than improve general compliance/obedience (particularly when the child is not in the presence of the punisher). Researchers have also explained why physical punishment is not any more effective at gaining child compliance than nonviolent forms of discipline. Some of the problems that arise when parents use spanking or other forms of physical punishment include the fact that spanking does not teach what children should do, nor does it provide them with alternative behavior options should the circumstance arise again. Spanking also undermines reasoning, explanation, or other forms of parental instruction because children cannot learn, reason, or problem solve well while experiencing threat, pain, fear, or anger. Further, the use of physical punishment is inconsistent with nonviolent principles, or parental modeling. In addition, the use of spanking chips away at the bonds of affection between parents and children, and tends to induce resentment and fear. Finally, it hinders the development of empathy and compassion in children, and they do not learn to take responsibility for their own behavior (Pitzer, 1997).

One of the biggest problems with the use of corporal punishment is that it can escalate into much more severe forms of violence. Usually, parents spank because they are angry (and somewhat out of control) and they can’t think of other ways to discipline. When parents are acting as a result of emotional triggers, the notion of discipline is lost while punishment and pain become the foci.

In 2006, of the children who were found to be victims of child abuse, nearly 75% of them were first-time victims (or had not come to the attention of authorities prior). A slight majority of child abuse victims were girls—51.5%, compared to 48% of abuse victims being boys. The younger the child, the more at risk he or she is for child abuse and neglect victimization. Specifically, the rate for infants (birth to 1 year old) was approximately 24 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The victimization rate for children 1–3 years old was 14 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The abuse rate for children aged 4– 7 years old declined further to 13 per 1,000 children of the same age group. African American, American Indian, and Alaska Native children, as well as children of multiple races, had the highest rates of victimization. White and Latino children had lower rates, and Asian children had the lowest rates of child abuse and neglect victimization. Regarding living arrangements, nearly 27% of victims were living with a single mother, 20% were living with married parents, while 22% were living with both parents but the marital status was unknown. (This reporting element had nearly 40% missing data, however.) Regarding disability, nearly 8% of child abuse victims had some degree of mental retardation, emotional disturbance, visual or hearing impairment, learning disability, physical disability, behavioral problems, or other medical problems. Unfortunately, data indicate that for many victims, the efforts of the child protection services system were not successful in preventing subsequent victimization. Children who had been prior victims of maltreatment were 96% more likely to experience another occurrence than those who were not prior victims. Further, child victims who were reported to have a disability were 52% more likely to experience recurrence than children without a disability. Finally, the oldest victims (16–21 years of age) were the least likely to experience a recurrence, and were 51% less likely to be victimized again than were infants (younger than age 1) (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

Child fatalities are the most tragic consequence of maltreatment. Yet, each year, children die from abuse and neglect. In 2006, an estimated 1,530 children in the United States died due to abuse or neglect. The overall rate of child fatalities was 2 deaths per 100,000 children. More than 40% of child fatalities were attributed to neglect, but physical abuse also was a major contributor. Approximately 78% of the children who died due to child abuse and neglect were younger than 4 years old, and infant boys (younger than 1) had the highest rate of fatalities at 18.5 deaths per 100,000 boys of the same age in the national population. Infant girls had a rate of 14.7 deaths per 100,000 girls of the same age (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

One question to be addressed regarding child fatalities is why infants have such a high rate of death when compared to toddlers and adolescents. Children under 1 year old pose an immense amount of responsibility for their caretakers: they are completely dependent and need constant attention. Children this age are needy, impulsive, and not amenable to verbal control or effective communication. This can easily overwhelm vulnerable parents. Another difficulty associated with infants is that they are physically weak and small. Injuries to infants can be fatal, while similar injuries to older children might not be. The most common cause of death in children less than 1 year is cerebral trauma (often the result of shaken-baby syndrome). Exasperated parents can deliver shakes or blows without realizing how little it takes to cause irreparable or fatal damage to an infant. Research informs us that two of the most common triggers for fatal child abuse are crying that will not cease and toileting accidents. Both of these circumstances are common in infants and toddlers whose only means of communication often is crying, and who are limited in mobility and cannot use the toilet. Finally, very young children cannot assist in injury diagnoses. Children who have been injured due to abuse or neglect often cannot communicate to medical professionals about where it hurts, how it hurts, and so forth. Also, nonfatal injuries can turn fatal in the absence of care by neglectful parents or parents who do not want medical professionals to possibly identify an injury as being the result of abuse.

Estimates reveal that nearly 80% of perpetrators of child abuse were parents of the victim. Other relatives accounted for nearly 7%, and unmarried partners of parents made up 4% of perpetrators. Of those perpetrators that were parents, over 90% were biological parents, 4% were stepparents, and 0.7% were adoptive parents. Of this group, approximately 58% of perpetrators were women and 42% were men. Women perpetrators are typically younger than men. The average age for women abusers was 31 years old, while for men the average was 34 years old. Forty percent of women who abused were younger than 30 years of age, compared with 33% of men being under 30. The racial distribution of perpetrators is similar to that of victims. Fifty-four percent were white, 21% were African American, and 20% were Hispanic/Latino (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

There are many factors that are associated with child abuse. Some of the more common/well-accepted explanations are individual pathology, parent–child interaction, past abuse in the family (or social learning), situational factors, and cultural support for physical punishment along with a lack of cultural support for helping parents here in the United States.

The first explanation centers on the individual pathology of a parent or caretaker who is abusive. This theory focuses on the idea that people who abuse their children have something wrong with their individual personality or biological makeup. Such psychological pathologies may include having anger control problems; being depressed or having post-partum depression; having a low tolerance for frustration (e.g., children can be extremely frustrating: they don’t always listen; they constantly push the line of how far they can go; and once the line has been established, they are constantly treading on it to make sure it hasn’t moved. They are dependent and self-centered, so caretakers have very little privacy or time to themselves); being rigid (e.g., having no tolerance for differences—for example, what if your son wanted to play with dolls? A rigid father would not let him, laugh at him for wanting to, punish him when he does, etc.); having deficits in empathy (parents who cannot put themselves in the shoes of their children cannot fully understand what their children need emotionally); or being disorganized, inefficient, and ineffectual. (Parents who are unable to manage their own lives are unlikely to be successful at managing the lives of their children, and since many children want and need limits, these parents are unable to set them or adhere to them.)

Biological pathologies that may increase the likelihood of someone becoming a child abuser include having substance abuse or dependence problems, or having persistent or reoccurring physical health problems (especially health problems that can be extremely painful and can cause a person to become more self-absorbed, both qualities that can give rise to a lack of patience, lower frustration tolerance, and increased stress).

The second explanation for child abuse centers on the interaction between the parent and the child, noting that certain types of parents are more likely to abuse, and certain types of children are more likely to be abused, and when these less-skilled parents are coupled with these more difficult children, child abuse is the most likely to occur. Discussion here focuses on what makes a parent less skilled, and what makes a child more difficult. Characteristics of unskilled parents are likely to include such traits as only pointing out what children do wrong and never giving any encouragement for good behavior, and failing to be sensitive to the emotional needs of children. Less skilled parents tend to have unrealistic expectations of children. They may engage in role reversal— where the parents make the child take care of them—and view the parent’s happiness and well-being as the responsibility of the child. Some parents view the parental role as extremely stressful and experience little enjoyment from being a parent. Finally, less-skilled parents tend to have more negative perceptions regarding their child(ren). For example, perhaps the child has a different shade of skin than they expected and this may disappoint or anger them, they may feel the child is being manipulative (long before children have this capability), or they may view the child as the scapegoat for all the parents’ or family’s problems. Theoretically, parents with these characteristics would be more likely to abuse their children, but if they are coupled with having a difficult child, they would be especially likely to be abusive. So, what makes a child more difficult? Certainly, through no fault of their own, children may have characteristics that are associated with child care that is more demanding and difficult than in the “normal” or “average” situation. Such characteristics can include having physical and mental disabilities (autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], hyperactivity, etc.); the child may be colicky, frequently sick, be particularly needy, or cry more often. In addition, some babies are simply unhappier than other babies for reasons that cannot be known. Further, infants are difficult even in the best of circumstances. They are unable to communicate effectively, and they are completely dependent on their caretakers for everything, including eating, diaper changing, moving around, entertainment, and emotional bonding. Again, these types of children, being more difficult, are more likely to be victims of child abuse.

Nonetheless, each of these types of parents and children alone cannot explain the abuse of children, but it is the interaction between them that becomes the key. Unskilled parents may produce children that are happy and not as needy, and even though they are unskilled, they do not abuse because the child takes less effort. At the same time, children who are more difficult may have parents who are skilled and are able to handle and manage the extra effort these children take with aplomb. However, risks for child abuse increase when unskilled parents must contend with difficult children.

Social learning or past abuse in the family is a third common explanation for child abuse. Here, the theory concentrates not only on what children learn when they see or experience violence in their homes, but additionally on what they do not learn as a result of these experiences. Social learning theory in the context of family violence stresses that if children are abused or see abuse (toward siblings or a parent), those interactions and violent family members become the representations and role models for their future familial interactions. In this way, what children learn is just as important as what they do not learn. Children who witness or experience violence may learn that this is the way parents deal with children, or that violence is an acceptable method of child rearing and discipline. They may think when they become parents that “violence worked on me when I was a child, and I turned out fine.” They may learn unhealthy relationship interaction patterns; children may witness the negative interactions of parents and they may learn the maladaptive or violent methods of expressing anger, reacting to stress, or coping with conflict.

What is equally as important, though, is that they are unlikely to learn more acceptable and nonviolent ways of rearing children, interacting with family members, and working out conflict. Here it may happen that an adult who was abused as a child would like to be nonviolent toward his or her own children, but when the chips are down and the child is misbehaving, this abused-child-turned-adult does not have a repertoire of nonviolent strategies to try. This parent is more likely to fall back on what he or she knows as methods of discipline.

Something important to note here is that not all abused children grow up to become abusive adults. Children who break the cycle were often able to establish and maintain one healthy emotional relationship with someone during their childhoods (or period of young adulthood). For instance, they may have received emotional support from a nonabusing parent, or they received social support and had a positive relationship with another adult during their childhood (e.g., teacher, coach, minister, neighbor, etc.). Abused children who participate in therapy during some period of their lives can often break the cycle of violence. In addition, adults who were abused but are able to form an emotionally supportive and satisfying relationship with a mate can make the transition to being nonviolent in their family interactions.

Moving on to a fourth familiar explanation for child abuse, there are some common situational factors that influence families and parents and increase the risks for child abuse. Typically, these are factors that increase family stress or social isolation. Specifically, such factors may include receiving public assistance or having low socioeconomic status (a combination of low income and low education). Other factors include having family members who are unemployed, underemployed (working in a job that requires lower qualifications than an individual possesses), or employed only part time. These financial difficulties cause great stress for families in meeting the needs of the individual members. Other stress-inducing familial characteristics are single-parent households and larger family size. Finally, social isolation can be devastating for families and family members. Having friends to talk to, who can be relied upon, and with whom kids can be dropped off occasionally is tremendously important for personal growth and satisfaction in life. In addition, social isolation and stress can cause individuals to be quick to lose their tempers, as well as cause people to be less rational in their decision making and to make mountains out of mole hills. These situations can lead families to be at greater risk for child abuse.

Finally, cultural views and supports (or lack thereof) can lead to greater amounts of child abuse in a society such as the United States. One such cultural view is that of societal support for physical punishment. This is problematic because there are similarities between the way criminals are dealt with and the way errant children are handled. The use of capital punishment is advocated for seriously violent criminals, and people are quick to use such idioms as “spare the rod and spoil the child” when it comes to the discipline or punishment of children. In fact, it was not until quite recently that parenting books began to encourage parents to use other strategies than spanking or other forms of corporal punishment in the discipline of their children. Only recently, the American Academy of Pediatrics has come out and recommended that parents do not spank or use other forms of violence on their children because of the deleterious effects such methods have on youngsters and their bonds with their parents. Nevertheless, regardless of recommendations, the culture of corporal punishment persists.

Another cultural view in the United States that can give rise to greater incidents of child abuse is the belief that after getting married, couples of course should want and have children. Culturally, Americans consider that children are a blessing, raising kids is the most wonderful thing a person can do, and everyone should have children. Along with this notion is the idea that motherhood is always wonderful; it is the most fulfilling thing a woman can do; and the bond between a mother and her child is strong, glorious, and automatic—all women love being mothers. Thus, culturally (and theoretically), society nearly insists that married couples have children and that they will love having children. But, after children are born, there is not much support for couples who have trouble adjusting to parenthood, or who do not absolutely love their new roles as parents. People look askance at parents who need help, and cannot believe parents who say anything negative about parenthood. As such, theoretically, society has set up a situation where couples are strongly encouraged to have kids, are told they will love kids, but then society turns a blind or disdainful eye when these same parents need emotional, financial, or other forms of help or support. It is these types of cultural viewpoints that increase the risks for child abuse in society.

The consequences of child abuse are tremendous and long lasting. Research has shown that the traumatic experience of childhood abuse is life changing. These costs may surface during adolescence, or they may not become evident until abused children have grown up and become abusing parents or abused spouses. Early identification and treatment is important to minimize these potential long-term effects. Whenever children say they have been abused, it is imperative that they be taken seriously and their abuse be reported. Suspicions of child abuse must be reported as well. If there is a possibility that a child is or has been abused, an investigation must be conducted.

Children who have been abused may exhibit traits such as the inability to love or have faith in others. This often translates into adults who are unable to establish lasting and stable personal relationships. These individuals have trouble with physical closeness and touching as well as emotional intimacy and trust. Further, these qualities tend to cause a fear of entering into new relationships, as well as the sabotaging of any current ones.

Psychologically, children who have been abused tend to have poor self-images or are passive, withdrawn, or clingy. They may be angry individuals who are filled with rage, anxiety, and a variety of fears. They are often aggressive, disruptive, and depressed. Many abused children have flashbacks and nightmares about the abuse they have experienced, and this may cause sleep problems as well as drug and alcohol problems. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and antisocial personality disorder are both typical among maltreated children. Research has also shown that most abused children fail to reach “successful psychosocial functioning,” and are thus not resilient and do not resume a “normal life” after the abuse has ended.

Socially (and likely because of these psychological injuries), abused children have trouble in school, will have difficulty getting and remaining employed, and may commit a variety of illegal or socially inappropriate behaviors. Many studies have shown that victims of child abuse are likely to participate in high-risk behaviors such as alcohol or drug abuse, the use of tobacco, and high-risk sexual behaviors (e.g., unprotected sex, large numbers of sexual partners). Later in life, abused children are more likely to have been arrested and homeless. They are also less able to defend themselves in conflict situations and guard themselves against repeated victimizations.

Medically, abused children likely will experience health problems due to the high frequency of physical injuries they receive. In addition, abused children experience a great deal of emotional turmoil and stress, which can also have a significant impact on their physical condition. These health problems are likely to continue occurring into adulthood. Some of these longer-lasting health problems include headaches; eating problems; problems with toileting; and chronic pain in the back, stomach, chest, and genital areas. Some researchers have noted that abused children may experience neurological impairment and problems with intellectual functioning, while others have found a correlation between abuse and heart, lung, and liver disease, as well as cancer (Thomas, 2004).

Victims of sexual abuse show an alarming number of disturbances as adults. Some dislike and avoid sex, or experience sexual problems or disorders, while other victims appear to enjoy sexual activities that are self-defeating or maladaptive—normally called “dysfunctional sexual behavior”—and have many sexual partners.

Abused children also experience a wide variety of developmental delays. Many do not reach physical, cognitive, or emotional developmental milestones at the typical time, and some never accomplish what they are supposed to during childhood socialization. In the next section, these developmental delays are discussed as a means of identifying children who may be abused.

There are two primary ways of identifying children who are abused: spotting and evaluating physical injuries, and detecting and appraising developmental delays. Distinguishing physical injuries due to abuse can be difficult, particularly among younger children who are likely to get hurt or receive injuries while they are playing and learning to become ambulatory. Nonetheless, there are several types of wounds that children are unlikely to give themselves during their normal course of play and exploration. These less likely injuries may signal instances of child abuse.

While it is true that children are likely to get bruises, particularly when they are learning to walk or crawl, bruises on infants are not normal. Also, the back of the legs, upper arms, or on the chest, neck, head, or genitals are also locations where bruises are unlikely to occur during normal childhood activity. Further, bruises with clean patterns, like hand prints, buckle prints, or hangers (to name a few), are good examples of the types of bruises children do not give themselves.

Another area of physical injury where the source of the injury can be difficult to detect is fractures. Again, children fall out of trees, or crash their bikes, and can break limbs. These can be normal parts of growing up. However, fractures in infants less than 12 months old are particularly suspect, as infants are unlikely to be able to accomplish the types of movement necessary to actually break a leg or an arm. Further, multiple fractures, particularly more than one on a bone, should be examined more closely. Spiral or torsion fractures (when the bone is broken by twisting) are suspect because when children break their bones due to play injuries, the fractures are usually some other type (e.g., linear, oblique, compacted). In addition, when parents don’t know about the fracture(s) or how it occurred, abuse should be considered, because when children get these types of injuries, they need comfort and attention.

Head and internal injuries are also those that may signal abuse. Serious blows to the head cause internal head injuries, and this is very different from the injuries that result from bumping into things. Abused children are also likely to experience internal injuries like those to the abdomen, liver, kidney, and bladder. They may suffer a ruptured spleen, or intestinal perforation. These types of damages rarely happen by accident.

Burns are another type of physical injury that can happen by accident or by abuse. Nevertheless, there are ways to tell these types of burn injuries apart. The types of burns that should be examined and investigated are those where the burns are in particular locations. Burns to the bottom of the feet, genitals, abdomen, or other inaccessible spots should be closely considered. Burns of the whole hand or those to the buttocks are also unlikely to happen as a result of an accident.

Turning to the detection and appraisal of developmental delays, one can more readily assess possible abuse by considering what children of various ages should be able to accomplish, than by noting when children are delayed and how many milestones on which they are behind schedule. Importantly, a few delays in reaching milestones can be expected, since children develop individually and not always according to the norm. Nonetheless, when children are abused, their development is likely to be delayed in numerous areas and across many milestones.

As children develop and grow, they should be able to crawl, walk, run, talk, control going to the bathroom, write, set priorities, plan ahead, trust others, make friends, develop a good self-image, differentiate between feeling and behavior, and get their needs met in appropriate ways. As such, when children do not accomplish these feats, their circumstances should be examined.

Infants who are abused or neglected typically develop what is termed failure to thrive syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by slow, inadequate growth, or not “filling out” physically. They have a pale, colorless complexion and dull eyes. They are not likely to spend much time looking around, and nothing catches their eyes. They may show other signs of lack of nutrition such as cuts, bruises that do not heal in a timely way, and discolored fingernails. They are also not trusting and may not cry much, as they are not expecting to have their needs met. Older infants may not have developed any language skills, or these developments are quite slow. This includes both verbal and nonverbal means of communication.

Toddlers who are abused often become hypervigilant about their environments and others’ moods. They are more outwardly focused than a typical toddler (who is quite self-centered) and may be unable to separate themselves as individuals, or consider themselves as distinct beings. In this way, abused toddlers cannot focus on tasks at hand because they are too concerned about others’ reactions. They don’t play with toys, have no interest in exploration, and seem unable to enjoy life. They are likely to accept losses with little reaction, and may have age-inappropriate knowledge of sex and sexual relations. Finally, toddlers, whether they are abused or not, begin to mirror their parents’ behaviors. Thus, toddlers who are abused may mimic the abuse when they are playing with dolls or “playing house.”

Developmental delays can also be detected among abused young adolescents. Some signs include the failure to learn cause and effect, since their parents are so inconsistent. They have no energy for learning and have not developed beyond one- or two-word commands. They probably cannot follow complicated directions (such as two to three tasks per instruction), and they are unlikely to be able to think for themselves. Typically, they have learned that failure is totally unacceptable, but they are more concerned with the teacher’s mood than with learning and listening to instruction. Finally, they are apt to have been inadequately toilet trained and thus may be unable to control their bladders.

Older adolescents, because they are likely to have been abused for a longer period of time, continue to get further and further behind in their developmental achievements. Abused children this age become family nurturers. They take care of their parents and cater to their parents’ needs, rather than the other way around. In addition, they probably take care of any younger siblings and do the household chores. Because of these default responsibilities, they usually do not participate in school activities; they frequently miss days at school; and they have few, if any, friends. Because they have become so hypervigilant and have increasingly delayed development, they lose interest in and become disillusioned with education. They develop low self-esteem and little confidence, but seem old for their years. Children this age who are abused are still likely to be unable to control their bladders and may have frequent toileting accidents.

Other developmental delays can occur and be observed in abused and neglected children of any age. For example, malnutrition and withdrawal can be noticed in infants through teenagers. Maltreated children frequently have persistent or untreated illnesses, and these can become permanent disabilities if medical conditions go untreated for a long enough time. Another example can be the consequences of neurological damage. Beyond being a medical issue, this type of damage can cause problems with social behavior and impulse control, which, again, can be discerned in various ages of children.

Once child abuse is suspected, law enforcement officers, child protection workers, or various other practitioners may need to interview the child about the abuse or neglect he or she may have suffered. Interviewing children can be extremely difficult because children at various stages of development can remember only certain parts or aspects of the events in their lives. Also, interviewers must be careful that they do not put ideas or answers into the heads of the children they are interviewing. There are several general recommendations when interviewing children about the abuse they may have experienced. First, interviewers must acknowledge that even when children are abused, they likely still love their parents. They do not want to be taken away from their parents, nor do they want to see their parents get into trouble. Interviewers must not blame the parents or be judgmental about them or the child’s family. Beyond that, interviews should take place in a safe, neutral location. Interviewers can use dolls and role-play to help children express the types of abuse of which they may be victims.

Finally, interviewers must ask age-appropriate questions. For example, 3-year-olds can probably only answer questions about what happened and who was involved. Four- to five-year-olds can also discuss where the incidents occurred. Along with what, who, and where, 6- to 8-year-olds can talk about the element of time, or when the abuse occurred. Nine- to 10-year-olds are able to add commentary about the number of times the abuse occurred. Finally, 11-year-olds and older children can additionally inform interviewers about the circumstances of abusive instances.

A conclusion is not a summary of what a writer has already mentioned. On the contrary, it is the last point made. Taking every detail of the investigation, the researcher makes the concluding point. In this part of a paper, you need to put a full stop in your research. You need to persuade the reader in your opinion.

Never add any new information in the conclusion. You can present solutions to the problem and you dwell upon the results, but only if this information has been already mentioned in the main body.

Child advocates recommend a variety of strategies to aid families and children experiencing abuse. These recommendations tend to focus on societal efforts as well as more individual efforts. One common strategy advocated is the use of public service announcements that encourage individuals to report any suspected child abuse. Currently, many mandatory reporters (those required by law to report abuse such as teachers, doctors, and social service agency employees) and members of communities feel that child abuse should not be reported unless there is substantial evidence that abuse is indeed occurring. Child advocates stress that this notion should be changed, and that people should report child abuse even if it is only suspected. Public service announcements should stress that if people report suspected child abuse, the worst that can happen is that they might be wrong, but in the grander scheme of things that is really not so bad.

Child advocates also stress that greater interagency cooperation is needed. This cooperation should be evident between women’s shelters, child protection agencies, programs for at-risk children, medical agencies, and law enforcement officers. These agencies typically do not share information, and if they did, more instances of child abuse would come to the attention of various authorities and could be investigated and managed. Along these lines, child protection agencies and programs should receive more funding. When budgets are cut, social services are often the first things to go or to get less financial support. Child advocates insist that with more resources, child protection agencies could hire more workers, handle more cases, conduct more investigations, and follow up with more children and families.

Continuing, more educational efforts must be initiated about issues such as punishment and discipline styles and strategies; having greater respect for children; as well as informing the community about what child abuse is, and how to recognize it. In addition, Americans must alter the cultural orientation about child bearing and child rearing. Couples who wish to remain child-free must be allowed to do so without disdain. And, it must be acknowledged that raising children is very difficult, is not always gloriously wonderful, and that parents who seek help should be lauded and not criticized. These kinds of efforts can help more children to be raised in nonviolent, emotionally satisfying families, and thus become better adults.

Bibliography

When you write a paper, make sure you are aware of all the formatting requirements. Incorrect formatting can lower your mark, so do not underestimate the importance of this part.

Organizing your bibliography is quite a tedious and time-consuming task. Still, you need to do it flawlessly. For this reason, analyze all the standards you need to meet or ask professionals to help you with it. All the comas, colons, brackets etc. matter. They truly do.

Bibliography:

• American Academy of Pediatrics: https://www.aap.org/
• Bancroft, L., & Silverman, J. G. (2002). The batterer as parent. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 42 U.S.C.A. § 5106g (1998).
• Childhelp: Child Abuse Statistics: https://www.childhelp.org/child-abuse-statistics/
• Children’s Defense Fund: https://www.childrensdefense.org/
• Child Stats.gov: https://www.childstats.gov/
• Child Welfare League of America: https://www.cwla.org/
• Crosson-Tower, C. (2008). Understanding child abuse and neglect (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• DeBecker, G. (1999). Protecting the gift: Keeping children and teenagers safe (and parents sane). New York: Bantam Dell.
• Family Research Laboratory at the University of New Hampshire: https://cola.unh.edu/family-research-laboratory
• Guterman, N. B. (2001). Stopping child maltreatment before it starts: Emerging horizons in early home visitation services. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Herman, J. L. (2000). Father-daughter incest. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Medline Plus, Child Abuse: https://medlineplus.gov/childabuse.html
• Myers, J. E. B. (Ed.). (1994). The backlash: Child protection under fire. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
• National Center for Missing and Exploited Children: https://www.missingkids.org/home
• National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. (2006). Child maltreatment 2006: Reports from the states to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.
• New York University Silver School of Social Work: https://socialwork.nyu.edu/
• Pitzer, R. L. (1997). Corporal punishment in the discipline of children in the home: Research update for practitioners. Paper presented at the National Council on Family Relations Annual Conference, Washington, DC.
• RAND, Child Abuse and Neglect: https://www.rand.org/topics/child-abuse-and-neglect.html
• Richards, C. E. (2001). The loss of innocents: Child killers and their victims. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources.
• Straus, M. A. (2001). Beating the devil out of them: Corporal punishment in American families and its effects on children. Edison, NJ: Transaction.
• Thomas, P. M. (2004). Protection, dissociation, and internal roles: Modeling and treating the effects of child abuse. Review of General Psychology, 7(15).
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/

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Research Paper Guide

Research Paper Example

Research Paper Examples - Free Sample Papers for Different Formats!

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How to Write a Research Methodology for a Research Paper

Crafting a comprehensive research paper can be daunting. Understanding diverse citation styles and various subject areas presents a challenge for many.

Without clear examples, students often feel lost and overwhelmed, unsure of how to start or which style fits their subject.

Explore our collection of expertly written research paper examples. We’ve covered various citation styles and a diverse range of subjects.

So, read on!

• 1. Research Paper Example for Different Formats
• 2. Examples for Different Research Paper Parts
• 3. Research Paper Examples for Different Fields
• 4. Research Paper Example Outline

Research Paper Example for Different Formats

Following a specific formatting style is essential while writing a research paper . Knowing the conventions and guidelines for each format can help you in creating a perfect paper. Here we have gathered examples of research paper for most commonly applied citation styles :

Social Media and Social Media Marketing: A Literature Review

APA Research Paper Example

APA (American Psychological Association) style is commonly used in social sciences, psychology, and education. This format is recognized for its clear and concise writing, emphasis on proper citations, and orderly presentation of ideas.

Here are some research paper examples in APA style:

Research Paper Example APA 7th Edition

Research Paper Example MLA

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is frequently employed in humanities disciplines, including literature, languages, and cultural studies. An MLA research paper might explore literature analysis, linguistic studies, or historical research within the humanities. 

Here is an example:

Found Voices: Carl Sagan

Research Paper Example Chicago

Chicago style is utilized in various fields like history, arts, and social sciences. Research papers in Chicago style could delve into historical events, artistic analyses, or social science inquiries. 

Here is a research paper formatted in Chicago style:

Chicago Research Paper Sample

Research Paper Example Harvard

Harvard style is widely used in business, management, and some social sciences. Research papers in Harvard style might address business strategies, case studies, or social policies.

View this sample Harvard style paper here:

Harvard Research Paper Sample

Examples for Different Research Paper Parts

A research paper has different parts. Each part is important for the overall success of the paper. Chapters in a research paper must be written correctly, using a certain format and structure.

The following are examples of how different sections of the research paper can be written.

Research Proposal

The research proposal acts as a detailed plan or roadmap for your study, outlining the focus of your research and its significance. It's essential as it not only guides your research but also persuades others about the value of your study.

Example of Research Proposal

An abstract serves as a concise overview of your entire research paper. It provides a quick insight into the main elements of your study. It summarizes your research's purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions in a brief format.

Research Paper Example Abstract

Literature Review 

A literature review summarizes the existing research on your study's topic, showcasing what has already been explored. This section adds credibility to your own research by analyzing and summarizing prior studies related to your topic.

Literature Review Research Paper Example

Methodology

The methodology section functions as a detailed explanation of how you conducted your research. This part covers the tools, techniques, and steps used to collect and analyze data for your study.

Methods Section of Research Paper Example

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

The conclusion summarizes your findings, their significance and the impact of your research. This section outlines the key takeaways and the broader implications of your study's results.

Research Paper Conclusion Example

Research Paper Examples for Different Fields

Research papers can be about any subject that needs a detailed study. The following examples show research papers for different subjects.

History Research Paper Sample

Preparing a history research paper involves investigating and presenting information about past events. This may include exploring perspectives, analyzing sources, and constructing a narrative that explains the significance of historical events.

View this history research paper sample:

Many Faces of Generalissimo Fransisco Franco

Sociology Research Paper Sample

In sociology research, statistics and data are harnessed to explore societal issues within a particular region or group. These findings are thoroughly analyzed to gain an understanding of the structure and dynamics present within these communities. 

Here is a sample:

A Descriptive Statistical Analysis within the State of Virginia

Science Fair Research Paper Sample

A science research paper involves explaining a scientific experiment or project. It includes outlining the purpose, procedures, observations, and results of the experiment in a clear, logical manner.

Here are some examples:

Science Fair Paper Format

What Do I Need To Do For The Science Fair?

Psychology Research Paper Sample

Writing a psychology research paper involves studying human behavior and mental processes. This process includes conducting experiments, gathering data, and analyzing results to understand the human mind, emotions, and behavior.

Here is an example psychology paper:

The Effects of Food Deprivation on Concentration and Perseverance

Art History Research Paper Sample

Studying art history includes examining artworks, understanding their historical context, and learning about the artists. This helps analyze and interpret how art has evolved over various periods and regions.

Check out this sample paper analyzing European art and impacts:

European Art History: A Primer

Research Paper Example Outline

Before you plan on writing a well-researched paper, make a rough draft. An outline can be a great help when it comes to organizing vast amounts of research material for your paper.

Here is an outline of a research paper example:

Here is a downloadable sample of a standard research paper outline:

Research Paper Outline

Want to create the perfect outline for your paper? Check out this in-depth guide on creating a research paper outline for a structured paper!

Good Research Paper Examples for Students

Here are some more samples of research paper for students to learn from:

Fiscal Research Center - Action Plan

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Research Paper Example Introduction

How to Write a Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example for High School

Now that you have explored the research paper examples, you can start working on your research project. Hopefully, these examples will help you understand the writing process for a research paper.

If you're facing challenges with your writing requirements, you can hire our essay writing help online.

Our team is experienced in delivering perfectly formatted, 100% original research papers. So, whether you need help with a part of research or an entire paper, our experts are here to deliver.

So, why miss out? Place your ‘ write my research paper ’ request today and get a top-quality research paper!

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How To Write A Research Paper

Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example - Examples for Different Formats

Published on: Jun 12, 2021

Last updated on: Feb 6, 2024

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Writing a research paper is the most challenging task in a student's academic life. researchers face similar writing process hardships, whether the research paper is to be written for graduate or masters.

A research paper is a writing type in which a detailed analysis, interpretation, and evaluation are made on the topic. It requires not only time but also effort and skills to be drafted correctly.

If you are working on your research paper for the first time, here is a collection of examples that you will need to understand the paper’s format and how its different parts are drafted. Continue reading the article to get free research paper examples.

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Research Paper Example for Different Formats

A research paper typically consists of several key parts, including an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and annotated bibliography .

When writing a research paper (whether quantitative research or qualitative research ), it is essential to know which format to use to structure your content. Depending on the requirements of the institution, there are mainly four format styles in which a writer drafts a research paper:

Let’s look into each format in detail to understand the fundamental differences and similarities.

Research Paper Example APA

If your instructor asks you to provide a research paper in an APA format, go through the example given below and understand the basic structure. Make sure to follow the format throughout the paper.

APA Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example MLA

Another widespread research paper format is MLA. A few institutes require this format style as well for your research paper. Look at the example provided of this format style to learn the basics.

MLA Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example Chicago

Unlike MLA and APA styles, Chicago is not very common. Very few institutions require this formatting style research paper, but it is essential to learn it. Look at the example given below to understand the formatting of the content and citations in the research paper.

Chicago Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example Harvard

Learn how a research paper through Harvard formatting style is written through this example. Carefully examine how the cover page and other pages are structured.

Harvard Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Examples for Different Research Paper Parts

A research paper is based on different parts. Each part plays a significant role in the overall success of the paper. So each chapter of the paper must be drafted correctly according to a format and structure.

Below are examples of how different sections of the research paper are drafted.

Research Proposal Example

A research proposal is a plan that describes what you will investigate, its significance, and how you will conduct the study.

Research Proposal Sample (PDF)

Abstract Research Paper Example

An abstract is an executive summary of the research paper that includes the purpose of the research, the design of the study, and significant research findings.

It is a small section that is based on a few paragraphs. Following is an example of the abstract to help you draft yours professionally.

Abstract Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Literature Review Research Paper Example

A literature review in a research paper is a comprehensive summary of the previous research on your topic. It studies sources like books, articles, journals, and papers on the relevant research problem to form the basis of the new research.

Writing this section of the research paper perfectly is as important as any part of it.

Literature Review in Research Sample (PDF)

Methods Section of Research Paper Example

The method section comes after the introduction of the research paper that presents the process of collecting data. Basically, in this section, a researcher presents the details of how your research was conducted.

Methods Section in Research Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Conclusion Example

The conclusion is the last part of your research paper that sums up the writer’s discussion for the audience and leaves an impression. This is how it should be drafted:

Research Paper Conclusion Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Examples for Different Fields

The research papers are not limited to a particular field. They can be written for any discipline or subject that needs a detailed study.

In the following section, various research paper examples are given to show how they are drafted for different subjects.

Science Research Paper Example

Are you a science student that has to conduct research? Here is an example for you to draft a compelling research paper for the field of science.

Science Research Paper Sample (PDF)

History Research Paper Example

Conducting research and drafting a paper is not only bound to science subjects. Other subjects like history and arts require a research paper to be written as well. Observe how research papers related to history are drafted.

History Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Psychology Research Paper Example

If you are a psychology student, look into the example provided in the research paper to help you draft yours professionally.

Psychology Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example for Different Levels

Writing a research paper is based on a list of elements. If the writer is not aware of the basic elements, the process of writing the paper will become daunting. Start writing your research paper taking the following steps:

• Choose a topic
• Form a strong thesis statement
• Conduct research
• Develop a research paper outline

Once you have a plan in your hand, the actual writing procedure will become a piece of cake for you.

No matter which level you are writing a research paper for, it has to be well structured and written to guarantee you better grades.

If you are a college or a high school student, the examples in the following section will be of great help.

Research Paper Outline (PDF)

Research Paper Example for College

Pay attention to the research paper example provided below. If you are a college student, this sample will help you understand how a winning paper is written.

College Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example for High School

Expert writers of CollegeEssay.org have provided an excellent example of a research paper for high school students. If you are struggling to draft an exceptional paper, go through the example provided.

High School Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Examples are essential when it comes to academic assignments. If you are a student and aim to achieve good grades in your assignments, it is suggested to get help from  CollegeEssay.org .

We are the best writing company that delivers essay help for students by providing free samples and writing assistance.

Professional writers have your back, whether you are looking for guidance in writing a lab report, college essay, or research paper.

Simply hire a writer by placing your order at the most reasonable price. You can also take advantage of our essay writer to enhance your writing skills.

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Research Proposal Example/Sample

Detailed Walkthrough + Free Proposal Template

If you’re getting started crafting your research proposal and are looking for a few examples of research proposals , you’ve come to the right place.

In this video, we walk you through two successful (approved) research proposals , one for a Master’s-level project, and one for a PhD-level dissertation. We also start off by unpacking our free research proposal template and discussing the four core sections of a research proposal, so that you have a clear understanding of the basics before diving into the actual proposals.

• Research proposal example/sample – Master’s-level (PDF/Word)
• Research proposal example/sample – PhD-level (PDF/Word)
• Proposal template (Fully editable) 

If you’re working on a research proposal for a dissertation or thesis, you may also find the following useful:

• Research Proposal Bootcamp : Learn how to write a research proposal as efficiently and effectively as possible
• 1:1 Proposal Coaching : Get hands-on help with your research proposal

PS – If you’re working on a dissertation, be sure to also check out our collection of dissertation and thesis examples here .

FAQ: Research Proposal Example

Research proposal example: frequently asked questions, are the sample proposals real.

Yes. The proposals are real and were approved by the respective universities.

Can I copy one of these proposals for my own research?

As we discuss in the video, every research proposal will be slightly different, depending on the university’s unique requirements, as well as the nature of the research itself. Therefore, you’ll need to tailor your research proposal to suit your specific context.

You can learn more about the basics of writing a research proposal here .

How do I get the research proposal template?

You can access our free proposal template here .

Is the proposal template really free?

Yes. There is no cost for the proposal template and you are free to use it as a foundation for your research proposal.

Where can I learn more about proposal writing?

For self-directed learners, our Research Proposal Bootcamp is a great starting point.

For students that want hands-on guidance, our private coaching service is recommended.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Research Proposal Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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Documentary Research: What it is, methodology & free examples

Social scientists often conduct documentary research. Its primary use is to assess various documents in the interest of social or historical value. Researchers also conduct documentary research to study multiple documents surrounding events or individuals.

What is documentary research?

Documentary research is the research conducted through the use of official documents or personal documents as the source of information.

Documents can include anything from the following: 

• Directories
• Government statistical publications
• Gramophone records
• Photographs
• Computer files

The above may not fit the traditional bill of a “document”, but companies can use them towards documentary research since they contain information.

Documentary research is similar to content analysis, which involves studying existing information recorded in media, texts, and physical items. Here, data collection from people is not required to conduct research. Hence, this is a prime example of secondary research.

It is essential to consider the quality of the documents while using it as evidence on social relations and social meanings. Keep in mind that, unlike surveys and research interviews, the records are originally published/generated without keeping the purpose of research in mind. It is good practice to cross-verify documents against other similar documents before reaching a decision.

Documentary research examples

Bellow, we can find a few real-life examples of documentary research applied to companies’ daily events.

1. Social research studies

Although documentary research is not used extensively today, it is the go-to research method to conduct social research studies. For example, Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim used documentary research extensively for their research.

Karl Marx used documents like:

• Her Majesty Inspectors of Factories Reports
• Royal Commission
• Inland Revenue Reports

There’s also a record of his use of reports by the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, reports on children’s employment in factories, the Corn-laws, the Banking Acts, and Census Reports for Wales and England to name a few.

Durkheim, one of the founders of Sociology, wrote a book on suicide, which is recognized as the first modern example of a methodical and consistent use of documents for social research.

2. Archival inquiry

The field of sociology has a popular, longstanding tradition of documentary inquiry. Many historians refer to and rely on primary documents for their research. Historians give historical documents more emphasis while conducting research. Of course, as we evolve, virtual documents like emails will play a significant role in research activities conducted by these researchers.

3. Aesthetic interpretation

Documentary research is not limited to text only. Pictures, paintings, videos, audio files, monuments are also used to conduct research. Documentary researchers use these tools in addition to texts while studying social sciences. The use of these tools adds to the authenticity of the textual research, or may very well point out deviations in the findings.

This deviation suggests that investigators research more to draw accurate conclusions.

Documentary research methodology

Documentary research, if conducted thoroughly, can help develop a hypothesis or prove or disprove an existing theory. This of course depends on the methodology applied and the depth of research conducted. The researcher must conduct his/her own secondary research to analyze the contents before extracting it. They must handle the data scientifically.

Follow this four-step approach to control the quality of the content:

The authenticity of the documents

The credibility of the documents

Representativeness of the documents

The meaning derived from the documents

Let’s take a look at these in detail.

Authenticity implies whether the document’s origin is reliable, is the evidence genuine, are the intentions sincere, and what were the commitments to creating the document. The authenticity of the source is the primary criterion of documentary research.

Credibility means the subjective and objective components that make one believe the source of information and whether the data is free from distortion and error. The information must be trustworthy and must have some level of expertise.

Representativeness refers to whether the document represents a more extensive collection of the data point, and it is an aggregation of the topic being studied. That said, documents get distorted with time due to the inclusion of new factors, and a check has to be made to ensure the documents are representative.

Meaning means whether the findings are understandable and clear to be called evidence. The goal of examining documents is to understand its significance and meaning. Researchers must find out whether the document fits within the historical context or not.

Advantages of documentary study

Here are the advantages of the documentary research method:

• Data readily available: Data is readily available in various sources. You only need to know where to look and how to use it. The data is available in different forms, and harnessing it is the real challenge.
• Inexpensive and economical: The data for research is already collected and published in either print or other forms. The researcher does not need to spend money and time like they do to collect market research insights and gather data. They need to search for and compile the available data from different sources.
• Saves time: Conducting market research is time-consuming. Responses will not come in quickly as expected, and gathering global responses will take a huge amount of time. If you have all the reference documents available (or you know where to find them), research is relatively quick.
• Non-bias: Primary data collection tends to be biased. This bias depends on a lot of factors like the age of the respondents, the time they take the survey, their mentality while taking the survey, their gender, their feelings towards certain ideas, to name a few. The list goes on and on when it comes to surveying bias.
• A researcher is not necessary during data collection: The researcher doesn’t need to be present during data collection. It is practically impossible for the researcher to be present at every point of the data source, especially thinking about the various data sources.
• Useful for hypothesis: Use historical data to draw inferences of the current or future events. Conclusions can be drawn from the experience of past events and data available for them. 

Disadvantages of the method

Here are the disadvantages of the documentary research method:

• Limited data: Data is not always available, especially when you need to cross-verify a theory or strengthen your argument based on different forms of data.
• Inaccuracies: As the data is historical and published, there is almost no way of ascertaining if the data is accurate or not. 
• Incomplete documents: Often, documents can be incomplete, and there is no way of knowing if there are additional documents to refer to on the subject.
• Data out of context: The data that the researcher refers to may be out of context and may not be in line with the concept the researcher is trying to study. Its because the research goal is not thought of when creating the original data. Often, researchers have to make do with the available data at hand.

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Example of a Research Paper

What follows is a hypothetical example of a research paper based on an experiment.

This article is a part of the guide:

• Outline Examples
• Write a Hypothesis
• Introduction
• Example of a Paper 2

Browse Full Outline

• 1 Write a Research Paper
• 2 Writing a Paper
• 3.1 Write an Outline
• 3.2 Outline Examples
• 4.1 Thesis Statement
• 4.2 Write a Hypothesis
• 5.2 Abstract
• 5.3 Introduction
• 5.4 Methods
• 5.5 Results
• 5.6 Discussion
• 5.7 Conclusion
• 5.8 Bibliography
• 6.1 Table of Contents
• 6.2 Acknowledgements
• 6.3 Appendix
• 7.1 In Text Citations
• 7.2 Footnotes
• 7.3.1 Floating Blocks
• 7.4 Example of a Paper
• 7.5 Example of a Paper 2
• 7.6.1 Citations
• 7.7.1 Writing Style
• 7.7.2 Citations
• 8.1.1 Sham Peer Review
• 8.1.2 Advantages
• 8.1.3 Disadvantages
• 8.2 Publication Bias
• 8.3.1 Journal Rejection
• 9.1 Article Writing
• 9.2 Ideas for Topics

The experiment: Say you have just conducted the Milgram Study . Now you want to write the research paper for it. (Milgram actually waited two years before writing about his study.)

Here's a shortened example of a research article that MIGHT have been written.

DISCLAIMER: This article is not written by Stanley Milgram, but is intended as an example of a psychology research paper that someone might have written after conducting the first Milgram-study. It's presented here for educational purposes.

Normally you would use double spacing in the paper.

EXAMPLE OF A RESEARCH PAPER

--- START OF EXAMPLE ---

[Page 1 - text aligned in the center and middle of the page]

"Behavioral Study of Obedience"

by [author], [University]

[Page 2 - text starts at the top, left]

There are few facts about the role of obedience when committing acts against one’s personal conscience (1961). Most theories suggest that only very disturbed people are capable of administering pain to an ordinary citizen if they are ordered to do so. Our experiment tested people's obedience to authority. The results showed that most obey all orders given by the authority-figure, despite their unwillingness. The conclusion is that, contrary to common belief, personal ethics mean little when pitted against authority.  

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Current theories focus on personal characteristics to explain wrong-doing and how someone can intentionally harm others. In a survey, professionals such as doctors, psychologist and laymen predicted that a small proportion of a population (1-3%) would harm others if ordered to do so. In the recent war trial with Adolph Eichmann, he claims to only have been “following orders". The author wanted to test this claim. Can people harm others because they are merely obeying orders? Can people be ordered to act against their moral convictions? The experiment will test whether a person can keep administering painful electric shocks to another person just because they are ordered to do so. The expectation is that very few will keep giving shocks, and that most participants will disobey the order.

Participants There were 30 male participants. They were recruited by advertisement in a newspaper and were paid $4.50. Instruments A "shock generator" was used to trick the participants into thinking that they were giving an electric shock to another person in another room. The shock generator had switches labeled with different voltages, starting at 30 volts and increasing in 15-volt increments all the way up to 450 volts. The switches were also labeled with terms which reminded the participant of how dangerous the shocks were. Procedures The participant met another "participant" in the waiting room before the experiment. The other "participant" was an actor. Each participant got the role as a "teacher" who would then deliver a shock to the actor ("learner") every time an incorrect answer to a question was produced. The participant believed that he was delivering real shocks to the learner. The learner would pretend to be shocked. As the experiment progressed, the teacher would hear the learner plead to be released and complain about a heart condition. Once the 300-volt level had been reached, the learner banged on the wall and demanded to be released. Beyond this point, the learner became completely silent and refused to answer any more questions. The experimenter then instructed the participant to treat this silence as an incorrect response and deliver a further shock. When asking the experimenter if they should stop, they were instructed to continue.

Of the 40 participants in the study, 26 delivered the maximum shocks. 14 persons did not obey the experimenter and stopped before reaching the highest levels. All 40 participants continued to give shocks up to 300 volts.

Discussion/Conclusion

Most of the participants became very agitated, stressed and angry at the experimenter. Many continued to follow orders throughout even though they were clearly uncomfortable. The study shows that people are able to harm others intentionally if ordered to do so. It provides evidence that this dynamic is far more important than previously believed, and that personal ethics are less predictive of such behavior.

[Read more about references here]

--- END OF EXAMPLE ---   

The scientific format: a research paper outline:.

Title , Author, Work/School

Abstract : A short summary of the article.

Current theories about the topic. What are the  hypothesis  for the paper?

What method used.

What were the results obtained?

Discussion  and  Conclusion

What are our thought about the results compared to other relevant theories.

Through the text there are references, sources of knowledge, which you've used.  Citing  those will give you more credibility because good research is thought to be based on other knowledge and  empirical (observed) evidence .

Tables ,  Figures ,  Appendix

• Psychology 101
• Flags and Countries
• Capitals and Countries

Martyn Shuttleworth (May 21, 2008). Example of a Research Paper. Retrieved Jun 03, 2024 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/example-of-a-research-paper

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How to Introduce Evidence: 41 Effective Phrases & Examples

Research requires us to scrutinize information and assess its credibility. Accordingly, when we think about various phenomena, we examine empirical data and craft detailed explanations justifying our interpretations. An essential component of constructing our research narratives is thus providing supporting evidence and examples.

The type of proof we provide can either bolster our claims or leave readers confused or skeptical of our analysis. Therefore, it’s crucial that we use appropriate, logical phrases that guide readers clearly from one idea to the next. In this article, we explain how evidence and examples should be introduced according to different contexts in academic writing and catalog effective language you can use to support your arguments, examples included.

When to Introduce Evidence and Examples in a Paper

Evidence and examples create the foundation upon which your claims can stand firm. Without proof, your arguments lack credibility and teeth. However, laundry listing evidence is as bad as failing to provide any materials or information that can substantiate your conclusions. Therefore, when you introduce examples, make sure to judiciously provide evidence when needed and use phrases that will appropriately and clearly explain how the proof supports your argument.

There are different types of claims and different types of evidence in writing. You should introduce and link your arguments to evidence when you

• state information that is not “common knowledge”;
• draw conclusions, make inferences, or suggest implications based on specific data;
• need to clarify a prior statement, and it would be more effectively done with an illustration;
• need to identify representative examples of a category;
• desire to distinguish concepts; and
• emphasize a point by highlighting a specific situation.

Introductory Phrases to Use and Their Contexts

To assist you with effectively supporting your statements, we have organized the introductory phrases below according to their function. This list is not exhaustive but will provide you with ideas of the types of phrases you can use.

Although any research author can make use of these helpful phrases and bolster their academic writing by entering them into their work, before submitting to a journal, it is a good idea to let a professional English editing service take a look to ensure that all terms and phrases make sense in the given research context. Wordvice offers paper editing , thesis editing , and dissertation editing services that help elevate your academic language and make your writing more compelling to journal authors and researchers alike.

For more examples of strong verbs for research writing , effective transition words for academic papers , or commonly confused words , head over to the Wordvice Academic Resources website.

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / How to Cite Sources

How to Cite Sources

Here is a complete list for how to cite sources. Most of these guides present citation guidance and examples in MLA, APA, and Chicago.

If you’re looking for general information on MLA or APA citations , the EasyBib Writing Center was designed for you! It has articles on what’s needed in an MLA in-text citation , how to format an APA paper, what an MLA annotated bibliography is, making an MLA works cited page, and much more!

MLA Format Citation Examples

The Modern Language Association created the MLA Style, currently in its 9th edition, to provide researchers with guidelines for writing and documenting scholarly borrowings.  Most often used in the humanities, MLA style (or MLA format ) has been adopted and used by numerous other disciplines, in multiple parts of the world.

MLA provides standard rules to follow so that most research papers are formatted in a similar manner. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend the information. The MLA in-text citation guidelines, MLA works cited standards, and MLA annotated bibliography instructions provide scholars with the information they need to properly cite sources in their research papers, articles, and assignments.

• Book Chapter
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• YouTube Video

APA Format Citation Examples

The American Psychological Association created the APA citation style in 1929 as a way to help psychologists, anthropologists, and even business managers establish one common way to cite sources and present content.

APA is used when citing sources for academic articles such as journals, and is intended to help readers better comprehend content, and to avoid language bias wherever possible. The APA style (or APA format ) is now in its 7th edition, and provides citation style guides for virtually any type of resource.

Chicago Style Citation Examples

The Chicago/Turabian style of citing sources is generally used when citing sources for humanities papers, and is best known for its requirement that writers place bibliographic citations at the bottom of a page (in Chicago-format footnotes ) or at the end of a paper (endnotes).

The Turabian and Chicago citation styles are almost identical, but the Turabian style is geared towards student published papers such as theses and dissertations, while the Chicago style provides guidelines for all types of publications. This is why you’ll commonly see Chicago style and Turabian style presented together. The Chicago Manual of Style is currently in its 17th edition, and Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations is in its 8th edition.

Citing Specific Sources or Events

• Declaration of Independence
• Gettysburg Address
• Martin Luther King Jr. Speech
• President Obama’s Farewell Address
• President Trump’s Inauguration Speech
• White House Press Briefing

Additional FAQs

• Citing Archived Contributors
• Citing a Blog
• Citing a Book Chapter
• Citing a Source in a Foreign Language
• Citing an Image
• Citing a Song
• Citing Special Contributors
• Citing a Translated Article
• Citing a Tweet

6 Interesting Citation Facts

The world of citations may seem cut and dry, but there’s more to them than just specific capitalization rules, MLA in-text citations , and other formatting specifications. Citations have been helping researches document their sources for hundreds of years, and are a great way to learn more about a particular subject area.

Ever wonder what sets all the different styles apart, or how they came to be in the first place? Read on for some interesting facts about citations!

1. There are Over 7,000 Different Citation Styles

You may be familiar with MLA and APA citation styles, but there are actually thousands of citation styles used for all different academic disciplines all across the world. Deciding which one to use can be difficult, so be sure to ask you instructor which one you should be using for your next paper.

2. Some Citation Styles are Named After People

While a majority of citation styles are named for the specific organizations that publish them (i.e. APA is published by the American Psychological Association, and MLA format is named for the Modern Language Association), some are actually named after individuals. The most well-known example of this is perhaps Turabian style, named for Kate L. Turabian, an American educator and writer. She developed this style as a condensed version of the Chicago Manual of Style in order to present a more concise set of rules to students.

3. There are Some Really Specific and Uniquely Named Citation Styles

How specific can citation styles get? The answer is very. For example, the “Flavour and Fragrance Journal” style is based on a bimonthly, peer-reviewed scientific journal published since 1985 by John Wiley & Sons. It publishes original research articles, reviews and special reports on all aspects of flavor and fragrance. Another example is “Nordic Pulp and Paper Research,” a style used by an international scientific magazine covering science and technology for the areas of wood or bio-mass constituents.

4. More citations were created on  EasyBib.com  in the first quarter of 2018 than there are people in California.

The US Census Bureau estimates that approximately 39.5 million people live in the state of California. Meanwhile, about 43 million citations were made on EasyBib from January to March of 2018. That’s a lot of citations.

5. “Citations” is a Word With a Long History

The word “citations” can be traced back literally thousands of years to the Latin word “citare” meaning “to summon, urge, call; put in sudden motion, call forward; rouse, excite.” The word then took on its more modern meaning and relevance to writing papers in the 1600s, where it became known as the “act of citing or quoting a passage from a book, etc.”

6. Citation Styles are Always Changing

The concept of citations always stays the same. It is a means of preventing plagiarism and demonstrating where you relied on outside sources. The specific style rules, however, can and do change regularly. For example, in 2018 alone, 46 new citation styles were introduced , and 106 updates were made to exiting styles. At EasyBib, we are always on the lookout for ways to improve our styles and opportunities to add new ones to our list.

Why Citations Matter

Here are the ways accurate citations can help your students achieve academic success, and how you can answer the dreaded question, “why should I cite my sources?”

They Give Credit to the Right People

Citing their sources makes sure that the reader can differentiate the student’s original thoughts from those of other researchers. Not only does this make sure that the sources they use receive proper credit for their work, it ensures that the student receives deserved recognition for their unique contributions to the topic. Whether the student is citing in MLA format , APA format , or any other style, citations serve as a natural way to place a student’s work in the broader context of the subject area, and serve as an easy way to gauge their commitment to the project.

They Provide Hard Evidence of Ideas

Having many citations from a wide variety of sources related to their idea means that the student is working on a well-researched and respected subject. Citing sources that back up their claim creates room for fact-checking and further research . And, if they can cite a few sources that have the converse opinion or idea, and then demonstrate to the reader why they believe that that viewpoint is wrong by again citing credible sources, the student is well on their way to winning over the reader and cementing their point of view.

They Promote Originality and Prevent Plagiarism

The point of research projects is not to regurgitate information that can already be found elsewhere. We have Google for that! What the student’s project should aim to do is promote an original idea or a spin on an existing idea, and use reliable sources to promote that idea. Copying or directly referencing a source without proper citation can lead to not only a poor grade, but accusations of academic dishonesty. By citing their sources regularly and accurately, students can easily avoid the trap of plagiarism , and promote further research on their topic.

They Create Better Researchers

By researching sources to back up and promote their ideas, students are becoming better researchers without even knowing it! Each time a new source is read or researched, the student is becoming more engaged with the project and is developing a deeper understanding of the subject area. Proper citations demonstrate a breadth of the student’s reading and dedication to the project itself. By creating citations, students are compelled to make connections between their sources and discern research patterns. Each time they complete this process, they are helping themselves become better researchers and writers overall.

When is the Right Time to Start Making Citations?

Make in-text/parenthetical citations as you need them.

As you are writing your paper, be sure to include references within the text that correspond with references in a works cited or bibliography. These are usually called in-text citations or parenthetical citations in MLA and APA formats. The most effective time to complete these is directly after you have made your reference to another source. For instance, after writing the line from Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities : “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times…,” you would include a citation like this (depending on your chosen citation style):

(Dickens 11).

This signals to the reader that you have referenced an outside source. What’s great about this system is that the in-text citations serve as a natural list for all of the citations you have made in your paper, which will make completing the works cited page a whole lot easier. After you are done writing, all that will be left for you to do is scan your paper for these references, and then build a works cited page that includes a citation for each one.

Need help creating an MLA works cited page ? Try the MLA format generator on EasyBib.com! We also have a guide on how to format an APA reference page .

2. Understand the General Formatting Rules of Your Citation Style Before You Start Writing

While reading up on paper formatting may not sound exciting, being aware of how your paper should look early on in the paper writing process is super important. Citation styles can dictate more than just the appearance of the citations themselves, but rather can impact the layout of your paper as a whole, with specific guidelines concerning margin width, title treatment, and even font size and spacing. Knowing how to organize your paper before you start writing will ensure that you do not receive a low grade for something as trivial as forgetting a hanging indent.

Don’t know where to start? Here’s a formatting guide on APA format .

3. Double-check All of Your Outside Sources for Relevance and Trustworthiness First

Collecting outside sources that support your research and specific topic is a critical step in writing an effective paper. But before you run to the library and grab the first 20 books you can lay your hands on, keep in mind that selecting a source to include in your paper should not be taken lightly. Before you proceed with using it to backup your ideas, run a quick Internet search for it and see if other scholars in your field have written about it as well. Check to see if there are book reviews about it or peer accolades. If you spot something that seems off to you, you may want to consider leaving it out of your work. Doing this before your start making citations can save you a ton of time in the long run.

Finished with your paper? It may be time to run it through a grammar and plagiarism checker , like the one offered by EasyBib Plus. If you’re just looking to brush up on the basics, our grammar guides  are ready anytime you are.

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What is the Scope of a Document

Understanding the scope of a document is essential for effective communication and organization. Whether you are drafting a report, a proposal, a research paper, or any other written work, defining the scope of work really sets the boundaries and goals of your writing. It determines what will be included and excluded, the depth of coverage, and the overall focus of your document. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the significance of identifying the scope of a document, its impact on clarity and coherence, and practical tips on how to establish and maintain a clear document scope throughout your writing process. Stay tuned to unravel the significance of “what is the scope of a document” and enhance your document creation skills.

Understanding Document Scope

The basics explained.

Defining the scope of a document involves setting boundaries that guide the content creation project management process. Essentially, the scope dictates what topics will be covered, the level of detail, and the overall objectives. It helps to avoid information overload and keeps the document focused. For instance, when writing a business proposal, the scope might include the problem statement, proposed solutions, and projected outcomes, while excluding unrelated company history or detailed financial data. Establishing a clear scope ensures that the document remains relevant to the audience and purpose. It simplifies decision-making about what content to include, ultimately enhancing clarity and coherence. By understanding “what is the scope of a document,” you can create more structured, purposeful, and effective written works.

Why Defining Scope Matters

Defining the scope of a document is crucial for several reasons. First, it provides a clear framework that guides the writing process, ensuring that all relevant information is included while extraneous details are left out. This focus helps maintain the reader’s interest and comprehension. Second, a well-defined scope prevents scope creep, where the document gradually includes more topics than initially intended, leading to confusion and lack of direction. Moreover, it aids in time management by setting clear boundaries, which can make the writing process more efficient. Understanding “what is the scope of a document” also facilitates better collaboration, as team members and stakeholders can easily understand the document’s boundaries and contribute effectively. Ultimately, a clearly defined scope enhances the document’s quality, making it more targeted, coherent, and impactful.

Elements of a Document’s Scope

Purpose and objectives.

The purpose and objectives form the cornerstone of a document’s scope. The purpose defines the document’s primary goal—what you aim to achieve by writing it. For instance, the purpose of a research paper might be to present findings on a particular topic, while a business proposal’s purpose could be to secure funding. Objectives, on the other hand, are specific, measurable steps that support the project and overall purpose. They break down the main goal into manageable tasks, such as explaining methodologies, presenting data, or outlining future steps. Clearly stating the purpose and objectives not only guides the structure and content but also helps the reader understand the document’s intent from the outset. Understanding “what is the scope of a document” starts with nailing down these fundamental elements, ensuring that the document remains focused and aligned with its intended outcomes.

Boundaries and Limitations

Boundaries and limitations are crucial elements in defining a document’s scope. Boundaries establish what topics and content will be included, ensuring the document remains focused and relevant. For example, a market analysis report may include industry trends and competitor analysis but exclude detailed financial projections. Limitations, on the other hand, clarify what will not be covered and why. These could be due to time constraints, lack of data, or relevance to the document’s purpose. Clearly outlining project scope document boundaries and limitations helps manage reader expectations and prevents misunderstandings. It also provides a framework for evaluating the document’s comprehensiveness and identifying areas for future exploration. By understanding “what is the scope of a document,” you can effectively set these boundaries and limitations, creating a more targeted and coherent piece that fulfills its intended purpose.

Crafting a Clear Scope Statement

Identifying key components.

Identifying key components is essential when crafting a clear project scope statement. These components typically include the document’s purpose, objectives, boundaries, and limitations. Start by clearly stating the document’s purpose—what you aim to achieve. Next, outline specific objectives that support this purpose, breaking down the main goal into actionable steps. Then, define the boundaries by specifying what topics will be included to maintain focus and relevance. Finally, note any limitations, such as time constraints or unavailable data, to set realistic expectations. By identifying these key components, you create a roadmap for your writing process, ensuring that every section of the document aligns with its intended scope. Understanding “what is the scope of a document” and meticulously detailing these components will lead to a more structured, coherent, and effective document.

Tips for Precision and Clarity

Achieving precision and clarity in a scope statement is vital for effective communication. Begin by using clear, concise language to avoid ambiguity. Specificity is key; vague terms can lead to misunderstandings and misaligned expectations. For example, instead of saying “improve efficiency,” specify how you plan to achieve this, such as “reduce processing time by 20%.” Additionally, avoid jargon or overly technical language unless your audience is familiar with it. Structuring your scope statement logically can also enhance clarity. Break it down into sections, such as purpose, scope management objectives, boundaries, and limitations, and use bullet points for easy readability. Regularly review and revise the scope statement to ensure it remains aligned with the document’s goals and context. By focusing on these tips, you can craft a scope statement that is both precise and clear, helping to define “what is the scope of a document” effectively.

Scope of a Document in Different Fields

Academic and research documents.

The scope of academic and research documents is critical to their effectiveness and clarity. In these contexts, the scope defines the research questions, objectives, and the boundaries of the study. For instance, a research paper might focus on the impact of climate change on coastal ecosystems within a specific timeframe and geographic area. By setting these parameters, the scope ensures that the research remains focused and relevant. It helps in avoiding the inclusion of extraneous information, thereby making the document more coherent and easier to follow. Additionally, clearly defined scope statements in academic and research projects and documents guide the methodology, data collection, and analysis processes. Understanding “what is the scope of a document” in this context can significantly enhance the quality and impact of the research, ensuring that it addresses specific questions and contributes valuable insights to the field.

Business and Technical Writing

In business and technical writing, defining the scope is essential for producing clear, actionable documents. The scope in these fields typically includes the document’s objectives, audience, and specific topics to be covered. For example, project scope for a business proposal might aim to secure funding for a new project, targeting potential investors with detailed project plans, financial projections, and market analysis. Similarly, a technical manual’s scope would include specific instructions for using a product, troubleshooting tips, and safety guidelines, excluding unrelated company history or product development details. Setting these boundaries ensures that the document remains focused and relevant to its audience, facilitating better understanding and decision-making. By clearly defining “what is the scope of a document” in business and technical contexts, you can create more effective, user-centric documents that meet specific needs and drive desired outcomes.

Common Misconceptions About Document Scope

Beyond word count and topic.

One common misconception about document scope is that it only pertains to word count and topic. While these elements are important, the scope goes much deeper. It’s not just about how long the document is or what it’s about, but also about setting clear boundaries, objectives project goals, and limitations. For instance, two documents on the same topic can have vastly different scopes depending on their intended audience, purpose, and depth of coverage. A blog post on climate change might aim for general awareness and be limited to 1,000 words, whereas a scientific report could provide in-depth analysis and run into several thousand words. Additionally, the scope includes methodological approaches, data sources, and the specific questions the document aims to answer. Understanding “what is the scope of a document” involves considering these multifaceted elements, ensuring the document is well-structured, focused, and aligned with its goals.

Clarifying the True Meaning

Clarifying the true meaning of document scope involves understanding that it’s not just a superficial outline but a comprehensive framework guiding the entire writing process. The scope encompasses the document’s purpose, objectives, boundaries, and limitations, ensuring that every section is aligned with its intended goals. It goes beyond merely stating the topic and length of scope document, delving into what will be included and excluded, the depth of coverage, and the specific questions to be addressed. By doing so, it helps avoid scope creep and keeps the document focused and relevant. Misunderstanding the scope can lead to unfocused content and disjointed narratives. Understanding “what is the scope of a document” means recognizing its role in shaping a coherent, targeted, and effective piece of writing. This deeper comprehension aids in producing documents that are not only informative but also purposeful and impactful.

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Research Questionnaire

Questionnaire generator.

When a researcher creates a research paper using the scientific method they will need to use a gathering method that is adjacent to the research topic. This means that the researcher will use a quantitative research method for a quantitive topic and a qualitative method for a qualitative  one.  The research questionnaire is one of the quantitative data-gathering methods a researcher can use in their research paper.

1. Market Research Questionnaire Template Example

• Google Docs
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Size: 38 KB

2. Market Research Questionnaire Example

Size: 94 KB

3. Research Questionnaire Example

4. Sample Market Research Questionnaire

Size: 35 KB

5. Research Survey Questionnaire

Size: 42 KB

6. Research Survey Questionnaire Construction

Size: 80 KB

7. Research Questionnaire Survey of Consumers

Size: 39 KB

8. Guide to the Design of Research Questionnaires

Size: 77 KB

9. Planning Survey Research Questionnaires

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10. Climate Change Survey Questionnaires

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11. Survey Questionnaire Design

Size: 96 KB

12. Developing Questionnaires for Educational Research

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13. Graudate Research Student Questionnaires

14. Sample Research Survey Questionnaires

Size: 46 KB

15. Market Research Questionnaire Example

16. Research Survey Questionnaire Example

17. Product X Research Study Questionnaire Example

What Is a Research Questionnaire?

A research questionnaire is a physical or digital questionnaire that researchers use to obtain quantitative data. The research questionnaire is a more in-depth version of a survey   as its questions often delve deeper than survey questions .

How to Write a Research Questionnaire

A well-made research questionnaire can effectively and efficiently gather data from the population. Creating a good research questionnaire does not require that many writing skills , soft skills , or hard skills , it just requires the person to properly understand the data set they are looking for.

Step 1: Select a Topic or Theme for the Research Questionnaire

Begin by choosing a topic or theme   for the research questionnaire as this will provide much-needed context for the research questionnaire. Not only that but the topic will also dictate the tone of the questions in the questionnaire.

Step 2: Obtain or Use a Research Questionnaire Outline

You may opt to use a research questionnaire outline or outline format for your research questionnaire. This outline will provide you with a structure you can use to easily make your research questionnaire.

Step 3: Create your Research Questionnaire

Start by creating questions that will help provide you with the necessary data to prove or disprove your research question. You may conduct brainstorming sessions to formulate the questions for your research questionnaire.

Step 4: Edit and Have Someone Proofread the Questionnaire

After you have created and completed the research questionnaire, you must edit the contents of the questionnaire. Not only that but it is wise to have someone proofread the contents of your questionnaire before deploying the questionnaire. 

How does a research questionnaire help businesses?

A successful business or company utilizes research questionnaires to not only obtain data from their customers but also to gather data about the performance and quality of the employees in the business. The research questionnaire provides the business or company with actionable data, which they can use to improve the product, service, or commodity to obtain more customers.

Do I need to provide a consent form when I ask someone to answer the research questionnaire?

Yes, consent is very important as without this the data you have gathered from your questionnaires or surveys are useless. Therefore it is important to provide a consent form with your research questionnaire when you are asking a participant to answer the document.

What type of answers are allowed in the research questionnaire?

Research questionnaires can host a multitude of types of questions each with its specific way of answering.  A questionnaire can use multiple-choice questions, open-ended questions, and closed questions. Just be sure to properly pace the questions as having too many different types of answering styles can demotivate or distract the target audience, which might lead to errors.

A research questionnaire is a data-gathering document people can use to obtain information and data from a specific group of people. Well-made and crafted research questionnaires will provide much-needed information one can use to answer a specific research question.

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Home » Documentary Analysis – Methods, Applications and Examples

Documentary Analysis – Methods, Applications and Examples

Table of Contents

Documentary Analysis

Definition:

Documentary analysis, also referred to as document analysis , is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents. This method involves a detailed review of the documents to extract themes or patterns relevant to the research topic .

Documents used in this type of analysis can include a wide variety of materials such as text (words) and images that have been recorded without a researcher’s intervention. The domain of document analysis, therefore, includes all kinds of texts – books, newspapers, letters, study reports, diaries, and more, as well as images like maps, photographs, and films.

Documentary analysis provides valuable insight and a unique perspective on the past, contextualizing the present and providing a baseline for future studies. It is also an essential tool in case studies and when direct observation or participant observation is not possible.

The process usually involves several steps:

• Sourcing : This involves identifying the document or source, its origin, and the context in which it was created.
• Contextualizing : This involves understanding the social, economic, political, and cultural circumstances during the time the document was created.
• Interrogating : This involves asking a series of questions to help understand the document better. For example, who is the author? What is the purpose of the document? Who is the intended audience?
• Making inferences : This involves understanding what the document says (either directly or indirectly) about the topic under study.
• Checking for reliability and validity : Just like other research methods, documentary analysis also involves checking for the validity and reliability of the documents being analyzed.

Documentary Analysis Methods

Documentary analysis as a qualitative research method involves a systematic process. Here are the main steps you would generally follow:

Defining the Research Question

Before you start any research , you need a clear and focused research question . This will guide your decision on what documents you need to analyze and what you’re looking for within them.

Selecting the Documents

Once you know what you’re looking for, you can start to select the relevant documents. These can be a wide range of materials – books, newspapers, letters, official reports, diaries, transcripts of speeches, archival materials, websites, social media posts, and more. They can be primary sources (directly from the time/place/person you are studying) or secondary sources (analyses created by others).

Reading and Interpreting the Documents

You need to closely read the selected documents to identify the themes and patterns that relate to your research question. This might involve content analysis (looking at what is explicitly stated) and discourse analysis (looking at what is implicitly stated or implied). You need to understand the context in which the document was created, the author’s purpose, and the audience’s perspective.

Coding and Categorizing the Data

After the initial reading, the data (text) can be broken down into smaller parts or “codes.” These codes can then be categorized based on their similarities and differences. This process of coding helps in organizing the data and identifying patterns or themes.

Analyzing the Data

Once the data is organized, it can be analyzed to make sense of it. This can involve comparing the data with existing theories, examining relationships between categories, or explaining the data in relation to the research question.

Validating the Findings

The researcher needs to ensure that the findings are accurate and credible. This might involve triangulating the data (comparing it with other sources or types of data), considering alternative explanations, or seeking feedback from others.

Reporting the Findings

The final step is to report the findings in a clear, structured way. This should include a description of the methods used, the findings, and the researcher’s interpretations and conclusions.

Applications of Documentary Analysis

Documentary analysis is widely used across a variety of fields and disciplines due to its flexible and comprehensive nature. Here are some specific applications:

Historical Research

Documentary analysis is a fundamental method in historical research. Historians use documents to reconstruct past events, understand historical contexts, and interpret the motivations and actions of historical figures. Documents analyzed may include personal letters, diaries, official records, newspaper articles, photographs, and more.

Social Science Research

Sociologists, anthropologists, and political scientists use documentary analysis to understand social phenomena, cultural practices, political events, and more. This might involve analyzing government policies, organizational records, media reports, social media posts, and other documents.

Legal Research

In law, documentary analysis is used in case analysis and statutory interpretation. Legal practitioners and scholars analyze court decisions, statutes, regulations, and other legal documents.

Business and Market Research

Companies often analyze documents to gather business intelligence, understand market trends, and make strategic decisions. This might involve analyzing competitor reports, industry news, market research studies, and more.

Media and Communication Studies

Scholars in these fields might analyze media content (e.g., news reports, advertisements, social media posts) to understand media narratives, public opinion, and communication practices.

Literary and Film Studies

In these fields, the “documents” might be novels, poems, films, or scripts. Scholars analyze these texts to interpret their meaning, understand their cultural context, and critique their form and content.

Educational Research

Educational researchers may analyze curricula, textbooks, lesson plans, and other educational documents to understand educational practices and policies.

Health Research

Health researchers may analyze medical records, health policies, clinical guidelines, and other documents to study health behaviors, healthcare delivery, and health outcomes.

Examples of Documentary Analysis

Some Examples of Documentary Analysis might be:

• Example 1 : A historian studying the causes of World War I might analyze diplomatic correspondence, government records, newspaper articles, and personal diaries from the period leading up to the war.
• Example 2 : A policy analyst trying to understand the impact of a new public health policy might analyze the policy document itself, as well as related government reports, statements from public health officials, and news media coverage of the policy.
• Example 3 : A market researcher studying consumer trends might analyze social media posts, customer reviews, industry reports, and news articles related to the market they’re studying.
• Example 4 : An education researcher might analyze curriculum documents, textbooks, and lesson plans to understand how a particular subject is being taught in schools. They might also analyze policy documents to understand the broader educational policy context.
• Example 5 : A criminologist studying hate crimes might analyze police reports, court records, news reports, and social media posts to understand patterns in hate crimes, as well as societal and institutional responses to them.
• Example 6 : A journalist writing a feature article on homelessness might analyze government reports on homelessness, policy documents related to housing and social services, news articles on homelessness, and social media posts from people experiencing homelessness.
• Example 7 : A literary critic studying a particular author might analyze their novels, letters, interviews, and reviews of their work to gain insight into their themes, writing style, influences, and reception.

When to use Documentary Analysis

Documentary analysis can be used in a variety of research contexts, including but not limited to:

• When direct access to research subjects is limited : If you are unable to conduct interviews or observations due to geographical, logistical, or ethical constraints, documentary analysis can provide an alternative source of data.
• When studying the past : Documents can provide a valuable window into historical events, cultures, and perspectives. This is particularly useful when the people involved in these events are no longer available for interviews or when physical evidence is lacking.
• When corroborating other sources of data : If you have collected data through interviews, surveys, or observations, analyzing documents can provide additional evidence to support or challenge your findings. This process of triangulation can enhance the validity of your research.
• When seeking to understand the context : Documents can provide background information that helps situate your research within a broader social, cultural, historical, or institutional context. This can be important for interpreting your other data and for making your research relevant to a wider audience.
• When the documents are the focus of the research : In some cases, the documents themselves might be the subject of your research. For example, you might be studying how a particular topic is represented in the media, how an author’s work has evolved over time, or how a government policy was developed.
• When resources are limited : Compared to methods like experiments or large-scale surveys, documentary analysis can often be conducted with relatively limited resources. It can be a particularly useful method for students, independent researchers, and others who are working with tight budgets.
• When providing an audit trail for future researchers : Documents provide a record of events, decisions, or conditions at specific points in time. They can serve as an audit trail for future researchers who want to understand the circumstances surrounding a particular event or period.

Purpose of Documentary Analysis

The purpose of documentary analysis in research can be multifold. Here are some key reasons why a researcher might choose to use this method:

• Understanding Context : Documents can provide rich contextual information about the period, environment, or culture under investigation. This can be especially useful for historical research, where the context is often key to understanding the events or trends being studied.
• Direct Source of Data : Documents can serve as primary sources of data. For instance, a letter from a historical figure can give unique insights into their thoughts, feelings, and motivations. A company’s annual report can offer firsthand information about its performance and strategy.
• Corroboration and Verification : Documentary analysis can be used to validate and cross-verify findings derived from other research methods. For example, if interviews suggest a particular outcome, relevant documents can be reviewed to confirm the accuracy of this finding.
• Substituting for Other Methods : When access to the field or subjects is not possible due to various constraints (geographical, logistical, or ethical), documentary analysis can serve as an alternative to methods like observation or interviews.
• Unobtrusive Method : Unlike some other research methods, documentary analysis doesn’t require interaction with subjects, and therefore doesn’t risk altering the behavior of those subjects.
• Longitudinal Analysis : Documents can be used to study change over time. For example, a researcher might analyze census data from multiple decades to study demographic changes.
• Providing Rich, Qualitative Data : Documents often provide qualitative data that can help researchers understand complex issues in depth. For example, a policy document might reveal not just the details of the policy, but also the underlying beliefs and attitudes that shaped it.

Advantages of Documentary Analysis

Documentary analysis offers several advantages as a research method:

• Unobtrusive : As a non-reactive method, documentary analysis does not require direct interaction with human subjects, which means that the research doesn’t affect or influence the subjects’ behavior.
• Rich Historical and Contextual Data : Documents can provide a wealth of historical and contextual information. They allow researchers to examine events and perspectives from the past, even from periods long before modern research methods were established.
• Efficiency and Accessibility : Many documents are readily accessible, especially with the proliferation of digital archives and databases. This accessibility can often make documentary analysis a more efficient method than others that require data collection from human subjects.
• Cost-Effective : Compared to other methods, documentary analysis can be relatively inexpensive. It generally requires fewer resources than conducting experiments, surveys, or fieldwork.
• Permanent Record : Documents provide a permanent record that can be reviewed multiple times. This allows for repeated analysis and verification of the data.
• Versatility : A wide variety of documents can be analyzed, from historical texts to contemporary digital content, providing flexibility and applicability to a broad range of research questions and fields.
• Ability to Cross-Verify (Triangulate) Data : Documentary analysis can be used alongside other methods as a means of triangulating data, thus adding validity and reliability to the research.

Limitations of Documentary Analysis

While documentary analysis offers several benefits as a research method, it also has its limitations. It’s important to keep these in mind when deciding to use documentary analysis and when interpreting your findings:

• Authenticity : Not all documents are genuine, and sometimes it can be challenging to verify the authenticity of a document, particularly for historical research.
• Bias and Subjectivity : All documents are products of their time and their authors. They may reflect personal, cultural, political, or institutional biases, and these biases can affect the information they contain and how it is presented.
• Incomplete or Missing Information : Documents may not provide all the information you need for your research. There may be gaps in the record, or crucial information may have been omitted, intentionally or unintentionally.
• Access and Availability : Not all documents are readily available for analysis. Some may be restricted due to privacy, confidentiality, or security considerations. Others may be difficult to locate or access, particularly historical documents that haven’t been digitized.
• Interpretation : Interpreting documents, particularly historical ones, can be challenging. You need to understand the context in which the document was created, including the social, cultural, political, and personal factors that might have influenced its content.
• Time-Consuming : While documentary analysis can be cost-effective, it can also be time-consuming, especially if you have a large number of documents to analyze or if the documents are lengthy or complex.
• Lack of Control Over Data : Unlike methods where the researcher collects the data themselves (e.g., through experiments or surveys), with documentary analysis, you have no control over what data is available. You are reliant on what others have chosen to record and preserve.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Logistics Support Area Anaconda, Balad, Iraq—Sgt. Richard Ganske, 84th Combat Engineer Battalion, pushes waste materials deep into a burn pit. (©28th Public Affairs Detachment)

VA Study Documents Health Risks for Burn Pit Exposures

May 31, 2024

By Erica Sprey VA Research Communications

"VA is heavily invested in making sure that Veterans get the care and the benefits that they're entitled to."

In a first-of-its-kind study, a multi-institution team of researchers led by the Providence VA Medical Center and Brown University in Rhode Island found an increased risk for respiratory and cardiovascular conditions in Veterans exposed to open burn pits.

The innovative study, published in JAMA Network , connected declassified military deployment records with VA-documented health outcomes to form the largest group of Veterans to date to be studied in relation to burn pit exposures.

“Our work holds significance, in large part, because of the opportunity to study a large population of Veterans and combine Department of Defense (DoD) deployment data with VA health care data to address long-term consequences of military service,” said study author Dr. David Savitz, a professor of epidemiology at Brown University. “An important aspect of this study was that it created a model for future assessments of military exposures and long-term health outcomes.”

For every 100 days of burn pit exposure, researchers found a 1% increased risk for asthma, a 4% increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and a 5% increased risk of ischemic stroke in Veterans with documented deployments to bases in Afghanistan and Iraq. This group of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF)/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) Veterans also had an elevated risk of developing high blood pressure.

While Veterans’ the increased risk for developing respiratory or cardiovascular disease may seem relatively small, the average duration of exposure was 244 days, with 86% of the study group having some burn pit exposure.  Given the dose-dependent relationship for exposures the team identified, all that time exposed can add up. 

“These findings suggest that prolonged deployment to military bases with open burn pits may increase the risk of developing adverse health outcomes,” said Savitz. “Our results indicate a small increase in several types of cardiovascular and respiratory disease, too small to be of direct clinical significance to an individual, but important for the Veterans as a whole because there are such large numbers of them who served in OEF/OIF.”

The research team also looked into, but did not find, any increased risk for interstitial lung disease, heart attack, congestive heart failure, or hemorrhagic stroke.   

One of the challenges of conducting this type of research was connecting an exposure that occurred many years ago to Veterans’ health outcomes, noted senior author Dr. Amal Trivedi, a health services researcher with the VA Center of Innovation for Long-term Services and Supports for Vulnerable Veterans at the Providence VA Medical Center.

“The main challenge for our research team was to reconstruct Veterans’ exposure to open burn pits during their military service in Iraq and Afghanistan—events that occurred ten or more years ago,” said Trivedi. “That's always a major challenge when there was an exposure that took place a number of years ago and there was no concurrent measurement for the intensity of that exposure.”

The research team met this challenge by obtaining declassified deployment records so that the information could be assessed in the context of Veterans’ health outcomes. The team analyzed deployment histories and VA health records for more than 459,000 U.S. Army and Air Force Veterans who deployed to bases in Afghanistan or Iraq between 2001-2011. On average, the study group was 31 years old, predominantly male, and was followed for approximately 11 years after separation from military service.

During the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, military bases used open burn pits to dispose of solid, medical, and hazardous materials. While the federal government restricted the practice in 2009, burn pits continued to be used until alternate methods were available. Returning soldiers experienced numerous health effects that were thought to be related to burn pit exposure, but research on this problem has been limited.

In 2016, there were 4.2 million post-9/11 Veterans (including OEF/OIF Veterans) according to a report from the National Center for Veterans Analysis and Statistics . OEF/OIF Veterans were younger than other groups of Veterans—75% were younger than 45 years of age. They were more racially diverse and were more likely to use VA health care than other groups of Veterans.

In 2022, Congress passed the “Honoring our Promise to Address Comprehensive Toxics Act” better known as the PACT Act . In addition to expanding health care eligibility for Veterans who experienced toxic exposures during their service, the PACT Act provides for new research into the health effects of military exposures.

One outcome was the Military Exposures Research Program (MERP), established by the VA Office of Research and Development. MERP will fund research to help VA clinicians and others better understand and treat the health effects of toxic military exposures.

While the Providence study was an important line of research, future studies may focus in greater detail on variables such as proximity to burn pits and measuring the intensity of onsite airborne toxins, Trivedi noted.

“The PACT Act has expanded eligibility for both health care and VA disability compensation for Service members who served in Iraq and Afghanistan, and other groups as well,” said Trivedi. “Veterans should know that they may be eligible for those services and that the VA is heavily invested in trying to measure toxic exposures during military service, and to make sure that Veterans get the care and the benefits that they're entitled to.”

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Technology and code article, open and remotely accessible neuroplatform for research in wetware computing.

• FinalSpark, Rue du Clos 12, Vevey, Switzerland

Wetware computing and organoid intelligence is an emerging research field at the intersection of electrophysiology and artificial intelligence. The core concept involves using living neurons to perform computations, similar to how Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are used today. However, unlike ANNs, where updating digital tensors (weights) can instantly modify network responses, entirely new methods must be developed for neural networks using biological neurons. Discovering these methods is challenging and requires a system capable of conducting numerous experiments, ideally accessible to researchers worldwide. For this reason, we developed a hardware and software system that allows for electrophysiological experiments on an unmatched scale. The Neuroplatform enables researchers to run experiments on neural organoids with a lifetime of even more than 100 days. To do so, we streamlined the experimental process to quickly produce new organoids, monitor action potentials 24/7, and provide electrical stimulations. We also designed a microfluidic system that allows for fully automated medium flow and change, thus reducing the disruptions by physical interventions in the incubator and ensuring stable environmental conditions. Over the past three years, the Neuroplatform was utilized with over 1,000 brain organoids, enabling the collection of more than 18 terabytes of data. A dedicated Application Programming Interface (API) has been developed to conduct remote research directly via our Python library or using interactive compute such as Jupyter Notebooks. In addition to electrophysiological operations, our API also controls pumps, digital cameras and UV lights for molecule uncaging. This allows for the execution of complex 24/7 experiments, including closed-loop strategies and processing using the latest deep learning or reinforcement learning libraries. Furthermore, the infrastructure supports entirely remote use. Currently in 2024, the system is freely available for research purposes, and numerous research groups have begun using it for their experiments. This article outlines the system’s architecture and provides specific examples of experiments and results.

1 Introduction

The recent rise in wetware computing and consequently, artificial biological neural networks (BNNs), comes at a time when Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are more sophisticated than ever.

The latest generation of Large Language Models (LLMs), such as Meta’s Llama 2 or OpenAI’s GPT-4, fundamentally rely on ANNs.

The recent acceleration of ANN use in everyday life, such as in tools like ChatGPT or Perplexity combined with the explosion in complexity in the underlying ANN’s architectures, has had a significant impact on energy consumption. For instance, training a single LLM like GPT-3, a precursor to GPT-4, approximately required 10 GWh, which is about 6,000 times the energy a European citizen uses per year. According to a recent publication the energy consumption projected may increase faster than linearly ( De Vries, 2023 ). At the same time, the human brain operates with approximately 86 billion neurons while consuming only 20 W of power ( Clark and Sokoloff, 1999 ). Given these conditions, the prospect of replacing ANNs running on digital computers with real BNNs is enticing ( Smirnova et al., 2023 ). In addition to the substantial energy demands associated with training LLMs, the inference costs present a similarly pressing concern. Recent disclosures reveal that platforms like OpenAI generate over 100 billion words daily through services such as ChatGPT as reported by Sam Altman, the CEO of OpenAI. When we break down these figures, assuming an average of 1.5 tokens per word—a conservative estimate based on OpenAI’s own tokenizer data—the energy footprint becomes staggering. Preliminary calculations, using the LLaMA 65B model (precursor to Llama 2) as a reference point, suggest energy expenditures ranging from 450 to 600 billion Joules per day for word generation alone ( Samsi et al., 2023 ). While necessary for providing AI-driven insights and interactions to millions of users worldwide, this magnitude of energy use underscores the urgency for more energy-efficient computing paradigms.

Connecting probes to BNNs is not a new idea. In fact, the field of multi-unit electrophysiology has an established state of the art spanning easily over the past 40 years. As a result, there are already well-documented hardware and methods for performing functional electrical interfacing and micro-fluidics needed for nutrient delivery ( Gross et al., 1977 ; Pine, 1980 ; Wagenaar et al., 2005a ; Newman et al., 2013 ). Some systems are also specifically designed for brain organoids ( Yang et al., 2024 ). However, their research is mostly focused on exploring brain biology for biomedical applications (e.g., mechanisms and potential treatments of neurodegenerative diseases). The possibility of using these methods for making new computing hardware has not been extensively explored.

For this reason, there is comparatively less literature on methods that can be used to reliably program those BNNs in order to perform specific input–output functions (as this is essential for wetware computing, not for biomedical applications). To understand what we need for programming of BNNs, it is helpful to look at analogous problem for ANNs.

For ANNs, the programming task involves finding the network parameters, globally denoted as S below, that minimize the difference L computed between expected output E and actual output O , for given inputs I , given the transfer function T of the ANN. This can be written as:

L = f O E , with O = T I S

where f is typically a function that equals 0 when O = E .

The same equation applies to BNNs. However, the key differences compared to ANNs include the fact that the network parameters S cannot be individually adjusted in the case of BNNs, and the transfer function T is both unknown and non-stationary. Therefore, alternative heuristics must be developed, for instance based on spatiotemporal stimulation patterns ( Bakkum et al., 2008 ; Kagan et al., 2022 ; Cai et al., 2023a,b ). Such developments necessitate numerous electrophysiological experiments, including, for instance, complex closed-loop algorithms where stimulation is a function of the network’s prior responses. These experiments can sometimes span days or months.

To facilitate long-term experiments involving a global network of research groups, we designed an open innovation platform. This platform enables researchers to remotely perform experiments on a server interfaced with our hardware. For example, our Neuroplatform enhances the chances of discovering the abovementioned stimulation heuristics. It should be noted that, outside of the field of neuroplasticity, similar open platforms were already proposed in 2023 ( O’Leary et al., 2022 ; Armer et al., 2023 ; Elliott et al., 2023 ; Zhang et al., 2023 ). However, to our knowledge, there are no platforms specifically dedicated to research related to biocomputing.

2 Biological setup

The biological material used in our platform is made of brain spheroids [also called minibrains ( Govindan et al., 2021 ), brain organoids ( Qian et al., 2019 ), or neurospheres ( Brewer and Torricelli, 2007 )] developed from Human iPSC-derived Neural Stem Cells (NSCs), following the protocol of Prof. Roux Lab ( Govindan et al., 2021 ). Based on the recent guidelines to clarify the nomenclature for defining 3D cellular models of the nervous system ( Paşca et al., 2022 ), we can call those brain spheroids “forebrain organoids” (FOs). Generation of brain organoids from NSCs has been already described for both mouse ( Ciarpella et al., 2023 ), and human models ( Lee et al., 2020 ). Our protocol is based on the following steps: expansion phase of the NSCs, induction of the 3D structure, differentiation steps (using GDNF and BDNF), and maturation phase ( Figures 1A , B ). The Figure 1C is an image of the FO obtained using electronic microscope, it shows that it is a compact spheroid. The average shape of FOs obtained with this protocol are spheroids of a diameter around 500 μm ( Govindan et al., 2021 ). Our experiments show that the FOs obtained can be kept alive in an orbital shaker for years, as previously demonstrated ( Govindan et al., 2021 ).

Figure 1 . FO generation and MEA setup. (A) Protocol used for the generation of forebrain organoids (FO). Neural progenitors are first thawed, plated and expanded in T25 flasks. They are then differentiated in P6 dishes on orbital shakers, and finally manually placed on the MEA. (B) Representative images showing various stages of FO formation and differentiation, taken at different time points. The scale bar represents 250 μm. (C) Image of a whole FO taken with scanning electron microscope. The scale bar represents 100 μm. (D) Microscope view of the FO (in white) sitting on the electrodes of the MEA, and the membrane. The hole in the membrane is not visible on the picture since it is hidden by the FO. The scale bar represents 500 μm (E) Overview of the MEA, where the 32 electrodes are visible as 4 sets of 8 electrodes each. An FO is placed atop of each set of 8 electrodes, visible as a darker area. For each FO, the 2 circles correspond to a 2.5 mm circular membrane with a central hole. The scale bar represents 1 mm. (F) Cross-sectional view of the MEA setup, illustrating the air-liquid interface. The medium covering the FO is supplied from the medium chamber through the porous membranes.

Gene expression analysis of mature FOs vs. NSCs showed a marked upregulation of genes characteristic to neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in FOs compare to NSCs. More precisely, FOs expressed genes typically enriched in the forebrain, such as striatum, sub pallium, and layer 6 of motor cortex ( Govindan et al., 2021 ). Pathway enrichment analysis of FOs vs. NSCs demonstrated activation of biological processes like synaptic activity, neuron differentiation and neurotransmitter release ( Govindan et al., 2021 ).

At the age of 12 weeks, FOs contain a high number of ramified neurons ( Govindan et al., 2021 ), and they are mature enough to be transferred to the electrophysiological measurement system ( Figure 1A ). In this setup, they have a life expectancy of several months, even with 24/7 experiments that include hours of electrical stimulations. This setup has a quick turnaround with occasional downtime – about 1 h – during organoid replacements. Therefore, the platform maintains a high availability for experiments.

3 Hardware architecture

3.1 introduction.

The remotely accessible hardware includes all the systems which are required to preserve homeostasis, monitor environmental parameters and perform electrophysiological experiments. These systems can be controlled interactively using our custom Graphical User Interface (GUI) or via Python scripts. All data is stored in a time-series database (InfluxDB), which can be accessed either via a GUI or via Python scripts. The users typically connect to the system using the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP).

The platform is composed of several sub-systems, which can be accessed remotely via API calls over the internet, typically through Python.

3.2 Multi-Electrode Array (MEA)

Our current platform features 4 MEAs. The MEAs were designed by Prof. Roux’s Lab form Haute Ecole du Paysage, d’Ingénierie et d’Architecture (HEPIA) and are described in Wertenbroek et al. (2021) . Each MEA can accommodate 4 organoids, with 8 electrodes per organoid ( Figure 1E ).

The MEA setup utilizes an Air-Liquid-Interface (ALI) approach ( Stoppini et al., 1991 ), in which the organoids are directly placed on electrodes located atop of a permeable membrane ( Figure 1D ), with the medium flowing beneath this membrane in a 170 μL chamber. As a result, a thin layer of medium, created by surface tension, separates the upper side of the organoids from the humidified incubator air. This arrangement is further protected by a lid partially covering the MEA ( Figure 1F ). This ALI method enables a higher throughput and higher stability compared to submerged approaches, since no dedicated coating is required, and it is less prone to have the organoids detaching from the electrodes.

3.3 Electrophysiological stimulation and recording system

The electrodes in our system enable both stimulation and recording. The respective digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital conversions are performed by Intan RHS 32 headstages. Stimulations are executed using a current controller that ranges from 10 nA to 2.5 mA, and recordings are obtained by measuring the voltage on each electrode at a 30 kHz sampling frequency with a 16 bits resolution giving an accuracy of 0.15 μV. The headstages are connected to an Intan RHS controller, which in turn is connected to a computer via a USB port. The Figure 2A shows the electrical activity recorded for each of the 32 electrodes. It can be noticed that the recorded activity is different between each electrode. This difference comes from the facts that each set of 8 electrodes records a different FO and that for a given FO, electrodes record at a different location. This display is refreshed in real-time and also available 24/7 on our website at the URL https://finalspark.com/live/ . We compared the recording characteristics of this ALI setup to MCS MEA (60MEA200/30iR-Ti) monitoring a submerged FO, using the exact same Intan system for voltage conversion. The overlays of an action potential recorded, respectively, with the ALI and submerged versions are shown in Figures 2C , D and show similar signal characteristics.

Figure 2 . Recording system and user interface. (A) Electrical activity measured in μV over one second for each of the 32 electrodes. Each set of 8 electrodes records a different FO. (B) Graphical User Interface for manually controlling each of the microfluidic pumps. (C) Overlays of FO action potential recorded by the ALI system of the Neuroplatform. (D) Overlays of FO action potentials recorded with an MCS system. (E) Fluctuations of the flowrate of the medium within the microfluidic system, illustrating the cyclic variations induced by the peristaltic pump operating at 1 round per minute with 10 cams. (F) Temporal variations of the red component of the medium color, triggered by a sudden change in medium acidity, resulting in phenol red color change.

3.4 Micro-fluidics

To sustain the life of the organoids on the MEA, Neuronal Medium (NM) needs to be constantly supplied. Our Neuroplatform is equipped with a closed-loop microfluidic system that allows for a 24/7 medium supply. The medium is circulating at a rate of 15uL/min. The medium flow rate is controlled by a BT-100 2 J peristaltic pump and is continuously adjusted according to needs, for instance during experimental runs. The peristaltic pump is connected to the PC-control software using an RS485 interface, for programmed (i.e., in Python) or manual operations ( Figure 2B ). Additionally, Figure 3A depicts this microfluidic closed-loop circuit.

Figure 3 . Microfluidics. (A) Microfluidic system illustrating the continuously operating primary system, which ensures constant flow in the medium chamber, and the secondary system responsible for medium replacing every 48 h. (B) Side view of the assembly, featuring the camera and the MEA. The entire assembly is enclosed with aluminum foil to ensure the lowest possible noise level. (C) Front view of the assembly, showing the intake and outtake of the microfluidic system, as well as the LED used during image capture.

The microfluidic circuit is made of 0.8 mm (inside diameter, ID) tubing. Continuous monitoring of the microfluidic circuit and flow rate is achieved by using Fluigent flow-rate sensors, which connect to the Neuroplatform control center via USB. Data related to medium flow rate is stored in a database for later access. Figure 2E shows the cyclic variations in flow induced by the cams of the peristaltic pump.

A secondary microfluidic system is used to replace the medium in the closed-loop with fresh medium every 24 h, a process illustrated in Figure 3A . This replacement is fully automated through a Python script and performed in the following consecutive steps:

1. Set the rotary valve to select the path from the reservoir F50 to the syringe pump

2. Pump 2 mL of old medium using the syringe pump

3. Set the rotary valve to select the path from the syringe pump to the waste F50

4. Push 2 mL of old medium to the waste using the syringe pump

5. Set the rotary valve to select the path from the new medium in the F50 in the fridge to the syringe pump

6. Pump 2 mL of fresh medium using the syringe pump

7. Set the rotary valve to select the path from the syringe pump to the reservoir F50

8. Push 2 mL of fresh medium using the syringe pump

3.5 Cameras

Each MEA is equipped with a 12.3-megapixel camera that can be controlled interactively or programmatically (i.e., through a Raspberry Pi) for still image capture or video recording. The camera is positioned below the MEA, while illumination is provided by a remotely controlled LED situated above the MEA. Figures 3B , C illustrate this assembly (the aluminum wrapping is used in order to minimize the noise). This setup is particularly useful for detecting various changes, such as cell necrosis, possible organoid displacement caused by microfluidics, variations in medium acidity (using color analysis since our medium contains Phenol red), contamination, neuromelanin production (which can happen when uncaging dopamine), overflows (where the medium inadvertently fills the chamber above the membrane), or bubbles in the medium. For the latter two events, dedicated algorithms automatically detect these issues and trigger an alert to the on-site operator.

Changes of acidity, for example, can be detected by measuring the average color over a pre-defined window. Figure 2F shows the evolution of the medium’s red color component, with data points recorded hourly. The noticeable sudden drop is attributed to the pumping of medium with a slightly different acidity. This change in acidity results in a color alteration of the phenol red present in the medium.

3.6 UV light controlled uncaging

It is also possible to release molecules at specific timings using a process called uncaging. In this method, a specific wavelength of light is employed to break open a molecular “cage” that contains a neuroactive molecule, such as Glutamate, NMDA or Dopamine. A fiber optic of 1,500 μm core diameter and a numerical aperture of 0.5 is used to direct light in the medium within the MEA chamber. The current system, Prizmatix Silver-LED, operates at 365 nm with an optical power of 260 mW. The uncaging system is fully integrated into the Neuroplatform and can be programmatically controlled during experiment runs via our API (see section 5.3).

3.7 Environmental measurements

The environmental conditions are monitored within two incubators. In both incubators, the following parameters are recorded: CO2, O2 concentrations, humidity, atmospheric pressure and temperature. Door-opening events are also logged since they have a major impact on measurements. The primary purpose of this monitoring is to ensure that experiments are performed in stable and reproducible environmental conditions.

All these parameters are displayed in real-time in a graphic interface showing both instant values as well as variations versus time of noise and flowrates ( Figure 4A ).

Figure 4 . Graphic user interface to monitor critical parameters in the incubators. (A) Graphical User Interface displaying critical environmental conditions for the incubator 1, where electrophysiological experiments are performed, as well as the incubator 2, where FO are maintained on an orbital shaker. (B) The display shows environmental data for incubator 1 for specific time periods, extracted from the database, with door opening events displayed as dashed line. Noise, Temperature, humidity and pressure are indicated by different colored lines. The units of each measurement are normalized between 0 and 1 for the selected time interval.

Incubator 1 houses the MEAs and the organoids used for electrophysiological experiments. In addition to the mentioned parameters, flowmeters are also utilized to report the actual flow rate of the microfluidic for each MEA, as depicted in the graph labelled “Pump” in Figure 4A . The system’s state is indirectly monitored through the noise level of each MEA, as shown in the graph labelled “Noise Intan” in Figure 4A . The noise level is calculated based on the standard deviation of the electrical signals recorded by the electrodes over a 30 ms period.

Incubator 2 houses the organoids which are kept in orbital shakers. Piezoelectric gyroscopes are used to measure the actual rotation speed of the orbital shakers.

Since all the data is logged in the database, it is also possible to access the historical measurements through a dedicated GUI ( Figure 4B ).

4.1 General architecture

The core of the system relies on a computational notebook which provides access to 3 resources ( Figure 5A ):

1. A database where all the information regarding the Neuroplatform system is stored

2. The Intan software running on a dedicated PC, which is used for:

• Recording the number of detected spikes in a 200 ms time window

• Setting stimulation parameters

3. A Raspberry Pi for triggering current stimulation according to stimulation parameters

Figure 5 . Software setup and electrical stimulation. (A) General architecture of the Neuroplatform. The Jupyter Notebook serves as the main controller, enabling initiation and reading of spikes, configuration stimulation signals and access to database via, e.g., Python (B) Parameters of the stimulation current: settings optimally these parameters can elicit spikes. Through the Python API, parameters that can be adjusted for the bi-phasic stimulation signals include the duration (D1) and amplitude (A1) of the positive current phase, and, respectively, D2 and A2 for the negative current phase. Additionally, the polarity of the biphasic signal can be reversed to start with a negative current.

4.2 Database

The Neuroplatform records monitored data 24/7 using InfluxDB, a database designed for time series. Other options are also available.

This database contains all the data coming from the hardware listed in Section 3.

The electrical activity of the neurons is also recorded 24/7 at a sampling rate of 30 kHz. To minimize the volume of stored data, we designed a dedicated process that focuses on significant events, such as threshold crossings that are likely to be due to action potentials (spikes). The following pseudo code illustrates the implemented approach:

- Each 1-min write buffer to database

- Each 33 μs

- For each electrode

- If, at time t , the voltage exceeds a threshold T

- Store (in buffer) 3 ms of data [ t -1 ms, t  + 2 ms]

- Each 3 s update T

Additionally, a timestamp corresponding to each detected event is also stored in the database, along with the maximum value of voltage during the 3 ms spike waveform recording.

The threshold T is computed directly from voltage values sampled each 33 μs, according to the following formula:

Where σ i is the standard deviation computed over a set i of 30 ms consecutive voltage values, and M d n represents the median function computed over 101 consecutive σ i values. The use of the median reduces the sensitivity to outliers, which is typically caused by action potentials. In our current setup, a multiplier of 6 on the median has proven to be a good compromise for achieving reliable spike detection.

Besides electric tension data, the number spikes recorded per minute is also computed and stored in the database every minute by a batch process.

4.3 Recording electrical activity

As previously discussed, the communication among neurons is captured by the MEA and converted into a voltage signal sampled at 30 kHz. The Neuroplatform offers two basic access modes to the recorded neural activity:

1. Raw: raw sampling values.

2. Optimized: waveforms of the raw signal near neuronal spikes, available directly from the database.

In addition to the aforementioned features, the Neuroplatform offers even more advanced methods. For instance, it includes counting spikes over a fixed time period of 200 ms following stimulation, with a 10 ms delay suppressing the stimulation artifact.

From a technical perspective, accessing the number of spikes can be accomplished in two different ways:

- Retrieving the number of spikes per minute from the database

- Through direct communication with the PC managing the Intan controller for spike count

The second approach is required when the stimulation protocol demands real-time responsiveness. This is typically the case for certain closed-loop strategies. For instance, closed-loop stimulation strategies have been deployed in primary cortical cultures for effective burst control ( Wagenaar et al., 2005a , b ) and for goal-directed learning ( Samsi et al., 2023 ).

4.4 Syntax for stimulations

Programmatically stimulating the FO on the Neuroplatform is accomplished by sending an electrical current to the MEA electrodes. The electrical current profile can be parameterized in a variety of ways, which is partly shown in Figure 5B . These parameters and controls include:

- Basic shape of stimulation signal:

o Bi-phasic

o Bi-phasic with interphase delay

o Tri-phasic

- Stimulation duration and intensity:

o Positive (A1) and negative (A2) electrical current intensity (typical 1uA, ranging from 0.1uA to 20uA)

o Duration of positive (D1) and negative (D2) stimulation currents

- Stimulation triggers

o Single start

o Table with collection of start triggers

o Pulse trains

- MEA electrodes

send_stim_param (electrodes, params)

5 Examples of electrophysiological experiments

To demonstrate the effectiveness of the Neuroplatform, the following sections will provide an overview of several experiments conducted on the Neuroplatform at FinalSpark’s Laboratories in Vevey, Switzerland.

5.1 Modification of spontaneous activity

The spontaneous electrical activity of the FO can be represented by the concept of “Center of Activity” (CA) ( Bakkum et al., 2008 ) which is defined as a virtual position C on the MEA described by:

Where X k Y k define the spatial position of the 8 electrodes and F k is the number of spontaneous spikes detected. The interest of the concept of CA is that its position provides statistical information about the average location of the activity over the surface of the FO. The ability to change the position of the CA is interesting because it also shows the ability to memorize information in the state of the FO.

The coordinates of the CA can be modified using a high frequency stimulation. In the following experiment we use the following protocol:

1) Compute the CA using the number of detected spikes over 500 ms

2) Goto 1,100x

3) Perform a 20 Hz stimulation during 500 ms using a bi-phasic current (negative first) of 2 μA of 200 μS, for both phases, on one electrode

4) Wait 1 s

5) Goto 5,100x

Figure 6A displays the 100 measured positions of the CA corresponding to the spontaneous activity before the 20 Hz stimulation in blue, and after the high-frequency stimulation in red (the average position is indicated by a cross). A close-up is shown in Figure 6B . The timestamps of the spontaneous activity, before and after stimulation, are presented in Figures 6C , D , respectively. Each graph shows one example of the 100 records of 500 ms used to compute the CA location (showing a decrease of spontaneous firing activity of electrodes 3, 4 and 6). A noticeable shift in the average position (shown by a cross) of the CA can be observed before and after the high-frequency stimulation (as seen in Figure 6A ), indicating a change of state of the biological network. A classifier based on a simple logistic regression is employed to predict if the network has received the 20 Hz stimulation. In this particular experiment, the classification accuracy, computed from the confusion matrix, is 95.5%.

Figure 6 . Center of activity modification. (A) Graph showing the 2D layout of the 8 electrodes, the X and Y axis are normalized units showing the spatial coordinates of the electrodes. All electrodes can be used for both stimulation and reading. A 20 Hz stimulation signal is applied to electrode 6. The 100 blue circles represent the positions of the Center of Activity (CA) before 20 Hz stimulation, while the 100 red circles indicate the positions after the stimulation. The cross mark the average position. (B) A closer look at the two groups of CA. (C) Timestamps depicting the spontaneous activity over 500 ms for each of the 8 electrodes before the high-frequency stimulation. (D) Spontaneous activity observed after the high-frequency stimulation, showing a lower activity of electrodes 6, 4 and 3, compared to (C) .

The Neuroplatform allows users to perform both the experimental part (including stimulation and reading operations) and the visualization of the CA displacement within the same Python source code. The 500 ms 20 Hz signal is generated directly by the Python source code shown below. The first trigger.send instruction sends the trigger for the stimulation on a specific electrode and time.sleep pauses the execution for 50 ms.

Despite the common perception of Python as being less than ideal for real-time signal processing due to its inherent latency, our empirical data reveals a time accuracy of under 1 ms (on an Intel Xeon CPU E5-2690 v2 @ 3.00GHz), a level of precision that is satisfactory for the generation of tetanic signals.

5.2 Optimization of stimulation parameters

In this example, the objective is to identify the set of stimulation parameters that can elicit the maximum number of action potentials within 200 ms after a stimulation.

Depending on the FOs, their composition, and maturity, only specific combinations of electrodes and parameters can elicit spikes. In our experiment, we use an 8-electrode MEA and cycle through several stimulation signal parameters as shown in Figure 7A . Consequently, we need to test a total of 342 different parameter-electrode combinations. The following pseudo code illustrates the Python script used in this experiment.

1) For each set of stimulation parameters

2) For each stimulation electrode

3) For each recording electrode

4) During 15 s, every 250 ms

5) Decide between stimulating, or recording spontaneous activity, with a 50% probability

6) Record number of spikes during 200 ms

Figure 7 . Neural activity stimulation and dopamine uncaging. (A) Graph depicting the number of spikes recorded over 250 ms. The spike counts in orange were measured following a stimulation, while those in blue were measured during periods without stimulation. For clarity in visualization, a small bar is displayed even when no spikes are detected. (B) Diagram illustrating the different steps involved in the closed-loop uncaging process of dopamine, which is repeated 240 times. (C) Timestamps of action potentials from the 8 electrodes before and after stimulation (shown as red line), showcasing the elicited spikes. (D) Graph displaying the number of elicited spikes over the 240 steps of the closed-loop (in blue) alongside the activation events of the UV light source (red).

The aim of probabilistic stimulation and no stimulation in step 5 is to evaluate the difference between elicited and spontaneous spikes in a way that ensures there is no bias.

The bar chart in Figure 7A displays a segment of the experimental results. It shows a 15-s recording from a single electrode, corresponding to one execution of step 4 in the pseudo code above. Each bar represents the spike count during a 200 ms period, repeated every 250 ms. The orange bars in this plot are the result of the parameters selected in step 1 of the pseudo code. The blue bars represent no-stimulation periods, thus corresponding to the spontaneous activity of the neurons.

From Figure 7A , we can see that this particular combination of electrode and parameters reliably elicits responses.

In practice, the Python script can also be used to automatically display the 342 graphs similar to Figure 7A , allowing the operator to select the optimal set of parameters. Additionally, it can compute a scalar metric to characterize the “efficiency” of the parameters, and automatically identify the optimal parameters.

An example of a parameter maximization metric is given in the equation below. Let us denote μ r and μ s the average number of spikes recorded spontaneously or after a stimulation, respectively, and σ r and σ s as their standard deviations. The following metric is used:

The set of parameters that maximize this metric can then be utilized to perform other experiments requiring elicited spikes, such as investigating the effect of pharmacological agents on a biological network’s ability to react quickly to stimulation.

5.3 UV light-induced uncaging of molecules

‘Uncaging’ is a pivotal technique in cellular biology, enabling the precise control of molecular interactions within cells ( Gienger et al., 2020 ). It involves the use of photolabile caged compounds that are activated by specific light wavelengths, releasing bioactive molecules in a targeted and timely manner. This method is particularly valuable for studying dynamic processes in neural networks and intracellular signaling, offering real-time insights into complex biological mechanisms.

Our Neuroplatform is equipped with all necessary components to perform uncaging. In this example, we investigate closed-loop stimulation, where dopamine is used to reward the network when more spikes are elicited by the same stimulation. The release of the dopamine is achieved through the uncaging of CNV-dopamine using the UV system described in section 3.6.

Figure 7B shows the flow chart of the closed-loop uncaging process. The optimal stimulation parameters are first found using the technique shown in 5.2 (in this case, a current of 4uA, biphasic with 100uS per phase), which is sent successively to each of the 8 electrodes with a delay of 10 ms between each electrode.

Figure 7C shows the response timestamps of the 8 electrodes for a period of 1,200 ms, 600 ms before and after the stimulation. The stimulation event is indicated by the vertical red line. It is interesting to observe that in this particular case, most of the elicited spikes originate from 2 electrodes, specifically electrode 112 and electrode 119.

The Python source code implementing the closed-loop process illustrated in Figure 7B is provided below. We would like to highlight here how concise the code is. With only 13 lines of code, the entire closed-loop process has been implemented.

The graph in Figure 7D shows the variation in the number of spikes elicited during the execution of the script above across 5 h. A general increase in the number of elicited spikes can be observed. However, it is obviously not possible to establish causality between the closed-loop strategy and the observed increase with this single experiment alone. The primary purpose of this closed-loop experiment is to demonstrate the flexibility offered by the Neuroplatform.

6 External users of the Neuroplatform

Access to the Neuroplatform is freely available for research purposes. For researchers lacking lab infrastructure, the Neuroplatform provides the capability to conduct real-time experiments on biological networks. Additionally, it allows others to replicate results obtained in their own lab. The database is shared between all research groups, however the Python scripts and Jupyter Notebooks are in private sections.

In 2023, 36 academic groups proposed research projects, of which 8 were selected. At the time of writing, 4 of these have already yielded some results:

• University Côte d’Azure, CNRS, NeuroMod Institute and Laboratoire JA Dieudonné: investigates the functional connectivity of FO and how electrical stimulation can modify it.

• University of Michigan, investigates stimulation protocols that induce global changes in electrical activity of a FO.

• Free University of Berlin, investigates stimulation protocols that induce changes in the electrical activity of a FO. Additionally, this research employs machine learning tools to extract information from neural firing patterns and to develop well-conditioned responses. Moreover, it utilizes both shallow and deep reinforcement learning techniques to identify optimal training strategies, aiming to elicit reproducible behaviors in the FO.

• University of Exeter, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Living Systems Institute, investigates storing and retrieving of spatiotemporal spiking patterns, using closed-loop experiments that combine mathematical models of synaptic communication with the Neuroplatform.

• Lancaster University Leipzig and University of York: characterizes computational properties of FOs under the reservoir computing model, with a view to building low-power environmental sensors.

• Oxford Brookes University, School of Engineering, Computing and Mathematics: investigating the properties of emerging dynamics and criticality within neural organizations using the FOs.

• University of Bath, ART-AI, IAH: using the free energy principle and active inference to study the learning capabilities of neurons, embodied in a virtual environment.

• University of Bristol: stimulating of FOs based on data gathered from an artificial tactile sensor. Use machine learning techniques to interpret the FO’s output, investigating their ability to process real-world data.

7 Discussion and conclusion

The Neuroplatform has now been operational 24/7 for the past 4 years. During this time, the organoids on the MEA have been replaced over 250 times. Considering that we place at least 4 organoids per MEA, and change all the organoids simultaneously, this amounts to testing over 1,000 organoids. Initially, their lifetime was only a few hours, but various improvements, especially related to the microfluidics setup, have extended this to up to 100 days in best cases. It is important to note that the spontaneous activity of the organoids can vary over their lifetime, a factor that must be taken into consideration when conducting experiments ( Wagenaar et al., 2006 ). Additionally, we observed that the minimum current required to elicit spikes, computed using the method described in section 5.2, is increasing over the lifetime of the organoid. This phenomenon may be linked to an impedance increase caused by glial encapsulation ( Salatino et al., 2017 ).

The 24/7 recording strategy as described in section 4.2, results in the constant growth of the database. As of this writing, its size has reached 18 terabytes. This volume encompasses the recording of over 20 billion individual action potentials, each sampled at a 30 kHz resolution for 3 ms. This extensive dataset is significant not only due to its size but also because it was all recorded in a similar in-vitro environment, as described in section 3.2. We are eager to share this data with any interested research group.

8 Future extensions

In the future, we plan to extend the capabilities of our platform to manage a broader range of experimental protocols relevant to wetware computing. For example, we aim to enable a remote control over the injection of specific molecules into the medium, facilitating remote experiments that involve pharmacological manipulation of neuronal activity. This expansion will provide additional degrees of freedom for the automatic optimization of parameters influencing neuroplasticity.

Currently, as detailed in Chapter 2, only one differentiation protocol is used for generating organoids. We plan to introduce additional types of organoid generation protocols soon, with the aim of exploring a broader range of possibilities.

Although 32 research groups requested to access to the Neuroplatform, our current infrastructure only allows us to accommodate 7 groups, considering our own research needs as well. We are in the process of scaling-up the AC/DC hardware system to support more users simultaneously. Additionally, we are currently limited to executing close-loop algorithms for neuroplasticity on one single FO, as these algorithms require sending in real-time adapted simulation signals to each FO. Our software is being updated to run closed-loops in parallel on up to 32 FO.

9.1 Brain organoid generation

Human forebrain organoids were originated as described in Govindan et al. (2021) . Briefly, Human Neural Stem Cells derived from the human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cell line (ThermoFisher), were plated in flasks coated with CellStart (Fisher Scientific) and amplified in Stempro NSC SFM kit (ThermoFischer) complete medium: KnockOut D-MEM/F12, 2 mM of GlutaMAX, 2% of StemPro Neural supplement, 20 ng/mL of Human FGF-basic (FGF-2/bFGF) Recombinant Protein, and 20 ng/mL of EGF Recombinant Human Protein (Fisher Scientific). Cells were then detached with StemPro ™ Accutase (Gibco) and plated in p6 at the concentration of 250,000 cells/well. The plates were sealed with breathable adhesive paper and leads, placed on an orbital shaker at 80 rpm, and culture for 7 days at 37°C 5% CO2. After one week the newly formed spheroids were put in differentiation medium I (Diff I), containing DMEM/F-12, GlutaMAX ™ supplement (Gibco), 2% BSA, 1X of Stempro® hESC Supplement, 20 ng/mL of BDNF Recombinant Human Protein (Invitrogen), 20 ng/mL of GDNF Recombinant Human Protein (Gibco), 100 mM of N6,2′-O-Dibutyryladenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate sodium salt, and 20 mM of 2-Phospho-L-ascorbic acid trisodium salt. After one week, brain spheroids were put in differentiation medium II (Diff II) made of 50% of Diff I and 50% of Neurobasal Plus (Invitrogen). After 3 weeks of culture in Diff II, brain organoids were plated in Neurobasal Plus and kept in the orbital shaker until the transfer on the MEA. Medium was change once per week.

9.2 Electron microscopy analysis of FOs

Mature FOs were fixed in 2.5% Glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer pH 7.4, at RT. After 24 h the samples were processed as described in Cakir et al. (2019) at the Electron Microscopy Facility of University of Lausanne. The whole FO images were acquired with Quanta FEG 250 Scanning Electron Microscope.

9.3 Transfer of FOs on MEA

MEA connected with the microfluid system was moved from the incubator and placed on a 12.3-megapixel camera system (with an optical lens of 16 mm of focal, giving a magnification power of 21x) inside the cell culture hood. The lid was removed to access the top of the liquid/air interface. Sterile Hydrophilic PTFE MEMBRANE Hole ‘confetti’ (diameter 2.5 mm, diameter of the hole 0.7 mm) (HEPIA) were positioned on top of each electrode and left there 2 min to absorb the medium. FOs were collected from the plate using wide bore pipette tips (Axygen) and placed in the middle of confetti, in a 10 μL drop of medium. The position of the organoids was adjusted with the help of sterile forceps. After all the organoids were put on place, the chamber was covered with the plate sealer Greiner Bio-One ™ BREATHseal ™ Sealer (Fisher Scientific), and with the MEA lid. MEA containing the organoids were placed immediately back in the cell incubator and were ready to be used for recording and stimulation. A similar procedure was used for the positioning of organoids on MCS MEA (60MEA200/30iR-Ti). In this case the Hydrophilic PTFE MEMBRANE was not used and organoids were directly laid on the electrodes in a 30 μL drop of medium. Recording of organoid activity was performed immediately afterwards.

9.4 System design and assembly

Cell culture media was stored in a 50 mL Falcon tube with a multi-port delivery cap (ElveFlow) and stored at 4°C. Each reservoir delivery cap contained a single 0.8 mm ID × 1.6 mm OD PTFE tubing (Darwin Microfluidics), sealed by a two-piece PFA Fittings and ferrule threaded adapter (IDEX), extending from the bottom of the reservoir to an inlet port on the 4-port valve head of the RVM Rotary Valve (Advance Microfluidics SA). Sterile air is permitted to refill the reservoir through a 0.22-μm filter (Milian) fixed to the cap to compensate for syringe pump medium withdrawal. A similar PTFE tubing and PFA Fittings and adapters were used to connect the syringe pump to the 4-port valve head of the RVM Rotary Valve (Advance Microfluidics SA). Each PTFE tubing coming from the distribution valve connects with a 50 mL falcon tube inside the cell culture incubator (Binder) and to a borosilicate glass bottle (Milian) to collect discarded cell culture medium.

A secondary microfluid system made of 0.8 mm ID × 1.6 mm OD PTFE tubing, were used to connect each 50 mL falcon tube inside the cell culture incubator with its own MEA (HEPIA). The connection was through a precise peristaltic pump BT100-2 J (Darwin Microfluidics) containing 10 rollers. A compute module (Raspberry Pi 4) controlled the peristaltic pump and the Rotary Valve, through a custom application program interface (API), using RS485 interface and RS-232 interface, respectively. A Fluigent flow-rate sensor connected via USB to the Raspberry Pi 4 allowed the monitoring of the flow rate inside the microfluidic system between the peristaltic pump and the MEA. Python was used to develop the software required to carry out automation protocols.

9.5 Uncaging of dopamine

Carboxynitroveratryl (CNV)-caged dopamine (Tocris Bioscience) was dissolved in Neurobasal Plus at the concentration of 1 mM, and injected in the fluidic system. After 3 h from the injection, the uncaging experiment started as described in paragraph 5.3. UV Silver-LED fiber-coupled LED (Prizmatix) was used to uncage the dopamine at the wavelength of 365 nm for 800 ms each time.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical approval was not required for the studies on humans in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements because only commercially available established cell lines were used.

Author contributions

FJ: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MK: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. J-MC: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. FB: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EK: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

We thank Steve M. Potter and Daniel Burger for their multiple advices and editing, as well as Mathias Reusser for the figures.

Conflict of interest

FJ, MK, J-MC, FB, and EK are employed at FinalSpark, Switzerland.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: wetware computing, organoid intelligence, biocomputing, synthetic biology, AI, biological neural network, hybrot

Citation: Jordan FD, Kutter M, Comby J-M, Brozzi F and Kurtys E (2024) Open and remotely accessible Neuroplatform for research in wetware computing. Front. Artif. Intell . 7:1376042. doi: 10.3389/frai.2024.1376042

Received: 24 January 2024; Accepted: 11 March 2024; Published: 02 May 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Jordan, Kutter, Comby, Brozzi and Kurtys. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Fred D. Jordan, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Intersection between the biological and digital: Synthetic Biological Intelligence and Organoid Intelligence