critical thinking in the classroom...and beyond linda m. murawski edd

Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond

Linda M. Murawski, EdD Adjunct Professor Department of Human Resources Development Graduate & Professional Studies Tusculum College Knoxville, Tennessee

ABSTRACT Critical thinking in the classroom is a common term used by educators. Critical thinking has been called “the art of thinking about thinking” (Ruggiero, V.R., 2012) with the intent to improve one’s thinking. The challenge, of course, is to create learning environments that promote critical thinking both in the classroom and beyond. Teaching and practicing critical thinking provides adults with the opportunity to embrace and take charge of their learning. Adults engaged in critical thinking approach the classroom experience differently. Typically, students who implement critical thinking skills approach the courseware in a more thoughtful and effective manner, ask more challenging questions and participate in the learning process more intensely. This critical thinking process endures beyond the classroom and into the workplace. This session examines the background of critical thinking, its role in the classroom and beyond that to the workplace.

INTRODUCTION of many years of research , analysis, teaching and practice, Ennis concluded that critical thinking is “focused on de- Critical thinking is a common course in college and uni- ciding what to believe or do,” (Ennis, p. 10). versity settings today. Frequently taught as a way to “im- prove” thinking, the art of critical thinking involves an Ennis separated critical thinking into two categories: dis- approach to thinking--more importantly to learning--that positions and abilities. The ideal critical thinker, in his embraces changing how one thinks about thinking. Criti- writings, is disposed to reach a “right” decision, present cal thinking incorporates how learners develop and apply that position honestly and clearly, consider others’ points thought to understand how thinking can be improved. of view, seek to be well informed, and to avoid intimidat- Typically, a person is deemed a critical thinker to the ex- ing or confusing others. Additionally, that critical thinker tent that he or she regularly improves their thinking in an has the ability to focus on a question, analyze and argu- intentional manner. The basic idea undergirding the study ment, judge the creditability of a source, make and value of critical thinking is simple--to determine strengths and judgments, clarify and refine their viewpoint, support weaknesses in one’s thinking in order to maintain the their viewpoints appropriately, and to imaginatively sup- strengths and make improvements by targeting the weak- pose and integrate the logic of a viewpoint with sensitivity nesses. to others (Ennis, 2011). The wordcritical for this paper is not intended to denote a Vincent Ruggiero writing in The art of thinking: A guide negative approach to thinking. Critical implies evaluation to critical and creative thought describes thinking as “any of thoughts , ideas or judgments with awareness, creativity mental activity that helps formulate or solve a problem, and refinement of these processes as needed. make a decision, or fulfill a desire to understand. It is searching for answers while reaching for meaning” (Rug- Critical thinking has its roots in the work of such no- giero, 2012 p. 4). He notes that thinking may not always tables as Socrates , Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon , Rene be a conscious effort. There are forces at work--beneath Descartes, John Locke and Sir Issac Newton in its earli- the surface so to speak-- within the unconscious that dic- est times. More modern contributions can be attributed tate one’s overt thinking. An example might be driving to John Dewey , Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Jean Piaget to a daily destination such as work without consciously among others. Work completed by Robert Ennis in the remembering each landmark along the route. This type 1960s gave rise to critical thinking skills taught in the of thinking occurs without much critical thought at all. classroom and reflected in the workplace. Ennis focused Indeed, the brain seems to be on auto-pilot in this situa- on critical thinking as a learned skill that could be trans- tion. Critical thinking according to Ruggiero is more at- ferred to the workplace if taught and practiced. As a result

Journal of Learning in Higher Education 25 Linda M. Murawski Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond tuned to thinking that occurs to solve problems, analyze ages and one whose definition suits the occasion is the • Take the first approach that occurs to them Acknowledging that critical thinking is an important issues or make decisions. Staying with the aforementioned mostly likely one that a writer will select. skill is fundamental. Critical thinking can be taught and • Judge quickly—maybe too quickly and not criti- example, if the road normally driven is blocked or closed, should be taught in a directed manner providing students cally the driver would need to critically think about an alter- Characteristics of a Critical Thinker with practice while evaluating and testing ideas. Criti- nate route. Which route is shortest to the destination? • Fail to listen actively cal thinking is not a natural byproduct of taking college Which route might not be blocked like the one encoun- Critical thinkers are those persons who can move beyond courses, even courses whose subject matter necessitate • Think their ideas are the best--all others are less tered? What could happen if that route were taken? All “typical” thinking models to an advanced way of thinking. critical thinking for success. In Developing Critical Think- these questions are examples of critical thinking based on Critical thinkers produce both more ideas and improved • Resist change ers, Stephen Brookfield (1987) emphasizes that “a willing- a problem needing to be solved. ideas than poor thinkers (Ruggiero, 2012). They become ness to risk experimentation in one’s teaching is an im- • Think in stereotypes more adept in their thinking by using a variety of probing portant aspect of modeling change and promoting critical Problem solving is the ultimate intent of critical think- techniques which enable them to discover new and often • Deceive themselves often openness in learners” (p.81). To that end, educators influ- ing for many scholars who study the phenomenon. Skills improved ideas. More specifically, critical thinkers tend to ence whether a student will learn critical thinking skills in in problem solving, issue analyses and decision making see the problem from many perspectives, to consider many their academic journey. are increasingly expected of employees. Evidence is grow- CRITICAL THINKING IN THE CLASSROOM different investigative approaches, and to produce many ing that critical thinking is “expected” in the workplace. ideas before choosing a course of action. In addition, they As noted earlier, critical thinking is an oft-used phrase in More than 400 senior HR professionals were asked in a Benefits of Critical Thinking for the Classroom are more willing to take intellectual risks, to be adventur- classroom settings. Adult learners are encouraged to de- survey to name the most important skill their employees ous, to consider unusual ideas, and to use their imagina- velop these skills and practice them situationally. Critical will need in the next five years. Critical thinking ranked Instructors who teach critical thinking provide students tions while analyzing problems and issues. thinking means reviewing the ideas produced, making a the highest – even more than innovation or the applica- with the opportunity to understand and take charge of tentative decision about what action will best solve the tion of information technology. This response reflects Critical thinkers test their first impressions, make impor- their learning. Students who implement critical thinking problem or what belief about the issue is most reasonable, how the nature of work and the skills required have been tant distinctions among choices, and base their conclu- skills approach the courseware in a more thoughtful and and then evaluating and refining that solution or belief changing dramatically (Society for Human Resources sions on evidence rather than their own feelings. Sensitive effective manner, ask more challenging questions and par- (Ruggiero, 2012). The effects of developing keen prob- Management, 2006). to their own limitations and predispositions, they double- ticipate in the learning process more intensely. lem solving skills cannot be understated. Problem solv- check the logic of their thinking and the workability of ing skills have the potential to impact individuals more Students who develop critical thinking skills often prac- their solutions, identifying imperfections and complica- Meaning of Critical Thinking immediately and often with ramifications for the future. tice those skills well into latter life. These skills may, in tions, anticipating negative responses, and generally refin- Those who attend to the notion of improving these skills fact , literally change their lives forever. Developing criti- In a recent survey by the American Associate of Colleges ing their ideas. are characterized in some important ways listed in the cal thinking abilities translates to both academic and job & Universities (AACU), 74 percent of respondents indi- Critical thinkers learn to focus. They do not experience table below as posited by Ruggiero, 2012) success. Using these skills, students tend to expand the cated that critical thinking was a core learning objective fewer distractions than others do; they simply deal with perspectives from which they view the world and increase for the campus’s general education program (AACU Re- them more quickly and more effectively than ineffective their ability to navigate the important decisions in learn- port, 2009, p. 4). While there is a general agreement among thinkers do. There is no magic in what effective thinkers ing and in life. higher education professionals that critical thinking skills do. They practice their skills much like any learned skill. are important, there is a lack of clarity about what exactly Chart of Problem Solvers At one time, educators believed that content knowledge critical thinking is. A California study found that only 19 Critical thinkers typically (Ruggiero, 2012): Effective Ineffective was enough for students to succeed. It was thought that percent of faculty could give a clear explanation of critical --for the most part--information that students learned • Acknowledge personal limitations. Problem Solvers Problem Solvers thinking even though the vast majority (89 percent) in- in school was the same information that their parents Read a problem and Cannot determine where learned. That paradigm has shifted in a changing world dicated that they include it in their curriculum (Paul, El- • See problems as exciting challenges. decide how to attack it. or how to begin. der,& Bartell, 1997). While interviewing a private liberal typified by instant communication, 24/7 news cycles and • Have understanding as a goal. arts college faculty, Halx and Reybold (2005) explored in- Bring their knowledge to Convince themselves they the desire to know as much as possible as quickly as pos- structors’ perspectives of undergraduate thinking. Most • Use evidence to make judgments. bear on the problem. lack sufficient knowledge. sible. The power and speed of technology has created a participants were “eager to promote critical thinking” (p. world where information changes quickly, and new ideas • Are interested in others’ ideas. Solve a problem Jump in haphazardly 300) but the authors noted that none had been specifi- systematically: simplify, jumping from one part can be distributed and adapted almost instantaneously. cally trained to do so. The result was that instructors each • Are skeptical of extreme views. define and break into to another as they justify It has also resulted in inaccurate and mis-information developed and promoted their own distinct definition of which has to be sorted through and questioned critically. • Think before acting. parts their first impressions critical thinking. instead of testing them. Today it is important that students learn critical thinking • Avoid emotionalism skills, so they can be both the inventors and the critics of To arrive at a working definition of critical thinking, a Trust their reasoning and Tend to distrust their the new information. Edward de Bono (2004) in de Bo- review of the literature suggests several definitions as list- • Keep an open mind experience thus boosting reasoning and lack no’s Thinking Course writes, “Knowledge is not enough. ed in Appendix A. These definitions were gleaned from their confidence. confidence in themselves. • Engage in active listening The creative, constructive, design and operating aspects of many that appear in various publications. A consensus is Maintain a critical Lack a critical attitude thinking are just as important as knowledge” (p.6). difficult--if not impossible--to reach. Scholars, journalists Conversely, non-critical thinkers, typically (Ruggiero, attitude throughout the and take many A caution is in order here. To develop critical thinkers and authors of every ilk “poke” at a definition that will 2012): problem solving process. assumptions for granted. satisfy the masses. One could speculate that this attempt is to develop both the best and worst in thinking. Those to qualify critical thinking will continue throughout the • See a limited number of perspectives (sometimes who master critical thinking--a long and winding path-- just one) may at first use their newly found skill in a negative way.

26 Spring 2014 (Volume 10 Issue 1) Journal of Learning in Higher Education 27 Linda M. Murawski Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond

It is prudent to remember that to thinki critically is not to Evidence is strong that critical thinking skills are need impact daily life in the workplace. May of these decisions Ennis, Robert H. (2006). ‘Probably’. In David Hitchcock criticize in a negative manner but rather to “think deeply and desired by employers. In a 2007 Society for Human extend beyond that individual worker and have a bearing & Bart Verheij (Eds.), Arguing on the Toulmin model. or to question.” According to Michael Roth (2013) “In a Resources Management Report, employers placed the on others in their own decision making. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Pp. 145-164. humanities culture in which being smart often means being greatest weight on employee critical thinking and prob- Critical thinking is the lifeblood of the most essential Ennis, Robert H. (2004). Applying soundness standards a critical ‘un-masker,’ our students may become too good at lem solving (47% and 46 % respectively) skills as desired workplace skills, including problem solving, decision to qualified reasoning. , 24, 1, 23-39. showing how things make sense.”The goal of critical skills for new hires. Potential employees reported-- as a Informal Logic don’t making, good judgment and sound analysis. Organiza- thinking is to learn a way to think more deeply, solve prob- recent change in their desired skills before entering the Haix, M. D., & Reybold, L E. (2005). A pedagogy of force: tions that can attract, retain and develop the best critical lems better, communicate, collaborate and innovate more ef- workplace-- critical thinking/problem solving (48%), cre- Faculty perspectives of critical thinking capacity in thinkers have a significant and measurable competitive fectively in our personal as well as organizational lives. ativity/innovation (40%) and leadership (40%) as neces- undergraduate students. advantage in the business world (Facione, 2013). The Journal of General Edu- sary tools for employment. cation, 54(4), 293—315. DOI:10.1353/jge.2006.0009 CRITICAL THINKING IN THE WORKPLACE Benefits of advancing critical thinking are more than a REFERENCES Elder, P.R., & Elder, L. (2008). The thinker’s guide for con- Why is critical thinking important in the workplace? “nice” thing to do. This skill can literally improve profits scientious citizens on how to detect media bias & propa- Anderson, A. (2013) What are the benefits of critical . Dillon Beach: CA: Critical thinking is applicable whenever people are called and capabilities of employees. Given the ability to apply ganda in national and world news thinking in the workplace? Retrieved from: http:// Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. to make a decision or resolve a problem. Working people critically enhanced thinking, companies/organizations smallbusiness.chron.com/benefits-critical-thinking- make decisions. Some are good decisions that move the can expect a different quality of corporate culture. That Elder, P.R, & Bartell, T. (1997). Study of 38 public univer- workplace-11638.htm business forward and increase profit. Others are poor de- improved culture may translate into dollars or more rev- sities and 28 private universities to determine faculty cisions that hurt the business and reduce profit. This is a enue in the long run or improved personal communica- Are They Really Ready to Work? Employers Perspectives emphasis on critical thinking in instruction. Retrieved frequent occurrence in workplaces at any level. tions, cooperation and collaboration in the short run. on the Basic Knowledge and Applied Skills of New En- fromRPAUL-3 8public.cfm Potential organizational impacts of critical thinking are . Study Management and upper level executives are not the only trants to the 21st Century US Workforce (2006) Facione, P. A. (2013). suggested in Appendix B. conducted by The Conference Board, Partnership for Critical thinking: What it is and ones who have the responsibility of making decisions; de- . Millbrae, CA: Measured Reason and the 21st Century Skills, Corporate Voices for Working why it counts cision making and problem solving are a constant in orga- Critical thinking brings new ideas and often processes to California Academic Press. Families, and the Society for Human Resource Man- nizations. Each person in an organization or business no the workplace. For example when approaching a problem agement. Facione, P. A. (1990). . Millbrae, CA: matter what their position makes hundreds of decisions solving issue surfaces in the workplace, a common reac- The Delphi report The California Academic Press. every day and each one is an opportunity for success or tion is to assume that it falls into a predetermined cate- Association of American Colleges and Universities. failure. gory. Critical thinking does not make any assumptions, (2009). Learning and assessment: Trends in under- Ruggiero, V. R. (2012). The art of thinking: A guide to and using the process of critical thinking in the workplace graduate education. Retrieved from www.aacu.org/ critical and creative thought (10th ed.). New York, NY: removes the temptation to immediately classify every is- Benefits of Critical Thinking in the Workplace membership/documents/2009MemberSurvey_Part Longman. sue under something that has happened in the past. Em- 1.pdf Roth, M.S. (2013). Beyond critical thinking. Critical thinking in the workplace has the potential to ployees can look beyond conventional solutions, search for The Chron- Brookfield, S. D. (1987) Developing critical thinkers: April 29, 2013 Retrieved impact people either in a negative or positive way through new ideas, and contemplate the alternatives to address the icle of Higher Education. . challenging adults to explore alternative ways of think- from http://chronicle.com/article/Beyond-Critical- the decision making process. Often decisions are made problem. Using critical thinking as an approach to prob- : ing and acting. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Thinking/63288/ and passed along to people within organizations without lem solving, issue resolution or new product or processes much thought based on the need to take some action. In can liberate thinking in many different way. Additionally, Burbach, M. E., Matkin, G. S., & Fritz, S. M. (2004). Society for Human Resources Management (2007). Crit- this case, the impact for “normal” actions may be harmless critical thinking looks at the impact beyond a specific step Teaching critical thinking ical skills needs and resources for the changing workforce. based on daily routine. But for critical issues/ problems, in the decision process; i.e., if step one changes in a deci- Retrieved from: www.shrm.org. in an introductory leadership course utilizing active learn- “bad” decisions can negatively impact or render a serious sion, then the follow-on steps need to be examined criti- ing strategies: A confirmatory study. Wisegeek, (n.d.) Retrieved from: blow to the business. To mitigate the risk of serious nega- cally as well. This approach to thinking opens possibilities College Student What is critical thinking? (3), 482-493. http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-critical-thinking. tive consequences, it is important to make decisions by that may otherwise lie unfolded. Journal, 38 htm carefully weighing them based on information that has Debono, E. (2004). Debono’s thinking course. London : been thoroughly analysed, evaluated and searched for the SUMMARY Facts on File Publishing Co. most reasonable solution. Critical thinking skills learned in the classroom definitely Dewey, J. (1910). How We Think. Buffalo, NY: Pro- The practice of critical thinking encourages employees and have an impact on future learning in the workplace. Once metheus Books. managers to observe various situations, weigh all possible learned, these skills imprint workers to think deeply and Ennis, Robert H. (2011). Critical thinking: Reflection solutions, then decide on a course of action. This process critically about workplace issues and their individual roles and perspective, Part I. Inquiry , Vol. 26, 1.6 can be a lengthy one that necessitates input from multiple in enhancing corporate cultures while adding value to the sources at different levels within the organization. Using products or services that an organization provides to the Ennis, Robert H. (2007). ‘Probable’ and its equivalents. In critical thinking skills is a benefit for employees as well as community or to the world. Hans V. Hansen & Robert C. Pinto (Eds.), Reason re- management when the practice is modeled and promoted claimed: Essays in honor of J. Anthony Blair and Ralph from the top to the bottom of the organizational hierar- Critical thinking skills are transferable from the class- H. Johnson. Newport News, VA: Vale Press. 243-256. chy (Anderson, 2013). room to the workplace. Transferring critical thinking skills is evidenced by the ability of an individual worker to make effective, well thought out and tested decisions that

28 Spring 2014 (Volume 10 Issue 1) Journal of Learning in Higher Education 29 Linda M. Murawski

APPENDIX A Selected Definitions of Critical Thinking • The art of thinking about thinking (Ruggiero, V.R., 2012, p.5) • Critical thinking focuses on deciding what to believe or do, (Ennis, p. 10). • Critical thinking is a mode of thinking about any subject, content or problem in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillful analyzing, assessing and reconstructing it. (Elder & Elder, 2008) • Critical thinking is purposeful, self-regulatory, judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evalua- tion, and inference , as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based” (P. A. Facione, 2006, p. 21). • Active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey, 1910, P. 9) • Critical thinking is the ability to apply reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar ideas, opinions , and situa- tions. (Wisegeek, n.d.)

APPENDIX B Potential Organizational Impact of Critical Thinking Critical Thinking Skills Critical Thinking Behaviors Outcomes • Distinguish fact from opinion • Asks questions that furthers • Well-thought out decisions understanding based on a sound rationale and • Seek multiple perspectives evidence • Doesn’t draw conclusions too • Recognize assumptions hastily • Information, conclusions and • Identify bias and persuasion decisions are revised as new • Considers all sides of an argu- information comes to light • Evaluate arguments for rel- ment evance and accuracy • Decisions reflect a “systems • Uses criteria to evaluate infor- thinking” rather than “silo” • Weigh data appropriately mation approach • Use multiple sources rather • Can “push back” effectively • Information evaluated based than a single source • Recognizes other people’s on evidence, logical inference, • Balance logic and emotion agendas and informed guesses • Use diagrams to visually repre- • Explores multiple perspectives • Ideas and plans are presented sent processes and thinking in a coherent and well thought • Adjusts assumptions in light of out fashion new evidence • Understands how conclusions were drawn • Identify what’s not known and what isn’t

30 Spring 2014 (Volume 10 Issue 1)

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CRITICAL THINKING IN THE CLASSROOM . . . AND BEYOND.

Murawski, linda m., journal of learning in higher education, 2014, vol 10, issue 1, p25, academic journal.

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Critical Thinking in the Classroom

Critical thinking in the classroom is a common term used by educators. Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating information gathered from or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication as a guide to belief and action (``Scriven, 1996”). The challenge, of course is to create learning environments that promote critical thinking both in the classroom and beyond. Teaching practicing critical thinking provides adults with the opportunity to embrace and take charge of their learning. Typically, students who implement critical thinking skills approach the courseware in a more thoughtful and effective manner, ask more challenging questions and participate in the learning process more intensely. To promote the critical thinking among the students various types of teaching strategies can be used by the teacher in the classroom.

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Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and evaluate information because critical thinkers raise vital questions and problems, formulate them clearly, gather and assess relevant information, use abstract ideas, think open-mindedly, and communicate effectively with others. Critical thinking is a very important skill required by everyone in every setting. It helps them deal with all types of problems more effectively ranging from those inside to those outside the classroom.

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Critical thinking is a competency which is being required from students in their personal and professional life. For this reason, universities must do their most to include it in their syllabus, programs, and classes. However, there is still much work to be done since there is not a clear definition of this competency, and also new active methodologies need to be enhanced for its development. This article starts with a literature review of the main methodologies to teach this competency, and moreover, analyzes the main methodologies that 230 university teachers from Spain and Latin America use in the classroom as well as the ones they consider as more effective for the development of critical thinking. This information is contrasted with the concept these teachers have of critical thinking, based on previous research in which six different categories of concept were found. The data is analyzed using the test of Chi-square and Cohen's Kappa. The results seem to indicate that teachers use and consider as most effective mainly three different methodologies: oral and written reflection and argumentation; reading, analysis and synthesis of resources; and case studies, regardless the concept they have of critical thinking, although some other tendencies between methodologies and concept of critical thinking are observed. In addition , there is a significant relationship between methodologies teachers use and those they consider most effective. Finally, some implications for curriculum design and implementation in relation to critical thinking are presented.

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practice” (1991, p. 354). Research in the U.S. supports these observations. For example, Su’s (1990) study, based on interviews with 112 educators, found that although teachers stated that they valued critical thinking they did not implement it in their classrooms. Similarly, in her study of a three-year project to foster critical thinking in social studies, McKee (1988) found that teachers spent only four percent of class time on reasoning activities.

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— Critical thinking has been a controversial issue among philosophers, researchers and educationalists, although there is no general consensus on a definition. Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself , is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or downright prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated. Critical thinking is that mode of thinking-about any subject, content, or problem-in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. Critical thinking is not a matter of accumulating information. A person with a good memory and who knows a lot of facts is not necessarily good at critical thinking. A critical thinker is able to deduce consequences from what he/she knows, and he/she knows how to make use of information to solve problems, and to seek relevant sources of information to inform himself / herself. Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or being critical of other people. Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning, critical thinking can also play an important role in cooperative reasoning and constructive tasks. Critical thinking can help us acquire knowledge, improve our theories, and strengthen arguments. It is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fair-minded way.

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The Importance Of Critical Thinking

• April 2, 2021
• One Comment

After much effort, as names, definitions, sights, and other data of sense, are brought into contact and friction one with another, in the course of scrutiny and kindly testing by men who proceed by questioning and answer without ill will, with a sudden flash there shines forth understanding about every problem, and an intelligence whose efforts reach the furthest limits of human powers. ~Plato, “The Epistles”

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is based on a concept from the teachings of Socrates, known as the Socratic Method, that dates back to ancient Greece. However, the term itself originated in the mid-late 20th century. Generally, critical thinking is the mental process of analyzing facts to form a judgment. It is considered to be thinking about thinking.

The word “critical” derives from the Greek roots: “kritikos,” which means to discern a judgment, criterion, and standards. Etymologically, it implies “discerning judgment based on standards.” Even so, there is not just one clear-cut definition for critical thinking. Instead, there are several definitions based on the rational, skeptical, and unbiased evaluation of facts. According to Webster’s New World Dictionary, critical thinking means “characterized by careful analysis and judgment.” “Critical,” in its strictest sense, implies an attempt at the objective judgment to evaluate qualities and flaws. It doesn’t mean to be a critic in the negative connotation of the word, but to discern and make clear judgments. It means to perceive Knowledge, to refuse nonscientific data, and to examine all information. To think critically means being open-minded, well-informed, able to judge the arguments, and come up with the right conclusions.

Critical thinking is based on self-discipline and is a soft skill that is inherent in our personalities. Like any other skill, critical thinking can be learned and developed. It does not involve accumulating information but is instead about using the information to deduce facts and results. It is an intellectual and discipline-driven process that is used to skillfully apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information gathered from observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication. This information guides you toward your beliefs and actions.

  Why is critical thinking important?

When we research the history of critical thinking, we find that human thinking, if left by itself, can gravitate toward prejudice, overgeneralization, fallacies, self-deception, rigidity, and narrowness. By emphasizing critical thinking skills, we can minimize these errors by equipping humans with the capacity and means to develop good reasoning through education and self-awareness.

The basic concept of critical thinking is to control our own minds, be in charge of our lives, and improve them under our self-command and direction. This requires self-control and self-examination, Knowledge of how our minds work, how we can monitor them, and how to modify their operations for the better. When we turn critical thinking into a habit, we can make decisions by reflectively examining our impulses and customary ways of thinking in all dimensions of life.

In practical applications, this capacity to reflect makes critical thinkers into active learners, not just passive recipients of the information. They can sift through information and think about it clearly and rationally, understanding the connection between ideas. In fact, there are several examples of human activity where critical thinking can be applied. According to researchers from the University of Hong Kong, these include the following:

• Critical thinking is a domain-general skill – It is important in every path you choose to walk in your life. If you work in education, research, finance, or law, then critical thinking is crucial. But critical thinking cannot be restricted to just these careers. It is actually an asset for any career you may choose.
• Critical thinking improves language skills – Thinking clearly and systematically can improve the way you express your ideas. In literature or any other social science, you improve your comprehension skills when you critically analyze texts.
• Critical thinking promotes creative problem-solving – In order to find creative solutions in the workplace, you don’t just need new ideas; your ideas also need to be useful and relevant to the task. Critical thinking helps you evaluate new ideas by selecting the most useful ones and modifying them when necessary.
• Critical thinking is a perfect skill – It enables you to know yourself better. Everyone wants a meaningful life, and for this we need to justify and reflect on our principles and decisions.
• Critical thinking is the foundation of science – Science could not have evolved as quickly as it has without critical thinking. Scientists have to observe and use reasoning during experiments to make hypotheses and confirm theories.

What are its benefits?

Not just people, but nations throughout the history of mankind have benefited from critical thinking. It may seem insignificant, but without it we would not have the desired results in all walks of life. Skills such as curiosity, problem-solving, analysis, and many more are part of everyday life.

Critical thinking encourages curiosity, which enables us to better comprehend the world that we live in and our experiences in it. This journey starts from the moment we enter school and lasts throughout our lifetime. Critical thinkers are curious by nature and have an interest about everything around them. They value any culture, belief, and view across humanity, and as a result, they are lifelong learners. Their inclination to think critically, even about the simplest of issues, reveals their desire for constructive results. They question everything and at all times, finding satisfaction when they take into consideration all sides of a problem or the facts concealed within all modes of data.

People with strong critical thinking skills are great problem solvers. In fact, problem-solving skills are inseparable from critical thinking. Future generations will have to solve the problems they inherit and will need to figure out imaginative solutions. For challenges such as global warming, overpopulation, pollution, healthcare, water shortages, the best minds will need to solve them creatively and innovatively.

Critical thinkers are also born creative thinkers. This skill is rated as the second-highest indicator that kids will thrive beyond school. In fact, creativity is defined as a requisite skill in the collaborative modern workforce. In business, marketing, or professional alliances, people have to rely on creative skills. Creative people question everything and are not afraid to step outside of their comfort zone. Instead of arguing about limitations, they ask “how” or “why not?” This offers  limitless potential.nCritical thinking is crucial for whatever career path you may choose, whether it be science, law, medicine, journalism, or analytics. This skill is the most desired in the workforce because it helps with information analysis, thinking outside the box, and solving problems with innovative solutions. Because of their strong analytical skills, critical thinkers make better  decisions, most of which happen subconsciously. This also makes them better citizens because they cannot be manipulated by propaganda. Instead, they are more independent and can form their own opinions. They see the entire picture or what is below the surface in the world they live in.

  Why should critical thinking be developed at school?

Without the opportunity to cultivate self-discipline and thoughtfulness, there is a high chance of living life in a more or less automated, uncritical way. Most people might live life without really taking control of the people they are becoming, without developing and acting according to their full potential. But if we do this, we are likely to hurt ourselves and the people around us, to miss the opportunity to make our lives and the lives of others happier, productive, and meaningful.

Based on this viewpoint, critical thinking is a crucial practical goal and value. It is a way of living and learning that empowers teachers and students in quite practical ways. If we take it seriously enough, it could lead to a revolution in every dimension of education: how we formulate rules and relate them to our students; how we motivate students and cultivate reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills; and what we project for them inside and outside of the classroom.

If we want to make critical thinking a fundamental value in our schools, we must first apply it in our lives. We need to be active practitioners of critical thought daily. We need to present our students with a model of examining, assessing, and improving our lifestyle reflectively.

By acknowledging that critical thinking is a fundamental skill, it can be taught and should be taught in a directed way through the practice, evaluation, and testing of ideas. This is not a simple product of taking college courses, even courses whose subject matter requires critical thinking to succeed. Stephen Brookfield emphasizes that “a willingness to risk experimentation in one’s teaching is important for modeling change and promoting critical openness in learners.” To that end, it is the responsibility of the educators to influence if a student will learn critical thinking skills in his academic journey.

How does critical thinking benefit the classroom?

Teachers who teach critical thinking enable their students to develop a better understanding of and greater control over what they learn. This way, they participate more actively during the learning process and ask more challenging questions. Students apply what they learn in school to their personal lives, so having such skills often impact them both now and in the future.

By developing critical thinking skills, students are more likely to achieve academic and job success. Using critical thinking skills gives students a broader view from which to see the world and allows them to make better decisions in learning and life. In the past, educators believed that Knowledge was enough for students. However, this paradigm has changed with instant communication and the desire to know as much as possible and as quickly as possible.

The huge progress in technology and the invention of the internet has radically changed the teaching-learning process. Students don’t just learn everything in school like their predecessors, but they instead need to be adaptable to keep up with changing methodologies. With ideas and information of any kind just a click away, students have to develop critical learning skills to evaluate and accept what is accurate and not. As Edward de Bono writes in the book Edward de Bono’s Thinking Course , ”Knowledge is not enough. The creative, constructive, design and operating aspects of thinking are just as important as Knowledge.” Students themselves must become the inventors and the critics of the new information. The goal of critical thinking is to learn in a deeper and more effective way, to give better solutions, to communicate, to collaborate, and to innovate more effectively in our personal lives and communities.

How to improve your critical thinking skills?

Here are a few steps you can take to improve your critical thinking skills:

• Accept information only after evaluating it. From whatever source you get information, it is essential to look for the objective truth. This enables you to weigh possible challenges and solutions.
• Consider its source . For example, if information comes from advertisements, then it is a marketing technique designed to sell products. This might indicate potential bias. Every type of information you receive is provided to exchange Knowledge. Critical thinkers consider the motive behind the information.
• Ask questions . For example, how can this problem be solved? Who is giving us the information and why? What other perspectives and researches exist on this topic? This will help you assess the information provided and identify areas where the further background is needed.
• Follow up with research to investigate the topic and your questions . Use sources like the internet to learn more. If you look online, look for the most reputable info sources, like news sites, encyclopedias, or educational institutes.
• Finally, create your own opinions based on facts, logical arguments, and factual information.

What does the future of critical thinking hold?

The future of critical thinking is tied to our future and the future of the next generation. In 2020, critical thinking was ranked the second most-desired skill by the World Economic Forum. Even in January 2016, the World Economic Forum’s “The Future of Jobs” report predicted the following:

The Fourth Industrial Revolution, which includes developments in previously disjointed fields such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, robotics, nanotechnology, 3-D printing, and genetics and biotechnology, will cause widespread disruption not only to business models but also to labor markets over the next five years, with enormous change predicted in the skill set needed to thrive in the new landscape.

We are living in a world with constant and unprecedented changes. What was considered a success in the past is not considered today, and today’s success might not be considered tomorrow. That’s why we need to develop critical thinking skills. They will help us to learn more deeply and effectively, give better solutions, communicate, and collaborate and innovate more effectively in our personal lives and communities.

• Linda M. Murawski, “Critical Thinking in the Classroom…And Beyond,” Journal of Learning in Higher Education 10, no. 1 (2014), https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1143316.pdf.
• Edward de Bono, De Bono’s Thinking Course (New Edition): Powerful Tools to Transform Your Thinking, (Harlow, England: BBC Active, 2006).
• World Economic Forum, The Future of Jobs Employment: Skills and Workforce Strategy for the Fourth Industrial Revolution,  2016,  http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs.pdf.
• Hku.hk. “[C01] What Is Critical Thinking?” Accessed April 4, 2021. https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/critical/ct.php.
• “Importance of Critical Thinking.” In Assessing Critical Thinking in Middle and High Schools, 11–22. Routledge, 2013.
• Lewison, Kiera. “The Importance Of Critical Thinking, and How to Improve It.” Uopeople.edu, April 2, 2020. http://www.uopeople.edu/blog/why-is-critical-thinking-important/.
• Criticalthinking.org. “Our Conception of Critical Thinking.” https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766.
• Criticalthinking.org. “Our Conception of Critical Thinking.” http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/our-conception-of-critical-thinking/411.
• Patrick Alban, D. C. “Why Critical Thinking Is Important (& How to Improve It).” 
• Bebrainfit.com. https://bebrainfit.com/critical-thinking/.
• Procon.org. “Quotes about Critical Thinking (Text Only),” August 9, 2013. https://www.procon.org/background-resources/quotes-about-critical-thinking-text-only/.
• Skillsyouneed.com. “Critical Thinking.” Skillsyouneed.com. https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/critical-thinking.html.
• Watanabe-Crockett, Lee. “6 Benefits of Critical Thinking and Why They Matter.” 
• Wabisabilearning.Com (blog). Wabisabi Learning, January 21, 2020. https://wabisabilearning.com/blogs/critical-thinking/critical-thinking-benefits.
• Indeed.com. “What’s the Importance of Critical Thinking in the Workplace?” https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/importance-of-critical-thinking.
• Wikipedia contributors. “Critical Thinking.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, April 2, 2021. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_thinking&oldid=1015573419.

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Critical Thinking in the Classroom And Beyond

By Linda M. Murawski EdD.

Reviewed by Lucy Okolo (UNPSR).

Mr. Fox once gave his students an essay to write on the topic “failure”. At the end of the day, he discovered something unique about one of his students, Matthew. All other students emphasized the negative aspects of failure, but something caught Mr. Fox’s attention about Matthew’s essay; a particular phrase: “failure is postponed success”.

Education in most places is restricted to only the classroom and strict adherence to the academic curriculum which does not offer room for development of critical thinking skills of students. This is an anomaly that we ought to work on for futuristic benefits. This review aims to expatiate and give us clearer details of what critical thinking in the classroom and beyond entails.

Critical in this review denotes the intensive, extensive and logical manner of thinking . It involves thinking from another dimension, perspective and careful analysis to arrive at a standard and creative conclusion. From the story above, it can be inferred that Mathew is a critical thinker, for being able to think outside the box and arrive at that conclusion. He went for something extraordinary by consulting his innermost thought; a critical thinker is also a deep thinker. The research details what critical thinking is, characteristics of a critical thinker, critical thinking in relation to the classroom environment and beyond, as well as illustrates the benefit of critical thinking in both dimensions.

“A critical thinker possess cognitive and creative skills which enables them to evaluate thoughts, ideas or judgments, fluency- ability to produce many ideas for a given task”

Critical thinking has been called the art of thinking about thinking by Ruggiero, V.R (2012) with the intent to improve one’s thinking . Many scholars have attempted to give a comprehensive definition of critical thinking, Vincent Ruggiero writing in The Art of thinking: A guide to critical and creative thought describes thinking as “any mental activity that helps formulate or solve a problem, make a decision, or fulfill a desire to understand. It is searching for answers while reaching for meaning” (Ruggiero, 2012 p. 4). Critical thinking according to Ruggiero is more attuned to thinking that occurs to solve problems, analyze issues or make decisions. Additionally, that critical thinker has the ability to focus on a question, analyze an argument, judge the creditability of a source, make and value judgments, clarify and refine their viewpoint, support their viewpoints appropriately, and to imaginatively suppose and integrate the logic of a viewpoint with sensitivity to others (Ennis, 2011).

A critical thinker possesses cognitive and creative skills which enable them to evaluate thoughts, ideas or judgments, fluency, ability to produce many ideas for a given task, flexibility in thinking, originality, ability to develop rare ideas by combining old ideas and new ones, as well as a different perception about things.Typically (Ruggiero, 2012) portrays a critical thinker as one who acknowledges personal limitations, sees problems as exciting challenges, has understanding as a goal, uses evidence to make judgments, is interested in others’ ideas, is skeptical of extreme views, thinks before acting, avoids emotionalism, keeps an open mind, and engage in active listening.

Critical thinking in the classroom is the application of the aforementioned skills in the classroom. This comprises of both academic and extra-curricular activities. One-third of smart students are not the most intelligent but are majorly the critical thinkers. Using Nigerian universities as a case study, it is obvious that we learn more theoretical than practical knowledge. It’s why you may discover to your great chagrin that a student of civil engineering may not know how to construct foundation of a building. Now a critical thinker who works with vision will devise a means to solve this problem, probably by working at building sites. When we restrict learning to only the classroom, we produce problem creators rather than problem solvers, as can be seen in a lot of our hospitals where some first class doctors cannot decipher a malaria patient from a diabetic patient, even with all the symptoms clear as day.

On the other hand, critical thinking beyond the classroom is a projection of one’s critical thinking skills in one’s future life activities like workplaces, family life, relationships with people in the society etc. Recently, massive strides have been made in the field of artificial intelligence, and the time is fast approaching when manual labor and most job opportunities requiring human workers will become extinct as technology replaces manpower, a revolution that will leave many jobless. Only but a few will survive this change, and they will be those who are critical thinkers, because they are the only human resources that can adapt effectively to that change. They are the ones who will rule the future and activities of technological inventions. This I believe is enough reason for schools to adopt critical thinking as a learnable skills in our classrooms.

In 2007, Society for Human Resources Management Report for employers placed the greatest weight on employee critical thinking and problem solving (47% and 46 % respectively) skills as desired skills for new hires. Potential employees reported as a recent change in their desired skills before entering the workplace – critical thinking/problem solving (48%), creativity/innovation (40%) and leadership (40%) as necessary tools for employment .

The benefits of critical thinking both in the classroom and beyond cannot be overemphasized. Looking beyond the present, critical thinking will provide students with skills necessary for survival in any circumstance of life. Presently, it makes them to be independent of theirs teachers as well invest in their cognitive skills and develop mental flexibility. However, critical thinking isn’t without any cons. One of the drawbacks with critical thinking is mental set – the tendency of a person to solve problems by following already tried mental operations or steps. This creates mental rigidity that restricts critical thinking among students which makes them lazy to try out other strategies to arrive at new discoveries. Nevertheless, the work is not void of any criticism in as much as it is commendable on its structure and details. The work fails to address the issue of how to develop and imbibe critical thinking skills in the academic setting in as much as it points out necessary skills of a critical thinker and its benefits. Moreover, the work portrayed critical thinking as a common commodity or skill relegating the population of students who have low intelligence quotient as well as neglecting ways of advancing this skill among the groups of students.

Conclusively, recommending solutions to these problems, the educational sectors should adopt critical thinking as a course as well as providing students with brain tasking activities that will test and train their cognitions. This can be achieved by adopting Osborn’s brainstorming technique. Teachers should engage students in activities which require more of imagination and original thinking rather than routine exercises. Students are encouraged to generate as many ideas and solutions to a given problem, learn to question already existing ideas and create room for change in patterns of thought.

Linda M. Murawski, EdD (2014). Critical thinking in the classroom….and beyond . Department Of Human Resources Development, Graduate and Professional Studies. Tusculum College Knoxville, Tennessee.

Journal of Learning in Higher Education Spring 2014. Introduction to Psychology, Great App for Students As well As Teachers . (Volume 10 Issue 1).

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Critical Thinking in the Elementary Classroom: Engaging Young Minds with Meaningful Content

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Even young students can develop vital critical thinking skills when they have access to rich content, meaningful opportunities to practice, and guided instruction.

About the authors

Erin Shadowens believes in the power of school communities to provide children with rich and robust educational experiences. She spent 10 years teaching every grade from K–3, discovering in that time that every child, no matter how young, is capable of taking on academic challenges. Her classroom work was recognized with the 2020 Excellence in Teaching Award from Learning for Justice (formerly Teaching Tolerance).

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