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Early American Colonial Period Essay Topics

The early American Colonial era encompasses the period between the establishment of the first English colony in North America in 1607 and the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The European settlers were beginning a completely new life, while the lives of the indigenous Americans would be changed forever. This was therefore a rich period of history with plenty of scope for different types of essay topics.

By moving to a new land, the settlers had to adjust to a completely different topography, while also affecting it by planting their new settlements. Essay titles can explore these issues by focusing on the geographical conditions of the settlements and how they affected the settlers. The settlements' effect on the geographical and environmental conditions the indigenous peoples had been used to could also be an essay topic.

The economic policies pursued by the British regime that ruled Colonial America affected the development of the settlements and the economy of the North American continent in general. Essay topics around this may include an examination of the pre-1763 British mercantilist policy or a comparison between the continent's economic position at the start of the early Colonial period and toward the end.

The social dynamics of this era are fascinating and therefore produce a number of potential essay topics. Essay titles could focus on the role of different social classes in founding the settlements, the emergence of new classes as time went on, the social position of indigenous Americans, evolving definitions of social status and opportunities for social mobility. Essays may also explore subsets of classes, such as intellectuals, professionals and laborers.

Diplomacy, political policy and military conflict all played their part in defining a new North America. Potential essay topics regarding the period's politics are the colonial wars fought between the French and British, the reasons behind England's ultimate winning of control over North America, the political measures the British took in order to rule the continent effectively and comparisons between the political views of the settlers and indigenous peoples, or between the views of different settlements and regions.

Many religious settlers saw North America as a haven from persecution and other problems they encountered in the places of their birth. Upon moving to the continent, they began to shape its development in ways that were motivated by their beliefs. Essays on this might discuss the New England Puritans' attempts to create a model society, the effect of religious movements on the social landscape and the effect of the Enlightenment on the popularity and intensity of religious belief.

• Scholastic.com-Teach Dear America: 1607-1776 The Colonial Period
• UShistory.org: The Declaration of Independence

Based in London, Autumn St. John has been writing career- and business-related articles since 2007. Her work has appeared in the "Guardian" and "Changing Careers" magazine. St. John holds a Master of Arts in Russian and East European literature and culture from University College London, as well as a Bachelor of Arts in modern history from the University of Oxford.

Colonial America Facts

Colonial America was the period in which the 13 Original Colonies were founded, expanded, and achieved stability. It includes the American Revolution and the American Revolutionary War, which led to the establishment of the United States of America.

George Washington rose to prominence during the Colonial Era and played a significant role in the transition from the 13 Original Colonies to the 13 Original United States of America. Image Source: Christie’s .

Colonial America Quick Facts

While there are a significant number of events that helped shape the Colonial Era in America, here are 15 facts about Colonial America everyone should know about the era.

• Early English explorers claimed land in North America, and men like Sir Walter Raleigh and Captain John Smith played an important role in mapping the East Coast.
• The first colony, Roanoke Island, was a failure and is known as the Lost Colony .
• The first successful English colony was Jamestown , the foundation of Virginia.
• The arrival of Pilgrims in 1620 led to the establishment of Plymouth Colony .
• The success of Plymouth contributed to the establishment of Massachusetts, which led to the Great Puritan Migration.
• Early settlements struggled because there was no infrastructure. They had to build everything — homes, meeting houses, forts — using the tools they had and the natural resources available.
• Once the food they brought with them was gone, they had to grow their own or rely on trading with Native American Indian tribes.
• England’s economic system and laws played an important role in shaping the growth and development of the colonies during the Colonial Era.
• The Headright System and the Patroon System encouraged immigration, as did the promise of religious freedom, access to land, and the ability to escape European wars.
• After four destructive wars between Great Britain and France for control of North America, Britain won.
• Following the last war, the British enforced tax laws on the American Colonies that were unpopular.
• The colonies responded with public protests and pamphlets that formed the ideology of the American Revolution .
• Following the Boston Tea Party , Britain passed the Intolerable Acts . The colonies responded by holding the First Continental Congress.
• The American Revolutionary War started with the Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775) and lasted until the British were defeated at the Battle of Yorktown (1781) .
• During the war, the colonies declared independence (1776) and adopted the Articles of Confederation — America’s first constitution — officially ending the era of Colonial America.

Bonus Fact — The Fur Trade between Native American Indians and European explorers and colonists played a significant role in shaping Colonial America. Not only did it create an important trade network, but it played a significant role in the battle for North America between the French, English, and Indians.

Colonial America Overview

• The exploration of the New World marked the onset of the Colonial Era in America.
• European powers, including Britain, France, Spain, the Netherlands, and Sweden, competed for dominance and expansion in North America.
• Massive influx of European settlers, particularly British and French, led to the establishment of new colonies.
• The French and Indian Wars, spanning approximately 75 years, were fought for territorial control of North America.

Impact of Colonial Conflicts

• British emerged as victors but incurred significant war debt.
• Implementation of laws and taxes in the 13 Colonies aimed at clearing war debt.
• British Parliament had the authority to enact laws affecting life and trade in the colonies.
• Colonists strongly protested against these measures, leading to the American Revolution.

Causes of the American Revolution

• Colonial protests against British laws and taxes sparked the American Revolutionary War.
• The 13 colonies revolted against British rule due to grievances over taxation without representation and infringements on colonial rights.
• The American Revolution marked a significant turning point in colonial history, leading to the formation of the United States of America.

Colonial America Phases

The Colonial Era can be divided into the following phases:

• Exploration and Discovery
• Settlement and Colonization
• Founding of the 13 Original Colonies
• The French and Indian Wars
• The American Revolution
• The American Revolutionary War
• Confederation

Phase 1 — Discovery and Exploration of America

• Christopher Columbus’s voyages in the late 15th century marked the beginning of European exploration of the Americas.
• Other early explorers, such as John Cabot, Amerigo Vespucci, and Vasco Núñez de Balboa, followed, mapping and documenting new lands.
• Their findings and reports ignited European interest in the New World, leading to the Colonial era.
• Advancements in navigation technology, including improved maps and navigational instruments, facilitated transatlantic voyages.
• Henry Hudson’s explorations in the early 17th century further expanded European knowledge of North America.

Columbian Exchange — the Impact of New World Resources

• European countries looked to claim the natural resources of the New World for economic prosperity.
• The discovery of valuable resources, such as gold, silver, fur, and agricultural products, fueled European expansion and trade.
• Trade networks between the New World and Europe flourished, contributing to the growth of global commerce.

Phase 2 — Settlement and Colonization of America

• European explorers transferred people to the New World as permanent settlers, establishing colonies.
• Colonists took advantage of the abundant resources of the Americas for economic gain.
• Despite living in new territories, colonists maintained political allegiance to their respective European countries, often referred to as their “Mother Country.”

Colonial Allegiance to European Countries

• Despite establishing colonies in the New World, colonists maintained political allegiance to their Mother Country.
• European countries exercised control over their colonies through colonial governments, laws, and policies.
• Colonists often faced conflicts with indigenous peoples and rival European powers over territorial control and resources.

European Competition for Control

• Spanish, French, and British powers led efforts to establish control over North America and the New World.
• Spanish explorers and conquistadors, such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, led early colonization efforts in the Americas.
• French explorers, including Jacques Cartier and Samuel de Champlain, established settlements and trading posts in North America.
• British colonization efforts culminated in the founding of the first 13 Colonies along the Atlantic coast.

Phase 3 — Founding of the 13 Colonies in America

• The British settlement of the first 13 Colonies occurred between 1607 and 1733, spanning from Virginia to Georgia.
• These colonies were divided into three regions — New England Colonies , Middle Colonies , and Southern Colonies .

Challenges of the Colonial Era

• Colonists faced conflicts with Native American Indians and endured demanding labor to establish colonies.
• Priorities included building adequate shelter and ensuring food security.

Colonial Settlements and Hardships

• Jamestown, founded in 1607 in Virginia, marked the beginning of English colonization in America.
• The colonists faced significant challenges, including the “Starving Time,” a period of severe hardship and famine.
• Seeking religious freedom, the Pilgrims sailed on the Mayflower in 1620, establishing the Plymouth Settlement.
• John Winthrop led a fleet to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, with subsequent waves of colonists following suit.

Motivations for Colonization

• Colonists and settlers undertook the dangerous 3,000-mile journey to North America seeking improved living conditions, employment opportunities, and religious freedom. 
• The establishment of the first colonies was deeply influenced by religious considerations, with religious freedom serving as a driving force for settlement.
• In Europe, most people did not have the social standing to own or purchase land. The New World provided that opportunity to many people.
• Many people also wanted to escape the wars that ravaged Europe.

Expansion and Migration

• Establishing colonies like Jamestown, Plymouth, and Massachusetts laid the groundwork for future English settlements in North America.
• The influx of settlers contributed to the growth and expansion of the 13 Colonies, shaping their cultural and social landscapes.

Phase 4 — The French and Indian Wars

The French and Indian Wars occurred during the early years of the Colonial era, spanning from 1688 to 1763. Minor European powers were ousted from America and the primary struggle was between the British and the French. However, each side was allied with Indian tribes, which is why they are known as the French and Indian Wars.

The four French and Indian Wars were:

• King William’s War
• Queen Anne’s War
• King George’s War
• The French and Indian War

Territories

Territorial and boundary disputes were often a cause of the wars.

• French territories in America included Acadia and New France.
• English territories included the American Colonies and areas of Canada.
• Spanish territory in the American Southeast was also included.
• The conflicts occurred in phases, with hostilities from 1688 to 1748 between the British and French.
• The struggle for New France and Louisiana intensified during the period of the French and Indian War from 1754 to 1763.

Great Britain won the last French and Indian War and asserted its dominance over North America. France ceded most of its territory to Britain in the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

Phase 5 — The American Revolution

Great Britain faced significant war debt. To clear the debt, Prime Minister George Grenville ended Salutary Neglect and implemented various laws and taxes in the 13 American Colonies.

Tightening Control in the Colonies

• British strategy shifted to assertive control, enabling enforcement of Navigation Acts and other measures.
• The Proclamation of 1763 restricted westward expansion by colonists and favored British interests in the Fur Trade.

Revolutionary Causes

• British taxes and policies, including the Stamp Act of 1765 , ignited protests and led to the Stamp Act Riots.
• American discontent grew as British actions stifled colonial autonomy and economic freedom.

Colonial Resistance

• American protests, ignored by Britain, fueled the emergence of Patriot Groups like the Sons of Liberty , led by figures such as Samuel Adams .
• Committees of Correspondence were organized to facilitate communication between Sons of Liberty groups.
• The Stamp Act Congress was organized and responded to the Stamp Act with formal letters of protest.
• The passage of the Tea Act (1773) sparked the Boston Tea Party and heightened tensions.

Intolerable Acts

• In response to Massachusetts’ rebellious acts, Britain passed the Intolerable Acts , exacerbating colonial grievances.
• The Intolerable Acts, seen as punitive measures, further fueled colonial resentment towards British rule.

First Continental Congress

• The colonies responded by organizing the First Continental Congress .
• Congress sent letters of protest and organized a trade embargo known as the Continental Association .

Phase 6 — The American Revolutionary War

Battles of lexington and concord.

On April 19, 1775, shots fired between British troops and American militia at Lexington and Concord marked the beginning of the American War for Independence.

Declaration of Resolve

• On July 6, 1775, Congress issued the Declaration on the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, affirming the determination to resist British oppression.
• The declaration expressed the resolve to fight for freedom rather than submit to tyranny.

Formation of Continental Army

• The 13 Colonies requested Congress to adopt the Continental Army, which had assembled during the Siege of Boston .
• Congress directed the war effort and served as an advisor to each colony, coordinating military actions and strategy.

Leadership of George Washington

• George Washington , appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, played a pivotal role in the war.
• His leadership and strategy were instrumental in guiding the American forces throughout the war.

Declaration of Independence

• On May 15, 1776, Congress advised colonies to establish governments, signaling a shift towards independence.
• On July 2, 1776, Congress approved the motion to declare independence from Britain. Two days later, the Declaration of Independence was approved.

See American Revolutionary War — January to June, 1775 .

Phase 7 — Confederation Ends the Colonial Era

13 colonies transition to 13 states.

• Following Congress’s advice, all colonies except Connecticut and Rhode Island formed new constitutions.
• Connecticut and Rhode Island chose to retain their existing charters.
• The adoption of constitutions by the 13 original colonies marked their transformation from British colonies to independent American States.

Articles of Confederation

• The Second Continental Congress aimed to unify the colonies through a general constitution known as the Articles of Confederation.
• The ratification of the Articles of Confederation established the United States as a united, sovereign, and national state.
• This marked a crucial step forward toward a cohesive national government and the emergence of the United States as an independent nation.
• The ratification of the Articles of Confederation effectively ended the Colonial Era.

Colonial America Facts and Characteristics

• Religion played a pivotal role in the establishment and development of the first colonies in the Colonial era.
• The pursuit of religious freedom led many colonists to seek refuge in North America, where they could practice their beliefs without persecution.
• Although many people held strongly to their religious beliefs, they were also influenced by astrology and folklore.
• The Salem Witchcraft Trials of 1692 in Massachusetts is an example of the impact of religious fervor on colonial society.

English Government

• English governance principles heavily influenced the structure and operation of colonial governments.
• The English legal system, parliamentary practices, and administrative procedures shaped colonial governance and legal frameworks.
• Despite being geographically distant, colonial governments maintained strong ties to England and followed English precedents in their governance.
• The English government also required the colonies to adhere to strict economic laws, as part of its economic system.

Colonial Government

• Colonial Government served as an extension of the English government during the Colonial Era.
• Each colony had its own form of government, typically consisting of a Governor, Governor’s Council, Legislative Assembly, and Judicial System.
• Colonial governments were responsible for implementing laws, maintaining order, and managing colonial affairs under the authority of the British Crown.

The economy during the Colonial Era was shaped by:

• Geography — including the distance between settlements and differences in terrain, climate, and natural resources.
• British economic systems and policies — controlled trade between the settlements, trade with Native American Indian tribes, and foreign nations.

Geographic and climatic conditions influenced economic activities in the 13 Colonies, shaping distinct regional economies.

• New England Colonies — focused on manufacturing, particularly in towns, with industries such as shipbuilding and rum exportation.
• Southern Colonies — relied heavily on agriculture, employing slave labor and adopting the plantation system. Major agricultural exports included tobacco, cotton, indigo, rice, and sugar.
• Middle Colonies — engaged in both agriculture and manufacturing, leveraging resources such as iron ore. Manufacturing of products like plows, tools, and kettles supported economic growth and export to England.

Britain maintained control over the colonial economy. The primary objective of the economic policies and trade laws was to enrich the “Mother Country.” While colonial merchants profited from the system, it also undermined their economic autonomy.

• Mercantilism — the British policy of Mercantilism aimed to maximize profitability for the Mother Country, often at the expense of colonial interests.
• Navigation Acts — laws that placed restrictions on trade.
• Triangular Trade Routes — driven by the Navigation Acts, facilitated the efficient exchange of goods between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, under the control of the British government. The Transatlantic Slave Trade and the Middle Passage ran along these routes.

In the 18th Century, Prime Minister Robert Walpole implemented an unwritten policy known as Salutary Neglect . Under the policy, British officials were encouraged to neglect enforcing the Navigation Acts and to collect taxes. This led to a dramatic increase in business and profitability for American merchants.

The colonial economy was also shaped by the labor force, which consisted of Indentured Servants and Slaves.

• Indentured Servants — workers who agreed to lengthy contracts were part of the workforce from the very beginning. A significant portion of the British and European immigrants to America before the Revolutionary War were indentured servants.
• Slave Labor — plantation farming, a prominent economic activity, fueled the expansion of slave labor during the Colonial Era. By the 1700s, approximately 20% of the population were slaves, with 90% located in the Southern Colonies.

In the early years, systems were set up that encouraged wealthy landowners to pay for people to move to the colonies. These systems were the Headright System and the Patroon System. For each person a landowner paid for, he was given land, usually 50 acres. In return, each person worked for the landowner, essentially as an indentured servant. When their contract was completed, they were also given land. However, it was usually poor, undeveloped land that was not worth much.

These systems, especially the Headright System, led to tension between the wealthy landowners and the lower classes — small farmers, indentured servants, and slaves. This contributed to Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia .

In the years following Bacon’s Rebellion, wealthy landowners transitioned from indentured servants to slaves. The primary reason was they did not have to release slaves after a certain period.

The availability of slaves via the Transatlantic Slave Trade and the need for workers on large plantations in the South contributed to the dramatic growth of slavery in the South.

The increase in slavery led to the development of the Abolition Movement in Colonial America , which was led by Quakers.

• By 1775, the colonial population was around 2.5 million, with the ratio of English settlers to other European colonists about 3 to 1.
• Virginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania , North Carolina , and Maryland were some of the most densely populated colonies.

Fur Trade in the Colonial Era

Another significant industry during the Colonial Era was the Fur Trade. English, Dutch, and French traders created trade networks with the Native American Indian tribes. This led to competition among the Europeans for control of the trade and among the Indian tribes for control of the production of furs and skins. It can be argued that the Fur Trade drove the westward expansion and exploration of America more than any other factor in the colonial era

Impact on Native American Indians

• The Colonial Era brought wars and deadly European diseases, resulting in a catastrophic decline in the indigenous population of Native American Indians.
• When the Pilgrims established Plymouth, it was in the aftermath of a plague that decimated the Indian tribes in New England. This event is known as the Great Dying of New England .
• There was intense distrust and fear between Indians and European colonists, but trade networks eased tensions with some tribes.
• Powerful confederacies like the Iroquois Confederacy arranged alliances with the French or English, depending on what suited their needs best. The Iroquois eventually formed an alliance with the English, known as the Covenant Chain.

Colonial America APUSH

Use the following links and videos to study the Colonial Era, the American Revolution, and the American Revolutionary War for the AP US History Exam. Also, be sure to look at our Guide to the AP US History Exam .

Colonial America Definition

Colonial America refers to the period of history from the early 17th century to the late 18th century when European powers, primarily Great Britain, established colonies in what is now the United States. These colonies, including Virginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and others, were founded for various reasons, such as economic opportunity, religious freedom, and territorial expansion. Colonial America was characterized by diverse cultures, including agrarian economies, religious diversity, and interactions with Native American populations. The colonial period laid the foundation for the development of American culture, politics, and society.

APUSH Resources for the Colonial Era

• APUSH 1.2 — Native American Societies Before European Contact
• APUSH 1.3 — European Exploration in the Americas
• APUSH 1.4 — Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest
• APUSH 1.5 — Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System
• APUSH 1.6 — Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans
• APUSH 2.2 — European Colonization
• APUSH 2.3 — The Regions of British Colonies

EDITOR’S NOTE — Native American Indians and enslaved Africans played a significant role in shaping Colonial America. As we expand the encyclopedia to include tribes and individuals, this article will be updated.

• Content for this article has been compiled and edited by American History Central Staff .

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Exploring the Colonial Period: An In-Depth Essay Sample

After the discovery of America by Columbus, the Spaniards conquered the southern part of North America. Other territory of the continent was inhabited by free Indian tribes. In this time fast developed England paid attention to the north of the Atlantic coast of America. The beginning of the well-known colonial period caused the resettlement of Europeans to North America in the early XVII century what had a great impact on the industrial development of the continent.

The first permanent British settlement on the territory of the current US was founded in 1607. It was fort and Jamestown Village in Virginia. Most of the settlers in America were Europeans, primarily from the British Isles, who left their homeland to avoid religious or political oppression. They also wanted to free themselves from the rigid and inflexible economic relations with the Old World (“Colonial Period 1607–1776”). They founded 13 colonies which occupied the territories now known as New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia.

The settlers did not know how to live in the new colonies in the wilderness and faced many difficulties. First, the winter caused many deaths because many people were sick and hungry. But then they adapted to the new conditions and their life centered around the family. It was necessary to have a large family to work together and learn how to adjust to the new life . The father was the head of the family who made all the decisions and earned money. Women did all the work about the house. They raised children, prepared the meals, sewed clothes, collected food for winter, did laundry, brought water and stoked fires (“Colonial Period 1607–1776”). Children did not go to schools and helped their parents.

In the south with its warm climate and fertile soils, colonists began to develop an agrarian society based on a plantation economy. The major port cities grew in the Central Atlantic colonies. They became the centers of financial life and trade. New-England colonies in the northeast developed handicraft production. In the middle of the XVIII century the southern and northern colonies began a single internal market. The cotton and tobacco were brought from the southern colonies and grain, industrial products, fish were exported from the north. The farmer and landowner John Rolfe began to grow crossing sort of tobacco. The resulting hybrids were well adapted to the Virginia climate and corresponded to the tastes of English consumers (Taylor 56-58). The colony became a source of reliable profits and tobacco became the basis of the economy of Virginia for many years.

During the colonial period there were two events that had a significant impact on the entire history of the United States. The Governor John Jardley decided to transfer part of the power to the Council of Bourgeois, thus establishing the first legislature elected in the New World. The first meeting of the council took place on July 30 in 1619 and a small group of Angolan Africans was formed by the colonists. Although formally they were not slaves, it was the beginning of the slavery implementation in American history (Wolfe). Slavery became ensconced at all levels of Virginia society after passage of “An act concerning Servants and Slaves” by the General Assembly in 1705.

English colonists were intensively occupying new lands. The further they moved to the West, the more tense the relations between immigrants and indigenous people became. The first Anglo-Powhatan War began in in 1609 (1609–1614), because colonists were deprived of food sources by Indians. In 1622 Opechancanough led the Indians and attacked English. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War lasted from 1622 to 1632 and finished with the Indians’ defeat (Wolfe). Another major revolt in North America against British colonial rule was in 1676. The small planter Bacon led the Virginia farmers’ movement against excessive taxes and political harassment (Reich 96 – 97). Bacon’s squad captured and burned the city Jamestown forcing the governor to escape. After his death the revolt was suppressed by the British troops.

Another conflict occurred between Britain and France which escalated into Franco-Indian War (1754 -1763). This war intended to show who would have more power in North America. In 1756 the war increased into a global conflict known as the Seven Years’ War. Each opposing side counted on its colonists and Indian tribes help. Despite the fact that the British outnumbered the French with the Indians, they managed to win the battle of Fort Duques and killed General Braddock. In 1758 British attacked Fort Cariyon which was under the command of General Montkem. With the defeat of French troops near Quebec and the signing of the Peace of Paris in 1763, the French-Indian War was officially ended (Reich 137, 256, 259). Lands from the East Coast to the Mississippi River became British. France transferred more and more Western possessions to the Spanish court and the Indians got the Western lands except of Spanish colonies in Texas and New Mexico.

At the end of the Seven Years’ War, Great Britain had great debt, which should have been repaid with the help of the new taxes on American colonies. The new King George III approved a series of new laws including a Stamp Tax in 1765 which caused protest movement of the colonists (Reich 268). Therefore, the parliament was forced to repeal the Stamp Act in 1766. Many Virginians together with Thomas Jefferson, George Washington and Richard Henry Lee tried to make the colonies independent of Britain (Wolfe). The liberation of the colonies began with the proclamation of Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence on July 4 in 1776, which later was recognized in 1783 after a prolonged war.

To conclude, European colonists who settled in America, overcame a lot of difficulties to have a comfort life. They faced many hardships such as diseases, famine, cold winters, wilderness lands, revolts, wars and deaths. Nevertheless, they made the American continent well-developed and successful. The colonial period had an economical and cultural importance to the history of America.

📎 References:

1. Reich, Jerome R. Colonial America. Routledge, 2016. 2. Taylor, Alan. Colonial America: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2013. 3. Wolfe, Brendan. “Colonial Virginia” Encyclopedia Virginia .

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• Period 1: 1491–1607

Period 1: 1491-1607

On a North American continent controlled by American Indians, contact among the peoples of Europe, the Americas, and West Africa created a new world. Topics may include

Native American Societies before European Contact

European exploration in the new world, the columbian exchange, labor, slavery, and caste in the spanish colonial system, cultural interactions between europeans, native americans, and africans.

Image Source : View of icons representing conquered towns and the tributes they paid to the Aztecs in a detail from the Codex Mendoza, ca. 1541 (Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford)

4–6% Exam Weighting

Resources by Period:

• Period 2: 1607–1754
• Period 3: 1754–1800
• Period 4: 1800–1848
• Period 5: 1844–1877
• Period 6: 1865–1898
• Period 7: 1890–1945
• Period 8: 1945–1980
• Period 9: 1980–Present

Key Concepts

1.1 : As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.

1.2 : Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

American Indians

By elliott west.

Learn about the diversity of Indigenous tribes in North America.

Cahokia: A Pre-Columbian American City

By timothy r. pauketat.

Learn about a center of trade and interaction built along the banks of the Mississippi.

Nature, Culture, and Native Americans

By daniel wildcat.

Watch a discussion about Indigenous peoples and their interaction with the environment.

Secotan, an Algonquian village

Engraving of an agrarian town in North America, based on a watercolor by English mapmaker John White

• Primary Source

North America on the Eve of the European Invasion

By christopher l. miller.

Discover the way Native Americans lived in North America before Europeans arrived.

Native American Discoveries of Europe

By daniel k. richter.

Learn about the cultural context of Native peoples' responses to the arrival of European explorers and colonists.

America before Columbus

By charles c. mann.

Watch a discussion about the pre-Columbian population and settlement of the Americas.

An Introduction to the History of Migration and Settlement in North America

By edward a. jolie.

Learn about the migrations of indigenous peoples in the Americas.

Europeans and the New World

By brian delay.

Watch a discussion of the context of western European exploration and European interactions with Indigenous peoples.

Columbus reports on his first voyage

Columbus’s letter to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain announcing the discovery of unknown lands 

Imperial Rivalries

By peter c. mancall.

Understand how European political competition in the late fifteenth century drove exploration and colonization.

Sir Francis Drake's attack on St. Augustine

Illustration depicting an English naval attack on Spanish St. Augustine in present-day Florida

The Rise and Fall of New Netherland

By david middleton.

Read about Henry Hudson’s voyages for the Dutch Republic.

Mexicans in the Making of America

By neil foley.

Learn about Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas in a broad essay about changes and continuities.

European Exploration

By felipe fernández-armesto and benjamin sacks.

Learn about European navigation and the exploration of the Americas.

Navigating the Age of Exploration

By ted widmer.

Learn about the vast global movements that characterized the Columbian Exchange.

by Alfred W. Crosby

Discover how the commingling of Old and New World plants, animals, and bacteria remade global ecologies.

The Spanish Borderlands and Columbian Exchange

By ned blackhawk.

Learn about Indigenous and European interactions in Spanish colonial holdings in the Americas.

The Americas to 1620

Learn about the broad context of European, African, and Indigenous interactions.

The Doctrine of Discovery

Pope Alexander VI’s decree granting Spain the exclusive right to lands in the Americas

Iberian Roots of the Transatlantic Slave Trade

By david wheat.

Understand the role of Portugal and Spain in the transatlantic slave trade.

Disputing the subjugation of the Indians

Bartolomé de las Casas versus Juan Ginés Sepúlveda on the enslavement of the Taíno in Hispaniola

Spain authorizes Coronado's conquest in the Southwest

Royal letter instructing Francisco Coronado to explore the northern lands in search of wealth and resources

Early North America

Look beyond the Euro-centric view of the “New World.”

Indian Slavery in the Americas

By alan gallay.

Learn about the European enslavement of Indigenous peoples in the Americas.

The New York African Burial Ground

By edna greene medford.

Read about one of the earliest graveyards for free and enslaved Africans.

The African Slave Trade

By philip morgan.

Watch a discussion of the core experiences of slavery from East Africa to sugar plantations in the New World.

American History Timeline: 1491-1607

Image citations.

Listed in order of appearance in the sections above

• White, John. The Towne of Pomeiock. 1585-1593. Drawing on paper. British Museum. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_1906-0509-1-8
• William Iseminger, Cahokia Mounds, 1982, Painting. Image courtesy of Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site. 
• White, John. The Manner of Their Fishing. 1585-1593. Watercolor over graphite on paper. British Museum.
• de Bry, Theodor. Village of Secotan. In A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia: of the Commodities and of the Nature and Manners of the Naturall Inhabitants. Frankfurt am Main: J. Wechelus, 1590. Engraving based on a drawing by John White. Library of Congress Rare Book and Special Collections Division.
• "Naw-Kaw, a Winnebago Chief." In The Indian Tribes of North America, vol. 1, by Thomas L. McKenney and James Hall. Philadelphia, ca. 1840. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC05120.02.  Grasset de Saint-Saveur, Jacques. "Tableau des principaux peuples de l'Amérique." Paris, France. 1789. Etching and aquatint with hand coloring. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
• Theodore de Bry, Indians worship the column in honor of the French king, 1591, engraving for Collectiones peregrinationum in Indiam occidentalem, vol. 2: René de Laudonnière, Brevis narratio eorum quae in Florida Americae provincia Gallis acciderunt (Frankfurt am Main: J. Wechelus, 1591) (Rijksmuseum)
• Hiser, David. Pictograph at Newspaper Rock, Indian Creek State Park, San Juan County, Utah. DOCUMERICA: The Environmental Protection Agency's Program to Photographically Document Subjects of Environmental Concern, 1972. Photograph. National Archives.
• Anonymous Spanish artist. The Silver Mine at Potosí. ca. 1585. Watercolor on parchment. The Hispanic Society of America.
• Columbus, Christopher. Letter to Ferdinand and Isabella, February 1493. Epistola Chirstofori Colom: cui [a]etas nostra multu[m] debet: de Insulis Indi[a]e supra Gangem nuper inuentis. Rome, 1493. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC01427.
• Engagement [between] La Blanche and La Pare, ca. 1786-1805. Watercolor on paper. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC01450.800.
• Boazio, Baptista. Drake’s Attack on St. Augustine, Florida, May 28–29, 1586. St. Augustine Map. 1589. Rare Books and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress.
• Schenk, Peter. Nieu Amsterdam, een Stedeken in Noord Amerikaes Nieu Hollant. s.l., 1702. Print. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC03022
• "An illustrated account of Aztec life-cycles" Codex Mendoza. ca. 1540. Manuscript on paper. Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford.
• Martin, Johnson & Company. Landing of Columbus. New York, 1856. Engraving based on a painting by John Vanderlyn. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC08878.0001.
• Visscher, Nicholas. Novi Belgi Novaeque Angliae [Map of New Netherland and New England]. Amsterdam, 1682. Map. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC03582.
• Kemmelmeyer, Frederick. First Landing of Christopher Columbus. 1800/1805. Oil on canvas. National Gallery of Art.
• Montanus. Insulae Americanae in Oceano Septentrionali, cum Terris adiacentibus [Map of the Americas]. s.l., 1671 Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC09789.
• Johnson, Fry & Company. Landing of Roger Williams.  New York, 1867. Engraving based on a painting by Alonzo Chappel. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC08878.0006 
• Alexander VI. Copia de la bula del decreto y concession q[ue] hizo el papa [Inter caetera]. [Valladolio], 1493. Broadside. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC04093.
• Roiz, Pascoal. A portolan chart of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent continents. 1633. Map. https://www.loc.gov/item/2008621738/.
• Las Casas, Bartolomé de. Aqui se contiene una disputa . . . Seville, 1552. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC04220.
• García de Loaysa, Francisco. Letter to Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, June 21, 1540. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC04883.
• Cliff Palace. Ancestral Puebloan (formerly Anasazi), 450–1300 C.E. Sandstone. Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Photo courtesy of Sara Charles.
• "The March of the Spaniards into Tenochtitlan." Codex Azcatitlan. ca. 1530. Manuscript on paper. Bibliothèque nationale de France.
• Carol Highsmith. African Burial Ground National Monument. New York, 2008. Photograph.  Carol Highsmith Archive. Library of Congress.
• Wood, Samuel. Injured Humanity; Being a Representation of What the Unhappy Children of Africa Endure from Those Who Call Themselves Christians. New York, 1805. Broadside. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC05113.

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ENG 231 - American Literature I: Colonial Literature

• Colonial Literature
• Reason & Revolution
• Romanticism
• Civil War Literature
• MLA Citation Help
• Formatting in a Flash
• Research Process
• Finding Literary Criticism
• Primary Historical Documents for English 231
• Native American Literature and Information

Salem Witch Trials

Colonial america.

The Colonial Period covers a time period beginning with the foundation of the colonies, the first being Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, and ends with the beginning of the Revolutionary War. Thirteen British colonies were established and could be divided into three geographic areas: New England, Middle, and Southern. Each colony had specific economic, social, and political developments that were unique to the regions.  However, all colonies were governed by the British and there was little diviation from European literary styles until the early Americans began to become their owe people. 

Major Themes:

• will and work
• relationship between humans and nature
• differences between European and Native American culture
• spiritual feelings
• entertainment

• Web Resources for Early American Literature: A Beginning
• American-Literature: Colonial Period Infoplease
• Early American and Colonial Period to 1776
• The Colonial Period The Literature Network
• American Literature Colonial to 1800 Libguide

• "Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits Personating Men" Written in 1692 by Cotton Mather's father, Increase Mather, In "Cases of Conscience concerning Evil Spirits Personating Men," Mather calls into doubt spectral evidence (the visions of witches seen by victims during their torments). The next year the sermon was printed in book form, and the preface reproduced below bore the signatures of no fewer than fourteen prominent Boston ministers.
• Confession before Joseph Herrick The following document is the confession of Tituba, the slave woman of Reverend Samuel Parris. She is eternally linked with the story of the Salem witch trials as her testimony is the foundation of the hysteria that spread like wildfire throughout Salem and the neighboring areas. Although she maintained she was not harmed by the authorities, it later turned out that Parris had beaten the confession out of her.
• Jury Apology in the Salem Witch Trials After the Salem witch trials wound down in late 1692, many expressed a sense that the "witch hunt" had gotten out of hand. The jury in the trials published a signed letter of apology asking forgiveness for its role in the affair. Following is a transcript of that letter:
• Accused Witch Margaret Jacobs Recants Her Confession to Being a Witch (Excerpt) Accused witches who confessed and testified against other accused witches were spared execution during the Salem witch trials of 1692. One such person who chose to confess was Margaret Jacobs, who also testified that her grandfather, George Jacobs Sr., was a witch. Jacobs later tried to recant her confession and her testimony about her grandfather.
• Salem Arrest Warrant Arrest warrant dated April 4, 1692, for Elizabeth Proctor and Sarah Cloyce, both accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials.
• Reverend Hale's Modest Enquiry into Why the Witchcraft Trials Went so Far (Excerpt) In 1697, Reverend John Hale published A Modest Enquiry into the Nature of Witchcraft, in which he concluded that the 1692 Salem witch trials had been conducted in error. In the following excerpt, he sought to answer the question, "How doth it appear that there was a going too far in this affair?":
• Letters of Governor Phips Two letters written by Sir William Phips, royal governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the Salem witch trials.

Anne Bradstreet

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222 Colonization Essay Topics & Examples

To write a colonization essay, you can explore colonial America, indigenous communities and cultures. With the topics prepared by our team , it will be a lot easier!

🏆 Best Colonization Essay Examples & Topics

💡 most interesting colonization topics to write about, ✅ good research topics about colonization, 📑 interesting topics to write about colonization, 📌 simple & easy colonialism essay topics, 👍 good colonialism essay topics, ❓ questions about colonization.

• A Comparison of Colonial and Modern Institutions of Higher Education At the present moment, institutions of higher education form a strong basis of the economy and culture of the United States.
• Social and Cultural Aspects of Pre-Colonial Africa in Chinua Achebe: Things Fall Apart The novel emphasize on the encounters of the pre-colonial Africa and the effect of British colonialism during the 19th century. Gender disparity is clear in this village and the crimes are identified with gender where […]
• Spanish vs. English Colonization In their efforts to colonize the Americas, the Spanish and the British opted for polarly different approaches, with the methods of the latter showing to be more effective and prosperous in the long-run.
• Chile Before, During, and After Colonization It borders Argentina to the east, Peru to the north and finally Bolivia to the northeast. Before the landing of the Spanish colonizers during the 16th C, the Inca governed northern Chile while the indigenous […]
• Alcoholism and the Impact Colonization Has Had on Aboriginals Once alcohol had become a part of the community, there was a gradual shift in the health of the people and they succumbed to illnesses.
• Post-Colonial Theory in “The Epic of Gilgamesh” and “The Tempest” In “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, the main character is shown to be sure of his own strength and righteousness of feelings and thoughts.
• English Colonization of America in Hakluyt’s View Hakluyt is a firm believer of colonization owing to the nationalistic, social, and economic benefits it might bring to England. In essence, he argues that both the economic and social ambitions of England can be […]
• Colonial Discourse in “Things Fall Apart” by Chinua Achebe Achebe’s book centers on the life of a village ‘superstar’ by the name Okonkwo and the arrival of white missionaries at the fictional village of Umuofia.
• Post-Colonial Theory in Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe We further analyze the individuals and how their actions and activities affect the society’s social culture in relation to the post-colonial society of today.
• “Things Fall Apart” by Chinua Achebe: Post Colonial Theory The white men tried to spread the gospel but “the arrival of the missionaries had caused a considerable stir in the village…”..
• First Generations: Women in Colonial America The book of Carol Berkin combines historical and feminist perspectives on the societies of the Colonial America and gender roles in them.
• Personal Experience of Living in the Colonial Period We used to take our baths in the springs and also water which was used for drinking, cleaning, and cooking was transported from the springs to our home.
• William Bradford as a Colonial American Writer The book’s attempt to explain the difference between the two and the encouragement to alter one’s bad habits were some of the reasons why the book was highly esteemed.
• Travelogue or Travel Narrative in Post-Colonial Time In the works of this direction, there was a frequent change of scenery around, and the character, who most often was the author, traveled to different lands and told about the peculiarities of everyday life, […]
• European Colonization Impacts on the Native American Population An examination of various historical accounts from the 15th to 19th century show that the Native American population was adversely affected by the arrival of European settlers due to various conflicts that arose and the […]
• Colonization and Residential Schools Most of the practices, way of life, and cultural values of the aboriginals seemed uncouth in the eyes of colonialists. The government made significant steps towards decolonization to allow the indigenous communities to understand the […]
• Colonization: Why Africa Suffers Therefore, this paper examines the state of pre-colonial African societies, factors that led to European colonization of Africa, British colonial rule in Africa, and the impact of British colonialism on the postcolonial African states.
• Conrad’s ”Heart of Darkness” as Post-Colonial Western Canon The protagonist of the novel, captain Marlow, observes that the suffering of the native people under the yoke of bureaucratic officials is extremely tough.
• Japanese Colonial Rule and Korea’s Modernization The analysis of Japan’s colonial rule in Korea varies depending on the speaker and the period discussed. The history of the human rights movement in Korea was a perfect illustration of the shift from traditional […]
• Holocaust vs. Japanese Colonial Era in Korea The Holocaust in the history of Jewish people, as well as Japanese occupation in the history of Korean people, was one of the greatest tragedies.
• Indochina and Colonization: French Colonial Empire 2 The paper focuses on the in-depth analysis and understanding of the various effects of colonization on French Indochina, financial benefits that might have been accrued from the colonization process, and undertaking a comparison between […]
• The Economy of the 13 Colonies; Religion and Colonization; The English & the Indians The English are referred to as the makers of America, in 1600s the population status of England was mushrooming and this boosted migrations. In addition to that in early 1711, the Tuscarora Indians were attacked […]
• Concepts of Angola & Colonial Rule Portuguese colonialism in Angola later seemed not to care about the local people social- economic development rather to exploit the Angolans’ natural resources for the benefit of the Portuguese and the locals were discriminated against […]
• Hybrid Colonial Architecture in Southeast Asia It was the period when the traditional Southeast approaches to architecture developed under the impact of the Eastern cultures were influenced by the European traditions and provided the unique hybrid colonial architecture of the Southeast […]
• Post Colonial Literature: Poetry and Prose On post colonialism, Judith Wight talks of how both the whites and the black natives have lost in terms of culture and property then she proposes forgiveness and unity of the two groups as the […]
• Suffering and Redemption in Puritan and Early Colonial Literature The research focuses on the redemption theory of the Puritan religion’s members. The research focuses on the redemption theory of the Puritan religion’s members.
• European Conquest and Colonization of Africa The Europeans initially considered African land as worthless, however, by the end of the 19th century their perception about Africa had changed due to the changes in Europe making them move to Africa for rescue.
• America’s Westward Movement and Colonial Aspirations The success of the American colonies was due, in part, to the various motivations behind the westward movement and colonial aspirations of the early United States.
• Benefits and Drawbacks of European Colonization Consequently, I think that the cons of colonization outweigh the pros of the process, and the world might have been in a better state.
• The End of Colonization Era in Historical Examples It led to social class war between the rich and the poor, soldiers against the native, and those in power against their citizens, and led to fear in most regions.
• American Colonial Rebellion: American History Moreover, by winning the war, the British thought that they had gained a higher authority over the colonies, and the best way to do this was by exerting more power.
• American History: Colonial Backcountry Folkways The settlements in North Carolina were considered significant parts of the frontier, or backcountry, and became formally included in modern Mountain and Piedmont regions.
• Researching and Analysis of Colonial Times Of particular interest during the examination of books by Brown and Locke was the topic of the correlation of strength, gender, and race.
• Condition of African Slaves in Colonial Virginia At that time, this act was one of the first to oppress the position of the black population. In addition, the act provided for the organization of detachments that were supposed to return the liberated […]
• Colonial Style and Post-Colonial Ethnic Conflict in Africa Colonization of Africa is a historically formed process, the purpose of which was the development, conquest, and use by the colonizers of the entire territory of the continent.
• India and Indochina: Colonization and Decolonization France considered the colonization of Indochina as a political opportunity to increase its authority and influence in the region and compete with the expanding influence of the British Empire in the region.
• History of Colonial Latin America In colonial Latin America, it is possible to observe the segregation of the population by the caste systems. With Indians at the bottom, Africans slightly above, and Spaniards at the top, the caste system resembled […]
• Africa’s Colonization and Alien Races’ Contribution 4 At the stage of the ancient world and antiquity, the conquests did not end, but only served as the beginning of a long chain of colonization of the mainland.
• Native Women in the Times of the Colonial Conquest of the Americas Chapter 5 of the book talks about the condition of native women in the times of the colonial conquest of the Americas.
• British Colonial Racism for Aboriginal Australians Precisely this colonial racism and genocide can be considered to be the cruelest in the history of the world and may have influenced the ideas and plans of Adolf Hitler, who got inspired by the […]
• The Blackfoot Indigenous People: Pre-Colonial, Colonial, and Current Situations The traditional residency of the Blackfoot people was in Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada and in the northern parts of Montana in the United States.
• European Colonization and the Columbian Exchange With the expanding European colonization and increasing trade between the ‘Old’ and ‘New’ worlds, both realms experienced significant changes in their diet and lifestyle.
• The Colonization Impact on Indigenous Society It has affected my family and me so that the descendants of the native Cherokee Indians are forced to live and work on the reservation.
• The Status of Women in Colonial America Thus, for women, the lives of women in colonial America were strictly limited to housekeeping and family prosperity, while men actively participated in society’s political and economic life. The role of women in such a […]
• White Deer Run and Colonial House: Substance Abuse Treatment Facilities The inpatient care of the facility is characterized by a 90-day program and this is a holistic treatment that requires clients to attend Alcoholics or Narcotics Anonymous meetings daily.
• American Colonization Society According to Robert Finley one of the members of the ACS, the black people would never be fully integrated into the American society.
• African Nationalism as Colonial Legacy The oppression of rural areas and production and the prioritization of the urban population has become the main reason for the spread of poverty among the African population.
• White Indentured Servitude in Colonial New World The institute of indentured servitude existed in the 17th and 18th centuries, forming the core of the labor force in the British Colonies.
• The Colonial Situation and Anti-Colonial Struggle The colonial states’ main goal was to utilize the new territories’ land and labor to satisfy the needs of the rapidly industrializing European economy.
• The Effect of Colonization and Dispossession Warwick Anderson additionally states that the history of aboriginal health requires understanding of both the impact of colonization and the beginning of white nation-state.
• The Colonial Legacy of the Offenses Against the Person Act in Jamaica, West Indies This paper will examine the impact of the legislation on Jamaica, West Indies in the social context of abortion by tracing the colonial history and outlining both past and present abortion laws on the island […]
• The Colonial Trade and Slave Entrepreneurship The significance of the Akan Drum can be examined in the political and economic context of the colonisation, slave trade and slavery in the Americas.
• Colonial Institutions and Prosperity The author of this essay believes that the cause of the difference is in these states’ usage of the institutions left behind by the colonizers.
• The History of Sugar Cane: A Currency Standard for Colonial Merchants The discovery of the Americas and the Caribbean islands significantly changed the sugar market. Slavery became the versatile and cost-effective way to ensure the survival of the Caribbean and American sugar plantations, and the sugar […]
• Colonial History of the United States: Puritans and Quakers Many of his ideas became a part of the constitution of the new United States. The idea emerged that England was ignoring the rights and liberties of the colonists.
• Transatlantic Slave Trade and Colonial Chesapeake Slavery Most of the West African slaves worked across the Chesapeake plantation. This paper will explore the various conditions and adaptations that the African slaves acquired while working in the Chesapeake plantation.
• Socio-Cultural Consequences of Colonization The Americans and Africans suffered the most negative effects of colonization because they were the subjects of the European colonialism. This is to mean that while the Americans and Africans were suffering socially and politically, […]
• The First Frontier: Life in Colonial America’ by Miller This essay seeks to investigate the History of Americans in the colonial era, the ways of life and the interrelationships between the colonial subjects and masters.
• Colonial Traditions Inc: Key Elements The key elements of the issue are improper treatment of Colonial Traditions Inc with the Townsends. Besides, the delay of making of the order due to some external factors of the manager is terrible.
• Profile of Colonial Sugar Refinery Company in Australia The company was incorporated in the era that the business of sugar was highly politicized and took 75 years for the company to establish itself internationally.
• Colonization of Australia Review The focus of this paper will cover the initial stages of the development of the Australian colony of New South Wales in the period between 1788 and 1792.
• Colonization of the American Continent From James Town to Boston The British were encouraged to move to the American continent by the explorations made by the French and Spanish. The English captured the city from the Dutch in 1664 and renamed it the city of […]
• The Colonial Period of the USA The colonial period of the USA refers to the history of the land that was going to become the US in the future, and lasts from the beginning of European settlement to the very independence […]
• Colonization in Chinua Achebe’s Novel “Things Fall Apart” The tribesmen did not want to give up the new trading society to fight for their independence, that I why they had accepted the confines of the white man’s rule.
• Race: The Power of an Illusion in Colonial America The race helped to resolve the moral contradiction between the equality of all individuals and the system of human bondage in the following way.
• Classifying Immigrants in Colonial America Colonial America refers to the history of the United States or the history of the territory that would become the United States from the start of European settlement to the time of independence from Europe.
• Ghana: The Consequences of Colonial Rule and Slavery One of the reasons for this dependency is that the country had been the foothold for the slave trade for about four centuries.
• The History of Colonial Period and the Puritans This active settlement by Puritans influenced the developing history of the United States of America, with the aftereffects of the Puritan history of the country being felt even nowadays.
• Solar System Colonization in Science Fiction vs. Reality Mars, also known as the Red Planet, the fourth in the distance from the Sun and the seventh-largest planet in the Solar System, is a favorite destination for colonization of science fiction authors, and the […]
• Colonial Life in Orwell’s “Burmese Days”, Rizal’s “The Reign of Greed”, Binh’s “The Red Earth” These accounts help to realize that each author demonstrates his own attitude to the process of colonization and the reactions of the people on the demands of the government: Orwell underlines the impossibility to avoid […]
• “Discourses on Colonization” by Aime Cesaire For example, he says the goal of Europe is to deliver good to the colonizers at the expense of the resources of the colonized class; Cesaire maintains that it only serves to decivilize the colonizers.
• Jules Ferry: On French Colonial Expansion He is known for some of the strategies that were developed at the time of his services, such as the strategy of secular education and that of France becoming a colonial empire.
• Colonization of America by Settlers From Europe The fact that the native population was, for the most part, illiterate and nowhere near to inventing anything like the advanced technologies of the settlers made the latter believe that their culture was superior and […]
• European Colonization of the New World The Spanish administration strained to limit the trade between the American colonies that belonged to them and Europe sternly to the flotilla of Spanish vessels.
• English Colonization in America: Religion and Economics It also played a role in helping people in America to survive As for economic interests, they led to the establishment of new colonies.
• North American Colonization Process in Retrospect By considering the ideas and principles that it was founded on, the American society will be able to address some of its most complicated ethnic and racial issues successfully.
• Internal Colonization and Slavery in British Empire The act of alienating Ireland in the development process brought the distinction in the collaboration. Slave trade contributed to the growth of the economy of the British Empire via the production of the raw materials […]
• English vs. Spanish Colonial Settlements If we look back into the history of the 16th-17th centuries, it becomes evident that, no matter how different the foreign policy of all the European countries was, the ultimate goal of the monarchs was […]
• Colonial Revival Gardens: Phenomenon Features Thus, the contribution of the given style to the creation of a recognizable image of the American countryside and its impact on the cultural heritage preconditioned the stable interest to this approach.
• Indo-Saracenic Revival Architecture in Colonial India The Indo-Saracenic style appeared in the period of strengthening positions of Great Britain in India and resulted from attempts of British architects to create a style aimed to demonstrate the power of the British Empire […]
• Latin America Colonization Period The arrival of Europeans changed the lives of the indigenous population through many ways; for example, there was a massive decline in the population of the indigenous people due to numerous European diseases that they […]
• Japanese Colonial Rule and the Allied Powers It is hard to argue with the fact that it was not an easy task to forget years of brutality and unfair treatment, but it needs to be said that exploitation was not a single […]
• Social Effects of Colonization on the Aboriginal People The government of the day developed policies that would result in the segregation of the aboriginals due to the pressure from its citizens. The Metis and the Inuit are the groups of the Aboriginals that […]
• Colonial Process in Korea and Its Effects It should be pointed out that the way the United States viewed the implementation of the new political system, and the changing of the economic environment in Asia was polar to the approaches Great Britain […]
• Regional Geography After Colonization and Slave Trade The aftermath of trans-Atlantic slave trade is widely evident in the regions of the south Americas Caribbean and northeastern South American states.
• The Process Conquest and Colonization in Latin America The arrival of Europeans changed the lives of the natives in six major ways. Analysts report that the locals had a strong system of leadership before the arrival of Spanish in the region.
• Colonization of the Chesapeake The first colony that the British colonizers attempted to set up in the United States was in Roanoke Island, southeast of Chesapeake.
• The Concept of Race in Colonial America The incorporation of race-based signs, which prioritized some races over the others, in the community life was a result of the wide range of historical events. The demarcation of race signs, in the colonized America, […]
• Indentured Servitude in Colonial America Indentured servitude is a complex and controversial phenomenon, which appears to be essentially barbaric to the modern public, primarily because of the fact that the servants were denied a number of rights and were considered […]
• Colonial Period of Australia’s History Though colonial Australia is traditionally represented as the location for the European convicts to serve their sentence, whereas little light is shed on the conflict between the local people and the colonialists, the armed resistance […]
• Servants Treatment in Colonial Virginia Because of the lack of control over the quality of living conditions provided by the owners of the colonial Virginian property to their British servants, the increasingly hard work conditions and unbearable living ones, combined […]
• Early Americans and Easter Island Colonization Genetic evidence has been used to prove the theory that though the Europeans were the first inhabitants of this Island, South Americans assisted in the colonization.
• Belgian and British Colonial Practices in “Things Fall Apart” by Chinua Achebe The first distinction is the manner in which the British used to gain control of the people of Umuofia, the village of Okonkwo’s village.
• The European Colonization of Africans in Achebe’s Book “Things Fall Apart” For the last fifty years, these critics have somehow reduced the face value of the text in the book. This forms another set of variation in the face value of the text in the book.
• The Post-Colonial Theory of the Large European Empires The plot of the novel is centered on the memories of the main character to the Central Africa. The art of word promoted the formulation and expression of the main ideas of the theory.
• Students in Colonial Times vs. Today’s Students Higher education is considered the engine of the economy and democracy. In Houston and Texas, the situation is worse compared to the nation.
• Is EU’s Development Policy a Neo-Colonial Project? The Statement, according to this author, further reiterated the EU’s unwavering dedication to coherence, coordination and complementarity in its development policy to ACP states, and also to the orientation of aid programming in the direction […]
• Technology and Colonization: Columbus Discovers the ‘New World’ The mission to the discovery of the new world was enhanced by the ruler of Spain in 1492. The spirit of colonization was enhanced by the struggle for supremacy and the increased technological advancements that […]
• Colonial Development as Regrettable Phase in Africa’s Development However, it is quite important to note that colonial development acted as a benchmark for economic development in colonies. Therefore, as far as colonial development worked to improve economies and was essential phase in Africa, […]
• Fanon’s Decolonization: Violence to End Colonial Aggression Through the same lens of analysis, Wretched of the Earth explores the influences of race, class, and culture on the colonial domination of vulnerable societies. A key hallmark of the teachings of Fanon was the […]
• Colonial Development in Sub-Sahara Africa The stagnation in the pace of development in the region even after gaining independence raises the question about the models of development that were utilized by the colonial masters and the models of development that […]
• The Colonial War in Southwest Africa In the article “German Military Culture and the Colonial War in Southwest Africa, 1904-1907”, Isabel Hull states that the reaction of the German militaries to the revolt in Southwest Africa can be classified from the […]
• Colonial Portuguese Brazil: Sugar and Slavery In a period of two to three years, the slaves from Africa had reimbursed the cost of purchasing them, and the owners of slave plantations started to generate returns from them.
• The Role of South Asians in Colonial Societies The rituals, policies and rules prevalent in South East Asian nations engrained the identity of the native as a colonized person and the white settler as the colonizer.
• Conquest and Colonization of America by Europeans Countries According to Foner, the initial motivation that drove Europeans to embark upon the conquest of Americas was their desire to find a safe passage-route to India, which at the time was considered the source of […]
• Paradise or Hell? Conflicting Images of the Post-Colonial World The main tragedy is that they did not show similar respect to the dignity and life of other people. The problem is that the world described by the author is full of hostility and violence […]
• Freedom Degree in Colonial America England established thirteen colonies in North America in the course of the 17th century. They were denied the freedom of land ownership and voting rights.
• Beginnings of British Colonization of America However, the settlers gained the influence to grab the territories from the natives and took over the entire leadership, collecting taxes and decreeing at their dispensation.
• Some of the Consequences of Colonial Thinking About Aboriginal Women’s Sexuality for Aboriginal Women Themselves The importance of the clitoris to the woman’s sexuality cannot be underestimated, as Bonaparte explains, the importance of this miniature object before or during sex may even outweigh the pleasures or benefits of the sex […]
• An Analysis of the Impact of British Colonization An Analysis of the Impact of British Colonization: A Study of Mike Davis’ Late Victorian Holocausts: El Ni o Famines and the Making of the Third World The late Nineteenth Century saw an increased political, […]
• Korea During the Colonial Period In addition, the history and synopsis of Korean colonization is still important in the history of the world bearing in mind that it later shaped global political history of the major powers as they are […]
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Daily Life in Colonial America

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Life in Colonial America was difficult and often short but the colonists made the best of their situation in the hopes of a better life for themselves and their families. The early English colonists, used to purchasing what they needed, found they were now required to either import items from the mother country, make them, or do without.

Even later arrivals, unless of the upper class, found the New World challenging as most people had to work hard just to survive. At the same time that they were literally creating towns and cities from wilderness, they were contending with periodic attacks from Native American tribes who had been displaced and needed to also be on guard against robbers or even members of their own households (servants or slaves) who could do them harm.

On top of this were the very many supernatural threats to life and health concocted by the devil and his legion of evil spirits which could come at any moment as well as natural hazards such as various illnesses, poisonous plants, wild animal attacks, and the many dangers involved in simple home life; just cooking a daily meal could result in scalding from a cast-iron pot of stew, candle-lit homes of wood and thatch were apt to catch fire, and twine-bound ladders could break.

Even so, these challenges did not deter the thousands of English (not counting convicts, orphans, and others sent involuntarily) from leaving their homes and traveling to the New World in the hope of improving their lives. The strict social hierarchy of England , which almost always kept one in the social class one was born to, was significantly relaxed in the colonies, and a former servant, male or female, was offered the possibility of a much better life, even that of a landowner if they could survive. Between 1630-1640, over 20,000 colonists arrived, and even more followed, pursuing the American dream before the concept was even fully articulated.

Jamestown was settled first in 1607, then Plymouth Colony in 1620, Massachusetts Bay in 1630, and so on. By 1763, the English had colonized the entire eastern seaboard of lower North America from modern-day Maine to Florida and these settlements were divided into three regions:

New England Colonies

• Middle Colonies
• Southern Colonies

Virginia and Maryland, both Southern Colonies, were also known as Chesapeake Colonies. Although daily life in these regions differed owing to climate, the soil, and the kinds of dangers they presented, some fundamental beliefs and one’s daily life were relatively uniform throughout and, among them, was religion and a belief in the very real influence – for good or ill – of supernatural forces on one’s life.

Religion & Superstition

The colonists, whether the so-called pilgrims of Plymouth or the Anglicans of Jamestown, were deeply religious Christians who regarded the Bible as God ’s Word and understood they were supposed to live their lives according to its strictures. Belief in the reality of a supernatural deity, angels, and evil spirits encouraged the development of extra-biblical superstitions which conformed to the Christian vision.

The Native Americans were almost instantly identified with dark forces. Even Edward Winslow (l. 1595-1655) of Plymouth Colony, who encouraged friendly relations with the natives, claimed they worshiped the devil. Natives were thought to be able to cast spells, wither crops, hurt or heal at will, by drawing on the power of evil spirits of the devil himself. Fellow colonists could also harness this power, however, and so had to be carefully watched. A woman who could walk the dusty roads of a New England town and arrive at her destination looking more or less as neat and clean as when she had left her home was suspected of being a witch just as a man who seemed unusually strong, productive, or profitable might be.

Conformity to the social norms was expected in every colony – even the liberal Providence Colony which welcomed people of all religions and nationalities or the Provinces of New York and Pennsylvania which did the same – and any aspect of a person’s life which seemed out of the ordinary warranted suspicion. The most famous example of this, of course, is the Salem Witch Trials of 1692-1693 in Massachusetts - which resulted in over 200 accused and 20 executed by hanging - but witchcraft was regarded as a palpable threat in all of the colonies, and witch trials were held before and long after the infamous Salem event. Although marginalized groups, mainly women , were the most frequent targets of accusation, anyone from any social class could be suspected or accused of consorting with the devil.

Social Classes

Although the social hierarchy was more relaxed in the colonies, it still existed and descended from top to bottom:

• Upper-class Landowners
• Merchants and Clerics
• Farmers, Artisans, & Laborers
• Indentured Servants
• Native Americans

People of different classes were identified by the clothing and accessories they could afford, and laws were passed in a number of colonies prohibiting those of lower classes from dressing as their social superiors; doing so warranted a fine or even time in the stocks. The upper class were the landed gentry who owned large plantations in the Southern Colonies or extensive landholdings/farms in the Middle and New England Colonies. Only upper-class, landowning white males over the age of 21 had the right to vote, serve in government, and make laws, although many well-to-do merchants or clerics were also allowed.

Merchants and clerics were next in the order, some of whom were also landowners. Clerics were not only scribes and lawyers but ministers, some of whom were quite wealthy while others struggled to survive. Teachers were also counted as clerics but, outside of New England, were not highly respected. The Puritans of New England placed great value on literacy, founding Harvard University and other institutions, because of their belief that everyone should be able to read the Bible, but few of the other colonies followed suit.

Farmers, artisans, and laborers were those who owned small farms, businesses (brewing, barrel-making, candle-making, dressmaking, shipwrights, etc.), or were skilled or unskilled workers. Below them were the indentured servants, people who had signed a contract to work for four to seven years for someone in return for passage to the colonies, food, and shelter. At the end of their service, they were given a parcel of land, tools, and a firearm. An indentured servant, at least in the early years of the colonies, could rise from the lower class to join the elite.

Native Americans were considered outsiders, and this was more or less true even for the so-called “praying Indians” – natives who had converted to Christianity , settled in towns close to English colonies, dressed in English clothing, and learned the English language. After the Indian Massacre of 1622 in Virginia, during which the tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy killed 347 colonists in Virginia in a surprise attack, natives were viewed with suspicion. The colonists, in fact, justified later atrocities committed against Native Americans by citing the 1622 massacre and the Anglo-Powhatan Wars which followed it.

Below the Native Americans were the African slaves (although many Native Americans were also enslaved). The first West Africans arrived in Virginia at Jamestown in 1619 but, at first, were treated more like indentured servants. Racialized, chattel slavery did not take hold until after 1640 and was not institutionalized until the 1660s. African slaves were considered property, given only the rights their owners thought prudent, and could only be freed under certain circumstances, including saving their master’s life or a member of the family, informing on other slaves planning an insurrection or escape, or upon the master’s death , but freedom was at the master’s discretion, and it was difficult, especially in the Southern Colonies, for a freed slave to move up the social hierarchy.

Homes & Education

Colonial homes also reflected one’s social status. The earliest houses of Jamestown and Plymouth were wood-framed buildings insulated with wattle and daub (sticks, straw, and mud) with thatch roofs. A wooden frame, often of lashed saplings, would be raised with horizontal sticks tied between the saplings and then vertical sticks woven between these. The spaces between the saplings were then filled with a mixture of mud, straw, and dirt (daub) to form walls and insulate the home.

Most houses were a single room (sometimes with a loft) with a fireplace at one end, dirt floors, and open windows as glass was very expensive. To keep out rain and insects, paper shades or cloth was used and various herbs, such as yarrow, were hung as insect repellent. Adults slept on beds of wood slats and thatch and children on mats on the floor. This style of home continued to be standard for the lower class in rural areas throughout the Colonial Period.

Cities, such as Boston, quickly outlawed the thatched roof to prevent the spread of fire. City homes were wood-frame houses with mortice and tenon beams, wood floors, and often two stories tall with the bedroom on the upper story and the lower for the kitchen, servants, and a front parlor for receiving guests. These often had leaded-glass windows and multiple fireplaces. In time, some of the more expensive were made of stone or kiln-fired-brick.

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Plantation houses were often (but not always) mansions with multiple rooms and fireplaces, spacious parlors, and servants’ quarters on the third floor and/or in the basement. They had glass windows, ornamentation, extensive landscaping surrounding them, and would be built of whatever material the owner called for.

Education followed this same model in that the sons of the wealthy were sent to school in England or tutored privately while those of the lower classes were illiterate, taught by their parents, or attended a one-room schoolhouse presided over by a communally funded teacher. The Middle and Southern Colonies had no public schools; only the New England Colonies mandated public education. Parents were expected to contribute whatever they could – whether books, money, desks, or firewood for the school’s central stove – and the teacher was often housed in the parents’ homes on a rotating basis.

Although the New England colonists emphasized the importance of education for all, they still felt that males required more than females as they were expected to go into some sort of business whereas girls were to be married, raise children, and care for the home. Girls were taught the basics of writing and mathematics and, for the upper class, to play a musical instrument, sing, and dance. Boys were taught history, geography, writing, mathematics, and were also instructed in their father’s trade . The Christian religion was standard for any course of education, male or female, but how it was interpreted and taught depended on the colony.

Family, Clothing, Food & Leisure

The family was the fundamental unit of the community, and marriage was encouraged. Most men married in their early to mid-20s while girls could be married as young as 15 years old. Men outnumbered women in the colonies which gave rise to the Jamestown Brides program between 1620-1624, which sent young women from England to Jamestown to be married. The women were assured of a “prosperous match” in that they had their choice between many unmarried men and the prohibitive cost of 150 pounds of tobacco (approximately $5,000.00 in today’s currency) to repay the company sending the women meant only the most affluent male colonists could afford to participate.

Colonial families were usually large and it was not unusual for a woman to give birth to 10-15 children in her lifetime. In rural communities, the children became the labor force and so the more one had, the more profitable one’s farm or business. Extended family members often lived near each other or under one roof and, since women frequently died in childbirth and the widower remarried quickly, there were also stepchildren in the home in addition to aunts, uncles, and grandparents.

All of these hands contributed to the household chores as well as whatever business the head of the household ran. Women and female children wove, sewed, and repaired clothing which could be brightly colored wool or cotton, somber clothes for the sabbath, or animal hide shirts and cloaks. Shoes, especially for men, were often mocassins modeled after those of the Native Americans. Women's clothing was more elaborate than men's and could consist of multiple layers of underwear.

Children were expected to work, not play, and those of most classes were already contributing in some way – even just helping to gather firewood – before five years of age. Still, children did have toys and play games. Girls played with dolls, sometimes made of thatch and discarded cloth, and boys with miniature soldiers, animals, and weapons. Some of the games played were tag, blindman’s bluff, and a ball game known as stoolball (similar to English cricket) while in winter sledding was popular.

Adult males enjoyed games such as bowling, billiards, board games, cards, and hunting for sport. Women participated in 'bees' and 'frolics' both of which were gatherings for some central activity like sewing together a wedding dress or quilt, preserving fruits and vegetables, gardening, or some civic activity like improving a local park. Cooking 'bees' were gatherings of women to prepare a large meal, often in conjunction with a barn-raising by the men of the community.

The colonial diet, especially in New England, was based on corn which could be made into cornbread, corn pudding, corn soup, and muffins. Wild deer, rabbit, squirrel, birds, and other game supplemented one’s diet as well as fresh fruit – apples in the New England and Middle Colonies and peaches in the south. The sweet potato was considered an especially welcome addition to a meal although it was thought to be habit-forming, and anyone who ate sweet potatoes daily was not expected to live past seven years of their first taste. Vegetables, in general, were thought to promote illness unless thoroughly cooked but farmers still planted them, ate them, and showed off the best of their crop at community festivals.

Festivals were occasions for relaxation and celebration and usually took the form of a local county fair. Women competed in contests for best pie or preserves or quilting while men engaged in archery and marksmanship contests, wrestling and boxing matches, and competed for best livestock or largest pumpkin or squash. Children of all ages enjoyed horseback rides at the fair, prizes for climbing a greased pole or catching a pig, hog-calling contests, pie-eating matches, and an abundance of food after a good harvest, which is why most fairs were held in late summer or early fall after the harvest was in.

Crime & Punishment

For those who overindulged at the fair, or anywhere for that matter, and broke with accepted social norms, swift punishment followed and most often took the form of public humiliation. Public drunkenness and breaking the sabbath (working on a Sunday or not attending church), for example, were punished by a certain time in the stocks – wooden braces in the town square which secured one’s hands and neck (and sometimes feet) – during which others might throw rotted fruit and vegetables or small rocks at the person while mocking them.

Forgery, robbery, burglary, adultery, and assault could be punished by public whipping, the stocks, a combination of the two, branding, disfigurement, breaking a hand, arm, leg, jail time, or banishment. Jail time was discouraged because it cost the community money to feed the convict and, while jailed, he or she could not provide for their family.

Rape, murder, and witchcraft were punishable by death, but rape was, unfortunately, difficult to prove, and men – especially upper-class men – usually either paid a small fine or were exonerated. The first recorded execution for murder was that of John Billington (l. c. 1580-1630) of Plymouth Colony, one of the Mayflower passengers, who was hanged. Those convicted of witchcraft were almost always hanged, but the colonists contrived many imaginative and painful methods of death including drowning, burning, and pressing someone to death with weights.

Between c. 1614, when the tobacco crop at Jamestown had become the first successful cash crop of the colonies, through c. 1763, when the English colonists defeated the French in the French and Indian War , a whole new culture developed which was based on the concept of individual effort, strength of character, and adherence to the Christian vision leading to success. The promise of Colonial America was that anyone could become anything they wanted to be if they worked hard enough for it.

Protestant Christianity, which emphasized the importance of hard work in glorifying God, was a motivating and sustaining resource for the colonists from the beginning but took on even more significance in the 1730s during the First Great Awakening when the concept of 'universal godliness' was popularized. Everyone, it was claimed, could be touched by the Holy Spirit, no one was beyond God’s reach, and each individual was precious in the eyes of God. This theological vision set well with the newly formed culture of individualism and, in time, encouraged the radical movement to break away from English rule and form the new nation of the United States of America.

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Bibliography

• Bradford, W. & Paget, H. Of Plymouth Plantation. Dover Publications, 2006.
• Earle, A. M. Home Life in Colonial Days. Berkshire House Publishers, 1993.
• Hawke, D. F. Everyday Life in Early America. Harper & Row, 2003.
• Musselwhite, P., Mancall, P. C. , Horn, J. Virginia 1619: Slavery and Freedom in the Making of America. University of North Carolina Press, 2019.
• Philbrick, N. Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War. Viking Adult, 2006.
• Reiss, O. Blacks in Colonial America. McFarland, 2006.
• Silverman, D. J. This Land Is Their Land. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020.
• Smith, J. & Horn, J. Capt. John Smith: Writings with Other Narratives. Library of America, 2010.
• Taylor, A. American Colonies: The Settling of North America. Penguin Books, 2002.
• Winslow, E. & Wisecup, K. "Good News from New England" by Edward Winslow. University of Massachusetts Press, 2014.

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Article contents

Colonial writing in north america.

• John Gatta John Gatta Sewanee: The University of the South
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.013.553
• Published online: 26 September 2017
• This version: 25 June 2018
• Previous version

No longer viewed as mere prologue to the emergence of authentic American literature, colonial writing displays a fertile diversity of literary styles, genres, and linguistic traditions. Yet its array of expressive forms differs markedly from that which latter-day readers of short stories, novels, and plays usually expect “literature” to look like. Colonial writers, not motivated by ambition to create art for art’s sake, penned instead a multitude of sermons, treatises, chronicles, histories, letters, conversion narratives, political pronouncements, slave and captivity narratives, travel reports, and promotional tracts. Such works of creative nonfiction continue to deserve attention today—not only for what they reveal about the formative cultural mythology of the American nation but also because of the rhetorical artistry invested in compositions as varied as William Bradford’s History of Plymouth Plantation , Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography , or Thomas Jefferson’s draft version of the Declaration of Independence. The imaginative intensity of writing by colonial New Englanders such as Jonathan Edwards, together with those symbols and modes of discourse made mythic by leading Massachusetts Puritans, have left an enduring imprint on American consciousness.

In one traditional genre of literature, that of poetry, the output of colonial New Englanders was impressively prolific. Especially noteworthy is the corpus of devotional poems left us by Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor. Taylor’s poetic meditations, unpublished until the modern era, display remarkable wit, exuberance, and artistry. And Bradstreet’s long verse-reflection titled “Contemplations” warrants recognition as the first poem to record a sustained, appreciative response to outdoor experience in British North America.

Yet even within the context of British-dominated settlements, the sensibility of colonial writing was scarcely monolithic. It reflects the expression not only of Puritan New Englanders but also of Anglicans, Pennsylvania Quakers, Deists, Southern planters, political revolutionaries, traders, explorers, and worldly adventurers. Increasingly, too, scholarship has begun to recognize that North America’s pluralistic literary heritage from this period includes writing in languages other than English, from New Spain and New France, as well as mediated transcripts of indigenous oral traditions. Moreover, in the light of present-day interest in “green” and gender-linked themes, works such as William Bartram’s nature-suffused Travels through Southern climes, or Mary Rowlandson’s Narrative of her captivity and restoration, have drawn renewed attention.

• colonial devotional poetry
• nature writing in colonial America
• political writing on the verge of Revolution
• William Bradford
• Thomas Morton
• Edward Taylor
• Anne Bradstreet
• William Bartram
• Ben Franklin
• Thomas Jefferson

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An Emerging Identity: Ruling Colonial America

When we look across the United States today, we see a vast array of different cultures and identities trying to coexist as Americans under one banner and national creed of ideals. The origins of these beliefs trace themselves back hundreds of years to our colonial brethren. But as we often prefer to identify with our local customs and often proudly recite our loyalties to our home states, this is not something inherently new. Colonists, too, viewed themselves in the regional sense long before there was any call for a continental identity. And as a result, colonial governors were often products of these environments that were dependent on local interests above those of neighboring colonies. 

To peel back these layers, we must first recall how the colonies came to be. Many of the earliest settlements, such as Roanoke and Jamestown, were given charters by the British Crown to establish a foothold in the middle-Atlantic region. The Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts, were different. The Pilgrims came not for the Crown, but to escape the religious extremism they believed the Church of England was pushing on Puritans. They were also less interested in developing large plantations than their southern-European relatives. Smaller farms were preferable in the north while the climate and soils in the southern regions allowed for large plantations to develop. The simple difference here helps us understand how the regional identities of North and South would emerge in the coming decades and centuries. 

By the 1670s, the eastern regions of North America had established several colonies that began to differ in identity. Coastal ports were emerging and establishing forms of merchant commerce, and various European ethnic groups had formed autonomous communities. Virginia and Maryland had become the epicenter of English influence while Swedish immigrants settled in New Jersey and along the Delaware River. The Dutch had claimed Manhattan Island as New Amsterdam, and New England saw encroaching white colonists further into the unexplored continental interior. Contact with Native Americans had existed since the very first colonists landed in the New World. These interactions wildly varied depending on a combination of factors: how each side interpreted the motives and actions of the other, and whether leaders of each side sought a peaceful coexistence or one of eliminating the other from the land. When William Penn first settled Philadelphia in the 1680s, he sought to impose laws that forbid white settlers from claiming Native lands without legal consent. Unfortunately, Penn’s absence for an extended period of time did nothing to convince the settlers to follow his suggestion. 

Since London saw the advantage by the mid-seventeenth-century in encouraging settlers to colonize the eastern portions of North America, it was quickly able to lay claim over much of the territory. Other European nations, such as France and Spain, were far more committed to their economic holdings in the Caribbean. Make no mistake, the British, too, shared this view of her own Caribbean interests. But the genie was out of the bottle, and the more success that came from white settlements in North America, the more Europeans that came. Naturally, as communities developed, leaders were put forth to organize the common good and establish societal structures that would protect the interests of the Crown and the people. However, English authority over the existing colonies did not become paramount until the early eighteenth century. And even as it did, that does not mean the colonists emulated everything from the Old World. In fact, because many had come to the New World to escape the old one, they often only carried with them what they liked about the old one. This reciprocated feeling among early American colonists saw an autonomous spirit in governance; one that took English common law and new modes, such as natural law, and combined them to form a diverse, widespread belief in localized control over towns and communities. Where London came in was to provide a top-down monarchial overseer to ensure continued allegiance to what the Crown dictated. This arrangement would largely go untested until the 1760s. 

Every colony was different in how its government was structured and functioned. Some, such as Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, were much more localized and less concentrated to a central governing power. Colonial assemblies, and sometimes governor’s councils, presided over government duties while local court systems served at the pleasure of the Royal Governor, who was appointed directly by the King. Other colonies, such as Virginia, held more centralized assemblies, like the House of Burgesses, that reflected the plantation gentry who would become the first American aristocracies. Their responsibilities all varied depending on how the colony’s government was structured; however, ultimate authority was vested in the governor’s hands because they were a direct line to the British Crown.

In times of war or unrest, it was the colonial governors who effectively served as the chief executives (think the role of the president) to marshal a militia or issue proclamations that would call on the citizenry to respond. One of the most trying reoccurrences throughout the colonial era was the continued wars with Native American groups along the outskirts of the colonies. Most of the colonies had been granted land proclamations that extended deep into unknown areas west of where most colonists resided. Their claims were royally issued, but this did nothing to appease Native Americans who continually sought to resist encroachment by the Europeans. In some cases, treaties were established, but they were often ignored or broken by land-hungry white settlers or disgruntled bands of Native warriors out to scare them off. Many instances in the first decades of the eighteenth century, particularly in Massachusetts and Virginia, saw the real threat facing the coexistence between the two sides as deadly conflict increased. Even after the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763, and with the proclamation that effectively created a western boundary along the Appalachians, settlers continued to move west and confront resistance among Native groups. 

As tensions between some colonists and British authority increased in the 1760s, colonial governors sought to squash any forms of rebellion or lawlessness. Remember, these were politicians loyal to the King. One such lieutenant governor, Thomas Hutchinson of Massachusetts, came to see how far some of the mob were willing to go. Rioters broke into his house in 1765 over his refusal to denounce the Stamp Act , chased his family out, and destroyed everything they could. Unfortunately for Hutchinson, his superior had left him in charge while he made the case in London, and his trying to straddle the growing calls from Boston for rebellion with British authority provided him no apparent outcome for success. He was eventually replaced by a military governor, British Gen. Thomas Gage , in 1774. 

Further south, another colonial governor with sympathies for the Crown tried to stave off rebellion within his colony. The illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin , New Jersey’s governor William Franklin , had been quite popular among the citizens of his colony. Even as events began to spiral relations with the mother country, Franklin held the trust of his people, many of whom were staunch supporters of the Crown and considered themselves British subjects. This all changed when private letters revealed that Franklin had been secretly conspiring to undermine and spy on Patriot meetings in the colony. Further, when his father returned from London in 1776 as a devoted Patriot, Franklin remained an outspoken supporter of the King. New Jersey patriots were outraged, and newly elected members of the colonial assembly placed him under arrest. He would remain in custody until released on a prisoner exchange in 1778. He then moved to New York City – the British army garrison and headquarters of commander in chief Sir Henry Clinton . Franklin worked for the next three years to inspire Loyalist uprisings throughout New Jersey. He would leave for England in 1782, never to return, and never to mend his relationship with his father.

Virginia also saw its last colonial governor exercise his powers to retain British authority over the colony. As Virginian assemblymen became more outspoken in their alliance with Massachusetts, royal authority became at odds and often dangerous to their movements. The royal governor, Lord Dunmore , who had recently concluded his warring with Native American groups in modern-day West Virginia, tried several methods to defuse the situation in Virginia. However, when he attempted to disarm the militia, it triggered a violent response that forced a wounded Dunmore to take refuge on a ship anchored in the York River. From there, he directed loyalists to sack and raid the plantations and homes of rebel leaders. He also famously issued his “Proclamation” that called for all slaves to abandon their masters and plantations and join the British army to fight against the rebels. In November and December, he commanded his Ethiopian Regiment in two battles; though the regiment was soon disbanded because its numbers were devastated by smallpox. Dunmore’s final assault on Virginia came on the first day of 1776, where he ordered the torching of Norfolk. He left for England soon after. 

These few examples show how allegiances radically changed in the 1770s among citizens and government authorities. In some cases, elections changed the identity of its council members overnight from one side of the political battle to the other. Recall, as the Revolution approached, the colonists themselves were divided on the issue. As John Adams famously declared, only about a third of the colonists favored independence. Another third wanted to remain British subjects while the last third of colonists were indifferent and tried to remain out of the conflict altogether. For some, the rise of Patriot hostility toward the British Crown seemed like anarchy and disloyalty. It was the responsibility of colonial governors to mend these fractions and try to strike a balance between a colonist’s right to protest and assemble while suppressing legitimate concerns for rebellion. By 1774 and 1775, these fears overlapped onto many perceived natural rights. Royal governors and their allies actively suppressed, where they could, patriot assemblies and petitions declaring their grievances with British taxation and aggression. But as the colonies grew closer to declaring independence, it became impossible for royal governors to remain in power. All were ousted, and their royal governments disbanded and replaced with American state governments as the Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. 

It can be lost on us today how the emerging identities of the colonies reflect current similarities and differences within the individual states of the country. As regional influences often dictated local and continental interactions then, so too, as they do today. How we should view colonial governors can largely be found in how we view our state’s governors today. Many current governors retain much of the authority given to royal governors in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 debated the size and shape of the executive branch in the new federal government, all delegates were picking and choosing what worked and what hadn’t with the former colonial governors. If we are to understand how the role of the president was originally intended, and what the office was created to do – and unable to do – we can study the many governors of the British American colonies and their interactions with colonial assemblies and legislative bodies, their role in interpreting judicial precedence, and how rather than answering to a monarch, future embodiments would answer to the people. 

Further Reading:

• The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution : Bernard Bailyn
•   The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790 : Rhys Isaac
• Major Problems in American Colonial History :  Karen Ordahl Kupperman
•   Liberty and Authority: Early American Political Ideology, 1689-1763 :  Lawrence H. Leder
•   The Social Structure of Revolutionary America : Jackson Turner Main
•   Seventeenth-Century America: Essays on Colonial History : James Morton Smith

Echoes of Courage: Folk Music’s Ties to America's Wars

Answers to Questions Kids Ask About the Revolutionary War

"Negro, Mulatto, or Indian man slave[s]": African Americans in the Rhode Island Regiments, 1775-1783

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• American Academy of Arts and Sciences - American literature: a vanishing subject?
• Miami Dade College - Learning Resources - American Literature & Culture: American Literature
• Academia - An Outline of History of American Literature
• Eastern Connecticut State University - American Literature after the Civil War
• Library of Congress - Books That Shaped America - 1850 to 1900
• The University of Regina OEP Program - A Guide to Making Open Textbooks with Students - Case Study: Expanding the Open Anthology of Earlier American Literature
• PBS LearningMedia - For Teachers - Harlem in the 1920s | The African Americans
• Poetry Foundation - U.S. Latinx Voices in Poetry
• American literature - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• American literature - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

This history of American literature begins with the arrival of English-speaking Europeans in what would become the United States. At first American literature was naturally a colonial literature, by authors who were Englishmen and who thought and wrote as such. John Smith , a soldier of fortune, is credited with initiating American literature. His chief books included A True Relation of…Virginia… (1608) and The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624). Although these volumes often glorified their author , they were avowedly written to explain colonizing opportunities to Englishmen. In time, each colony was similarly described: Daniel Denton’s Brief Description of New York (1670), William Penn ’s Brief Account of the Province of Pennsylvania (1682), and Thomas Ashe’s Carolina (1682) were only a few of many works praising America as a land of economic promise.

Such writers acknowledged British allegiance , but others stressed the differences of opinion that spurred the colonists to leave their homeland. More important, they argued questions of government involving the relationship between church and state . The attitude that most authors attacked was jauntily set forth by Nathaniel Ward of Massachusetts Bay in The Simple Cobler of Aggawam in America (1647). Ward amusingly defended the status quo and railed at colonists who sponsored newfangled notions. A variety of counterarguments to such a conservative view were published. John Winthrop ’s Journal (written 1630–49) told sympathetically of the attempt of Massachusetts Bay Colony to form a theocracy—a state with God at its head and with its laws based upon the Bible . Later defenders of the theocratic ideal were Increase Mather and his son Cotton . William Bradford ’s History of Plymouth Plantation (through 1646) showed how his pilgrim Separatists broke completely with Anglicanism. Even more radical than Bradford was Roger Williams , who, in a series of controversial pamphlets, advocated not only the separation of church and state but also the vesting of power in the people and the tolerance of different religious beliefs.

The utilitarian writings of the 17th century included biographies, treatises , accounts of voyages, and sermons. There were few achievements in drama or fiction , since there was a widespread prejudice against these forms. Bad but popular poetry appeared in the Bay Psalm Book of 1640 and in Michael Wigglesworth ’s summary in doggerel verse of Calvinistic belief, The Day of Doom (1662). There was some poetry, at least, of a higher order. Anne Bradstreet of Massachusetts wrote some lyrics published in The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650), which movingly conveyed her feelings concerning religion and her family. Ranked still higher by modern critics is a poet whose works were not discovered and published until 1939: Edward Taylor , an English-born minister and physician who lived in Boston and Westfield, Massachusetts. Less touched by gloom than the typical Puritan, Taylor wrote lyrics that showed his delight in Christian belief and experience.

All 17th-century American writings were in the manner of British writings of the same period. John Smith wrote in the tradition of geographic literature , Bradford echoed the cadences of the King James Bible , while the Mathers and Roger Williams wrote bejeweled prose typical of the day. Anne Bradstreet’s poetic style derived from a long line of British poets, including Spenser and Sidney, while Taylor was in the tradition of such Metaphysical poet s as George Herbert and John Donne . Both the content and form of the literature of this first century in America were thus markedly English.

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Collection George Washington Papers

The colonial period.

A timeline from George Washington's birth through his marriage and early career, 1731/32-1773.

February 22, George Washington is born to Augustine and Mary (Ball) Washington at Wakefield Farm, Westmoreland County, Virginia. George Washington to Isaac Heard, May 2, 1792, on the Washington family genealogy

*1731 by the Old (Julian) Calendar, 1732 by the New (Gregorian) Calendar. The New Calendar was adopted by Great Britain and the colonies in 1752. To bring the calendar in line with the solar year, it added 11 days and began the new year in January rather than March. Tobias Lear, secretary to Washington, to Clement Biddle, February 14, 1790, on the new calendar and Washington's birthday

Begins career as surveyor in a venture to the Shenandoah Valley on behalf of prominent Virginia landowner, Lord Thomas Fairfax. Accompanies James Genn, surveyor for Prince William county, and George William Fairfax, the son of Lord Fairfax.

November 1753

Leads Virginia expedition to challenge French claims to the Allegheny River Valley.

April-May 1754

Leads Virginia forces against French at Fort Duquesne in the upper Ohio River Valley. Builds Fort Necessity at Great Meadows, Pennsylvania.

May 27, 1754

Defeats French scouting party but is subsequently forced to surrender Fort Necessity after brief battle.

October 1754

Washington resigns commission when Virginia colonial forces are reduced to separate autonomous companies.

Appointed volunteer aide de camp to British General Edward Braddock and marches with him and British regulars against the French at Fort Duquesne. In pursuit of formal military education, Washington copies many of Braddock's general orders into one of his letterbooks. Letterbook

July 9, 1755

British defeated by French at Monongahela River and Braddock killed. Despite defeat, Washington achieves recognition in official circles for bravery under fire. George Washington to his mother, Mary Ball Washington, [July 18], 1755

August 1755

Appointed, with rank of colonel, commander of reorganized Virginia colonial forces. Is responsible for defending a 350-mile frontier.

September 1, 1758

Frustrated by inadequate supplies and support from colonial assembly and royal governor, Robert Dinwiddie, Washington writes Speaker of the House, John Robinson, with his complaints. George Washington to John Robinson, September 1, 1758 .

November 1758

Commands 700 men from four colonies as part of force that defeats the French and finally captures Fort Duquesne. The British force is led by General John Forbes.

Shortly thereafter, resigns commission as commander of Virginia colonial forces to attend to Mount Vernon and private affairs.

Elected to a term in House of Burgesses from Frederick County in the Shenandoah Valley.

January 6, 1759

Marries Martha Dandridge Custis, widow of Daniel Parke Custis. Washington assumes parental care of her children, Martha ("Patsy") and John Parke ("Jacky").

1759-mid - '70s

Acquires additional lands near Mount Vernon and in the Ohio Valley. Diversifies agricultural production to include wheat as well as tobacco and reduces debts to British tobacco merchants. Expands and remodels house at Mount Vernon.

Begins fifteen years service in Virginia House of Burgesses from Frederick County in the Shenandoah Valley; in 1765 and thereafter from Fairfax County.

June 19, 1773

Martha ("Patsy") Custis, Washington's stepdaughter, dies of epilepsy.

ENGL201: American Literature I

07/01/2018 to 12/31/2199 • Modified 08/08/2024 Request Info

Course Description

A survey from the early Colonial period through the American Renaissance. Two critical papers are required.

Next Start Date*

August 19, 2024

LUOA Equivalent Course*

Program Restrictions*

Prerequisite Requirements*

All of the following:

High School Diploma Requirements*

English 201 provides an opportunity for students to explore and analyze some of the more significant works of American literature.  Through studying and writing about the literature, students will discover the connection between historical, philosophical, and religious views expressed by the authors of this period.

Course Assignment

Textbook readings and lecture presentations/notes

Course Requirements Checklist

After reading the Course Syllabus and  Student Expectations , the student will complete the related checklist found in the Course Overview.

Discussions (2)

Discussions are collaborative learning experiences. Therefore, the student will create a thread in response to the provided prompt for each discussion. Each thread must demonstrate course-related knowledge. In addition to the thread, the student will reply to at least 1 classmate’s thread. For Discussion: American Literature from a Christian Worldview, the thread must be 250–300 words and the reply must be 200–250 words. For Discussion: Reflection, the thread must be 250–300 words and the reply must be 150–200 words. Both the thread and the reply must demonstrate correct, formal writing style. (CLO: 1, 6; CT 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

This step in the writing process will help the student to map out their ideas, develop organization, and ensure that they are on the right track. The student will develop a one-sentence thesis statement and outline for each essay. The student must plan for their thesis statement to be the last sentence of the intro paragraph. The thesis and outline should address one of the prompts from the essay instructions.

Essay: The Colonial Period Assignment

The student will compose a 750-word critical analysis essay (3–4 pages). The essay must focus on the colonial period of American literature that is covered in the course. The essay must include a title page, thesis statement, and outline followed by the essay and a correctly documented works cited page. The essay must include two (2) or more secondary, scholarly sources. The student will have the opportunity to receive instructor feedback by submitting the thesis and outline prior to the essay. (CLO: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; CT 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Essay: The Age of Reason/Revolutionary Period Assignment

The student will compose a 750-word critical analysis essay (3–4 pages) that focuses on the Age of Reason/Revolutionary Period of American Literature covered in the course. The essay must include a title page, thesis statement, and outline followed by the essay and a correctly documented works cited page. The essay must include two (2) or more secondary, scholarly sources. The student will have the opportunity to receive instructor feedback by submitting the thesis and outline prior to the essay. (CLO: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; CT 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Essay: The American Renaissance/Romantic Period Assignment

The student will compose a final paper of at least 1,200 words (4–5 pages) that incorporates a minimum of three (3) secondary, scholarly sources. The paper must have a title page, thesis statement, and outline followed by the paper and a correctly documented works cited page. The student will have the opportunity to receive instructor feedback by submitting the thesis and outline prior to the research paper. (CLO: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; CT 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Practice Quizzes (3)

In the module before each quiz, the student will take a Practice Quiz (Practice Quiz: The Colonial Period, Practice Quiz: The Age of Reason/Revolutionary Period, and Practice Quiz: The American Renaissance/Romantic Period) that will help him/her prepare for the subsequent quiz. Each Practice Quiz will be open-book/open-notes; consist of 16 multiple-choice and true/false; and have a 1-hour time limit. The student may take each Practice Quiz as many times as he/she likes until the due date. The final attempt will be counted toward the final grade. (CLO: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6; CT 1, 5)

Quizzes (3)

The student will take 3 quizzes (Quiz: The Colonial Period, Quiz: The Age of Reason/Revolutionary Period, and Quiz: The American Renaissance/Romantic Period). Each quiz will be open-book/open-notes; consist of 40 multiple-choice, true/false, and reading comprehension questions; and have a 1-hour time limit. Unlike the Practice Quiz, the student may only take each quiz once. (CLO: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6; CT 1, 5)

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