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Lumberjacks

Article by Mark Kuhlberg

Published Online May 6, 2014

Last Edited April 16, 2015

Logging History

For the better part of several millennia, practically all persons who resided in Canada were tree cutters of various sorts. For centuries, Indigenous people felled trees with stone axes and fire, and by girdling them. When the first Europeans began arriving in the early 1600s, they also set about clearing the ubiquitous forest in order to farm, erect structures and produce firewood for heat and cooking. The same was true of the British settlers — both from Britain and via the United States — who migrated here after the conquest of French North America and into the late 1700s.

It was only around the turn of the 18th century, however, that the professional logger — or lumberjack — was born. Over more than the next hundred years, the timber trade in Eastern Canada flourished. It grew to be the backbone of the region’s industrial economy, and focused on harvesting white pine . From roughly 1800 to 1840, production was centred on cutting and hewing square timber for the British market. Then this industry underwent a reorientation, whereby the pine logs were increasingly sawn into planks for sale largely in the United States. It was estimated that during the 19th century, which was the heyday of the white pine era, half the males in Canada were employed as lumberjacks. By the turn of the 20th century, the receding stands of mature white pine in the East was sending that part of the industry into decline while lumber production — based largely on harvesting Douglas fir — was accelerating in British Columbia . At the same time, a robust business in harvesting pulpwood (largely spruce in the east and Douglas fir in the west) for both domestic and American pulp and paper makers sprang up. The 20th century saw both the lumber and pulp and paper industries remain crucial parts of the Canadian economy, a trend that continued after the year 2000. As a result, timber has been cut commercially over a period that spans more than four centuries, thereby making the job of the lumberjack one of Canada’s oldest professions.

Traditional Working Conditions

For the longest time, lumberjacks toiled from dawn to dusk, six days per week, and lived tightly packed in shanties (or bunkhouses) whose odour — a mix of smoke, sweat and drying garments — was as distasteful as the bedbugs they supported. Strict rules often governed many of the bush camps (or "shanties"); many were alcohol-free and for the longest time talking during meals was strictly forbidden. The food was usually top-notch, and enormous amounts of it were served. Lumberjacks burned roughly 7,000 calories per day, which explains their voracious appetites. In addition, cooks sometimes only allowed 10 to 15 minutes for loggers to eat, accounting for the gravity often governing mealtimes.

The same approach was taken to work in the field, for it was some of the most dangerous in Canada. Injury and death could occur at any time and in myriad forms, including being hit by a wayward tree or infamous widow-maker (i.e., a broken limb hanging freely in a tree), or being crushed by a log that unexpectedly fell from its pile. Considering the lumberjacks’ cloistered living arrangements and exacting working conditions, it is little wonder they stirred up havoc each spring upon their return to civilization. Stories of them unleashing their pent-up need to brawl, drink and carouse in places like Bytown (now Ottawa ) are legendary.

Modern Working Conditions

The most remarkable part about the history of lumberjacks is the dramatic transformation that their work in the woods has undergone. Prior to roughly the end of the Second World War , trees were cut using human and horse power during the fall and winter (except on the coast of British Columbia , where the milder weather would permit year-round logging). The cold weather allowed for logs to be drawn by horses — or skidded — more easily from the stump to nearby frozen water courses, and hinterland farmers were in need of work to supplement their income during those seasons, therefore presenting a ready and willing work force. The lumberjacks would cut larger diameter trees (i.e., sawlogs) in teams of two and three, consisting first of only axemen and then later, after the development of crosscut saws, axemen and sawyers. They would harvest smaller diameter trees (i.e., pulpwood) alone using swede saws or in tandem. In the spring, as the ice broke up and snow melted, the hardiest and most skilled of the lumberjacks would remain on the job as the draveurs , or river drivers, whose job it was to oversee the movement of the logs from the bush to the mill. Doing so required them to “walk on water”: They would carefully manoeuvre themselves across the log booms with the assistance of calked (i.e., spiked) boots on their feet and peaveys (special tools for moving logs) in their hands.

Beginning during the Great Depression and accelerating rapidly after 1945, the profession underwent revolutionary changes, as machinery entered practically all phases of the work. Motorized chainsaws took the place of handsaws and axes, and huge machines were developed to cut, de-limb and chop up the trees. Instead of horses, skidders now dragged the logs to piles, arranging them at the side of the road for pickup by hauling trucks; the days of the river drive were ending. These improvements in harvesting technology translated into far fewer workers taking down far greater volumes of wood in much less time than their forebears ever could have imagined. They could also do it year-round, and around the clock if it were desired. In addition, lumberjacks no longer lived during the cutting season in bush camps, since most now commuted to work each day. Undoubtedly, their lives were much easier than in earlier years, and they required different skills to perform their jobs. Women now, for the first time, also entered the profession, although it remained predominantly male. One thing that did not change was the relative danger of their work. Although a slew of laws and regulations were implemented over the 20th century to make the lumberjacks’ work safer, and most tree cutters and log movers now perform their duties ensconced within a protective cab, the rate of injury and death of bush workers compared to other occupations is still alarmingly high. This is particularly true in British Columbia, where the mountainous terrain makes the job particularly challenging.

While the lumberjack holds enormous symbolic significance in Canada, the public’s perception of the profession has undergone a radical transformation. Initially, the extraordinarily difficult nature of the lumberjacks' work was responsible for enshrining their existence in the pantheon of Canadian folkloric heroes. During the early to mid-1800s, for example, tales were told — and captured in print — of Joe Montferrand (in English he was known as Joe Mufferaw), the legendary bûcheron capable of unfathomable feats of strength. It is believed he was the inspiration for the American mythic figure, Paul Bunyan, whose legend arose during the mid-1800s. Similarly, academics such as Arthur R.M. Lower, who chronicled the early history of Canada’s timber trade , glorified lumberjacks for their toughness and grit, and for their role in helping build the country’s foundation. However, about 50 years ago, a distinction emerged between the old-time and modern lumberjack. Whereas the former still retains a venerable status, today the latter is more often than not vilified instead of idolized. The rise of the environmental movement in the late 1960s touched off emotionally charged debates about logging, and the lumberjack fell decidedly out of favour. Although Canadians and foreigners alike continue to derive a myriad of benefits from the lumberjacks’ labour, many have come to loathe what they represent. This perspective persists despite remarkable improvements in Canadian forest stewardship.

External Links

Joseph Montferrand A biography of legendary logger Joseph Montferrand from the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online.

Jos Montferrand Brief profile of Quebec logger Jos Montferrand from the website “Passages historiques: Bytown et le canal Rideau.”

Cutting trees A photograph of loggers cutting trees on the Upper Ottawa River, ON-QC. From the McCord Museum.

Coastal Logging in the early 20th Century Angus Allison narrates a film about traditional coastal logging practices employed by his family business in the early 20th Century. From YouTube.

The West Coast Logging Legacy An informative documentary that traces the evolution of logging on the West Coast from the days of hard-working lumberjacks and horse-drawn vehicles to today’s modern highly mechanized forestry operations. From the Squamish Historical Society.

Lumbermen's camp on the Nashwaak River, NB, 1871 A vintage photo of a lumbermen's camp located on the Nashwaak River in New Brunswick. From the McCord Museum.

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Analysis in Brief Sawmill industry in Canada: 15 years in review

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The role of the wood industry in Canada

Impact of the financial crisis, impact of the expiration of the softwood lumber agreement, the impact of the wildfires, the impact of the pandemic, note to readers.

Text begins

The purpose of this research paper is to highlight the impact of the many challenges faced over time by the sawmill industry on its development and its role as an economic lever for many Canadian communities.

The sawmill industry produces softwood and hardwood lumber, as well as various by-products, such as wood chips and sawdust, that are used as inputs in other industries. Softwood lumber represented 98% of all lumber production in 2020.

As one of the world's largest producers and exporters of softwood lumber, demand for Canadian lumber is largely driven by U.S. imports. In 2020, 67% of Canada's softwood lumber production was exported, 84% of which was to the U.S.

Dimension softwood lumber is the main material used in home construction, whether it be for the framing and roofing of new housing or for rebuilding and renovating existing homes. Therefore, Canadian sawmills rely on growth in both the domestic and the U.S. housing markets to stimulate production and capital investment. Significant changes in the economic state of either country as well as in trade policy can affect the viability of the Canadian sawmill industry.

The forestry sector has had its share of challenges that have impacted the demand for lumber and the supply chain: the financial crisis in 2008/2009, trade conditions imposed by the U.S. on Canadian lumber imports, ongoing fibre supply challenges in western Canada due to wildfires, damage caused by mountain pine beetle, changes to land use regulations, as well as rail car availability issues. These challenges combined with the high cost of logs, pulpwood and other forestry products in recent years have led to a number of mills curtailing production in 2019, with some closing indefinitely. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated market conditions with excess demand, resulting in skyrocketing lumber prices.

Revenue from goods manufactured in the  wood product industry  contributed 5% to total revenue from goods manufactured in 2006, of which sawmill and wood preservation represented about half. In 2020, the wood product industry contributed 6% to revenue from goods manufactured of a value of $635.1 billion.

In 2020, the sawmill and wood preservation industry employed an annual average of 32,124 workers. Most likely driven by a modernization shift that impacted infrastructure, equipment and production processes, employment was down 41.0% (or 22,330 employees) compared with 2006, while employee productivity improved 17.2% over the same period.

In 2020, over three-quarters of sawmill and wood preservation industry workers were employed in British Columbia, Quebec and Alberta. When comparing 2020 with 2006, the average Canadian weekly earnings for the sawmill and wood preservation industry increased 44.4% to about $1,241, compared with a 27.7% increase seen for the manufacturing sector as a whole.

British Columbia, Quebec and Alberta produced 81% of Canada's softwood lumber in 2020. Since 2006, Alberta gained 8 percentage points of the Canadian market, while British Columbia lost 13 percentage points.

While sawmills (except shingle and shake mills) manufacturing is important to themany provinces' economies, it was the largest manufacturing industry in British Columbia in 2020, with a 12% share of the province's total revenue from goods manufactured. However, this represents a drop from 16% in 2006. Exports of softwood lumber accounted for 14% of British Columbia's total domestic merchandise exports in 2020.

Most manufacturing industries were adversely impacted by the financial crisis in 2008/2009, with total revenue from goods manufactured in Canada falling 17.8% (-$106.6 billion) from 2007 to 2009. The impact was more severe for sawmills, with revenue from goods manufactured falling 40.3% (-$4.6 billion) over the same period.

Canada exported 44% of the total quantity of softwood lumber it produced to the U.S. in 2009, a 11 percentage-point reduction from 2007.

Demand for Canadian softwood lumber was significantly impacted in 2008-2009 due to sharp declines in Canadian and U.S. new housing starts.

In 2009, housing starts in Canada were at their lowest since 1999 (149,081 units). From 2009 to their latest peaks in 2017, softwood lumber production and new housing in Canada both trended upward. However, in 2020, both were still below pre-financial crisis levels.

U.S. total housing starts recorded a steeper decline, falling 69.2% from 2006 to 554,000 units in 2009, the lowest level since 1959. The market has been slowly recovering since 2009, as U.S. housing starts grew to reach 1,379,600 units in 2020. Canadian lumber production began contracting in 2017, even though housing starts were still increasing.

While the U.S. has long been the largest importer of Canadian softwood lumber, their share fell 12 percentage points (to 70%) over the span of the most recent Softwood Lumber Agreement (2006 to 2015). During this period, Canada expanded to other markets, such as China.

The Softwood Lumber Agreement expired in October 2015 and, since then, the U.S. regained 14.0 percentage points of the share (to 84%) of Canada's $10.0 billion in exportations in 2020.

Although the demand for softwood lumber from the U.S. housing market has been gradually improving, and Canadian exportations to the U.S. have increased in dollar value, the quantity of lumber and other sawmill products exported to the U.S. has been steadily declining since 2016. According to U.S. Census Bureau data, the share of U.S. imports of softwood lumber from Canada had fallen 11 percentage points in 2020, mostly lost to the European Union.

The decrease in production of Canadian wood products was also reflected by the 10 percentage-point drop in the average industrial capacity utilization rate for wood product manufacturing from 2016, down to 78% in 2020.

Canada's export prices have grown 87.9% over the past 15 years, while U.S. domestic prices have risen by 44.4% over the same period.

Wildfires in the West have also had a significant impact on the log supply. According to British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development, about 2.5 million hectares were destroyed in British Columbia in 2017/2018.

The interior region accounted for 89% of the province's softwood lumber production in 2018.

With softwood lumber production in British Columbia interior region down 5.8% from 2016 to 2018, and high lumber prices (particularly in 2018), the reduction of timber due to the wildfires contributed to the growth in stumpage rates in 2018. Stumpage is a fee that businesses and individuals pay to harvest timber on Crown land.

Wildfires in Alberta were also a reality, with more than 883,000 hectares of land destroyed in 2019 (according to Alberta Wildfire). The total area burned, most by the end of May, far exceeded the nine-year seasonal average.

From the forest to the customer, the lumber supply chain is a complex business network that can affect wood products availability and price.

As the majority of Canada's forests (approximately 94% according to National Resources Canada) are publicly owned, businesses and individuals pay stumpage fees to harvest timber on Crown land. Stumpage rates vary by province, even among regions within a province and are based on current market lumber prices and adjusted to reflect market conditions.

The supply chain can also be impacted by the logistics of getting the logs from forest to sawmill, getting the lumber from sawmill to distributor, and then getting from distributor to consumer. In 2020, 61% of Canadian lumber was shipped by rail, so any disruption due to weather, strikes, blockades or shortages of railcars can impede getting lumber to the market and to the consumer.

A challenging context for profitability

The sawmill industry generally does not generate large profit margins. In 2016, when the one-year grace period of the Softwood Lumber Agreement ended, sawmills (except shingle and shake mills) spent 93 cents in total expenses for every dollar of total revenue. Revenue from goods manufactured accounted for 96% of total revenue. In 2019, spending exceeded earnings as total expenses rose to $1.02 per dollar of total revenue. The year 2019 had proven to be an extremely difficult year, mainly due to the mix of high log prices and lower market prices for dimension lumber.

A spike in domestic and export softwood lumber prices in 2020, combined with a decrease in log and bolt prices, improved the profitability of sawmills to 87 cents spent for every dollar earned.

The cost of materials and supplies is the biggest expense of the sawmill industry. It is made up of purchases of raw material and components, repairs and maintenance, payments to subcontractors, and stumpage fees. In 2020, Canadian sawmills spent 54 cents for every dollar earned on the cost of materials and supplies, a 9 cent drop from 2019.

The impact of the pandemic has been relentless on the sawmill industry, with on-and-off lockdowns since March 2020. Demand for lumber continued to outpace supply, following a reduction in production capacity in 2019. With a significant portion of the population still working from home in 2021, many consumers have turned to home renovations and improvements, putting pressure on the limited lumber supply.

This increased consumer demand led to softwood lumber prices that skyrocketed in June 2020 and that peaked in May 2021.

Not only have home renovations been on the rise, but housing starts grew 30.3% (+63,197) since 2019, up to 271,882 in 2021. In fact, Canada recorded its highest first quarter level in 2021 since the inception of the series in 1948.

Since 2019, wholesale revenue of lumber, millwork, hardware and other building supplies recorded a 46.9% (+$24.8 billion) increase to reach $77.6 billion in 2021.

Retail sales of lumber and other renovation materials and supplies followed a similar trend, increasing 45.0% (+$6.8 billion) to reach $22.0 billion in 2021.

Totals may not add up due to rounding.

The Softwood Lumber Dispute : The U.S. lumber industry has frequently sought to restrict imports of Canadian softwood lumber, citing unfair competition. These restrictions have been done through the application of U.S. countervailing and antidumping duty laws.

More information

Note of appreciation.

Canada owes the success of its statistical system to a long-standing partnership between Statistics Canada, the citizens of Canada, its businesses, governments and other institutions. Accurate and timely statistical information could not be produced without their continued co-operation and goodwill.

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Statistics Canada is committed to serving its clients in a prompt, reliable and courteous manner. To this end, the Agency has developed standards of service which its employees observe in serving its clients.

Published by authority of the Minister responsible for Statistics Canada.

© His Majesty the King in Right of Canada as represented by the Minister of Industry, 2023

Use of this publication is governed by the Statistics Canada Open Licence Agreement .

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Lumbering in Canada

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Case Study : Lumbering In Canada

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Why is agriculture not possible in the taiga region ?

because of the heavy rainfall

because of the sandy soil

because of the freezing conditions

because of distance from the sea

Which is an important area for lumbering industry ?

British Columbia

The__________ house consists of a mess and a common kitchen.

The cateogory of lumberjacks who wear spiked boots and safety belts.

High riggers

The day starts for a lumberjack at

The ______________ are very useful to transport the logs.

The _____________ have reduced the harshness of the occupation.

electrical equipments

The ___________ office controls day to day activities of the lumber camp.

staff house

estate house

store house

The word 'Canada' has been derived froma Red Indian word kanata which means a

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• Representation of Geographical Features
• Major Water Bodies
• Agriculture
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• North America
• South America

Case Study: Lumberjacks in Canada and Life in Amazon Basin

• Model Test Paper 1
• Model Test Paper 2
• Model Test Paper 3

Available Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

• commercial purposes
• building bridges
• lighting fire
• for making furniture
• piling up logs for drying
• making wood chip using bark
• removing bark
• cutting pieces of wood
• spruce and birch
• mahogany and ebony
• mango and jackfruit
• banyan and sacred fig
• linen leaves
• iron shavings

Fill in the blanks.

• Besides wood, paper can be made with ____________, ____________ and ____________.
• The coniferous tree belt extends from the Atlantic seaboard in the east to ____________ on the Pacific Coast.
• ____________ have been felled in Brazil to develop ____________.
• In order to conserve forests, the loggers need to ____________ specific trees only.
• Logging is ____________ in Canada than in Selvas, for the forest in the Amazon basin have thick undergrowth.

Write True or False.

• Lumberjacks have temporary establishments near forest areas.
• Transporting logs in Canada is not easy.
• To maintain the forests' productivity, it is good to replenish topsoil.
• The sap of the coniferous trees is of no use.
• Many of the hardwood trees do not float on the water easily.

Match the columns. 

Unscramble the words underlined and rewrite the words.

• Couvervan is known for sawn wood.
• Foirnraset get heavy rainfall.
• Tancs are cut into rectangular pieces.
• Imasolg require careful effort for clearing.
• Laprop is a coniferous tree.

Differentiate between Coniferous forests and Rainforest.

Canadian Lumbering Case Study

Study Flashcards

12 questions, what type of forests are found in the region stretching from south central alaska to the north-eastern coast of canada, what term is used to describe the coniferous forests in canada, which of the following is not mentioned as a timber tree found in canada's coniferous forest region, what is the primary use of softwood sourced from canada's forests, during which season is wood cutting primarily carried out in the forests, what is the term used to refer to the individuals who engage in cutting wood and transporting it to sawmills and pulp factories, how were logs traditionally transported to mills located on the banks of rivers, what tools were mainly used for felling trees in the early days of logging, what vehicle is equipped with machines that can grip and cut down entire trees, what is the process called when a felled and delimbed tree is cut into logs of standard sizes, before felling a tree, what equipment is used to climb up and cut off branches and the top, what was typically used to draw sledges loaded with logs to landing sites before the introduction of railways, description.

Explore a case study on lumbering in Canada, focusing on the region from south central Alaska to the north-eastern coast with its unique characteristics like evergreen coniferous forests and boreal forests.

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Lumbering In Canada

Lumbering In Canada : Lumbering is the utmost significant financial contributor in Canada. The activity is usually carried in the coniferous forests of Canada. You can find coniferous forests on a large scale in this country. This is because the climate here is suitable for these trees. And these trees are best suited for lumbering. Apart from this Canada has well-developed transport amenities, demand for it in the local market, etc. which makes lumbering feasible in Canada. To get more details about lumbering here keep reading the post. The post will give you complete details regarding it.

Lumbering is one of the most imperative trade and industry activities in Canada. Usually, lumbering is carried during the winter season. What else makes Canada favorable for lumbering will be known in the post below.

What Is Meant By Lumbering In Canada?

Lumbering means that the lumber or the forest industries transform wood into different items. This wood is usually taken from the coniferous trees which are found on a great scale in Canada. In British Columbia major cutting of trees is done.

Lumbering Is A key profession In Canada

Lumbering is one of the major professions in this country. The prime reason for this is the coniferous forest of Canada. It is well established coniferous forest belt because

• Canada is equipped with all the modern types of machinery with which trees can be fell easily.
• During winters the rivers usually freeze which makes the transportation of logs of wood from one place to another easy.
• The forest area can be easily reached.
• The forest area cannot catch fire very easily.
• There is a huge demand for wooden logs for various purposes.

So these are a few reasons that make lumbering a very important activity here. So, as a result, it also gives employment for various reasons. Even the farmers take this as an alternative profession as it is mostly carried out during winter.

How Does Lumbering Contribute To The Economy Of Canada?

The today forest sector is one of the most contributing sectors towards the economy of Canada. It is also one of the prominent wealth providers to the people in all parts of the country.

• Approximately 205,000 people are employed in the forest sector of Canada.
• Around $1.9 billion in revenue is generated from this sector alone.
• It is recorded that $23.7 billion is contributed towards the GDP of Canada as in 2019.

So such a contributing sector in Canada, today this sector has made Canada the leader in the production of various forest items. So Canada has made sure that the forest sector remains the prominent sector and gives employment opportunities to various people.

Salary of Lumberjacks In Canada

As already seen lumbering is one of the major professions in this country, so the lumberjacks also make good money from this job. The average salary of lumberjacks working here is around $54,600 every year or $28 hourly. The beginners can be paid $44,850 and the experienced can be paid o $68,889 per year.

Favorable Months For Lumbering In Canada

Lumbering is usually carried out in the winter seasons. This is because the climate of winters is highly favorable for lumbering. The floors are usually covered with snow. This moves logs easily. Even the rivers are frozen during this time so the wooden logs can be easily piled on each other and then moved during the spring season.

So we see that how important is lumbering for this country. The territory of this region is highly favorable for lumbering. Further, it also contributes to a great extend to GDP and economic growth. It also contributes to the export market. Thus the economy of Canada essentially revolves around lumbering only. Lumbering is not new for the country. It started way back in 1778 and till today it is done.

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