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Use of Pesticides in Agriculture Essay

The ever-increasing human population prompted the emergence of scientific methods and techniques aimed at increasing agricultural productivity. Among these techniques is the use of pesticides to control weeds and ultimately boost farm yields. However, recent studies on effects of the pesticides due to increased overreliance on modern agricultural practices reveal their various negative and risky elements on the environment, people, and other agricultural-associated hazards that cannot be ignored. As such, it is clear that the dangers posed by pesticide use outweigh their usefulness in agriculture.

The general narrative on pesticide use in agriculture is the assertion that it saves labor and ensures higher crop yields. This could be factual but only in the short run: pesticides ensure crop productivity by killing weeds, and insects and controlling animal infestation (US Environment Protection Agency, 2017). However, with increased dependence and overutilization, pesticide use poses a great risk to agriculture use in the long run. According to Atwood et al. (2017), over 1.1 billion pounds of various types of pesticides are used for agricultural production in the US alone. This is an indication of high dependency whose effects are now apparent hence the need to look for alternative solutions before the situation becomes irreversible. Some of the effects include soil pollution, and reduced soil fertility due to the eradication of microorganisms; humans face the risk of induced immunotoxicity and other cancerous risks as a result of direct exposure. Furthermore, the overutilization of pesticides is the main cause of the emergence of super weeds that require toxic chemical formulas to effectively deal with them (Mitrani et al, 2018). These adversities show just how greater danger than the usefulness of pesticide use is in agriculture.

Although pesticides are beneficial in the short run, the resulting long-term effects on the environment and society, in general, are worrying. The escalated use of pesticides as an artificial method of weeds and pest control poses danger to the ecosystem, public health, and workers who directly apply or work in factories that produce them. Hence, the dangers posed by pesticide use outweigh their usefulness in agriculture.

Atwood, D. & Paisley-Jones, C. (2017). Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage: 2008-2012 Market Estimates . Environmental Protection Agency.

Mitrani, E., Perdum, E., Iordache, O. G., & Dumitrescu, I. (2018). Advantages and disadvantages of pesticide analysis methods used in agricultural samples. Scientific Papers-Series B-Horticulture , 62 , 709-714.

US Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Why we use pesticides ?

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Effects of pesticides on aquatic organisms in the mediterranean coast of egypt.

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Roundup Pesticide Humans' and Animals' Health Risks

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Pesticides — The Environmental Impact of Pesticides in Agricultural Practices

The Environmental Impact of Pesticides in Agricultural Practices

Categories: Pesticides

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Words: 896 |

Published: Jan 4, 2019

Words: 896 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

The effects of pesticides on the environment.

Pimentel, D., Acquay, H., Biltonen, M., Rice, P., Silva, M., Nelson, J., ... & Hawkins, T. (1992). Environmental and economic costs of pesticide use. BioScience, 42(10), 750-760.
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Benbrook, C. M. (2012). Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the US—the first sixteen years. Environmental Sciences Europe, 24(1), 24.
Goulson, D. (2013). An overview of the environmental risks posed by neonicotinoid insecticides. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(4), 977-987.
Freemark, K., & Boutin, C. (1995). Impacts of agricultural herbicide use on terrestrial wildlife in temperate landscapes: A review with special reference to North America. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 52(2-3), 67-91.
Oerke, E. C., Dehne, H. W., Schönbeck, F., & Weber, A. (1994). Crop production and crop protection: estimated losses in major food and cash crops. Elsevier.
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The Impact of Pesticides’ Use on Agriculture

Pesticides are, chemical inputs are largely used in agriculture.

Pesticides are mostly known for their adverse effects and, therefore, have a mostly negative connotation when discussed among general audiences. However, one must also admit that the application of pesticides is vital for maintaining the growth of crops consistently. Still, due to the presence of residue in plants, measures for counteracting the harmful effects of pesticides must be introduced. The Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) is used as the means of assessing the level of threat (Hedlund et al. 2020).

Pesticide Use Benefits

The use of pesticides introduces quite a range of benefits for agriculture. Specifically, a rapid rise in the amount of produced food and the speed of its production deserve a mentioning as the positive core outcomes (Gomes et al. 2020). In relation to the specified effect, the one of an increase in the chances for human survival should be addressed as well. Specifically, enhanced production of crops and, therefore, a rise in the amount of manufactured food allows for addressing the hunger issue (Gomes et al. 2020). Finally, the productivity of the food industry rises with the introduction of pesticides.

Hazards of using pesticides

However, the use of pesticides is also linked to several issues. Specifically, pesticides affect ecosystems to which they are introduced, often disrupting them and, thus, causing an adverse change. Specifically, being incredibly toxic, pesticides pose a serious threat to the lives of numerous species of animals and birds, as well as insects that do not affect the crops negatively (Gomes et al. 2020). Furthermore, when mismanaged, pesticides may lead to fatal poisonings through water and groundwater, causing the deaths of numerous people (Hedlund et al. 2019).

How Environment Influenced Society

Furthermore, one must mention the connection between pesticides and the current export rates. Specifically, Hedlund et al. (2019) insist that export rates in agriculture increase stupendously with the application of pesticides as a means of controlling the adverse effects of insects infesting the crops. Furthermore, Hedlund et al. (2019) argue that the application of pesticides in wealthier countries has led to outsourcing tools allowing for better control over environmental issues to countries with a lesser range of opportunities and resources. Therefore, the use of pesticides could also be seen as one of the drivers behind global trade.

How Society Influenced Environment

Finally, one must mention that the use of pesticides is linked inherently to environmental concerns. Thus, it is the responsibility of farmers and companies globally to adopt innovative approaches to minimize the effects of pesticides on public health and the environment (Larsen et al. 2021). With the focus on research addressing the subject matter, improvements can be expected.

Did the Society Change under Human Influence?

One should point to the changes that society has undergone under the influence created by the consistent use of pesticides and the related tools for maintaining the rapid growth of crops. Firstly, and most obviously, the rising concern regarding the use of pesticides and the effects thereof should be mentioned as the core effect. In addition, the societal change toward a more sustainable use of pesticides and related chemicals can be listed as one of the core changes. However, the observed change should not have come at the price of numerous health issues occurring on a global scale due to the unreasonable use of pesticides.

Reference List

Gomes, Higaro de, Jorge Marcell C. Menezesac, José Galberto M.da Costaa, Henrique Douglas M.Coutinho. Raimundo Nonato P. Teixeiraa, and Ronaldo F. do Nascimento. 2020. “A socio-environmental perspective on pesticide use and food production.” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 197 , 110627–110627.

Hedlund, John, Stefano B. Longo,, and Richard York. 2020. “Agriculture, pesticide use, and economic development: A global examination (1990–2014).” Rural Sociology, 85 (2), 519–544.

Larsen, Ashley, Clay Powers, and Sophie McComb. 2021. “Identifying and characterizing pesticide use on 9,000 fields of organic agriculture.” Nature Communications, 12 (1), 5461–5461.

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StudyCorgi. (2023, June 23). The Impact of Pesticides’ Use on Agriculture. https://studycorgi.com/the-impact-of-pesticides-use-on-agriculture/

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Biopesticides: a Green Approach Towards Agricultural Pests

Review Article
Published: 23 November 2023

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Helseena Ellickel Hezakiel 1 ,
Meenu Thampi 2 ,
Sharrel Rebello 1 &
Jisha Manakulam Sheikhmoideen 1 , 2 , 3

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Biopesticides are biological products or organisms which are potential candidates for eco-friendly pest management and crop protection over the chemical pesticides. The so-called biopesticides include viruses, bacteria, fungi, predators, parasites, and pheromones exhibiting a variety of modes of actions. They are less toxic, rapidly degradable, and more targeted to specific pests. However, it is noted that the formulation of biopesticides plays a crucial link between production and application, and the former dictates economy, longer shelf life, ease of application, and enhanced field efficacy. Moreover, there is an urgent need for organic farmers to gain more proficiency in using biopesticides. Even though biopesticides have more advantages, the main challenge is the marketing of biopesticides. Advances in biopesticide research and development significantly reduce the environmental damage caused by the residues of synthetic insecticides and support sustainable agriculture. Numerous products have been developed since the introduction of biopesticides, some of which have taken the lead in the agro-market after being registered and released. The types of biopesticides; their mode of action; formulation strategies; recent advancements of biopesticides focusing mainly on improvement of its action spectra, to thereby replace chemical pesticides; and finally, the future aspects of biopesticides have been discussed in this review.

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Biopesticides: Uses and importance in insect pest control: A review

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This work was supported by Mahatma Gandhi University Junior Research Fellowship (Order No. 4446/AC A 6/2022/MGU), UGC-JRF-F.No. 16-9 (June 2017/2018 (NET/CSIR), and CMs-Nava Kerala Post-Doctoral Fellowship (KSHEC-A3/344/Govt.Kerala-NKPDF/2022).

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Helseena Ellickel Hezakiel, Sharrel Rebello & Jisha Manakulam Sheikhmoideen

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Hezakiel, H.E., Thampi, M., Rebello, S. et al. Biopesticides: a Green Approach Towards Agricultural Pests. Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-023-04765-7

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Subject Illness , Plants

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Topic Cancer , Pesticides

Pesticides are commonly used in households, businesses, and agriculture. Several well-designed molecular and epidemiological studies have shown that increased pesticide use is a significant contributor to the increasing number of cancer cases. Individuals exposed to pesticides as bystanders and those who are active in the release of such pesticides, also under controlled conditions, have been included in research that ties cancer to pesticides. Currently, some nineteen pesticides used in agriculture are suspected of causing cancer (Vazquez, 2017). Around twenty-eight of the forty pesticides commonly used in offices and homes have been related to the development of cancers. A number of debates on the rising rates of cancers also outline that the environmental factors that cause cancer have been estimated with pesticides being among the environmental factors whose probability to cause cancer have been underestimated. Various debates have tried to find out the most appropriate ways that can be used to prevent the high cancer prevalence but none has been successful. Glyphosate containing pesticides is among the pesticides that cause cancer. This paper would rely on a number of previous epidemiological and toxicological evidence to try explaining the effects of Glyphosate on blood cancer. Among the types of blood, cancers that would be extensively discussed include leukemia. The rising concerns to determine the linkage of the glyphosate and cancers relies on the fact that most pesticides contain it. The world health Organization branch that is concerned with cancer researches indicate that there is a high probability that glyphosate is the major cause of cancers and would advocate for planting of genetic engineered crops to ensure that they resist the environmental factors that would require pesticides so that the crops survive. It was initially determined by the Environmental Protection Agency that glyphosate is carcinogenic in 1985. However, in 991, the same organization disputed the claims. The department of the World Health Organization that is charged with the mandate later considers any researches and literatures and unanimously concluded that glyphosate is actually carcinogenic. The decision that was made by the department of the World Health Organization can be concluded to be more factual. This is tied to the fact that it is the only organization that is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that all individuals in the world are free from cancer. The organization is also independent and it is made up of great team of experts all over the world. Though GLYPHOSATE is said to cause cancer, it is said that its probability off causing cancer is relatively lower as compared to tobacco or even infection by HIV type 2 viruses. Some pesticides like the Monsanto have been discovered to have the ability to double the probability that an individual is going to suffer from blood cancers. Glyphosate is the main ingredient in the Herbicide and it is said to the main cause of blood cancers in Monsanto. The chemical is said to be odorless and colorless and is most likely to be of great ham to those who regularly spray crops. The chemical is said to be very dangerous to the farmers who choose it as their pesticide a well as individuals who live near the areas in which the chemicals are being used. The chemical components can be transferred from one point to another through wind and water and this might be the main factors that may cause those who live round then firms to be affected as well. Glyphosate has been determined to have the ability of doubling the chances of one getting multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (Mink, P. J., 2012). In their latest reports the department of the World Health Organization that is concerned with doing researches that relate to cancers came into a conclusion that Glyphosate actually causes lymphoma after testing it on laboratory on animals. Since the animals used normally have close links to the humans, Glyphosate can actually be harmful to humans too. The department affirmed that its usage could actually result in blood related cancers including multiple myeloma and the non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Famers have come out to file cases against the chemicals that Glyphosate because it causes cancers and its production is not monitored. The department that has the responsibility to check on cancers went ahead to ensure that Glyphosate is listed among the substances that are carcinogenic. The carcinogenic effects of Glyphosate have also been noted in the foods that it had been sprayed on. Soybeans marks one of the food substances that have been noted to be carcinogenic because of Glyphosate chemicals usage in them. The amount of Glyphosate that is required to cause the carcinogenicity is not measured. However, it would be better for people to avoid the consumption of the genetically modified foods because Glyphosate containing chemicals are mostly used in their preservations. International agency for Research on cancer (IARC) normally publishes reports concerning the factors that might be causing cancers to be on rise every now and then. It is charged with the responsibility of producing monographs that determine the newly discovered carcinogenic compounds. The Round up chemical is labeled as one of the carcinogenic compounds since it has Glyphosate. It is not guaranteed that the chemicals sprayed on the crops would be washed away before they are bready for consumption. Therefore, the foods that are sprayed with the Glyphosate related chemicals turn out to be carcinogenic too (Mink, P. J., 2012). Glyphosate can also be transmitted indirectly too from the meat we consume. If the herbivore had fed on the substances that were previously sprayed with Glyphosate, humans can be affected too. If we compare Glyphosate to other factors that cause cancer like UV radiations and Alcohol, it turns out that the others can be prevented from causing cancer but it is relatively difficult to reduce the chances of causing cancers when it comes to Glyphosate. UV radiation and alcohol have a great scientific backup that they are actually responsible for causing various types of cancers. However, their severity can be prevented by ensuring either wearing sunscreen or even avoiding alcohol. Their severity is easily prevented (Thongprakaisang, 2013). For Glyphosate, it is the major choice in most farmers’ chemicals and thus can be stopping it can be a great burden to their economic gain. However, (IARC) has a duty to ensure that every individual is aware of the chemicals they are using and the ways in which they can influence their health. It is important to venture in activities that do not harm the health of individuals. The companies that produce various pesticides have not checked on the adjuvant effects of the components of the pesticides. Glyphosate effects could be boosted by the presence of other chemicals within the pesticides. It has been noted that components of Glyphosate have been found in various types of foods including the canola, maize, soy grain, barley, and wheat. It has been determined that heavy spray of the food products at the time when they are in the farms may contribute to their presence in the food products ate the end of the harvest (Guyton, et al 2015). The glyphosate components can be primary metabolites in both the harvested and processed food products. The effects of glyphosate remain increasing the probability that an individual is likely to suffer from the various types of blood cancers. From various processed food samples that were tested in the European countries in 2012, it was determined that the composition of each kilogram of the processed foods was about 0.2mg. The food sample that was involved in the study was bread. In other food products that are not processed like the soybeans, it was determined that about ninety-five percent of them had glyphosate. Soybeans have been reported to be the agricultural product that retains higher amounts of glyphosate that has been sprayed in them when in the farm. Furthermore, soybeans are one of the genetically modified food crops. Genetically modified foods generally lead to the development of cancers. To avoid the high content of glyphosate in the harvested foods, it is important that famers ensure that they avoid harvests. Late harvests is the main contributing factor to the presence of glyphosate in each of the foods that have been in the farms given that individuals normally want to ensure that they prevent the produces from being infested by pests. The concept of late harvest and high content glyphosate has been confirmed to be true in most hot humid environments like Britain (Clerk, et al 2016). The chemicals have also been recorded to be useful in the acceleration of drying of crops to enable faster harvest. The fast harvest does not give them the time for the glyphosate to be washed away and this contributes to their presence in food. Glyphosate applications during the late season harvests result in high residues in the food products that are got at the end of the seasons. Fallowing together with the pre-plant use of the pesticides are associated with low composition of the chemicals in food products. However, it is necessary that the usage of the glyphosate compounds be avoided to prevent the probabilities of increasing the number of individuals suffering from blood cancers. Countries have set different acceptable levels of in the farm produce because they find it difficult to eliminate its usage. The countries have also established acceptable daily consumption levels of glyphosate to reduce those chances of causing blood cancers (Tarone, R. E. 2017). The environmental protection agency of the United States currently allows consumption of up to not more than two milligrams of glyphosate per kilogram per day. To control this, the organization checks on the compositions the products offered by various industries. The European countries allow not more than 0.3 milligrams of glyphosate per kilogram per day. It is the responsibility of each individual ensure that their consumption do not go over the outlined requirements to avoid being victims of blood cancers or any other cancers that are elated to the consumption of glyphosate in food substances. Lymphoma is the cancer that affects the lymphatic systems. Lymphatic system is the system that is responsible for ensuring that ensures that the body has defense against pathogens. A factor that affects the lymphatic systems means that it weakens their defense systems. The type of lymphoma that affects the individuals because of exposure to glyphosate is Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is the sixth leading type of cancer that affects the citizens of the United Kingdom. It is approximated that about thirteen thousand individuals in the United Kingdom are affected by lymphoma yearly. References Clerk, C., MooreLove, K., Novick, S., Fritz, A., & Saltzman, D. (2016). Logical Rationale for the Elimination of the Spraying of all Glyphosate Based Herbicides, in Parks Managed by Portland Parks & Recreation. Guyton, K. Z., Loomis, D., Grosse, Y., El Ghissassi, F., Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., Guha, N., ... & Straif, K. (2015). Carcinogenicity of tetrachlorvinphos, parathion, malathion, diazinon, and glyphosate. Lancet Oncology, 16(5), 490. Mink, P. J., Mandel, J. S., Sceurman, B. K., & Lundin, J. I. (2012). Epidemiologic studies of glyphosate and cancer: a review. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 63(3), 440-452. Tarone, R. E. (2017). On the International Agency for Research on Cancer classification of glyphosate as a probable human carcinogen. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. Thongprakaisang, S., Thiantanawat, A., Rangkadilok, N., Suriyo, T., & Satayavivad, J. (2013). Glyphosate induces human breast cancer cells growth via estrogen receptors. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 59, 129-136. Thongprakaisang, S., Thiantanawat, A., Rangkadilok, N., Suriyo, T., & Satayavivad, J. (2013). Glyphosate induces human breast cancer cells growth via estrogen receptors. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 59, 129-136. Vazquez, M. A., Maturano, E., Etchegoyen, A., Difilippo, F. S., & Maclean, B. (2017). Association between Cancer and Environmental Exposure to Glyphosate. International Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(02), 73.

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Front Microbiol

Biopesticides as a promising alternative to synthetic pesticides: A case for microbial pesticides, phytopesticides, and nanobiopesticides

Modupe s. ayilara.

1 Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Kings University, Ode-Omu, Nigeria

Bartholomew S. Adeleke

3 Department of Biological Sciences, Microbiology Unit, School of Science, Olusegun Agagu University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa, Nigeria

Saheed A. Akinola

4 Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Rwanda, Butare, Rwanda

Chris A. Fayose

5 Department of Agricultural Technology, Ekiti State Polytechnic, Isan-Ekiti, Nigeria

Uswat T. Adeyemi

6 Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

Lanre A. Gbadegesin

7 Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China

Richard K. Omole

8 Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

9 Microbiology Unit, Department of Applied Sciences, Osun State College of Technology, Esa-Oke, Nigeria

Remilekun M. Johnson

Qudus o. uthman.

10 Soil, Water and Ecosystem Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States

Olubukola O. Babalola

Over the years, synthetic pesticides like herbicides, algicides, miticides, bactericides, fumigants, termiticides, repellents, insecticides, molluscicides, nematicides, and pheromones have been used to improve crop yield. When pesticides are used, the over-application and excess discharge into water bodies during rainfall often lead to death of fish and other aquatic life. Even when the fishes still live, their consumption by humans may lead to the biomagnification of chemicals in the body system and can cause deadly diseases, such as cancer, kidney diseases, diabetes, liver dysfunction, eczema, neurological destruction, cardiovascular diseases, and so on. Equally, synthetic pesticides harm the soil texture, soil microbes, animals, and plants. The dangers associated with the use of synthetic pesticides have necessitated the need for alternative use of organic pesticides (biopesticides), which are cheaper, environment friendly, and sustainable. Biopesticides can be sourced from microbes (e.g., metabolites), plants (e.g., from their exudates, essential oil, and extracts from bark, root, and leaves), and nanoparticles of biological origin (e.g., silver and gold nanoparticles). Unlike synthetic pesticides, microbial pesticides are specific in action, can be easily sourced without the need for expensive chemicals, and are environmentally sustainable without residual effects. Phytopesticides have myriad of phytochemical compounds that make them exhibit various mechanisms of action, likewise, they are not associated with the release of greenhouse gases and are of lesser risks to human health compared to the available synthetic pesticides. Nanobiopesticides have higher pesticidal activity, targeted or controlled release with top-notch biocompatibility and biodegradability. In this review, we examined the different types of pesticides, the merits, and demerits of synthetic pesticides and biopesticides, but more importantly, we x-rayed appropriate and sustainable approaches to improve the acceptability and commercial usage of microbial pesticides, phytopesticides, and nanobiopesticides for plant nutrition, crop protection/yield, animal/human health promotion, and their possible incorporation into the integrated pest management system.

1. Introduction

From antiquity, the use of synthetic (chemical) pesticides to control crop pests for improved crop production is known ( Anani et al., 2020 ). Synthetic pesticides are made from chemicals and carriers, such as polymers ( Rakhimol et al., 2020 ), which are specific for different pests. They range from those employed in the control of weeds (herbicides), algae (algicides), fungi (fungicide), mites or ticks (miticides/acaricides), bacteria (bactericides), rodents (rodenticide), termites (termiticides), insects (insecticides), molluscs (molluscicides), and nematodes (nematicides), which form the basis of their classification ( Anakwue, 2019 ). Another mode of pesticide classification can be based on their active ingredients, which include organochlorines, dichlorvos, diazinon, diamide, chlorpyrifos, etc. Although synthetic pesticides have positive effects on crop yield and productivity, they also have some negative impacts on soil biodiversity, animals, aquatic life, and humans ( Farooq et al., 2019 ). Synthetic pesticides usually render the soil brittle, reduce soil respiration, and lessen the activities of some macroorganisms in the soil, such as earthworms ( Pertile et al., 2020 ; Pelosi et al., 2021 ). They also reduce the characteristics of animal offspring, animal immunity to diseases, vitality, and the success of mating in animals ( Syromyatnikov et al., 2020 ). They negatively affect soil microorganisms by limiting their biological services in the production of certain plant growth-promoting traits, such as siderophores, nitrogen, indole-3-acetic, etc. ( Kumar and Kumar, 2019 ). When synthetic pesticides get into the environment through different means, such as vapormovements, indiscriminate disposal, droplet drift, erosion, and leaching, some non-targeted plants are encountered, thus resulting in a decline in the plant’s photosynthetic ability and seed production ( Hashimi et al., 2020 ). The intrusion of pesticides into the water bodies during runoff can lead to the death of aquatic life and water pollution. Also, the accumulation of pesticides in the water bodies can be transitional from the aquatic lives to the animals and humans, and their biomagnification can result in deadly diseases, such as cancer, kidney diseases, skin rashes, diabetes, etc. ( Jayaraj et al., 2017 ; Sabarwal et al., 2018 ; Manfo et al., 2020 ). However, biopesticides have emerged and have been very useful in the control of pests with lot of merits.

Biopesticides are cheap, environment-friendly, specific in their mode of action, sustainable, do not leave residues, and are not associated with the release of greenhouse gases ( Borges et al., 2021 ). These biopesticides can be in the form of phytopesticides (plant origin; Idris et al., 2022 ), microbial pesticides (microbial origin; Harish et al., 2021 ), and nanobiopesticides (nanoparticles produced from biological agents; Abdollahdokht et al., 2022 ; Pan et al., 2023 ). Unlike synthetic pesticides, microbial pesticides are specific in action, can be easily sourced without the need for expensive chemicals, and are environmentally sustainable without residual effects ( Harish et al., 2021 ; Hummadi et al., 2021 ). Phytopesticides have myriad of phytochemical compounds that make them exhibit various mechanisms of action, likewise, they are not associated with the release of greenhouse gases and are of lesser risks to human health compared to the available synthetic pesticides ( Malahlela et al., 2021 ; Idris et al., 2022 ). Nanobiopesticides have higher pesticidal activity, targeted or controlled release with top-notch biocompatibility, and biodegradability compared to the synthetic pesticides ( Abdollahdokht et al., 2022 ; Pan et al., 2023 ). Biopesticides act through different mechanisms, which include the inhibition and destruction of the plasma membrane and protein translation of pathogens/pests. Although, a few drawbacks have reduced their acceptability and commercial utilization, yet, biopesticides are highly specific in their target, have a short shelf life, are less persistent in the soil environment, and originate from sustainable raw materials, unlike synthetic pesticides ( Kumar et al., 2021 ). Some of the merits of biopesticides mentioned above could also serve as their demerits. For example, the specificity in their target toward pest could be a demerit if the desire is to control many pests simultaneously. Also, their short shelf life means they are easily degradable and persist less in the environment, but this turns to a demerit if the goal is to completely eliminate the existing pests and prevent the growth of the pests that will come after the application of the biopesticides. The critical assessment of these merits and demerits, and the possible measures to improve on these seeming drawbacks has become very important. Therefore, this review examined the types, effects, advantages, and disadvantages of both synthetic and biopesticides. Also, different measures to improve on biopesticides (that is, microbial pesticides, phytopesticides, and nanobiopesticides) for possible incorporation into the integrated pest management system to reduce yield and quality loss were adequately discussed.

2. Classification of pesticides

Pesticides can be classified based on their active ingredients, functions, and sources. According to their active ingredients, pesticides are classified into organochlorines, propanil, and so on ( Table 1 ). In terms of their functions, they can be classified into herbicides, fungicides, algicides, rodenticides, and so on ( Figure 1 ). However, according to their sources, pesticides are classified into synthetic pesticides and biopesticides. Many pesticides, which include carbofuran, carbendazim, dichlorvos, anthraquinone, dinocap, paraquat, methomyl, aldicarb, and diuron have been banned for use in a lot of countries due to their toxicity to humans ( Boucaud-Maitre et al., 2019 ). These banned pesticides are usually preferred by farmers because they are more affordable and more available compared to unbanned pesticides ( Kehinde and Tijani, 2021 ). It is therefore important for World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and other regulatory bodies to impose a ban on such products worldwide and also sanction companies that produce them.

Classification of pesticides according to their active ingredients.

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Classification of Bio-pesticides and their target pests.

2.1. Classification of pesticides according to their functions

Pesticides can be classified according to the functions they perform. For instance, algicides (acaricides) destroy algae on different surfaces ( Zheng et al., 2018 ), and antifeedants prevent the destruction of plants or harvested and preserved crops by other pests which could feed on them ( Peprah-Yamoah et al., 2022 ). Herbicides prevent the growth of weeds and eliminate them ( Loddo et al., 2019 ), while miticides are used to kill termites or ticks that destroy crops ( Murcia-Morales et al., 2021 ). Similarly, bactericides and fungicides get rid of harmful bacteria and fungi, respectively, or inhibit their growth without tampering with the beneficial ones ( Ullah and Dijkstra, 2019 ; Akanmu et al., 2021 ). Fumigants exhibit broad-spectrum activity against fungi, insects, and bacteria ( Fang et al., 2020 ). Termiticides suppress the activities of termites on the soil ( Singh et al., 2020 ). Repellents are used to repel insect pests and birds. Acaricides are used to control arachnids ( Benelli, 2022 ) and insecticides help to destroy insects that affect plants, animals, and humans ( Matsuda et al., 2020 ). Equally, the effective use of nematicides in the control of nematodes, rodenticides in the control of mice and other rodents, and molluscicides in the control of molluscs have been documented ( Horgan and Kudavidanage, 2020 ; Figure 1 ). Attractants lure and attract pests to a trap or bait ( Souto et al., 2021 ). Insect growth regulators disrupt the molting, maturity from pupal stage to adult, or other life processes of insects ( Jindra and Bittova, 2020 ).

2.2. Classification of pesticides according to their sources

Pesticides are classified into chemical and biological pesticides according to their source. Chemical pesticides are very effective and rapid in the control of pests. They are made from inorganic or synthetic salts, such as sulfur, copper sulfate, lime, and ferrous sulfate. Their chemical compositions are simple and highly soluble in water, which makes them easily absorbable by pests, thereby enhancing their activity and durability in the environment ( Kim et al., 2017 ; Abubakar et al., 2020 ).

Biological pesticides (biopesticides) are substances produced from biological agents that manage pests in agriculture to enhance crop production ( Samada and Tambunan, 2020 ). They can be sourced from microorganisms, plants, or nanoparticles ( Kidd et al., 2017 ; Samada and Tambunan, 2020 ; Adeleke et al., 2022d ). Microbes release certain metabolites, which protect plants from pests and are useful as microbial pesticides ( Samada and Tambunan, 2020 ). Active compounds from plants used as phytopesticides include phenols, alkaloids, and terpenes ( Abubakar et al., 2020 ). Generally, nanoparticles can be produced from chemical or biological agents (mainly plants or microbes; Omole et al., 2018 ). Nanoparticles of biological origins that are used as pesticides are termed nanobiopesticides and are also very important as plant protectants ( Pan et al., 2023 ). Nanobiopesticides have found application as pesticidal agents in agriculture because of their excellent physicochemical characteristics like size, reactivity, surface area, and so on. Besides, nanobiopesticides have unambiguous biological interactions with plants, as well as clear transport and fate in the environment ( Bratovcic et al., 2021 ; Kumar et al., 2022 ; Pan et al., 2023 ).

2.3. Adverse effects of synthetic pesticides

Synthetic pesticides are faced with drawbacks, which include the cost of purchase and production, persistence in the soil, pest resistance, impacts on health and the environment, economic harm to organic producers due to pesticide drift, disposal of contaminated crops, removal of stockpiles of unused pesticides as well as regular containers, and the disposal of expired/unused products, which can affect organic farms or innocent populace ( Hicks et al., 2018 ; Essiedu et al., 2020 ).

A large portion of pesticides when applied on the soil for agricultural purposes remains non-degradable. Hence, they are more persistent in the environment and leach to underground and surface water, thus leading to loss of biodiversity and pollution. Of all the pesticides applied on the soil, about 98% affect organisms that are not targeted. For instance, in Europe, pesticides decrease soil respiration by 35%, reduce insect biomass by 70%, and decrease the number of farm birds by 50%; and in America and Europe, it reduces the honeybee population by 30% ( Ali et al., 2021 ). Research by Tongo et al. (2022) revealed Aldrin pesticide as a major pesticide detected in the Ikpoba river in the Southern part of Nigeria. Although, other chemicals, such as diazinon, endrin, glyphosate, aldrin, endosulfan I, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, and carbofuran present with the tendencies of being biomagnified need proper monitoring. Furthermore, pesticides (e.g., carbamate and organophosphate) have been reported to negatively affect soil’s nutrients, as they chelate some important metal ions, thus making them unavailable for plant uptake ( Kaur et al., 2017 ). Likewise, plant photosynthesis, reproduction, and seed production can be adversely affected by pesticides ( Hashimi et al., 2020 ).

Residues of pesticides in food crops can be consumed directly by humans or used in the production of animal feeds ( Choudhary et al., 2018 ). This can come to play when pesticides are applied toward harvesting ( Jallow et al., 2017 ). Biomagnification of pesticides occurs in animals when they feed on accidentally or deliberately contaminated harvested food crops or forage. Topical pesticides are applied on food crops to control parasites, and through other means, such as disposal, spraying, and formulations of pesticides ( Choudhary et al., 2018 ). Pesticide accumulation in the granular tissues of animals can lead to the death of cells, necrosis (causing a reduced hormone production), ovarian follicles (resulting in a reduced progesterone level), reduced oestrogen production, reduced libido, and a reduced sperm concentration and quality in male animals ( Li et al., 2022 ).

Accumulation of pesticides in birds (e.g., bald eagles, ospreys, grebes, cormorants, seagulls, pelicans, and peregrine falcons) living in pesticide-polluted areas can lead to reproduction problems ( Garces et al., 2020 ). Pesticides lead to crossed bill deformity in birds. For example, a high concentration of DDT pesticides led to crossed-bill deformity in a wild bald eagle ( Garces et al., 2020 ). In reptiles inhabiting areas close to rivers where water from agricultural farms is washed, deformities could be observed. For example, snapping turtles living in Erie and Lake Ontario in Canada were found to have deformities, such as deformed jaws, limbs, cranium, carapaces, nostrils, and tails, enlarged yolk sacs, dwarfism, missing eyes, unhatched eggs, and these were traced to chemical pesticides contamination ( Garces et al., 2020 ). In soils, the reduction in the function and population of fungi, actinomycetes, and bacteria has been linked to the usage of three pesticides, namely glyphosate, malathion, and alphacypermethrin ( Kumar et al., 2019 ). All the negative effects of synthetic pesticides lead to the loss of biodiversity and genetic conservation in animals. Furthermore, it also alters soil biodiversity and health, by affecting the microbial functions in the soil, which directly or indirectly enhances soil nutrients and plant health.

Consumption of vegetables, food crops, fruits, milk, and meat from animals that contain high pesticide residue can lead to different diseases in humans ( Omoyajowo et al., 2018 ; Li et al., 2022 ). Onwujiogu et al. (2022) found pesticides in Bambara groundnut quantity, which is beyond the Maximum Residual Limit (MRL) recommended by the WHO and could pose a threat to the health of humans, especially children who feed on them. Omoyajowo et al. (2018) also experimented to unravel the level of pesticides in three fruits and realized that the pesticide level of watermelon was above the MRL level specified by the WHO/FAO, which equally poses a health threat to the consumers. Similarly, pesticides are used to protect harvested food crops, vegetables, and fruits and those used for other purposes aside that which they are manufactured. For instance, the use of calcium carbide to ripen fruits poses health threats to humans. Calcium carbide contains calcium arsenide and calcium phosphide, and when reacts with water, forms arsine and phosphide, thus leading to headache, vomiting, dizziness, nausea, unconsciousness, and fatigue in humans ( Andrew et al., 2018 ). Equally, ethepon, a pesticide used to hasten the ripening of fruits, vegetables, and cereals exhibited hepatocyte properties when tested on albino rats ( Bhadoria et al., 2018 ).

Furthermore, in humans, biomagnification of pesticides through food (such as fish), drinking water, skin pores (while spraying), post-harvest crop preservation, and inhalation, give rise to diseases, such as cancer, Parkinson’s diseases, eye irritation, diabetes, kidney diseases, hypertension, skin rashes, liver dysfunction, eczema, birth defects, Alzheimer’s diseases, neurological destruction, cardiovascular diseases, and endocrine disorder ( Damalas and Koutroubas, 2016 ; Jayaraj et al., 2017 ; Sabarwal et al., 2018 ; Manfo et al., 2020 ). Likewise, high pesticides level can lead to about 25–30% increase in mental ailments, and a 50% increase in severe brain cancer, leukaemia, lymphoma, and cancer.

3. Biopesticides as an alternative to synthetic pesticides

Due to the drawbacks of synthetic pesticides, an alternative means of pest control is being encouraged, which is the use of biopesticides ( Ojuederie et al., 2021 ; Ayilara et al., 2022b ; Figure 2 ). Biopesticides are effective and safer means of controlling pests, they have a mild effect on the environment compared to their synthetic counterpart, and they are specific in their target, hence preventing bioaccumulation ( Saberi et al., 2020 ; Kumar et al., 2021 ). Biopesticides are made from natural substances, such as plants, microbes, and nanoparticles of biological origin, thus, making them a sustainable means of pest control ( Kumar et al., 2021 ).

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Comparison of the advantages of synthetic pesticides and biopesticides.

Some successes have been recorded in the use of biopesticides in the control of some pests to which chemical pesticides are being applied ( Table 2 ).

Different Biopesticides and the pest they control.

The effectiveness of biopesticides in pest management comes from various modes of action, which include actions that regulate gut disruption, pest growth, and pest metabolism. Biopesticides work by denaturing protein, causing metabolic disorder and paralysis, activating target-poisoning mechanisms, exhibiting multisite inhibitory actions, and releasing neuromuscular toxins and bioactive compounds ( Figure 3 ; Sparks and Nauen, 2015 ; Dar et al., 2021 ; Fenibo et al., 2021 ). These multiple actions offer biopesticides the capacity to alter the course of pest resistance as compared to chemical pesticides. Studies have indicated that biopesticides are eco-friendly, possess low toxicity properties, are biodegradable, and specific in action with little or no negative impact on non-target organisms ( Deravel et al., 2014 ; Kalpana and Anil, 2021 ), Unlike biopesticides, conventional pesticides are a major source of environmental pollution, which promotes pest resistance with high post-harvest contamination and bioaccumulation in food crops ( Fenibo et al., 2021 ).

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Mechanism of action of biopesticides.

However, there are various limitations to the full adoption, development, and use of biopesticides in agriculture. Biopesticides are often ranked as having low efficacy and a slower rate in the control of pests and diseases ( Damalas and Koutroubas, 2016 ; Delgado‐Carrillo et al., 2018 ). Commercial biopesticide products are highly expensive and not readily available in the global market. In addition to the problem of commercialization, biopesticides also face quality control problems and concise shelf-life ( Arthurs and Dara, 2019 ).

Many farmers also worry about dosage recommendations and fear the evaluation of new pest species that may be resistant to the existing biopesticides ( Stevenson et al., 2017 ). The advantages and disadvantages of biopesticides are summarized in Table 3 . Biopesticides have also been classified into three groups based on their extraction source and the constituting molecule/compound. The three groups include; (i) Microbial Biopesticides; (ii) Biochemical Pesticides; and (iii) GMO-Based Biopesticides. The source characteristics and the consisting molecules of biopesticide influence the mechanisms by which biopesticides protect the crops from the attack of pathogens. For example, fungicides and bactericides derived from microorganisms act by inhibiting or disrupting the process of protein translation, or cause a major disruption in plasma membrane permeability, thus leading to cell death, while some may prevent glucose formation in target pathogens ( Parker and Sperandio, 2009 ; Svidritskiy, et al., 2013 ; Gwinn, 2018 ).

Advantages and disadvantages of biopesticides.

3.1. Microbial pesticides

Microbial pesticides consist of substances derived from microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, and algae, which are used in the control of pests ( Adeleke et al., 2022c ). Microbes use the toxic metabolites produced to destroy and prevent the growth of pests. Microbial pesticides are applied to the environment through different techniques, such as emulsion, electrospraying system, fluidized bed, spray drying, extrusion, lyophilization, spray cooling, and coacervation ( De Oliveira et al., 2021 ). The major categories of microbes used as biopesticides include bacteria genera, Chromobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Yersinia , fungal genera Beauveria, Paecilomyces, Verticillium, Hirsutella, Metarhizium , and Lecanicillium and nematodes belonging to the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis ( Chang et al., 2003 ; Kumar et al., 2021 ; Adeleke et al., 2022b ).

A fungi species, Trichoderma sp. has been reported to prevent the activity of numerous fungi inhabiting the soil that cause root rot, black gram, and green gram in chickpeas, and groundnut ( Samada and Tambunan, 2020 ). Likewise, Beauveria bassiana and M . brunneum have been reported in the control of thrips, beetles, weevil, aphids, whiteflies, and mites infestation in ornamental crops, fruits, and vegetables ( Dara, 2017 ; Arthurs and Dara, 2019 ). Other examples of microbial pesticides are listed in Table 2 .

Of all the bacterial pesticides , Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is well-known and have been made into products available for commercial purpose ( Ujvary, 2010 ; Ruiu, 2018 ). Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive bacteria that acts as an insecticide by producing exudates, such as poisonous parasporal crystals and endospores which when consumed by insects get dissolved in their midgut by the alkaline environment and release delta-endotoxin, a protein that has a lethal effect on insects ( Xiao and Wu, 2019 ). Bacillus thuringiensis is used to reduce pest infestation in plants, such as cabbage and potato, and is capable of controlling lepidopterans in different plants ( Berini et al., 2018 ; Samada and Tambunan, 2020 ). As good as the positive effects of commercially available Bt sounds, they come with some drawbacks which include quick deactivation when exposed to light, short activity time, slow lethal rate, and low awareness and sensitivity to the environment ( Xiao and Wu, 2019 ). The short life and environmental sensitivity of microbial pesticides, which reduce their awareness and usage are the major challenges associated with their use ( Pathak et al., 2017 ). For instance, baculoviruses only survive in their host and cannot reproduce outside their host; hence, they cannot be used outside their host ( Borges et al., 2021 ). Their host may have an adverse environmental impact on the environment, and their use might be dangerous.

Fungi are also used to control plant pests. An example is the mycoinsecticide, which is a microbial insecticide whose active ingredient is a living fungus that exhibits an antagonistic effect on insects or other arthropod pests, with some strains releasing metabolites while inside the pest that may also injure or kill it ( Zaki et al., 2020 ). Only a few rare fungal strains have been developed as commercial mycoinsecticides, hence, the technology is still in its early stages. Attachments, germination, penetration, invasion, replication, and host death are the six general phases of action for mycoinsecticides ( Zaki et al., 2020 ).

Spores can land on and attach to the target host’s cuticle when the formulated product is diluted and applied according to label instructions. Adhesion is primarily achieved through hydrophobic interactions between the cuticle and the spore. The number of spores attached to the host’s body determines their efficacy. The spore germinates in response to chemical cues on the cuticle and then develops an aspersorium, which is the penetration structure. The fungus penetrates the layers of the cuticle through a combination of mechanical pressure and enzyme degradation ( Zaki et al., 2020 ).

Generally, microbial pesticides exert no adverse effects on the environment, producers, and consumers of agricultural products because their ingredients are generally considered safe and are target-specific ( Guven et al., 2021 ). In addition, their usage lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to chemical pesticides ( Llamas et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, there is a wide variety of organisms from which microbial biopesticides can be derived to solve the problem of resistance and ensures sustainability. Since different microbes used as biopesticides might require different storage condition, it might be cumbersome for sellers, producers, marketers, and end users to cope with their storage and transportation. Hence, more research is needed to ensure a sustainable and extended shelf-ability of microbial pesticides.

3.2. Phytopesticides

Essential oil and extract from different parts of plants have been successfully used to control plant diseases ( Ayilara et al., 2022a ). They attract, repel, prevent respiration, detect host plants from specific pests, destroy the eggs and larvae of pests, and destroy pests from feeding on plants ( Tripathi et al., 2009 ; Halder et al., 2013 ; Ali et al., 2017 ). Essential oil from Coleus aromaticus Benth., Hyptis suaveolens (L.), Azadirachta indica, Ageratum conyzoides L., and Achillea sp., have been reported to control the infestation of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), a red flour beetle that destroys many crop species ( Singh et al., 2014 ; Jaleel et al., 2015 ; Upadhyay et al., 2018 ). Other plant parts, such as bark, flowers, roots, leaves, peels, seeds, and buds can be used to control different plant pathogens ( Tongnuanchan and Benjakul, 2014 ).

Plant families that have been reported to contain bioactive compounds with activity against important crop pests include Myrtaceae, Lauraceae, Rutaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Cupressaceae, Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Piperaceae, Liliaceae, Apocynaceae, Solanaceae, Caesalpinaceae, and Sapotaceae ( Gakuubi et al., 2016 ). They are easily available which makes them inexpensive and can be easily incorporated into agricultural production systems. Secondary metabolites, such as steroids, alkaloids, tannins, terpenes, phenols, flavonoids, and resins are commonly found in botanical pesticides and have shown antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, or insecticidal properties ( Ahmad et al., 2017 ). The specific compounds found in certain plant species make them effective against a specific category of pests and also determine their mode of action on the target pests ( Lengai et al., 2020 ). Botanical pesticides contain bioactive compounds that act in a variety of ways against pests, such as insects, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and plant host cells infected with viral pathogens ( Lengai et al., 2020 ). Depending on the botanical compound and pest, the modes of action may include repellence, inhibition, protein denaturation, and other effects. Pesticides derived from pyrethrum target insect nerve cells, thus causing paralysis and death. Also, neem-based pesticides with antifeedant and repellent properties, induce moulting abnormalities, hinder oviposition, and disrupt the endocrine system ( Lengai et al., 2020 ).

Pesticides from plants have been well-reported to interfere with the normal metabolism of insect pests, which include the octopamine and acetylcholinesterase pathways ( Polsinelli et al., 2010 ; Pang et al., 2012 ; Dassanayake et al., 2021 ). Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme used by insects in their neuronal communication and neuromuscular functions and can be toxic to insects by destroying the membrane of the postsynaptic junction and the current of the nerve. Octapamine on the other hand is a hormone involved in neuromodulation and neurotransmission in insects and can impair the muscle juncture and homeostasis of the body fluids of insects ( Dassanayake et al., 2021 ). Equally, plant pesticides can prevent cell wall biosynthesis, cell membrane structure, ATPases function, quorum sensing, efflux pumps, and biofilm formation ( Lang and Buchbauer, 2012 ; Hu et al., 2017 ). Extracts from four weed plants, namely Lippia javanica , Tithonia diversifolia , Vernonia amygdalina, and ephrosia vogelii , in Tanzania were used to control insects in common bean ( Mkenda et al., 2015 ). Similarly, Lovatto et al. (2004) carried out an experiment where nine different aqueous plant extracts from the leaves, fruits, and flowers of nine plants were used to repel and kill Brevicoryne brassicae . Solanum pseudocapsicum L., and Solanum guaraniticum A were reported to be the most effective.

3.3. Nanobiopesticides

Nanobiopesticides can be defined as biological protection products that are developed using nanotechnology to enhance efficacy and reduce an environmental load of pesticides ( Chaudhary et al., 2021b , d ). Nanobiopesticides are formulated from nanomaterials and applied specially fixed on a hybrid substrate, encapsulated in a matrix or functionalized nanocarriers for external stimuli or enzyme-mediated triggers ( Agostini et al., 2012 ; Khati et al., 2018 ; Kumari et al., 2020 ; Agri et al., 2021 , 2022 ; Chaudhary et al., 2022 ; Pan et al., 2023 ). They are nanostructures with two or three dimensions used for carrying agrochemical ingredients and can help increase water solubility and bioavailability, and protect agrochemicals against environmental degradation. It also helps revolutionize the control of pathogens, weeds, and insects in crops ( Yadav et al., 2020 ). They are available in different forms, such as nano-gel, nano-encapsulation, nano-fibres, nano-sphere, etc. ( Rajna and Paschapur, 2019 ; Pan et al., 2023 ).

Nanoparticles in recent years are being reported to be very helpful in agriculture ( Omole et al., 2018 ). They have been used as active ingredients and carriers to stabilize many agrochemicals and their products from them include nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, etc. ( Chaudhary and Sharma, 2019 ; Chaudhary et al., 2021a ). For instance, pesticides from nanomaterials, such as magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide, copper oxide, and zinc oxide derived from aqueous extracts of Chamaemelum nobile flowers, Punica granatum peels, green peach aphid (GPA) and Olea europaea leaves have been reported in the control of insects ( Grillo et al., 2021 ; Konappa et al., 2021 ). Also, silver nanoparticles derived from the leaf extract of Euphorbia hirta have been explored in the control of the causative agent of cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera ( Devi et al., 2014 ). The ability of copper oxide nanoparticles and zinc oxide nanoparticles to control Alternaria citri , a causative agent of citrus black rot disease in the plant has as well been reported ( Lasso-Robledo et al., 2022 ). In addition, Sardar et al. (2022) used combined and individual zinc oxide and copper oxide to control citrus black rot disease in a potato dextrose medium. The fungal and insecticidal effects of copper nanoparticles have been demonstrated against Tribolium castaneum, a pest that affects grain ( El-Saadony et al., 2020 ). The major interactions which occur between plants and nanoparticles have been studied using different techniques, which include fluorescence spectroscopy, microscopy, and magnetic resonance imaging ( Chhipa, 2019 ). The effectiveness of nanobiopesticides can be determined by the composition, surface charge, concentration, size, and chemical and physical changes ( Chhipa, 2019 ).

The critical role of nanoformulations in reducing active ingredient degradation, improving water solubility equilibrium, and increasing the biological availability of active ingredients is well understood, and this has helped in avoiding endemic pest infestation, plant injury, and economic loss by lowering the quality and quantity of agricultural products and foods ( Syafrudin et al., 2021 ; Chaudhary et al., 2021a , c ).

Because of their small size and larger surface area, nanopesticides’ chemical properties differ significantly from conventional pesticides, and these properties can be used to develop an efficient assemble of a structure with several advantages, such as the possibility of better interaction and mode of action at a target site of the desired pest. Nano-sized products exhibit greater selectivity without impairing compound bioactivity against the target pathogen. Their increased toxicity can also increase pest penetration ( Priya et al., 2018 ). Nanoparticle application reduces drifting and leaching issues and allows for the use of a smaller amount of active compound per area, as long as the formulation can provide optimal concentration delivery for the target insecticide for longer periods. There are several methods for creating pesticide nanoproducts, such as nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, and inorganic engineered nanoparticles (such as metal oxides, metals, and clays), and can be further developed to improve the efficacy of existing pesticides, reduce their environmental toxicity, or both.

On a general note, biopesticides have been reported to be capable of controlling pests but their sole use for sustainable agriculture may not be realistic, majorly because they are not readily available in many locations and their mode of action can be very slow. Hence, they should be incorporated with the existing synthetic pesticides and be applied majorly close to the harvest period of crops since residual chemicals observed in plants are those majorly applied close to harvest periods. Furthermore, this will help to maintain suitable agriculture, pending the improvements of biopesticides.

3.4. Molecular mechanisms of the application of biopesticides

It is very important to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the action of biopesticides at each stage of action to ensure better control strategies over pests. Understanding the biopesticides mechanisms of action against insect pests at the molecular level will allow for synergistic approaches among biopesticides, which have different mechanisms of action without an overlapping mechanism. This will also give allowance for the exploration of different toxic molecules present in biopesticides that can enlarge the pesticidal arsenal of these biopesticides. The widely used biopesticides and their mechanisms of action at the biochemical level have been described. However, the entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana has gained wide acceptance and can be used as a model to describe the molecular mechanism of biopesticides’ application.

Beauveria bassiana is an example of an entomopathogenic fungus that has been widely used as biopesticide because it is highly efficacious against a lot of arthropod hosts ( Boomsma et al., 2014 ). However, to understand their effectiveness and sustainability against pests, there is a need to fully evaluate their molecular mechanism of pathogenicity beyond the conventional approach. The mechanism of pathogenicity of B . bassiana begins with adhesion to the host pest, penetration of cuticle, and colonization of the pest heaemocoel ( Wojda et al., 2009 ).

The hydrophobins-coated aerial conidia of B . bassiana allow its hydrophobic interaction with the cuticles of insects ( Holder and Keyhani, 2005 ). This hydrophobicity of the B . bassiana aerial conidia can be influenced by the role that several genes expressed by B . bassiana play in lipid homeostasis. It has been revealed by transcriptomics analyses that there is an upregulation of gene expressions for hydrophobins and Metarhizium adhesion-like protein 1, 2 (MAD 1, MAD2) by B . bassiana which are crucial for its hydrophobic attachment to the cuticle of insect ( Wang and St Leger, 2007 ). The transportation and storage of lipids in the conidia, and maintenance of the lipid homeostasis of B . bassiana is possible when mammalian-like perilipin 1 (MPL1) genes are over-expressed ( Chen et al., 2018 ). The role that the MPL1 gene plays is crucial because its deletion causes a reduction in the turgor pressure of the appressoria impairing the adhesiveness of B . bassiana ( Wang and Leger, 2007 ). Also, the surface sensing and signaling for the germination of conidia and formation of appressoria is made possible by CFEM-domain-containing genes in B . bassiana ( Sabnam and Barman, 2017 ). Proteomics has also revealed that B . bassiana secretes sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase, which allows it to disrupt the membrane of the host insect upon contact with the cuticles of the insect ( Santi et al., 2019 ).

Once B . bassiana completed adhesion to the host insect, its conidia germinate and develop appressoria to allow penetration into the cuticle of the host. The penetration efficiency of B . bassiana usually increased when the structural outlook of the appressorium allows the synergistic functioning of enzymatic digestion and mechanical pressure ( Singh et al., 2017 ). The hyphae of B . bassiana germinate in the exoskeleton of the insect as the penetration proceeds and B . bassiana produces secondary hyphae inside the cuticle. The hyphae switch to blastospores (motile, more hydrophilic, and better evade the insect’s host immunity) when exposed to hyperosmotic environment in the haemocoel ( Ortiz-Urquiza and Keyhani, 2016 ). Through transcriptomics, it has been reported that chitin synthase is responsible for chitin production, and β-1,3-glucanases soften the cell wall to allow germination, while several cell wall protein-conferring genes give the cell wall of B . bassiana its building blocks ( Tartar et al., 2005 ; Mouyna et al., 2013 ; Chen et al., 2018 ). Genes necessary for the cell body differentiation in B . bassiana include osmosensor Mos1, signaling-related genes, and mitogen-activated-protein kinases (MAPKs) like protein kinase A (PKA; Chen et al., 2018 ; Zhou et al., 2019 ). For penetration into the cuticle of the host insect, notable proteases, lipases, chitinases, and carboxypeptidases have been reported and these include subtilisin-like protease (Pr) isoform 1A (Pr1A) and 1B (Pr1B), cytochrome P450s (CYPs) and GH18 family chitinases ( Lai et al., 2017 ).

In response to the penetration into the cuticle of the insect, the insect activates melanization and produces antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and protease inhibitors ( Ortiz-Urquiza and Keyhani, 2016 ). Stress management and immune-evasion-related genes are upregulated to overcome the host insect defense mechanisms. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), catalases, peroxidases, superoxide dismutase (SODs), thioredoxins, and oxidoreductases are anti-oxidative enzyme-producing genes over-expressed in B . bassiana ( Lai et al., 2017 ). Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are expressed to maintain internal cellular integrity against diverse types of stress ( Santi et al., 2019 ). Another mechanism used by B . bassiana is the production of secondary metabolites that are toxic to the insect cell. These metabolites include oosporeins, beauvericin, isarolides, beauverolides, tenellins, and bassianolide ( Chandler, 2017 ). The biosynthesis of oosporein happens in the haemocoel and it is mediated by the over-expression of polyketide synthase (PKS) gene ( Lai et al., 2017 ). It is interesting to note that a greater amount of beauverolides secreted by B . bassiana usually occur when live insect tissues are present than in the presence of dead insect tissues ( de Bekker et al., 2013 ). With these fantastic mechanisms of action, B . bassiana stands out among the entomopathogenic fungi, thus making it an attractive and widely used biopesticide against a lot of arthropod hosts.

Lastly, it is good to note that the complex mechanism of pathogenesis exhibited by B . bassiana cannot be fully understood by a singular omics approach, there is a need to examine the total expressions of different proteins, secondary metabolites, and their genes at every infection stage. Hence, researchers in different fields of omics need to collaborate to work with the same parameters to have a holistic view of the mechanism of action of different biopesticides.

4. Integrated pest management system

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) system refers to the mechanism of controlling pests using different techniques, such as habitat manipulation, biological and chemical control measures, use of pest-resistant varieties, and the modification of cultural practices. These techniques can be merged to ensure the long-term protection of plants ( Deguine et al., 2021 ). For instance, IPM has been used in the control of Tuta absoluta , a deadly pest that affects tomatoes globally, and has developed resistance to insecticides ( Desneux et al., 2021 ). Here, the synthetic pesticides and biological pesticides include the release and conservation of sex pheromones and arthropod natural enemies ( Desneux et al., 2021 ). The use of IPM has been reported to be cost-effective and reduces the loss of crop yield ( Hagstrum and Flinn, 2018 ). Currently, the adoption of IPM is limited owing to several factors, which include awareness, user preference, production industry, technology, policy, and culture ( Deguine et al., 2021 ). It is, therefore, necessary to increase awareness of the inclusion of biological pesticides from microorganisms, plants, and nanobiopesticides in IPM. The awareness of many people about IPM will be an advantage to encourage producers to produce more of it, enhance its adoption and encourage researchers to carry out more research on it.

5. Future prospects and conclusion

A lot of crops are lost yearly to pest, but the emergence of synthetic pesticides have helped to reduce the loss. Nevertheless, the adverse effects of synthetic pesticides limit their use; thus, promoting the use of biological pesticides. Since biopesticides have proven as good alternative to chemical pesticides, it will be very important to explore them for maximum use in agriculture. The demand and availability of biopesticides are very poor, hence discouraging the producers and the users, respectively. Therefore, making grants or capital available for researchers, entrepreneurs, producers, and marketers will help to enhance the production and availability of biopesticides.

The shelf-life of biopesticides is short, as they require special temperatures and conditions for survival during transportation and storage. Hence, more research to unravel the mechanisms to make biopesticides more stable and improve their shelf-life will go a long way in increasing their efficiency.

The fact that biopesticides have no residual effects on the environment could serve as an advantage and a disadvantage. An advantage because it will not remain long enough to be dangerous to the plants, humans, and animals (which is one of the major demerits of synthetic pesticides), and it is a disadvantage because it will only protect crops as long as it has contacts with the pests, and pests that infest after their application would not be affected and might need another application, thus leading to a higher cost implication and labor for farmers. Consequently, more research should be carried out to incorporate bio-carriers and other sustainable methods, which can be used to enhance the persistence of biopesticides in the environment. Since biopesticides are highly specific in their mode of action, chemical reactions may occur if more than a biopesticide is applied to a crop that is affected by different pests. Hence, it is important to carry out more research on the compatibility of different biopesticides, which are likely to be used together on the same crop. Furthermore, most research carried out on biopesticides was focused on yield and not the nutritional quality of the crops, an insight into the nutritional quality of biopesticides will enhance their use.

The Maximum Residual Limit for pesticides in local markets (not only for food crops that would be exported) should be enforced and awareness should be created on the effectiveness of biopesticides so that farmers can explore them. In addition, a mobile meter, device, or strip could be developed, made affordable and easily available to enhance the easy and rapid detection of pesticide levels in food crops. This will help farmers to take caution and also help the populace to avoid feeding on crops with a Maximum Residual Limit greater than the WHO specified value. Awareness of the effects of the indiscriminate use and health effects of biopesticides in humans will also help to promote a good environment and health. Due to the numerous challenges still encountered with the use of biopesticides, the sole use of biopesticides might not be feasible. Therefore, their incorporation with the existing synthetic pesticides will be a better means of preventing crops from pests and ensuring sustainable agriculture.

Author contributions

MA, BA, and SA conceived the idea and were involved in the writing of the manuscript. CF, UA, LG, RO, RJ, and QU contributed to the writing of the manuscript. MA, BA, and RO revised the manuscript. OB reviewed and edited the final draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This study was funded through research grants from the National Research Foundation, South Africa (UID: 123634 and 132595).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

OB appreciates the research grants from the National Research Foundation, South Africa.

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GSI EARTH 222 Spring 2024

How to apply.

Brief statement of interest (short essay) describing your relevant experience, including any relevant courses you've taken, and CV.

Course Description

EARTH 222 - Introductory Oceanography explores the Earth's oceans in terms of geological, chemical, physical, and biological oceanography, with emphasis on understanding the oceans as an integrated system. We study the processes that form ocean basins, the forces that govern ocean circulation, the physical and chemical properties that influence the distribution of life, and the adaptation of organisms to their aquatic environment. We will also discuss the ocean's role in mitigating global change and the consequences for oceanic ecosystems and human society.

Class will be online and asynchronous.

Responsibilities*

This is a 0.25 grader position. Duties will include grading, assisting in general course preparation and administrative tasks, and holding office hours.

Required Qualifications*

Previous teaching experience and coursework will be taken into consideration when hiring, and preference given to students who have previously taken or served as a GSI for EARTH 222.

Desired Qualifications*

LSA student enrolled in a graduate program.

Contact Information

Contact Nathan Sadowsky at [email protected] with questions. Applications are due by 04/22/2024 and offers will be extended by 05/03/2024.

Decision Making Process

All positions are assigned by Associate Chair for Graduate Studies Jeroen Ritsema. The instructor of record for the course may be consulted in the process.

Selection Process

We hope to extend an offer by 05/03/2024 or earlier. You may request the status of your application by contacting Nathan Sadowsky at [email protected] .

GEO Contract Information

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≡Essays on Pesticides. Free Examples of Research Paper Topics, Titles
The Impact of Agent Orange, 2, 4-d, in Pesticides and The Dangers It Poses to Agricultural Yields. Agent Orange in Crops In the latest herbicide revival, a contaminate found in Agent Orange,2,4-d, has been found in the latest creation by the Dow pesticide company, as well as Monsanto. This is causing up rise in American farmers, EPA, and health ...
Use of Pesticides in Agriculture
Use of Pesticides in Agriculture Essay. The ever-increasing human population prompted the emergence of scientific methods and techniques aimed at increasing agricultural productivity. Among these techniques is the use of pesticides to control weeds and ultimately boost farm yields. However, recent studies on effects of the pesticides due to ...
Pesticides: formulants, distribution pathways and effects on human
1. Introduction. Pesticides include a wide variety of chemicals, which are increasingly being used all over the world. The EU Pesticides Database [1] lists more than 1378 active ingredients, 466 of which have been approved and 858 have not been approved for use in the EU.The great variety of molecular mechanisms responsible for the effects of pesticides on their target organisms are shown in ...
Agriculture Development, Pesticide Application and Its Impact on the
1. Introduction. The group of substances known as pesticides pertains to substances used as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, and nematicides [].It is generally accepted that pesticides play an important role in agricultural development because they can reduce the losses of agricultural products and improve the affordable yield and quality of food [2,3,4].
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Understanding Water Quality Concerns: A Closer Look at PesticidesDefining Pesticides:The EPA describes a \\\"pesticide\\\" as a substance or combination of substances intended for (1) the prevention, elimination, repulsion, or mitigation of any pest, (2) use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant, or (3) use as a nitrogen stabilizer.
PDF The environmental, human health and economic impacts of pesticides
Pesticide use has different types of costs: direct costs, which are all the monetary and non-monetary expenses borne by farmers and other pesticide users; indirect or hidden costs (e.g., occupational health effects, development of pest resistance, or reduction in crop pollination); and external costs or externalities,
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Products containing the agents fenamidone (C 17 H 17 N 3 OS) and propamocarb (C 9 H 20 H 2 O 2) are used to treat late blight in potatoes, with the former effective against foliar infection, while the latter controls soil, root and leaf disease. Fenamidone-based fungicides are also used on grapes, tomatoes, tobacco and ornamental plants.
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Essay Samples on Pesticides. Essay Examples. Essay Topics. Effects of Pesticides on Aquatic Organisms in The Mediterranean Coast of Egypt. Introduction Over the last two decades of the twentieth century, the use of pesticides has seen a significant increase in several countries worldwide, including Egypt. One common usage of pesticides is in ...
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Pesticides, while designed to control pests and enhance crop production, have far-reaching consequences on the health of ecosystems and, by extension, human health. This essay delves into the environmental repercussions of pesticide use, emphasizing the intricate web of interactions within ecosystems that are disrupted by these toxic substances.
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However, the extensive application of chemical pesticides in agricultural practices has led to an elevation in pest resistance, resulting in a substantial decline in the efficacy of pesticide control. Consequently, the sustainable utilization of pesticides has emerged as a critical area of investigation. The focal point of this Special Issue ...
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Paper Type: 550 Word Essay Examples Advantages and Disadvantages Essay. A pesticide is a material used to kill or reject a pest. Pesticides have disadvantages and advantages. They are able to restrain pests, but it can also kill other organisms as well. Not only do they affect animals but they can effect us, as humans.
Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: their benefits and hazards
Production and usage of pesticides in India. The production of pesticides started in India in 1952 with the establishment of a plant for the production of BHC near Calcutta, and India is now the second largest manufacturer of pesticides in Asia after China and ranks twelfth globally (Mathur, 1999).There has been a steady growth in the production of technical grade pesticides in India, from ...
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Pesticide Use Benefits. The use of pesticides introduces quite a range of benefits for agriculture. Specifically, a rapid rise in the amount of produced food and the speed of its production deserve a mentioning as the positive core outcomes (Gomes et al. 2020). In relation to the specified effect, the one of an increase in the chances for human ...
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Essay on Pesticides. Pesticides: What are they? Pesticides are chemicals that are used to destroy pests. In the agricultural industry, pesticides are classified into two categories, carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic. A carcinogenic pesticide is a substance or agent producing or inciting cancer. Conversely, a non-carcinogenic pesticide is ...
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Biopesticides are biological products or organisms which are potential candidates for eco-friendly pest management and crop protection over the chemical pesticides. The so-called biopesticides include viruses, bacteria, fungi, predators, parasites, and pheromones exhibiting a variety of modes of actions. They are less toxic, rapidly degradable, and more targeted to specific pests. However, it ...
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Essay On Pesticides; Essay On Pesticides. 1817 Words 8 Pages. Pesticides and How it Works Abstract: A pest is "a plant or creature unfavorable to people or human concerns". Pesticide is Chemical or natural substance intended to slaughter or retard the development of pests that harm or meddle with the development of products, bushes, trees ...
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Primary benefits include improved crop and livestock quality and increased crop and livestock yields. Secondary benefits are less immediate, and they include food security, increased export revenues, and reduced international spread of disease. In the short-range, pesticides reduce waste of crops, land, water, time, and other valuable resources.
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Topic Cancer , Pesticides. This sample was provided by a student, not a professional writer. Anyone has access to our essays, so likely it was already used by other students. Do not take a risk and order a custom paper from an expert. Pesticides are commonly used in households, businesses, and agriculture. Several well-designed molecular and ...
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Essay About Pesticide. 1528 Words7 Pages. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Study Pesticide that based on chemical is harmful to the user and the environment. Even though the pesticides are sprayed on land, they can make their way into a water source, such as a river, ocean, or pond. If a body of water becomes contaminated with the chemicals, many ...
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Introduction. Pesticides kill, repel, or control forms of animal and plant life considered to damage or be a nuisance in agriculture and domestic life. Used broadly, the term includes these types of chemicals: Herbicides destroy or control weeds and other unwanted vegetation. They are commonly used on lawns. Insecticides kill or control insects.
Essays on Pesticides, Free Examples, Topics, Titles, Outlines
Essays on Pesticides. Get a Custom Essay Writer Just For You! Experts in this subject field are ready to write an original essay following your instructions to the dot! Hire a Writer. 273 views 2 pages ~ 312 words. Endangered Species Environmental Protection Pesticides.
Biopesticides as a promising alternative to synthetic pesticides: A
1. Introduction. From antiquity, the use of synthetic (chemical) pesticides to control crop pests for improved crop production is known (Anani et al., 2020).Synthetic pesticides are made from chemicals and carriers, such as polymers (Rakhimol et al., 2020), which are specific for different pests.They range from those employed in the control of weeds (herbicides), algae (algicides), fungi ...
Pesticides In Rachel Carson's Silent Lang Apr 9, 2024
Mya Berry MATTHEW FORESTER Ap Lang Apr 9, 2024 Rachel Carson In 1962 Rachel Carson was successful in her argument against pesticides in her 1962 book Silent Spring, as explained in her book about the incident in California an orchard worker handling foliage was treated from pesticide poisoning which caused them to go into shock and barely escape death but with skilled medical attention they ...
GSI EARTH 222 Spring 2024
Course Description. EARTH 222 - Introductory Oceanography explores the Earth's oceans in terms of geological, chemical, physical, and biological oceanography, with emphasis on understanding the oceans as an integrated system. We study the processes that form ocean basins, the forces that govern ocean circulation, the physical and chemical ...

Use of Pesticides in Agriculture Essay

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Biopesticides: a Green Approach Towards Agricultural Pests

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Biopesticides as a promising alternative to synthetic pesticides: A case for microbial pesticides, phytopesticides, and nanobiopesticides

Bartholomew S. Adeleke

Saheed A. Akinola

Chris A. Fayose

Uswat T. Adeyemi

Lanre A. Gbadegesin

Richard K. Omole

Remilekun M. Johnson

Olubukola O. Babalola

1. Introduction

2. Classification of pesticides

2.1. Classification of pesticides according to their functions

2.2. Classification of pesticides according to their sources

2.3. Adverse effects of synthetic pesticides

3. Biopesticides as an alternative to synthetic pesticides

3.1. Microbial pesticides

3.2. Phytopesticides

3.3. Nanobiopesticides

3.4. Molecular mechanisms of the application of biopesticides

4. Integrated pest management system

5. Future prospects and conclusion

Author contributions

Conflict of interest

Publisher’s note

Acknowledgments

GSI EARTH 222 Spring 2024

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