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Computer Organization And Architecture

Coa tutorial.

The computer organization and architecture ( COA )  is one of the most important and comprehensive subject that includes many foundational concepts and knowledge used in the design of a computer system.

The COA also continues to be the most important part of the syllabus for computer science courses across all universities and also for various competitive examinations.  

This tutorial is specially designed for absolute beginners to study all the relevant topics related to computer organization and architecture .

The COA important topics include all the fundamental concepts such as computer system functional units , processor micro architecture , program instructions, instruction formats , addressing modes , instruction pipelining, memory organization , instruction cycle , interrupts, instruction set architecture ( ISA ) and other important related topics.  

Let us first start with simple introduction to the computer architecture.  

COA Table Of Contents

• Introduction To COA .

What Is Computer Architecture ?

What is computer organization .

• Computer Architecture Block Diagram ?
• Computer System Functional Units.
• Computer Input Unit.
• Computer Output Unit.
• Central Processing Unit ( CPU ).
• Control Unit ( CU ).
• Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU ).
• Memory Unit ( MU ).
• CPU Registers.
• Computer Hardware.
• Computer Software.
• Application Software.
• System Software.
• Memory Organization.
• Instruction Cycle.
• Instruction Pipelining.
• Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA ).
• Instruction Format.
• Instruction Addressing Modes.
• Interrupts.
• Interrupt Types.
• Computer Bus System.
• Binary Number System.

In order to understand the term computer architecture , let us first discuss what is an architecture. The term architecture can be defined as an art and science of designing an object.

We generally relate the term architecture with the building because the building is one of the most common object in the human world. The architecture helps us to define the functional , physical and the performance  standards for any object.

Every object in the real world is based on some architecture. For example an architect will define the building in terms of building drawings and specifications for various building components.

Similarly , the system architecture defines various functional units of the computer system and how these units are interconnected and performance standards. It defines the system performance specifications and what system should achieve in terms of performance.

In simple words , the computer architecture is all about computer system design details expressed in terms of functional units and interconnection between these units.

The computer architecture helps us define the functional capabilities and the requirements for the computer system. The system architecture is a high level design specification that does not specify any specify details of the hardware components.

The computer architecture gives an abstracted view of the structure of various functional units and its behaviour.

In order to build a computer system , the first step is to design and develop the  system architecture. The next step in the system design process is to finalize the computer organization details.

Let us first understand the meaning of term organization in the context of computers. The term organization is defined as arranging , classifying things together logically to maximize the functional convenience.

The computer organization is based on the computer architecture. The computer organization implements the system architecture.

In simple words , the computer organization is all about organizing various system hardware components and how these components are interconnected.

The computer organization describe the details of the various hardware components related to the various functional units present in the system.

The computer organization deals with the arrangement of various system hardware components and the function performed by the components.

The computer organization defines the existence of various functional units and its components . It also defines the interaction between various functional component.

The computer organization defines the structure and behaviour of the digital computers. The main objective of the computer organization is to understand the various computer hardware components and the interaction between these components.

Difference Between Computer Architecture And Computer Organization

In general the terms “computer organization” and “computer architecture” are often used interchangeably. However, they can be distinguished by the following characteristics:

Computer Architecture

Computer architecture refers to the design and organization of computer systems, including their components and how they interact with each other. It encompasses both the hardware and software aspects of a computer system. Computer architecture defines the structure, functionality, and behavior ( Performance Standard ) of a computer system, enabling the execution of programs and the processing of data.

Computer architecture can be classified into different types. For example, von Neumann architecture, which is based on the concept of a stored-program computer, and more specialized architectures like Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) or Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC).

It also encompasses concepts like instruction pipelining, memory hierarchy, and multiprocessing, which further enhance system performance and functionality.

Computer architecture is concerned with the broader design principles and conceptual structure of a computer system. It encompassing both hardware and software aspects to achieve the desired level of system performance.

2. Level of Abstraction

It deals with a higher level of abstraction compared to computer organization. It focuses on the organization and behavior of the system in terms of system performance as seen by software developers and how it supports the execution of programs.

3. Instruction Set Design

Computer architecture defines the instruction set architecture (ISA), which specifies the set of instructions, addressing modes, and data types that a computer system supports.

4. Performance Evaluation

It involves evaluating and comparing different architectural designs based on performance metrics like execution time, throughput, and energy efficiency.

5. Examples

Examples of topics studied in computer architecture include instruction set design, pipelining, memory hierarchy, parallel processing, virtual memory, and overall system performance.

Computer Organization

Computer organization deals with the physical and implementation details of a computer system , focusing on the hardware components and their interconnections. On the other hand, computer architecture focuses on the conceptual design and structure of the system, considering both hardware and software aspects. It aims to optimize system performance and functionality.

Computer organization primarily concerns itself with the physical aspects of a computer system and how the hardware components are interconnected and operate together.

2. Level of Detail

It deals with the low-level details of a computer system, such as the design and organization of individual hardware components, circuits, and logic gates.

3. Implementation

Computer organization is concerned with the implementation details of a computer system architecture, including the design of registers, buses, memory systems, and Input and Output interfaces.

4. Performance Optimization

It aims to optimize the performance of the computer system by considering factors like clock speed, latency, bandwidth, and hardware-level optimizations.

Examples of topics studied in computer organization include CPU design, memory systems, cache hierarchies, bus protocols, and I/O subsystems.

Computer System Functional Units

In computer organization and architecture , the computer system can be classified into number of functional units. This classification is based on the specific function performed in the computer system.

The basic functional units ( operational Units ) of a computer system include following units.

• 1. Input Unit.
• 2. Central Processing Unit ( CPU ).
• 3. Control Unit ( CU ).
• 4. Arithmetic And Logic Unit ( ALU ).
• 5. Output Unit.

Computer System Input Unit

The main function of the input unit is to provide the data that will be operated by the CPU as per the program instructions.

The most commonly used input devices for any general purpose computer system include keyboard and mouse. However , computer can also accept the input from other input devices such as camera , scanner and mike.  

The computer system can accept the input from number of input devices such as keyboard , scanner , camera , mouse or any other input devices connected to the computer system.

Input Devices

Output Unit

Computer system output unit.

The main function of the output unit is to present the data to the user that is processed by the CPU as per the program instructions.

The most commonly used output devices for any general purpose computer system include display monitor , speaker and printer. However , computer can also send the output to other output devices such as projector, speaker and disk memory.  

The computer system can send the output to number of output devices such as display monitor , printer , projector , speaker or any other output devices connected to the computer system.

Output Devices

Micro-processor

Central processing unit ( cpu ).

The central processing unit ( CPU ) is said to be the brain of the computer system. It is the CPU that provides the processing power to the computer.

The CPU internally consist of three important units. These three units are control unit , Arithmetic And Logic Unit and memory unit. These three units together are referred as CPU.

The main function of the CPU is to execute the computer program. The CPU executes the program by fetching program instruction one by one from the main memory ( RAM ).

The control unit of the CPU decodes these instructions and performs the desired arithmetic and logical operations.

The CPU executes the program instruction by repetitively performing the instruction cycle . The Instruction cycle consist of four steps that include Fetch , Decode , Execute And Store.

What Is Central Processing Unit ?

Control Unit

Computer system control unit ( cu ).

The control unit ( CU ) is an important component of the central processing unit. The control unit of the CPU is responsible to control the working of all the hardware components connected to the system.

In other words , the main function of the control unit is to direct the various operations performed by the computer system. The control units transmit the control signals that directs the hardware components to perform specific operations.

The control unit  of the CPU is also responsible to decode the program instructions fetched from the memory. The CU decodes the program instruction as per the instruction format.

The CU after the decode operation directs the arithmetic and logic unit ( ALU ) of the CPU to perform the desired operation as per the Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA ) of the CPU.

What Is Control Unit ?

CPU Control Unit

Arithmetic And Logic Unit

Computer system arithmetic and logic unit ( alu ).

The arithmetic logic unit ( ALU )  is the  mathematical brain of the computer placed inside the processor chip ( Central Processing Unit ).

The ALU essentially performs all the arithmetic and the logic operations performed by the CPU. It is the ALU that actually operates on the data.

The CPU initiates the program execution by fetching the program instructions from the main memory ( RAM ) . The control unit of the CPU decodes the instruction and directs the ALU to perform the desired operation on the data.

The ALU is an essential fundamental component of many digital computing circuits and also for all central processing unit CPU.

In order to operate on the data , the ALU perform three types of operations. The ALU operations include arithmetic , logical and shift operations.

What Is Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU ) ?

Memory Unit

Computer system memory unit ( mu ).

The main function of the memory unit is to store the data. The computer system memory unit consist of different types of memory.

The computer system memory can be grouped into two basic types that is primary and secondary memory.

The primary memory ( main memory RAM ) is called temporary or volatile memory. The secondary memory ( disk memory) is called permanent or non-volatile memory.

Different types of  memory used in a computer system are organized in a hierarchical order in order to optimize the system performance.

The CPU executes the program instructions at very high speed. Whereas the data transfer from the main memory RAM to the CPU is relatively slow.

And therefore , high speed cache memory is placed between the CPU and main memory RAM. The CPU stores the frequently used data into the cache memory that can be accessed at high speed as compared to the RAM.

The CPU also makes use of another very high speed memory called CPU registers built right inside the processor chip.

The processor micro-architecture consist of number of very high speed internal memory inside the CPU called registers .

The processor internally use different types of registers at different stages of the instruction cycle during the program execution.

Computer Memory Unit

CPU Registers

In processor micro architecture, the CPU registers are vary high speed memory placed inside the processor chip. In memory hierarchy , the register is the smallest in size but has the highest data access speed.

Depending upon the processor architecture , the CPU can have number of registers. The registers are used by the CPU during the execution of program instructions.

The registers plays an important role during the execution of instruction cycle performed by the CPU.

CPU Registers Example

Intel 8085 architecture registers.

The registers are high speed temporary memory area built into the processor chip. The registers are integral part of every processor internal memory unit.

The registers provide very high data access speed that is much faster than the cache memory. And therefore , the registers are used by the processor as temporary memory during the program execution.

What Are CPU Registers ?

Intel 8085 Registers

Computer Hardware

In computer architecture , the computer hardware are the physical components either connected inside the computer cabinet or connected externally.

The main function of the hardware components is execute the operation as directed by the CPU. The hardware system components can be electronic , electrical or mechanical components.

The computer hardware components can be electronic components such as motherboard , processor , display monitor , storage disk and main memory RAM.

The computer hardware components can also be electrical components such as power supply unit SMPS and electrical wires used to supply electric supply.

The hardware components also include mechanical parts such as computer cabinet where internal system components are assembled and interconnected.

The hardware components are driven by a system software called device driver . The operating system communicates with hardware through device driver.

What Is Computer Hardware ?

Computer Software

The computer software and hardware are two essential components of the computer system.

The software is designed to direct the computer to perform specific operations. Whereas , the computer hardware actually executes the program instructions to perform the desired operation.

A software is simply a computer program or a group of programs created for the purpose of providing a specific service. A software can be written in any programming language such as C language , Java , Python or any other language.

For example , we use MS word for creating documents , web browsers for browsing the internet , media players for watching video contents and so on.

In computer architecture , the computer system essentially make use of two types of software. The first type of software is called an application software and the second type is called a system software.

What Is Computer Software ?

Application Software

In computer architecture , the application software is designed and developed to allow the system user to perform various tasks on the  computer.

The application software provides an interface to the user to use the computer for various applications. The user can install various application software on computer as per the user requirements.

For example , we use accounting software to perform accounting work . Similarly , each application software has specific purpose to provide service to the user.

What Is Application Software ?

System Software

In computer architecture , the system software works as an interface between the operating system and the hardware components.

The operating system communicates with hardware component through a special software called a device driver . The computer system also needs other system software essential to perform some important functions.

The system software is used by the computer itself to communicate and control various hardware components connected to the computer.

The operating system is also a type of system software that is essential for every computer system . The operating system handles all the crucial functions and the system resources.

What Is System Software ?

Computer Memory Organization

The memory unit is another important functional unit present in the computer organization and architecture. The computer memory is a finite resource that is managed by the operating system ( OS ).

The computer memory is used to store the data and the program instructions. In computer system , the random access memory ( RAM )  is considered to be the primary memory ( main memory ).

The primary memory RAM is a temporary ( volatile ) memory and the  secondary disk memory is referred as permanent ( non-volatile ) memory.

In computer architecture , the memory is divided into large number of memory cells ( block ). The computer memory is linear and organized as series of group of bits ( 8 Bits = 1 Byte ) called byte .

A single block of memory consist of eight bits ( 8 Bits ) that is equal to one byte ( 1 Byte ). Each byte in the computer memory represents a unique memory location with unique memory address .

The computer memory is also organized as word addressable memory. In computer organization, the term word is defined as group bits ( 8 Bits , 16 Bits , 32 Bits ) that can be transferred simultaneously between the CPU and main memory RAM.

The word size in memory organization defined the number of bits that can be processed together in a single CPU operation.

Instruction Cycle

The main function of the central processing unit ( CPU ) is to execute the program. The computer program consist of number of instructions . These instructions direct the computer to perform the desired operations.

In order to execute the program , the operating system allocates the necessary resources. The operating system loads the program instructions along with associated data into the main memory RAM.

The CPU initiates the program execution by fetching the data and instructions from the main memory RAM. The CPU execution mechanism is called instruction cycle.

The instruction cycle is the basic operation of the CPU which essentially consist of  which essentially consist of sequence of three operations. These three operations include fetch , decode and execute .

The CPU repetitively performs the   instruction cycle to perform various operations as per the program instructions. The instruction cycle internally consist of another CPU operation called machine cycle .

The CPU operations and the instruction cycle is synchronized by the stream of clock signals. The clock signals are generated by the timing and control signal generator of the control unit .

CPU Instruction Cycle

Instruction Pipelining

Instruction Pipeline Architecture

The processor chip manufacturing companies have to constantly innovate the new technology and the microprocessor design in order to improve the processor performance.

In computer architecture, the instruction pipelining is a technique used that helps to utilize the processing power of the CPU. The instruction pipelining aims to significantly improve the CPU performance.

The computer program consist of multiple instructions. The CPU repetitively performs the instruction cycle to execute the program instructions.

The instruction cycle is executed in four stages or operations . These four operations are fetch , decode , execute and store. Each stage is designed to perform a certain part of the instruction  cycle  .

The instruction pipelining technique allows the processor to concurrently execute different stages of the instruction cycle for multiple instructions.

Instruction Non-Pipeline Architecture

The pipelined concurrent execution of the instructions allows  the processor to simultaneously initiate the execution of multiple instructions.

In simpler CPUs, the instruction cycle is executed sequentially.  The CPU executes each instruction one by one. Such sequential execution is referred as non-pipelined architecture.

However , In  most  modern  processors use the pipelining technology which allows the CPU to simultaneously execute more number of instructions.   

In instruction pipelined architecture , the next instruction processing  starts even  before  the  previous instruction  has finished. This  results into  improved  CPU  performance.

Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA )

In computer organization and architecture , the instruction set architecture ( ISA ) is defined as a set of binary commands supported by the processor chip.

Each processor chip design is based on the specific Instruction set architecture ( ISA ). The ISA merely defines the set of operations that must be supported by the CPU that implements a specific ISA.

The ISA does not specify the details of its implementation inside the processor chip. Rather , the ISA only specify the capability of the processor in terms of binary operations performed by the processor.

For example , you will find many processor that implement x86 ISA . However , each processor can have different ISA implementation despite being based on the same x86 architecture.

The instruction set architecture ( ISA ) also defines the maximum length of the program statement. And therefore , the implementation of the ISA, the statement length is restricted within maximum permissible limit.  

Similarly , the ISA also defines the instruction format for different types of instructions. The instruction format defines how the entire instruction is encoded within the specified instruction format.

The processor micro-architecture is referred to the actual implementation of the ISA into the processor chip. The micro-architecture defines the performance and the efficiency of the processor design.

Instruction Format

The CPU is responsible to execute the program. However, the CPU can decode and execute only machine instructions in the binary format.

And therefore , all computer programs written in any high level programming language must be first converted machine instruction .

During the program compilation stage, the compiler converts the high level program instructions into low level standard machine instructions in a specific format. This standard machine instruction format is defined as “ Instruction Format ”.

These machine instructions can be directly decoded and executed by the processor. The instruction format defines the pattern of bits that consist of three parts.

Each part of the instruction format directs the CPU while decoding the program instructions. The instruction format consist of addressing mode , operation code ( OPCODE ) and the data ( OPERAND ).

The addressing mode helps to decode location of the data , the OPCODE specify the operation to be performed and the OPERAND specify the integer data value.

What Is Instruction Format ?

Addressing Modes

Instruction Format Addressing Modes

In simple words , the addressing mode is the field ( single bit ) in the instruction format that directs the processor regarding how to locate the data that is to be operated by the CPU.

The addressing mode is represented by a single bit in the instruction format. It provides the information about the operand whether it contains either the data or address of the data.

In microprocessor architecture,  the instruction format is a standard machine instruction format that CPU can decode and execute.

Depending upon the instruction type , the pattern of bits in the machine instruction format consist of three parts.

The first part indicates the addressing mode , the second part OPCODE specifies the operation to be performed and the third part OPERAND either data or address of the data.

the addressing mode for the machine instruction specifies the rules for the CPU while operating on the OPERAND .

The addressing mode part of the machine instruction format  allows to specify whether the OPERAND value is a direct data Or It is an indirect referencing.

If the addressing mode specified is indirect  then the OPERAND contains a memory address that points to the actual data. However , If the addressing mode specified is direct   then the OPERAND contains the actual data .

The machine code instruction format can use different types of addressing mode depending upon the type of the instruction and the processor architecture.

Interrupts In COA

Hardware and software interrupts.

In computer architecture , the interrupts are defined as signals ( service call ) sent to the processor either by the hardware components or by the software to seek the processor response.

The interrupt signals generated by the hardware is called as hardware interrupt . Whereas, the interrupt signals generated by the program is called as software interrupt ( also called as traps ).

The interrupt events or signals are called interrupt because these events  prompts the processor to pause the normal execution of the CPU instruction cycle and respond to the interrupt signal.

The processor response to the interrupt signals depends upon the priority and the type of interrupt.

The processor responds to an interrupt by pausing the current process execution and an interrupt service routine ISR ( also called as an interrupt handler ) is executed by the processor.

After executing the ISR, the processor then resumes its previous process after the service routine (  interrupt handler )  is executed in response to an interrupt signal.    

What Are Interrupts ?

Computer Bus

Computer Bus Architecture

In computer system architecture , the computer buses are defined as the wired connections that connect the CPU and various hardware components.

The computer buses are group of wires running across the computer system. The computer buses transfer data , control signals and memory address.

In order to execute the program , the CPU needs to communicate with main memory RAM and other hardware components. The computer system makes use of three types of buses which include data bus , control bus and address bus .

The CPU continuously perform the memory read and write operations. The data transfer take place using the data bus. The CPU also transmits control signals through control bus .

Similarly , the CPU communicates with the memory controller and the main memory ram using the address bus. The address bus is used to transfer the memory address required for memory read and write operations.

Binary Number System

In simple words , the number system is a system of counting. There are many number systems exist in mathematics. We are all familiar with decimal number that we use in our everyday life.

However , the computer and other digital devices do not understand the decimal number system. Rather , the computers can understand and execute only machine instructions in binary .

In mathematics and digital electronics, a binary number is a number system that uses only two numbers ( either zero 0   OR  one 1 ) to represents any number.

A computer system is a digital device. The micro processor ( CPU )  inside the computer functions as a system’s brain. The processor internally consist of millions of tiny components called transistor .

These transistors can be programmed to function like a micro switch that can be switched on or off . And therefore , the processor can execute commands represented only two states ( on or off ).

These two states can be easily represented in the binary. The binary commands use only two digits that is 0 ( zero ) and 1 ( one ).

Why Computer Use Binary Number System ?

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Bca full study material for mgkvp university, unit-1: basic computer organisation and design.

Computer organization refers to the operational unit and their interconnection that realise the architectural specification.

Computer organization deals with how different part of a computer are organised and how various operations are performed between different part to do a specific task.

The organization of the computer is defined by its internal registers ,timing and control structure ,and set of instruction that is uses.

Instruction & Instruction Codes

Instruction:-.

Computer instructions are a set of machine language instructions that a particular processor understands and executes. A computer performs tasks on the basis of the instruction provided.

An instruction comprises of groups called fields. These fields include:

• The Operation code (Opcode) field which specifies the operation to be performed.
• The Address field which contains the location of the operand, i.e., register or memory location.
• The Mode field which specifies how the operand will be located.

A basic computer has three instruction code formats which are:

Memory – reference instruction

Register – reference instruction

Input-Output instruction

In Memory-reference instruction, 12 bits of memory is used to specify an address and one bit to specify the addressing mode ‘I’.

The Register-reference instructions are represented by the Opcode 111 with a 0 in the leftmost bit (bit 15) of the instruction.

Note: The Operation code (Opcode) of an instruction refers to a group of bits that define arithmetic and logic operations such as add, subtract, multiply, shift, and compliment.

A Register-reference instruction specifies an operation on or a test of the AC (Accumulator) register.

Just like the Register-reference instruction, an Input-Output instruction does not need a reference to memory and is recognized by the operation code 111 with a 1 in the leftmost bit of the instruction. The remaining 12 bits are used to specify the type of the input-output operation or test performed.

• The three operation code bits in positions 12 through 14 should be equal to 111. Otherwise, the instruction is a memory-reference type, and the bit in position 15 is taken as the addressing mode I.
• When the three operation code bits are equal to 111, control unit inspects the bit in position 15. If the bit is 0, the instruction is a register-reference type. Otherwise, the instruction is an input-output type having bit 1 at position 15.

Instruction Set Completeness

A set of instructions is said to be complete if the computer includes a sufficient number of instructions in each of the following categories:

• Arithmetic, logical and shift instructions
• A set of instructions for moving information to and from memory and processor registers.
• Instructions which controls the program together with instructions that check status conditions.
• Input and Output instructions

Arithmetic, logic and shift instructions provide computational capabilities for processing the type of data the user may wish to employ.

A huge amount of binary information is stored in the memory unit, but all computations are done in processor registers. Therefore, one must possess the capability of moving information between these two units.

Program control instructions such as branch instructions are used change the sequence in which the program is executed.

Input and Output instructions act as an interface between the computer and the user. Programs and data must be transferred into memory, and the results of computations must be transferred back to the user.

Instruction Cycle

A program residing in the memory unit of a computer consists of a sequence of instructions. These instructions are executed by the processor by going through a cycle for each instruction.

In a basic computer, each instruction cycle consists of the following phases:

• Fetch instruction from memory.
• Decode the instruction.
• Read the effective address from memory.
• Execute the instruction.

Input-Output Configuration

In computer architecture, input-output devices act as an interface between the machine and the user.

Instructions and data stored in the memory must come from some input device. The results are displayed to the user through some output device.

The following block diagram shows the input-output configuration for a basic computer.

• The input-output terminals send and receive information.
• The amount of information transferred will always have eight bits of an alphanumeric code.
• The information generated through the keyboard is shifted into an input register ‘INPR’.
• The information for the printer is stored in the output register ‘OUTR’.
• Registers INPR and OUTR communicate with a communication interface serially and with the AC in parallel.
• The transmitter interface receives information from the keyboard and transmits it to INPR.
• The receiver interface receives information from OUTR and sends it to the printer serially.

Design of a Basic Computer

A basic computer consists of the following hardware components.

• A memory unit with 4096 words of 16 bits each
• Registers: AC (Accumulator), DR (Data register), AR (Address register), IR (Instruction register), PC (Program counter), TR (Temporary register), SC (Sequence Counter), INPR (Input register), and OUTR (Output register).
• Flip-Flops: I, S, E, R, IEN, FGI and FGO

Note: FGI and FGO are corresponding input and output flags which are considered as control flip-flops.

• Two decoders: a 3 x 8 operation decoder and 4 x 16 timing decoder
• A 16-bit common bus
• Control Logic Gates
• The Logic and Adder circuits connected to the input of AC.

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Chapter: Computer Programming

Basic computer organization.

BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION:

A standard fully featured desktop configuration has basically four types of featured devices

1. Input Devices   2. Output Devices                   3. Memory  4. Storage Devices

Introduction to CPU

§     CPU

§     The Arithmetic / Logic Unit (ALU)

§     The Control Unit

§     Main Memory

§     External Memory

§     Input / Output Devices

§     The System Bus

CPU OPERATION

The fundamental operation of most CPUs

- To execute a sequence of stored instructions called a program.

1.    The program is represented by a series of numbers that are kept in some kind of computer memory.

2.   There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: fetch, decode, execute, and write back.

o  Retrieving an instruction from program memory.

o  The location in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC)

o After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction word in terms of memory units.

1.The instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the CPU.

2.The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).

3.Opcode, indicates which operation to perform.

4.The remaining parts of the number usually provide information required for that instruction, such as operands for an addition operation.

5.Such operands may be given as a constant value or as a place to locate a value: a register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.

1.During this step, various portions of the CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation.

2.If, for instance, an addition operation was requested, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) will be connected to a set of inputs and a set of outputs.

3.The inputs provide the numbers to be added, and the outputs will contain the final sum.

4. If the addition operation produces a result too large for the CPU to handle, an arithmetic overflow flag in a flags register may also be set.

Write back :

1.Simply "writes back" the results of the execute step to some form of memory.

2.Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions.

3.In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, main memory.

Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly produce result data.

INPUT DEVICES

Anything that feeds the data into the computer. This data can be in alpha-numeric form which needs to be keyed-in or in its very basic natural form i.e. hear, smell, touch, see; taste & the sixth sense

Typical input devices are:                

1.       Keyboard

2.       Mouse

3.       Joystick

4.       Digitizing Tablet

5.       Touch Sensitive Screen

6.       Light Pen

7.       Space Mouse

8.Digital Stills Camera

9.       Magnetic Ink Character

10.OpticalMarkReader

Recognition (MICR)      (OMR)

11. Image Scanner

12.     Bar Codes

13.     Magnetic Reader 

14.     Smart Cards

15.     Voice Data Entry

16.     Sound Capture

17. Video Capture

The Keyboard is the standard data input and operator control device for a computer. It consists of the standard QWERTY layout with a numeric keypad and additional function keys for control purposes.

The Mouse is a popular input device. You move it across the desk and its movement is shown on the screen by a marker known as a 'cursor'. You will need to click the buttons at the top of the mouse to select an option.

Track ball looks like a mouse, as the roller is on the top with selection buttons on the side. It is also a pointing device used to move the cursor and works like a mouse. For moving the cursor in a particular direction, the user spins the ball in that direction. It is sometimes considered better than a mouse, because it requires little arm movement and less desktop space. It is generally used with Portable computers.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is used to recognize the magnetically charged characters, mainly found on bank cheques. The magnetically charged characters are written by special ink called magnetic ink. MICR device reads the patterns of these characters and compares them with special patterns stored in memory. Using MICR device, a large volume of cheques can be processed in a day. MICR is widely used by the banking industry for the processing of cheques.

The joystick is a rotary lever. Similar to an aircraft's control stick, it enables you to move within the screen's environment, and is widely used in the computer games industry.

A Digitising Tablet is a pointing device that facilitates the accurate input of drawings and designs. A drawing can be placed directly on the tablet, and the user traces outlines or inputs coordinate positions with a hand-held stylus.

A Touch Sensitive Screen is a pointing device that enables the user to interact with the computer by touching the screen. There are three types of Touch Screens: pressure-sensitive, capacitive surface and light beam.

A Light Pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a VDU. The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element which, when placed against the screen, detects the light from the screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen. Light pens have the advantage of 'drawing' directly onto the screen, but this can become uncomfortable, and they are not as accurate as digitising tablets.

The Space mouse is different from a normal mouse as it has an X axis, a Y axis and a Z axis. It can be used for developing and moving around 3-D environments.

Digital Stills Cameras capture an image which is stored in memory within the camera. When the memory is full it can be erased and further images captured. The digital images can then be downloaded from the camera to a computer where they can be displayed, manipulated or printed.

The Optical Mark Reader (OMR) can read information in the form of numbers or letters and put it into the computer. The marks have to be precisely located as in multiple choice test papers.

Scanners allow information such as a photo or text to be input into a computer. Scanners are usually either A4 size (flatbed), or hand-held to scan a much smaller area. If text is to be scanned, you would use an Optical Character Recognition (OCR) program to recognise the printed text and then convert it to a digital text file that can be accessed using a computer.

A Bar Code is a pattern printed in lines of differing thickness. The system gives fast and error-free entry of information into the computer. You might have seen bar codes on goods in supermarkets, in libraries and on magazines. Bar codes provide a quick method of recording the sale of items.

Card Reader: This input device reads a magnetic strip on a card. Handy for security reasons, it provides quick identification of the card's owner. This method is used to run bank cash points or to provide quick identification of people entering buildings.

Smart Card: This input device stores data in a microprocessor embedded in the card. This allows information, which can be updated, to be stored on the card. This method is used in store cards which accumulate points for the purchaser, and to store phone numbers for cellular phones.

OUTPUT DEVICES :

Output devices display information in a way that you can you can understand. The most common output device is a monitor. It looks a lot a like a TV and houses the computer screen. The monitor allows you to 'see' what you and the computer are doing together.

Brief of Output Device

Output devices are pieces of equipment that are used to get information or any other response out from computer. These devices display information that has been held or generated within a computer. Output devices display information in a way that you can understand. The most common output device is a monitor.

Types of Output Device

Printing: Plotter, Printer

Sound         : Speakers

Visual         : Monitor

A Printer is another common part of a computer system. It takes what you see on the computer screen and prints it on paper. There are two types of printers; Impact Printers and Non-Impact Printers.

Speakers are output devices that allow you to hear sound from your computer. Computer speakers are just like stereo speakers. There are usually two of them and they come in various sizes.

MEMORY OR PRIMARY STORAGE :

Purpose of Storage

The fundamental components of a general-purpose computer are arithmetic and logic unit, control circuitry, storage space, and input/output devices. If storage was removed, the device we had would be a simple calculator instead of a computer. The ability to store instructions that form a computer program, and the information that the instructions manipulate is what makes stored program architecture computers versatile.

Primary Storage

Primary storage is directly connected to the central processing unit of the computer. It must be present for the CPU to function correctly, just as in a biological analogy the lungs must be present (for oxygen storage) for the heart to function (to pump and oxygenate the blood). As shown in the diagram, primary storage typically consists of three kinds of storage:

Processors Register

It is the internal to the central processing unit. Registers contain information that the arithmetic and logic unit needs to carry out the current instruction. They are technically the fastest of all forms of computer storage.

Main memory

It contains the programs that are currently being run and the data the programs are operating on. The arithmetic and logic unit can very quickly transfer information between a processor register and locations in main storage, also known as a "memory addresses". In modern computers, electronic solid-state random access memory is used for main storage, and is directly connected to the CPU via a "memory bus" and a "data bus".

Cache memory

It is a special type of internal memory used by many central processing units to increase their performance or "throughput". Some of the information in the main memory is duplicated in the cache memory, which is slightly slower but of much greater capacity than the processor registers, and faster but much smaller than main memory.

Memory is often used as a shorter synonym for Random Access Memory (RAM). This kind of memory is located on one or more microchips that are physically close to the microprocessor in your computer. Most desktop and notebook computers sold today include at least 512 megabytes of RAM (which is really the minimum to be able to install an operating system). They are upgradeable, so you can add more when your computer runs really slowly.

The more RAM you have, the less frequently the computer has to access instructions and data from the more slowly accessed hard disk form of storage. Memory should be distinguished from storage, or the physical medium that holds the much larger amounts of data that won't fit into RAM and may not be immediately needed there.

Storage devices include hard disks, floppy disks, CDROMs, and tape backup systems. The terms auxiliary storage, auxiliary memory, and secondary memory have also been used for this kind of data repository.

RAM is temporary memory and is erased when you turn off your computer, so remember to save your work to a permanent form of storage space like those mentioned above before exiting programs or turning off your computer.

TYPES OF RAM:

There are two types of RAM used in PCs - Dynamic and Static RAM.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM ): The information stored in Dynamic RAM has to be refreshed after every few milliseconds otherwise it will get erased. DRAM has higher storage capacity and is cheaper than Static RAM.

Static RAM (SRAM): The information stored in Static RAM need not be refreshed, but it remains stable as long as power supply is provided. SRAM is costlier but has higher speed than DRAM.

Additional kinds of integrated and quickly accessible memory are Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable ROM (PROM), and Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM). These are used to keep special programs and data, such as the BIOS, that need to be in your computer all the time. ROM is "built-in" computer memory containing data that normally can only be read, not written to (hence the name read only).

ROM contains the programming that allows your computer to be "booted up" or regenerated each time you turn it on. Unlike a computer's random access memory (RAM), the data in ROM is not lost when the computer power is turned off. The ROM is sustained by a small long life battery in your computer called the CMOS battery. If you ever do the hardware setup procedure with your computer, you effectively will be writing to ROM. It is non volatile, but not suited to storage of large quantities of data because it is expensive to produce. Typically, ROM must also be completely erased before it can be rewritten,

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

A variation of the ROM chip is programmable read only memory. PROM can be programmed to record information using a facility known as PROM-programmer. However once the chip has been programmed the recorded information cannot be changed, i.e. the PROM becomes a ROM and the information can only be read.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

As the name suggests the Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, information can be erased and the chip programmed a new to record different information using a special PROM-Programmer. When EPROM is in use information can only be read and the information remains on the chip until it is erased.

STORAGE DEVICES

The purpose of storage in a computer is to hold data or information and get that data to the CPU as quickly as possible when it is needed. Computers use disks for storage: hard disks that are located inside the computer, and floppy or compact disks that are used externally.

•          Computers Method of storing data & information for long term basis i.e. even after PC is switched off.

•       It is non - volatile

•      Can be easily removed and moved & attached to some other device

•      Memory capacity can be extended to a greater extent

•      Cheaper than primary memory

Storage Involves Two Processes

a) Writing data                                           b)      Reading data

Floppy Disks

The floppy disk drive (FDD) was invented at IBM by Alan Shugart in 1967. The first floppy drives used an 8-inch disk (later called a "diskette" as it got smaller), which evolved into the 5.25-inch disk that was used on the first IBM Personal Computer in August 1981. The 5.25-inch disk held 360 kilobytes compared to the 1.44 megabyte capacity of today's 3.5-inch diskette.

The 5.25-inch disks were dubbed "floppy" because the diskette packaging was a very flexible plastic envelope, unlike the rigid case used to hold today's 3.5-inch diskettes.

By the mid-1980s, the improved designs of the read/write heads, along with improvements in the magnetic recording media, led to the less-flexible, 3.5-inch, 1.44-megabyte (MB) capacity FDD in use today. For a few years, computers had both FDD sizes (3.5-inch and 5.25-inch). But by the mid-1990s, the 5.25-inch version had fallen out of popularity, partly because the diskette's recording surface could easily become contaminated by fingerprints through the open access area.

When you look at a floppy disk, you'll see a plastic case that measures 3 1/2 by 5 inches. Inside that case is a very thin piece of plastic that is coated with microscopic iron particles. This disk is much like the tape inside a video or audio cassette. Basically, a floppy disk drive reads and writes data to a small, circular piece of metal-coated plastic similar to audio cassette tape.

At one end of it is a small metal cover with a rectangular hole in it. That cover can be moved aside to show the flexible disk inside. But never touch the inner disk - you could damage the data that is stored on it. On one side of the floppy disk is a place for a label. On the other side is a silver circle with two holes in it. When the disk is inserted into the disk drive, the drive hooks into those holes to spin the circle. This causes the disk inside to spin at about 300 rpm! At the same time, the silver metal cover on the end is pushed aside so that the head in the disk drive can read and write to the disk.

Floppy disks are the smallest type of storage, holding only 1.44MB.

3.5-inch Diskettes (Floppy Disks) features:

•      Spin rate: app. 300 revolutions per minute (rpm)

•      High density (HD) disks more common today than older, double density (DD) disks

•      Storage Capacity of HD disks is 1.44 MB

Floppy Disk Drive Terminology

Floppy disk - Also called diskette. The common size is 3.5 inches.

Floppy disk drive - The electromechanical device that reads and writes floppy disks.

Track - Concentric ring of data on a side of a disk.

Sector - A subset of a track, similar to wedge or a slice of pie.

It consists of a read/write head and a motor rotating the disk at a high speed of about 300 rotations per minute. It can be fitted inside the cabinet of the computer and from outside, the slit where the disk is to be inserted, is visible. When the disk drive is closed after inserting the floppy inside, the monitor catches the disk through the Central of Disk hub, and then it starts rotating.

There are two read/write heads depending upon the floppy being one sided or two sided. The head consists of a read/write coil wound on a ring of magnetic material. During write operation, when the current passes in one direction, through the coil, the disk surface touching the head is magnetized in one direction. For reading the data, the procedure is reverse. I.e. the magnetized spots on the disk touching the read/write head induce the electronic pulses, which are sent to CPU.

The major parts of a FDD include:

Read/Write Heads : Located on both sides of a diskette, they move together on the same assembly. The heads are not directly opposite each other in an effort to prevent interaction between write operations on each of the two media surfaces. The same head is used for reading and writing, while a second, wider head is used for erasing a track just prior to it being written. This allows the data to be written on a wider "clean slate," without interfering with the analog data on an adjacent track.

Drive Motor: A very small spindle motor engages the metal hub at the center of the diskette, spinning it at either 300 or 360 rotations per minute (RPM).

Stepper Motor : This motor makes a precise number of stepped revolutions to move the read/write head assembly to the proper track position. The read/write head assembly is fastened to the stepper motor shaft.

Mechanical Frame : A system of levers that opens the little protective window on the diskette to allow the read/write heads to touch the dual-sided diskette media. An external button allows the diskette to be ejected, at which point the spring-loaded protective window on the diskette closes.

Circuit Board : Contains all of the electronics to handle the data read from or written to the diskette. It also controls the stepper-motor control circuits used to move the read/write heads to each track, as well as the movement of the read/write heads toward the diskette surface.

Electronic optics check for the presence of an opening in the lower corner of a 3.5-inch diskette (or a notch in the side of a 5.25-inch diskette) to see if the user wants to prevent data from being written on it.

Your computer uses two types of memory: primary memory which is stored on chips located on the motherboard, and secondary memory that is stored in the hard drive. Primary memory holds all of the essential memory that tells your computer how to be a computer. Secondary memory holds the information that you store in the computer.

Inside the hard disk drive case you will find circular disks that are made from polished steel. On the disks, there are many tracks or cylinders. Within the hard drive, an electronic reading/writing device called the head passes back and forth over the cylinders, reading information from the disk or writing information to it. Hard drives spin at 3600 or more rpm (Revolutions Per Minute) - that means that in one minute, the hard drive spins around over 7200 times!

Optical Storage

•    Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)

•    CD-Recordable (CD-R)/CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)

•    Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM)

•    DVD Recordable (DVD-R/DVD Rewritable (DVD-RW)

•     Photo CD

Optical Storage Devices Data is stored on a reflective surface so it can be read by a beam of laser light. Two Kinds of Optical Storage Devices

•    CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory)

•    DVD-ROM (digital video disk read-only memory)

Compact Disks

Instead of electromagnetism, CDs use pits (microscopic indentations) and lands (flat surfaces) to store information much the same way floppies and hard disks use magnetic and non-magnetic storage. Inside the CD-Rom is a laser that reflects light off of the surface of the disk to an electric eye. The pattern of reflected light (pit) and no reflected light (land) creates a code that represents data.

CDs usually store about 650MB. This is quite a bit more than the 1.44MB that a floppy disk stores. A DVD or Digital Video Disk holds even more information than a CD, because the DVD can store information on two levels, in smaller pits or sometimes on both sides.

Recordable Optical Technologies

•    CD-Recordable (CD-R)

•    CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)

•    PhotoCD

•    DVD-Recordable (DVD-R)

•    DVD-RAM

CD ROM - Compact Disc Read Only Memory.

Unlike magnetic storage device which store data on multiple concentric tracks, all CD formats store data on one physical track, which spirals continuously from the center to the outer edge of the recording area. Data resides on the thin aluminum substrate immediately beneath the label. The data on the CD is recorded as a series of microscopic pits and lands physically embossed on an aluminum substrate. Optical drives use a low power laser to read data from those discs without physical contact between the head and the disc which contributes to the high reliability and permanence of storage device.

To write the data on a CD a higher power laser are used to record the data on a CD. It creates the pits and land on aluminum substrate. The data is stored permanently on the disc. These types of discs are called as WORM (Write Once Read Many). Data written to CD cannot subsequently be deleted or overwritten which can be classified as advantage or disadvantage depending upon the requirement of the user. However if the CD is partially filled then the more data can be added to it later on till it is full. CDs are usually cheap and cost effective in terms of storage capacity and transferring the data.

The CD‘s were further developed where the data could be deleted and re written. These types of

CDs are called as CD Rewritable. These types of discs can be used by deleting the data and making the space for new data. These CD‘s can be written and rewritten at least 1000 times.

CD ROM Drive

CD ROM drives are so well standardized and have become so ubiquitous that many treat them as commodity items. Although CD ROM drives differ in reliability, which standards they support and numerous other respects, there are two important performance measures.

·         Data transfer rate

·         Average access

Data transfer rate: Data transfer rate means how fast the drive delivers sequential data to the interface. This rate is determined by drive rotation speed, and is rated by a number followed by ‗X‘. All the other things equal, a 32X drive delivers data twice the speed of a 16X drive. Fast data transfer rate is most important when the drive is used to transfer the large file or many sequential smaller files. For example: Gaming video.

CD ROM drive transfers the data at some integer multiple of this basic 150 KB/s 1X rate. Rather than designating drives by actual KB/s output drive manufacturers use a multiple of the standard 1X rate. For example: a 12X drive transfer data at (12*150KB/s) 1800 KB/s and so on.

The data on a CD is saved on tracks, which spirals from the center of the CD to outer edge. The portions of the tracks towards center are shorter than those towards the edge. Moving the data under the head at a constant rate requires spinning the disc faster as the head moves from the center where there is less data per revolution to the edge where there is more data. Hence the rotation rate of the disc changes as it progresses from inner to outer portions of the disc.

CD recordable and CD rewritable drives are collectively called as CD writers or CD burners. They are essentially CD ROM drives with one difference. They have a more powerful laser that, in addition to reading discs, can record data to special CD media.

Pen Drives / Flash Drives

·         Pen Drives / Flash Drives are flash memory storage devices.

·         They are faster, portable and have a capability of storing large data.

·         It consists of a small printed circuit board with a LED encased in a robust plastic

·         The male type connector is used to connect to the host PC

·         They are also used a MP3 players

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Fall 2024 CSCI Special Topics Courses

Cloud computing.

Meeting Time: 09:45 AM‑11:00 AM TTh  Instructor: Ali Anwar Course Description: Cloud computing serves many large-scale applications ranging from search engines like Google to social networking websites like Facebook to online stores like Amazon. More recently, cloud computing has emerged as an essential technology to enable emerging fields such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and Machine Learning. The exponential growth of data availability and demands for security and speed has made the cloud computing paradigm necessary for reliable, financially economical, and scalable computation. The dynamicity and flexibility of Cloud computing have opened up many new forms of deploying applications on infrastructure that cloud service providers offer, such as renting of computation resources and serverless computing.    This course will cover the fundamentals of cloud services management and cloud software development, including but not limited to design patterns, application programming interfaces, and underlying middleware technologies. More specifically, we will cover the topics of cloud computing service models, data centers resource management, task scheduling, resource virtualization, SLAs, cloud security, software defined networks and storage, cloud storage, and programming models. We will also discuss data center design and management strategies, which enable the economic and technological benefits of cloud computing. Lastly, we will study cloud storage concepts like data distribution, durability, consistency, and redundancy. Registration Prerequisites: CS upper div, CompE upper div., EE upper div., EE grad, ITI upper div., Univ. honors student, or dept. permission; no cr for grads in CSci. Complete the following Google form to request a permission number from the instructor ( https://forms.gle/6BvbUwEkBK41tPJ17 ).

CSCI 5980/8980 

Machine learning for healthcare: concepts and applications.

Meeting Time: 11:15 AM‑12:30 PM TTh  Instructor: Yogatheesan Varatharajah Course Description: Machine Learning is transforming healthcare. This course will introduce students to a range of healthcare problems that can be tackled using machine learning, different health data modalities, relevant machine learning paradigms, and the unique challenges presented by healthcare applications. Applications we will cover include risk stratification, disease progression modeling, precision medicine, diagnosis, prognosis, subtype discovery, and improving clinical workflows. We will also cover research topics such as explainability, causality, trust, robustness, and fairness.

Registration Prerequisites: CSCI 5521 or equivalent. Complete the following Google form to request a permission number from the instructor ( https://forms.gle/z8X9pVZfCWMpQQ6o6  ).

Visualization with AI

Meeting Time: 04:00 PM‑05:15 PM TTh  Instructor: Qianwen Wang Course Description: This course aims to investigate how visualization techniques and AI technologies work together to enhance understanding, insights, or outcomes.

This is a seminar style course consisting of lectures, paper presentation, and interactive discussion of the selected papers. Students will also work on a group project where they propose a research idea, survey related studies, and present initial results.

This course will cover the application of visualization to better understand AI models and data, and the use of AI to improve visualization processes. Readings for the course cover papers from the top venues of AI, Visualization, and HCI, topics including AI explainability, reliability, and Human-AI collaboration.    This course is designed for PhD students, Masters students, and advanced undergraduates who want to dig into research.

Registration Prerequisites: Complete the following Google form to request a permission number from the instructor ( https://forms.gle/YTF5EZFUbQRJhHBYA  ). Although the class is primarily intended for PhD students, motivated juniors/seniors and MS students who are interested in this topic are welcome to apply, ensuring they detail their qualifications for the course.

Visualizations for Intelligent AR Systems

Meeting Time: 04:00 PM‑05:15 PM MW  Instructor: Zhu-Tian Chen Course Description: This course aims to explore the role of Data Visualization as a pivotal interface for enhancing human-data and human-AI interactions within Augmented Reality (AR) systems, thereby transforming a broad spectrum of activities in both professional and daily contexts. Structured as a seminar, the course consists of two main components: the theoretical and conceptual foundations delivered through lectures, paper readings, and discussions; and the hands-on experience gained through small assignments and group projects. This class is designed to be highly interactive, and AR devices will be provided to facilitate hands-on learning.    Participants will have the opportunity to experience AR systems, develop cutting-edge AR interfaces, explore AI integration, and apply human-centric design principles. The course is designed to advance students' technical skills in AR and AI, as well as their understanding of how these technologies can be leveraged to enrich human experiences across various domains. Students will be encouraged to create innovative projects with the potential for submission to research conferences.

Registration Prerequisites: Complete the following Google form to request a permission number from the instructor ( https://forms.gle/Y81FGaJivoqMQYtq5 ). Students are expected to have a solid foundation in either data visualization, computer graphics, computer vision, or HCI. Having expertise in all would be perfect! However, a robust interest and eagerness to delve into these subjects can be equally valuable, even though it means you need to learn some basic concepts independently.

Sustainable Computing: A Systems View

Meeting Time: 09:45 AM‑11:00 AM  Instructor: Abhishek Chandra Course Description: In recent years, there has been a dramatic increase in the pervasiveness, scale, and distribution of computing infrastructure: ranging from cloud, HPC systems, and data centers to edge computing and pervasive computing in the form of micro-data centers, mobile phones, sensors, and IoT devices embedded in the environment around us. The growing amount of computing, storage, and networking demand leads to increased energy usage, carbon emissions, and natural resource consumption. To reduce their environmental impact, there is a growing need to make computing systems sustainable. In this course, we will examine sustainable computing from a systems perspective. We will examine a number of questions:   • How can we design and build sustainable computing systems?   • How can we manage resources efficiently?   • What system software and algorithms can reduce computational needs?    Topics of interest would include:   • Sustainable system design and architectures   • Sustainability-aware systems software and management   • Sustainability in large-scale distributed computing (clouds, data centers, HPC)   • Sustainability in dispersed computing (edge, mobile computing, sensors/IoT)

Registration Prerequisites: This course is targeted towards students with a strong interest in computer systems (Operating Systems, Distributed Systems, Networking, Databases, etc.). Background in Operating Systems (Equivalent of CSCI 5103) and basic understanding of Computer Networking (Equivalent of CSCI 4211) is required.

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Introduction :

A computer is an electronic device that can receive, store, process, and output data. It is a machine that can perform a variety of tasks and operations, ranging from simple calculations to complex simulations and artificial intelligence.

Computers consist of hardware components such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, input/output devices, and peripherals, as well as software components such as the operating system and applications.

The history of computers can be traced back to the 19th century when mechanical devices such as the Analytical Engine and tabulating machines were developed. However, modern computers as we know them today were developed in the mid-20th century with the invention of the transistor and the development of integrated circuits.

Today, computers are widely used in various industries such as education, finance, healthcare, and entertainment, and they have revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate. They have also given rise to a new era of technology such as the internet, cloud computing, and mobile devices, which have further transformed our daily lives.

Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output quickly. A Computer can perform the following set of functions:

• Accept data
• Process data as desired
• Retrieve the stored data as and when required
• Print the result in desired format.

Data and Information: Data: It is the term used for raw facts and figures fed into the computer and along with the set of instructions which enables the computer to convert this raw data into the refined and useful information. Information: Data represented in useful and meaningful form is information. 

Data and information are related concepts, but they have different meanings. Data refers to raw facts and figures that are unorganized and have no meaning on their own. Information, on the other hand, is data that has been processed, organized, and given context to make it meaningful and useful.

Data can take many forms, such as numbers, words, images, or sounds. For example, a list of sales figures for a company is data. However, this data by itself does not provide any useful information. It needs to be processed and analyzed to be turned into information that can be used for decision-making.

Information is data that has been processed and organized in a meaningful way to convey a message or answer a question. For example, using the sales figures from the earlier example, an analyst could create a graph or chart that shows the sales trends over time, providing meaningful information about the company’s performance.

In summary, data is the raw, unorganized facts and figures, while information is data that has been processed and given context to be meaningful and useful for decision-making.

Classification of Computers: Computers can be classified based on the technology being used and the way they are designed to perform the various tasks. Computers can be categorized into Digital, Analog and Hybrid based on their design and working:

• Digital Computers : These are the modern computers which are capable of processing information in discrete form. In digital technology data which can be in the form of letters, symbols or numbers is represented in binary form i.e. 0s and 1s. The digital computers are used in industrial, business and scientific applications. They are quite suitable for large volume data processing.
• Analog Computers : These computers are used to process data generated by ongoing physical processes. A thermometer is an example of an analog computer since it measures the change in mercury level continuously. Analog computers are well suited to simulating systems. A simulator helps to conduct experiments repeatedly in real time environment. Some of the common examples are simulations in aircrafts, nuclear power plants, hydraulic and electronic networks.
• Hybrid Computers : These use both analog and digital technology. It has the speed of analog computer and the accuracy of a digital computer. It may accept digital or analog signals but an extensive conversion of data from digital to analog and analog to digital has to be done. Hybrid Computers are used as a cost effective means for complex simulations.
• Supercomputers: These are the most powerful and expensive computers that are used for complex scientific calculations, simulations, and research. They are used in fields such as weather forecasting, cryptography, and nuclear research.
• Mainframe Computers: These are large and powerful computers that are used by large organizations such as banks, airlines, and government agencies to process massive amounts of data and handle multiple users simultaneously.
• Mini Computers: These are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computers, but they are still capable of handling multiple users and processing large amounts of data. They are commonly used by small to medium-sized businesses for accounting, inventory management, and other data-intensive tasks.
• Personal Computers: These are small and affordable computers that are designed for individual users. They are commonly used for personal productivity, entertainment, and communication.
• Workstations: These are high-performance computers that are used by professionals such as architects, engineers, and designers to run complex software applications for tasks such as 3D modeling, animation, and scientific visualization.
• Embedded Systems: These are specialized computers that are built into other devices such as cars, appliances, and medical equipment to control their operations and perform specific functions.
• Mobile Devices: These are small and portable computers that are designed for on-the-go use, such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops

Classification of Digital Computers

• Micro Computers : These are also known as Personal Computers. These type of digital computer uses a microprocessor (a CPU on a single chip) and include both desktops and laptops. These computers can work on small volume of data, are very versatile and can handle variety of applications. These computers are being used as work stations, CAD, multimedia and advertising applications. Example: portable computers such as PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) and tablets
• Mini Computers : These computers can support multiple users working simultaneously on the same machine. These are mainly used in an organization where computers installed in various departments are interconnected. These computers are useful for small business organizations.
• Main Frames : These computers are large and very powerful computers with very high memory capacity. These can process huge databases such as census at extremely fast rate. They are suitable for big organizations, banks, industries etc. and can support hundreds of users simultaneously on the network.
• Super Computers : These are fastest and very expensive computers. They can execute billions of instructions per second. These are multiprocessor, parallel systems suitable for specialized complex scientific applications involving huge amounts of mathematical applications such as weather forecasting.
• Minicomputers: These are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computers, but they are still capable of handling multiple users and processing large amounts of data. They are commonly used by small to medium-sized businesses for accounting, inventory management, and other data-intensive tasks.
• Microcomputers: These are the most common type of digital computers, also known as personal computers or PCs. They are designed for individual users and are used for personal productivity, entertainment, and communication.
• Mobile Devices: These are small and portable computers that are designed for on-the-go use, such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops.

Peripheral Devices

These devices are used for performing the specific functions and are connected to the computer externally. These peripheral devices enable the computer to operate according to the user requirements by feeding data in and out of the computer. Peripheral devices are as follows:

• Optical/magnetic Scanner
• Touch Screen
• Microphone for voice as input
• Monitor (Visual Display Unit)

Difference between RAM and Hard-disk

CPU process the data, and to process that data we need fast speed memory which is known as RAM.

Types of Software

• System Software : These are those software,without which our PC,laptop won’t run, i.e it is must for a device to be operating. For Example: Linux,Unix,Windows,etc.
• Application Software : These are those software,without which our PC,laptop can run, i.e these software are not necessary for a device to be operating. For Example: Facebook,What’s App,Games.

Difference between Hacker and Cracker

• Hacker : They will just warn you something about malicious activity going around in your computer.It will not steal your information.
• Cracker : They will try to steal your Information without informing you.

Basic computer operation :

• Booting up: This is the process of starting up the computer by loading the operating system (OS) into memory. The computer runs a series of checks to ensure all hardware is working correctly before loading the OS.
• Logging in: After booting up, you will need to log in to access your user account. This requires entering your username and password.
• Running programs: Once you have logged in, you can run programs on your computer. Programs can include web browsers, office applications, media players, and more.
• Accessing data: You can access data stored on your computer or other connected devices, such as external hard drives or cloud storage services. This can include files, documents, photos, and other media.
• Connecting to the internet: You can connect to the internet to access websites, download files, and communicate with others online. This typically involves using a web browser to access websites and other online services.
• Communicating with other devices: You can communicate with other devices connected to your computer, such as printers, scanners, or other peripherals. This allows you to print documents, scan images, and perform other tasks.
• Saving and backing up data: It’s important to save and back up your data regularly to avoid data loss. You can save data to your local hard drive, external hard drives, or cloud storage services.
• Shutting down: When you’re finished using your computer, you should shut it down properly. This involves closing all programs and files, saving any changes, and shutting down the OS.
• Troubleshooting: If you experience issues with your computer, you may need to troubleshoot the problem. This can involve diagnosing hardware or software issues, performing updates, or reinstalling drivers.
• Security: It’s important to keep your computer secure by using antivirus software, firewalls, and other security measures. This helps protect your data and prevent unauthorized access to your system.

Issues of basic computers and computer operations :

some common issues that can arise with basic computers and computer operations:

• Slow performance: Computers can become slow and unresponsive due to a variety of factors, such as lack of storage space, outdated hardware, or malware.
• Malware and viruses: Malware and viruses can infect computers and cause a range of problems, including data loss, system crashes, and identity theft.
• Hardware failures: Computer hardware components can fail over time, leading to issues like system crashes, data loss, and display problems.
• Software glitches: Software applications can sometimes malfunction or crash, leading to issues like data loss or unresponsive programs.
• Driver problems: Drivers are software components that enable hardware devices to communicate with the operating system. If drivers become outdated or corrupted, it can lead to issues like hardware failures or system crashes.
• Compatibility issues: Sometimes software applications or hardware components may not be compatible with each other, leading to issues like system crashes or display problems.
• Internet connectivity issues: Problems with internet connectivity can lead to issues like slow loading web pages, interrupted downloads, and difficulty accessing online services.
• User error: Users can sometimes make mistakes or accidentally delete files or programs, leading to issues like data loss or unresponsive programs.

Reference :

 Some references for learning about basic computers and computer operations:

• “Computer Basics” by GCFGlobal: This is a comprehensive guide to learning about computers, including hardware components, software, and basic operations.
• “Computer Science Basics” by Khan Academy: This course covers the fundamentals of computer science, including how computers work, programming basics, and algorithms.
• “Introduction to Computers” by Udemy: This course covers the basics of computer hardware, software, and operations, including topics like file management, computer security, and troubleshooting.
• “Computer Operations” by Techopedia: This article provides an overview of computer operations, including booting up, running programs, and saving and backing up data.
• “How Computers Work” by HowStuffWorks: This website provides a detailed explanation of how computers work, including the role of hardware components, operating systems, and software applications.
• “The Basics of Computer Operations” by The Tech Academy: This guide provides an overview of basic computer operations, including starting up, running programs, and shutting down.
• “Introduction to Computing” by Georgia Tech: This course provides an introduction to computing, including basic computer operations, programming, and algorithms.

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