definition essay evidence

Definition of Evidence

Examples of evidence in literature, example #1: the bluest eye (by tony morrison).

“I talk about how I did not plant the seeds too deeply, how it was the fault of the earth, our land, our town. I even think now that the land of the entire country was hostile to marigolds that year. This soil is bad for certain kinds of flowers. Certain seeds it will not nurture, certain fruit it will not bear, and when the land kills of its own volition, we acquiesce and say the victim had no right to live.”

Morrison evidently analyzes the environment, as it has powerful effects on people. She provides strong evidence that that the Earth itself is not fertile for the marigold seeds. Likewise, people also cannot survive in an unfriendly environment.

Example #2: The Color of Water Juliet (By James McBride)

” ‘…while she weebled and wobbled and leaned, she did not fall. She responded with speed and motion. She would not stop moving.’ As she biked, walked, rode the bus all over the city, ‘she kept moving as if her life depended on it, which in some ways it did. She ran, as she had done most of her life, but this time she was running for her own sanity.’ “

Example #3: Educational Paragraph (By Anonymous)

“Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don’t matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.”

This is a best example of evidence, since the evidence is effectively incorporated into the text, as the author makes the link between her claim (question) and the evidence (logic), which is powerful.

Function of Evidence

Post navigation.

What this handout is about

This handout will provide a broad overview of gathering and using evidence. It will help you decide what counts as evidence, put evidence to work in your writing, and determine whether you have enough evidence. It will also offer links to additional resources.

Introduction

Many papers that you write in college will require you to make an argument ; this means that you must take a position on the subject you are discussing and support that position with evidence. It’s important that you use the right kind of evidence, that you use it effectively, and that you have an appropriate amount of it. If, for example, your philosophy professor didn’t like it that you used a survey of public opinion as your primary evidence in your ethics paper, you need to find out more about what philosophers count as good evidence. If your instructor has told you that you need more analysis, suggested that you’re “just listing” points or giving a “laundry list,” or asked you how certain points are related to your argument, it may mean that you can do more to fully incorporate your evidence into your argument. Comments like “for example?,” “proof?,” “go deeper,” or “expand” in the margins of your graded paper suggest that you may need more evidence. Let’s take a look at each of these issues—understanding what counts as evidence, using evidence in your argument, and deciding whether you need more evidence.

What counts as evidence?

Before you begin gathering information for possible use as evidence in your argument, you need to be sure that you understand the purpose of your assignment. If you are working on a project for a class, look carefully at the assignment prompt. It may give you clues about what sorts of evidence you will need. Does the instructor mention any particular books you should use in writing your paper or the names of any authors who have written about your topic? How long should your paper be (longer works may require more, or more varied, evidence)? What themes or topics come up in the text of the prompt? Our handout on understanding writing assignments can help you interpret your assignment. It’s also a good idea to think over what has been said about the assignment in class and to talk with your instructor if you need clarification or guidance.

What matters to instructors?

Instructors in different academic fields expect different kinds of arguments and evidence—your chemistry paper might include graphs, charts, statistics, and other quantitative data as evidence, whereas your English paper might include passages from a novel, examples of recurring symbols, or discussions of characterization in the novel. Consider what kinds of sources and evidence you have seen in course readings and lectures. You may wish to see whether the Writing Center has a handout regarding the specific academic field you’re working in—for example, literature , sociology , or history .

What are primary and secondary sources?

A note on terminology: many researchers distinguish between primary and secondary sources of evidence (in this case, “primary” means “first” or “original,” not “most important”). Primary sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, and so forth. Secondary sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by someone else. For example, if you are writing a paper about the movie “The Matrix,” the movie itself, an interview with the director, and production photos could serve as primary sources of evidence. A movie review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the film would be secondary sources. Depending on the context, the same item could be either a primary or a secondary source: if I am writing about people’s relationships with animals, a collection of stories about animals might be a secondary source; if I am writing about how editors gather diverse stories into collections, the same book might now function as a primary source.

Where can I find evidence?

Here are some examples of sources of information and tips about how to use them in gathering evidence. Ask your instructor if you aren’t sure whether a certain source would be appropriate for your paper.

Print and electronic sources

Books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines, and documentary films are some of the most common sources of evidence for academic writing. Our handout on evaluating print sources will help you choose your print sources wisely, and the library has a tutorial on evaluating both print sources and websites. A librarian can help you find sources that are appropriate for the type of assignment you are completing. Just visit the reference desk at Davis or the Undergraduate Library or chat with a librarian online (the library’s IM screen name is undergradref).

Observation

Sometimes you can directly observe the thing you are interested in, by watching, listening to, touching, tasting, or smelling it. For example, if you were asked to write about Mozart’s music, you could listen to it; if your topic was how businesses attract traffic, you might go and look at window displays at the mall.

An interview is a good way to collect information that you can’t find through any other type of research. An interview can provide an expert’s opinion, biographical or first-hand experiences, and suggestions for further research.

Surveys allow you to find out some of what a group of people thinks about a topic. Designing an effective survey and interpreting the data you get can be challenging, so it’s a good idea to check with your instructor before creating or administering a survey.

Experiments

Experimental data serve as the primary form of scientific evidence. For scientific experiments, you should follow the specific guidelines of the discipline you are studying. For writing in other fields, more informal experiments might be acceptable as evidence. For example, if you want to prove that food choices in a cafeteria are affected by gender norms, you might ask classmates to undermine those norms on purpose and observe how others react. What would happen if a football player were eating dinner with his teammates and he brought a small salad and diet drink to the table, all the while murmuring about his waistline and wondering how many fat grams the salad dressing contained?

Personal experience

Using your own experiences can be a powerful way to appeal to your readers. You should, however, use personal experience only when it is appropriate to your topic, your writing goals, and your audience. Personal experience should not be your only form of evidence in most papers, and some disciplines frown on using personal experience at all. For example, a story about the microscope you received as a Christmas gift when you were nine years old is probably not applicable to your biology lab report.

Using evidence in an argument

Does evidence speak for itself.

Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for or against something, and you have to make that link clear.

As writers, we sometimes assume that our readers already know what we are talking about; we may be wary of elaborating too much because we think the point is obvious. But readers can’t read our minds: although they may be familiar with many of the ideas we are discussing, they don’t know what we are trying to do with those ideas unless we indicate it through explanations, organization, transitions, and so forth. Try to spell out the connections that you were making in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper, and drew conclusions based on it. Remember, you can always cut prose from your paper later if you decide that you are stating the obvious.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself about a particular bit of evidence:

• OK, I’ve just stated this point, but so what? Why is it interesting? Why should anyone care?
• What does this information imply?
• What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking at a problem this way?
• I’ve just described what something is like or how I see it, but why is it like that?
• I’ve just said that something happens—so how does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is?
• Why is this information important? Why does it matter?
• How is this idea related to my thesis? What connections exist between them? Does it support my thesis? If so, how does it do that?
• Can I give an example to illustrate this point?

Answering these questions may help you explain how your evidence is related to your overall argument.

How can I incorporate evidence into my paper?

There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.

When you quote, you are reproducing another writer’s words exactly as they appear on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotations:

• Quote if you can’t say it any better and the author’s words are particularly brilliant, witty, edgy, distinctive, a good illustration of a point you’re making, or otherwise interesting.
• Quote if you are using a particularly authoritative source and you need the author’s expertise to back up your point.
• Quote if you are analyzing diction, tone, or a writer’s use of a specific word or phrase.
• Quote if you are taking a position that relies on the reader’s understanding exactly what another writer says about the topic.

Be sure to introduce each quotation you use, and always cite your sources. See our handout on quotations for more details on when to quote and how to format quotations.

Like all pieces of evidence, a quotation can’t speak for itself. If you end a paragraph with a quotation, that may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in terms of your argument. It’s important to avoid “plop quotations,” that is, quotations that are just dropped into your paper without any introduction, discussion, or follow-up.

Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase, you take a specific section of a text and put it into your own words. Putting it into your own words doesn’t mean just changing or rearranging a few of the author’s words: to paraphrase well and avoid plagiarism, try setting your source aside and restating the sentence or paragraph you have just read, as though you were describing it to another person. Paraphrasing is different than summary because a paraphrase focuses on a particular, fairly short bit of text (like a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You’ll need to indicate when you are paraphrasing someone else’s text by citing your source correctly, just as you would with a quotation.

When might you want to paraphrase?

• Paraphrase when you want to introduce a writer’s position, but their original words aren’t special enough to quote.
• Paraphrase when you are supporting a particular point and need to draw on a certain place in a text that supports your point—for example, when one paragraph in a source is especially relevant.
• Paraphrase when you want to present a writer’s view on a topic that differs from your position or that of another writer; you can then refute writer’s specific points in your own words after you paraphrase.
• Paraphrase when you want to comment on a particular example that another writer uses.
• Paraphrase when you need to present information that’s unlikely to be questioned.

When you summarize, you are offering an overview of an entire text, or at least a lengthy section of a text. Summary is useful when you are providing background information, grounding your own argument, or mentioning a source as a counter-argument. A summary is less nuanced than paraphrased material. It can be the most effective way to incorporate a large number of sources when you don’t have a lot of space. When you are summarizing someone else’s argument or ideas, be sure this is clear to the reader and cite your source appropriately.

Statistics, data, charts, graphs, photographs, illustrations

Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is a hard fact or visual representation of a fact. This type of evidence can be a solid backbone for your argument, but you still need to create context for your reader and draw the connections you want them to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graph, photographs, and illustrations are all open to interpretation. Guide the reader through the interpretation process. Again, always, cite the origin of your evidence if you didn’t produce the material you are using yourself.

Do I need more evidence?

Let’s say that you’ve identified some appropriate sources, found some evidence, explained to the reader how it fits into your overall argument, incorporated it into your draft effectively, and cited your sources. How do you tell whether you’ve got enough evidence and whether it’s working well in the service of a strong argument or analysis? Here are some techniques you can use to review your draft and assess your use of evidence.

Make a reverse outline

A reverse outline is a great technique for helping you see how each paragraph contributes to proving your thesis. When you make a reverse outline, you record the main ideas in each paragraph in a shorter (outline-like) form so that you can see at a glance what is in your paper. The reverse outline is helpful in at least three ways. First, it lets you see where you have dealt with too many topics in one paragraph (in general, you should have one main idea per paragraph). Second, the reverse outline can help you see where you need more evidence to prove your point or more analysis of that evidence. Third, the reverse outline can help you write your topic sentences: once you have decided what you want each paragraph to be about, you can write topic sentences that explain the topics of the paragraphs and state the relationship of each topic to the overall thesis of the paper.

For tips on making a reverse outline, see our handout on organization .

Color code your paper

You will need three highlighters or colored pencils for this exercise. Use one color to highlight general assertions. These will typically be the topic sentences in your paper. Next, use another color to highlight the specific evidence you provide for each assertion (including quotations, paraphrased or summarized material, statistics, examples, and your own ideas). Lastly, use another color to highlight analysis of your evidence. Which assertions are key to your overall argument? Which ones are especially contestable? How much evidence do you have for each assertion? How much analysis? In general, you should have at least as much analysis as you do evidence, or your paper runs the risk of being more summary than argument. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence you may need to provide in order to persuade your reader.

Play devil’s advocate, act like a child, or doubt everything

This technique may be easiest to use with a partner. Ask your friend to take on one of the roles above, then read your paper aloud to them. After each section, pause and let your friend interrogate you. If your friend is playing devil’s advocate, they will always take the opposing viewpoint and force you to keep defending yourself. If your friend is acting like a child, they will question every sentence, even seemingly self-explanatory ones. If your friend is a doubter, they won’t believe anything you say. Justifying your position verbally or explaining yourself will force you to strengthen the evidence in your paper. If you already have enough evidence but haven’t connected it clearly enough to your main argument, explaining to your friend how the evidence is relevant or what it proves may help you to do so.

Common questions and additional resources

• I have a general topic in mind; how can I develop it so I’ll know what evidence I need? And how can I get ideas for more evidence? See our handout on brainstorming .
• Who can help me find evidence on my topic? Check out UNC Libraries .
• I’m writing for a specific purpose; how can I tell what kind of evidence my audience wants? See our handouts on audience , writing for specific disciplines , and particular writing assignments .
• How should I read materials to gather evidence? See our handout on reading to write .
• How can I make a good argument? Check out our handouts on argument and thesis statements .
• How do I tell if my paragraphs and my paper are well-organized? Review our handouts on paragraph development , transitions , and reorganizing drafts .
• How do I quote my sources and incorporate those quotes into my text? Our handouts on quotations and avoiding plagiarism offer useful tips.
• How do I cite my evidence? See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .
• I think that I’m giving evidence, but my instructor says I’m using too much summary. How can I tell? Check out our handout on using summary wisely.
• I want to use personal experience as evidence, but can I say “I”? We have a handout on when to use “I.”

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 2016. Everything’s an Argument , 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Miller, Richard E., and Kurt Spellmeyer. 2016. The New Humanities Reader , 5th ed. Boston: Cengage.

University of Maryland. 2019. “Research Using Primary Sources.” Research Guides. Last updated October 28, 2019. https://lib.guides.umd.edu/researchusingprimarysources .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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What type of evidence should I use?

There are two types of evidence.

First hand research is research you have conducted yourself such as interviews, experiments, surveys, or personal experience and anecdotes.

Second hand research is research you are getting from various texts that has been supplied and compiled by others such as books, periodicals, and Web sites.

Regardless of what type of sources you use, they must be credible. In other words, your sources must be reliable, accurate, and trustworthy.

How do I know if a source is credible?

You can ask the following questions to determine if a source is credible.

Who is the author? Credible sources are written by authors respected in their fields of study. Responsible, credible authors will cite their sources so that you can check the accuracy of and support for what they've written. (This is also a good way to find more sources for your own research.)

How recent is the source? The choice to seek recent sources depends on your topic. While sources on the American Civil War may be decades old and still contain accurate information, sources on information technologies, or other areas that are experiencing rapid changes, need to be much more current.

What is the author's purpose? When deciding which sources to use, you should take the purpose or point of view of the author into consideration. Is the author presenting a neutral, objective view of a topic? Or is the author advocating one specific view of a topic? Who is funding the research or writing of this source? A source written from a particular point of view may be credible; however, you need to be careful that your sources don't limit your coverage of a topic to one side of a debate.

What type of sources does your audience value? If you are writing for a professional or academic audience, they may value peer-reviewed journals as the most credible sources of information. If you are writing for a group of residents in your hometown, they might be more comfortable with mainstream sources, such as Time or Newsweek . A younger audience may be more accepting of information found on the Internet than an older audience might be.

Be especially careful when evaluating Internet sources! Never use Web sites where an author cannot be determined, unless the site is associated with a reputable institution such as a respected university, a credible media outlet, government program or department, or well-known non-governmental organizations. Beware of using sites like Wikipedia , which are collaboratively developed by users. Because anyone can add or change content, the validity of information on such sites may not meet the standards for academic research.

Encyclopedia

Writing with artificial intelligence.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF , Jennifer Janechek - IBM Quantum

Evidence is necessary to substantiate claims in workplace & academic writing. Learn to reason with evidence in workplace & academic writing. Review research and scholarship on the uses of evidence. Explore how evidence can help you communicate more clearly and persuasively.

Table of Contents

Evidence is

• information that a writer, speaker, knowledge maker . . . weaves into discourse in order to substantiate claims When writers make claims , critical readers expect them to substantiate those claims with evidence (see Argumentation )
• (see reader-based prose vs writer-based prose ).

Related Concepts: Argument ; Concrete, Sensory Language ; Claim ; Information, Data ;

How Do I know What Form of Evidence to Use?

When you think of the term evidence , what comes to mind?  CSI ?  Law and Order ?  NCIS ?

Certainly, detectives and law enforcement officers use evidence to prove that a criminal is guilty. What’s more, they use different types of evidence to find and convict the offending person(s), such as eyewitness accounts, DNA, fingerprints, and material evidence.

Just as detectives use various types of evidence to study crime scenes, writers, speakers, and knowledge workers . . . use different types of evidence to help their audiences better understand their claims , interpretations , point of view , and conclusions .

In order to identify the types of evidence you’ll need for any given occasion , you need to engage in rhetorical analysis of your communication situation .

You want to focus on audience because different readers, different discourse communities , have unique and sometimes conflicting ideas about what constitutes reliable evidence. You’ll want to consider how emotionally charged the situation is.

What archive exists regarding the topic you are investigating?

What is the status of the current scholarly conversation on the topic ?

Regardless of the type used, all evidence serves the same general function: proof/confirmation bolsters a writer’s claims . The trick is to determine, during composing , what type of evidence will most help substantiate your claims .

Evidence as a Social, Cultural, Historical Artifact

Evidence is rooted in the epistemological assumptions that inform the interpretation and meaning-making processes of discourse communities .

Evidence vs Research

Students sometimes confuse evidence with research ; the two do not mean the same thing.

Whereas evidence refers to a something that supports a claim, research is something much broader: it’s an effort to have a scholarly conversation about a topic .

Research begets proof. Yet performing research should not just point you as a writer, speaker, knowledge maker . . . to useful quotes that you can use as support for claims in your writing.

Research should tell you about a conversation , one that began before you decided upon your project topic . When you incorporate research into a paper, you are integrating and responding to previous claims about your topic made by other writers. As such, it’s important to try to understand the main argument each source in a particular conversation is making, and these main arguments (and ensuing subclaims) can then be used as evidence—as support for your claims—in your paper. Let’s say for a bibliographic essay you decide to write about the Indian Mutiny. Well, as the Indian Mutiny began around 1857, people have been writing about the Mutiny since that time. Thus, it’s important to realize that by writing about the Indian Mutiny now, you’re contributing to an ongoing conversation. By doing research, you can see what’s already been said about this topic, decide what specific approach to the topic might be original and insightful, and determine what ideas from other writers provide an opening for you to assert your own claims.

Recommended Readings

Ho, H. L. (2021, October 8). The legal concept of evidence , In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/evidence-legal/.

Related Articles:

Anecdote - anecdotal evidence, hypothetical evidence.

Types of Evidence

Recommended.

Academic Writing – How to Write for the Academic Community

Structured Revision – How to Revise Your Work

Professional Writing – How to Write for the Professional World

Credibility & Authority – How to Be Credible & Authoritative in Research, Speech & Writing

Citation Guide – Learn How to Cite Sources in Academic and Professional Writing

Page Design – How to Design Messages for Maximum Impact

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Using evidence.

Like a lawyer in a jury trial, a writer must convince her audience of the validity of her argument by using evidence effectively. As a writer, you must also use evidence to persuade your readers to accept your claims. But how do you use evidence to your advantage? By leading your reader through your reasoning.

The types of evidence you use change from discipline to discipline--you might use quotations from a poem or a literary critic, for example, in a literature paper; you might use data from an experiment in a lab report.

The process of putting together your argument is called analysis --it interprets evidence in order to support, test, and/or refine a claim . The chief claim in an analytical essay is called the thesis . A thesis provides the controlling idea for a paper and should be original (that is, not completely obvious), assertive, and arguable. A strong thesis also requires solid evidence to support and develop it because without evidence, a claim is merely an unsubstantiated idea or opinion.

This Web page will cover these basic issues (you can click or scroll down to a particular topic):

• Incorporating evidence effectively.
• Integrating quotations smoothly.
• Citing your sources.

Incorporating Evidence Into Your Essay

When should you incorporate evidence.

Once you have formulated your claim, your thesis (see the WTS pamphlet, " How to Write a Thesis Statement ," for ideas and tips), you should use evidence to help strengthen your thesis and any assertion you make that relates to your thesis. Here are some ways to work evidence into your writing:

• Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
• Present evidence that contradicts your stance, and then argue against (refute) that evidence and therefore strengthen your position.
• Use sources against each other, as if they were experts on a panel discussing your proposition.
• Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim.

Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence

In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your essay by following this pattern:

• State your claim.
• Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
• Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim.

To see the differences between strong and weak uses of evidence, here are two paragraphs.

Weak use of evidence

Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn't explain the connection.

The same evidence can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the evidence cited.

Stronger use of evidence

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim.

Using Quotations: A Special Type of Evidence

One effective way to support your claim is to use quotations. However, because quotations involve someone else's words, you need to take special care to integrate this kind of evidence into your essay. Here are two examples using quotations, one less effective and one more so.

Ineffective Use of Quotation

Today, we are too self-centered. "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This example is ineffective because the quotation is not integrated with the writer's ideas. Notice how the writer has dropped the quotation into the paragraph without making any connection between it and the claim. Furthermore, she has not discussed the quotation's significance, which makes it difficult for the reader to see the relationship between the evidence and the writer's point.

A More Effective Use of Quotation

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much any more as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence, as James Gleick says in his book, Faster . "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

The second example is more effective because it follows the guidelines for incorporating evidence into an essay. Notice, too, that it uses a lead-in phrase (". . . as James Gleick says in his book, Faster ") to introduce the direct quotation. This lead-in phrase helps to integrate the quotation with the writer's ideas. Also notice that the writer discusses and comments upon the quotation immediately afterwards, which allows the reader to see the quotation's connection to the writer's point.

REMEMBER: Discussing the significance of your evidence develops and expands your paper!

Citing Your Sources

Evidence appears in essays in the form of quotations and paraphrasing. Both forms of evidence must be cited in your text. Citing evidence means distinguishing other writers' information from your own ideas and giving credit to your sources. There are plenty of general ways to do citations. Note both the lead-in phrases and the punctuation (except the brackets) in the following examples:

Quoting: According to Source X, "[direct quotation]" ([date or page #]).

Paraphrasing: Although Source Z argues that [his/her point in your own words], a better way to view the issue is [your own point] ([citation]).

Summarizing: In her book, Source P's main points are Q, R, and S [citation].

Your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and are the most effective way of interpreting the evidence.

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper

• Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
• Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
• Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
• Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper's main claims?
• Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
• Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

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Many students struggle with writing definition essays due to a lack of clarity and precision in their explanations.

This obstructs them from effectively conveying the essence of the terms or concepts they are tasked with defining. Consequently, the essays may lack coherence, leaving readers confused and preventing them from grasping the intended meaning.

But don’t worry!

In this guide, we will delve into effective techniques and step-by-step approaches to help students craft an engaging definition essay.

Continue reading to learn the correct formation of a definition essay. 

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What is a Definition Essay?

Just as the name suggests, a definition essay defines and explains a term or a concept. Unlike a narrative essay, the purpose of writing this essay is only to inform the readers.

Writing this essay type can be deceivingly tricky. Some terms, concepts, and objects have concrete definitions when explained. In contrast others are solely based on the writer’s understanding and point of view.

A definition essay requires a writer to use different approaches when discussing a term. These approaches are the following:

• Denotation - It is when you provide a literal or academic definition of the term.
• Connotation - It is when the writer provides an implied meaning or definition of the term.
• Enumeration - For this approach, a list is employed to define a term or a concept.
• Analogy - It is a technique in which something is defined by implementing a comparison.
• Negation - It is when you define a term by stating what it is not.

A single or combination of approaches can be used in the essay. 

Definition Essay Types

There are several types of definition essays that you may be asked to write, depending on the purpose and scope of the assignment. 

In this section, we will discuss some of the most common types of definition essays.

Descriptive Definition Essay 

This type of essay provides a detailed description of a term or concept, emphasizing its key features and characteristics. 

The goal of a descriptive definition essay is to help readers understand the term or concept in a more profound way.

Stipulative Definition Essay 

In a stipulative definition essay, the writer provides a unique definition of a term or concept. This type of essay is often used in academic settings to define a term in a particular field of study. 

The goal of a stipulative definition essay is to provide a precise and clear definition that is specific to the context of the essay.

Analytical Definition Essay 

This compare and contrast essay type involves analyzing a term or concept in-depth. Breaking it down into its component parts, and examining how they relate to each other. 

The goal of an analytical definition essay is to provide a more nuanced and detailed understanding of the term or concept being discussed.

Persuasive Definition Essay 

A persuasive definition essay is an argumentative essay that aims to persuade readers to accept a particular definition of a term or concept.

The writer presents their argument for the definition and uses evidence and examples to support their position.

Explanatory Definition Essay 

An explanatory definition essay is a type of expository essay . It aims to explain a complex term or concept in a way that is easy to understand for the reader. 

The writer breaks down the term or concept into simpler parts and provides examples and analogies to help readers understand it better.

Extended Definition Essay 

An extended definition essay goes beyond the definition of a word or concept and provides a more in-depth analysis and explanation. 

The goal of an extended definition essay is to provide a comprehensive understanding of a term, concept, or idea. This includes its history, origins, and cultural significance. 

How to Write a Definition Essay?

Writing a definition essay is simple if you know the correct procedure. This essay, like all the other formal pieces of documents, requires substantial planning and effective execution.

The following are the steps involved in writing a definition essay effectively:

Instead of choosing a term that has a concrete definition available, choose a word that is complicated . Complex expressions have abstract concepts that require a writer to explore deeper. Moreover, make sure that different people perceive the term selected differently. 

Once you have a word to draft your definition essay for, read the dictionary. These academic definitions are important as you can use them to compare your understanding with the official concept.

Drafting a definition essay is about stating the dictionary meaning and your explanation of the concept. So the writer needs to have some information about the term.

In addition to this, when exploring the term, make sure to check the term’s origin. The history of the word can make you discuss it in a better way.

Coming up with an exciting title for your essay is important. The essay topic will be the first thing that your readers will witness, so it should be catchy.

Creatively draft an essay topic that reflects meaning. In addition to this, the usage of the term in the title should be correctly done. The readers should get an idea of what the essay is about and what to expect from the document.

Now that you have a topic in hand, it is time to gather some relevant information. A definition essay is more than a mere explanation of the term. It represents the writer’s perception of the chosen term and the topic.

So having only personal opinions will not be enough to defend your point. Deeply research and gather information by consulting credible sources.

The gathered information needs to be organized to be understandable. The raw data needs to be arranged to give a structure to the content.

Here's a generic outline for a definition essay:

Are you searching for an in-depth guide on crafting a well-structured definition essay?Check out this definition essay outline blog!

6. Write the First Draft

Drafting each section correctly is a daunting task. Understanding what or what not to include in these sections requires a writer to choose wisely.

The start of your essay matters a lot. If it is on point and attractive, the readers will want to read the text. As the first part of the essay is the introduction , it is considered the first impression of your essay.

To write your definition essay introduction effectively, include the following information:

• Start your essay with a catchy hook statement that is related to the topic and the term chosen.
• State the generally known definition of the term. If the word chosen has multiple interpretations, select the most common one.
• Provide background information precisely. Determine the origin of the term and other relevant information.
• Shed light on the other unconventional concepts and definitions related to the term.
• Decide on the side or stance you want to pick in your essay and develop a thesis statement .

After briefly introducing the topic, fully explain the concept in the body section . Provide all the details and evidence that will support the thesis statement. To draft this section professionally, add the following information:

• A detailed explanation of the history of the term.
• Analysis of the dictionary meaning and usage of the term.
• A comparison and reflection of personal understanding and the researched data on the concept.

Once all the details are shared, give closure to your discussion. The last paragraph of the definition essay is the conclusion . The writer provides insight into the topic as a conclusion.

The concluding paragraphs include the following material:

• Summary of the important points.
• Restated thesis statement.
• A final verdict on the topic.

7. Proofread and Edit

Although the writing process ends with the concluding paragraph, there is an additional step. It is important to proofread the essay once you are done writing. Proofread and revise your document a couple of times to make sure everything is perfect.

Before submitting your assignment, make edits, and fix all mistakes and errors.

If you want to learn more about how to write a definition essay, here is a video guide for you!

Definition Essay Structure 

The structure of a definition essay is similar to that of any other academic essay. It should consist of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. 

However, the focus of a definition essay is on defining and explaining a particular term or concept. 

In this section, we will discuss the structure of a definition essay in detail.

Introduction 

Get the idea of writing an introduction for a definition essay with this example:

Body Paragraphs

Here is an example of how to craft your definition essay body paragraph:

Types of the Term/Concept 

If applicable, the writer may want to include a section that discusses the different types or categories of the term or concept being defined. 

This section should explain the similarities and differences between the types, using examples and anecdotes to illustrate the points.

Examples of the Term/Concept in Action 

The writer should also include real-life examples of the term or concept being defined in action. 

This will help the reader better understand the term or concept in context and how it is used in everyday life.

Conclusion 

This example will help you writing a conclusion fo you essay:

Definition Essay Examples

It is important to go through some examples and samples before writing an essay. This is to understand the writing process and structure of the assigned task well.

Following are some examples of definition essays to give our students a better idea of the concept. 

Understanding the Definition Essay

Definition Essay Example

Definition Essay About Friendship

Definition Essay About Love

Family Definition Essay

Success Definition Essay

Beauty Definition Essay

Definition Essay Topics

Selecting the right topic is challenging for other essay types. However, picking a suitable theme for a definition essay is equally tricky yet important. Pick an interesting subject to ensure maximum readership.

If you are facing writer’s block, here is a list of some great definition essay topics for your help. Choose from the list below and draft a compelling essay.

• Authenticity
• Sustainability
• Mindfulness

Here are some more extended definition essay topics:

• Social media addiction
• Ethical implications of gene editing
• Personalized learning in the digital age
• Ecosystem services
• Cultural assimilation versus cultural preservation
• Sustainable fashion
• Gender equality in the workplace
• Financial literacy and its impact on personal finance
• Ethical considerations in artificial intelligence
• Welfare state and social safety nets

Need more topics? Check out this definition essay topics blog!

Definition Essay Writing Tips

Knowing the correct writing procedure is not enough if you are not aware of the essay’s small technicalities. To help students write a definition essay effortlessly, expert writers of CollegeEssay.org have gathered some simple tips.

These easy tips will make your assignment writing phase easy.

• Choose an exciting yet informative topic for your essay.
• When selecting the word, concept, or term for your essay, make sure you have the knowledge.
• When consulting a dictionary for the definition, provide proper referencing as there are many choices available.
• To make the essay informative and credible, always provide the origin and history of the term.
• Highlight different meanings and interpretations of the term.
• Discuss the transitions and evolution in the meaning of the term in any.
• Provide your perspective and point of view on the chosen term.

Following these tips will guarantee you better grades in your academics.

By following the step-by-step approach explained in this guide, you will acquire the skills to craft an outstanding essay. 

Struggling with the thought, " write my college essay for m e"? Look no further.

Our dedicated definition essay writing service is here to craft the perfect essay that meets your academic needs.

For an extra edge, explore our AI essay writer , a tool designed to refine your essays to perfection. 

Barbara P (Literature, Marketing)

Barbara is a highly educated and qualified author with a Ph.D. in public health from an Ivy League university. She has spent a significant amount of time working in the medical field, conducting a thorough study on a variety of health issues. Her work has been published in several major publications.

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Home ➔ Essay Structure ➔ Body Paragraphs ➔ Evidence in Essays

Guide to Evidence in an Essay

In essays, evidence can be presented in a number of ways. It might be data from a relevant study, quotes from a literary work or historical event, or even an anecdote that helps to illustrate your point. No matter what form it takes, evidence supports your thesis statement and major arguments.

Why is using evidence important? In academic writing, it is important to make a clear and well-supported argument. In order to do this, you need to use evidence to back up your claims. Provide evidence to show that you have done your research and that your arguments are based on facts, not just opinions.

What is evidence in academic writing?

In academic writing, evidence is often presented in the form of data from research studies or quotes from literary works. It can be used to support your argument or to illustrate a point you are making. Good evidence must be relevant, persuasive, and trustworthy.

Types of evidence

There are many different types of evidence that can be used in essays. Some common examples include:

Analogical: An analogy or comparison that supports your argument.

Example: “Like the human body, a car needs regular maintenance to function properly.”

This type is considered to be one of the weakest, as it is often based on opinion rather than fact. To use it well, you need to be sure that the analogy is relevant and that there are enough similarities between the two things you are comparing.

Anecdotal: A personal experience or story, your own research, or example that illustrates your point.

Example: “I know a woman who was fired from her job after she became pregnant.”

Anecdotal evidence is used to support a point or argument, but it should be used sparingly, as it is often considered to be less reliable than other types of evidence. It can also be used as a hook to engage the reader’s attention.

Hypothetical : A hypothetical situation or thought experiment that supports your argument.

Example: “If we do not take action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth’s average temperature will continue to rise.”

This type of evidence can be useful in persuading readers to see your point of view. It is important to make sure that the hypothetical situation is realistic, as otherwise, it will undermine your argument. It is also not a strong form of evidence, and to make it work well, you will need to make the reader feel invested in the outcome.

Logical: A reasoning or argument that uses logic to support your claim.

Example: “The death penalty is a deterrent to crime because it removes the possibility of rehabilitation.”

This type is based on the idea that if something is true, then it must be the case that something else is also true. It is not the strongest type of evidence, as there are often other factors that can impact the validity of the argument.

Statistical: Data from research studies or surveys that support your argument.

Example: “According to a study by the American Medical Association, gun violence is the third leading cause of death in the United States.”

This type of evidence is often considered to be the most persuasive, as it is based on factual data. However, it is important to make sure that the data is from a reliable source and that it is interpreted correctly.

Testimonial: A quote from an expert or someone with first-hand experience that supports your argument.

Example: According to Dr. John Smith, a leading expert on the health effects of smoking, “Smoking is a major contributor to heart disease and lung cancer.”

This type of evidence can be very persuasive, as it uses the authority of an expert to support your argument. However, it is important to make sure that the expert is credible and that their opinion is relevant to your argument.

Textual: A quote from a literary work or historical document that supports your argument.

Example: “In the book ‘ To Kill a Mockingbird ,’ Atticus Finch says, ‘You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view.'”

This type of evidence can be used to support your argument, but it is important to make sure that the quote is relevant and that it is interpreted correctly.

Visual: A graph, chart, or image that supports your argument.

This evidence type might not be the most common in essays, but it can be very effective in persuading the reader to see your point of view. It is important to make sure that the visual is clear and easy to understand, as otherwise, it will not be as effective.

Types of evidence sources

When you want to find evidence to support your argument, it is important to consider the source. There are two major types of sources:

• Primary sources: These are first-hand accounts or data that has been collected by the author. Examples of such sources include research studies, surveys, and interviews.
• Secondary sources: These are second-hand accounts or data that has been collected by someone other than the author. Examples of such sources include books, articles, and websites.

For example, if you are writing an essay about George Orwell’s “1984,” a primary source would be the novel itself, while a secondary source would be an article about the author’s life.

As for which one is better or worse, it all depends on the context. In general, primary sources are more reliable, but they can be difficult to find or interpret. Secondary sources are easier to find, but they might not be as accurate.

But in general, these two types complement each other. In other words, you will likely need to use both primary and secondary sources to support your argument.

Incorporating evidence

There are different ways to introduce evidence effectively in your essay. The most common methods are:

• Direct Quotation: A direct quotation is when you reproduce the exact words of a source. This can be done by using quotation marks and citing the source in your paper .
• Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing is when you explain something in your own words. It’s a way of conveying the main idea of a text without simply repeating what the author has already said. When you paraphrase, you can use your own voice and style to communicate someone else’s words in a way that better suits your audience.
• Summarizing: Summarizing is when you provide a brief overview of a text. This can be done by identifying the main points and ideas in the text and conveying them in your own words.
• Factual data: Factual data is information that can be verified through research. This could include statistics, numbers, or other types of data that support your main argument.

How to use evidence in essays

Besides knowing what type of evidence to use, it is also important to know how to use it in the most effective way. Here are some steps that you can take to incorporate evidence in your paper.

1. Present your argument first

Before you start introducing evidence into your essay, it is important to first make a claim or thesis statement . This will give your paper direction and let your reader know what to expect.

On a paragraph level, your topic sentences are the arguments you are making. The rest of the paragraph should be used to support this claim with evidence.

Let’s say the topic of the essay is “The Impact of Social Media on Young People.”

Then, your thesis statement could be something like, “Social media has had a negative impact on the mental health of young people.”

And your first body paragraph might start with the following topic sentence: “The first way social media has had a negative impact on young people is by causing them to compare themselves to others.”

2. Introduce your evidence

Once you have presented your argument, you will need to introduce your evidence. This can be done by using a signal phrase or lead-in .

A signal phrase is a phrase that introduces the evidence you are about to provide. It can be used to introduce a direct quotation or paraphrase. For example:

• According to Dr. Smith,…
• Dr. Smith argues that…
• As Dr. Smith points out,…
• There is evidence to suggest that..
• The survey reveals that…
• As suggested by the study,…

Word Choice in Essays – read more about various words that you can use in your essay in different cases.

3. Present evidence

After you have introduced your evidence, you will need to state it clearly. This can be done by using a direct quotation, paraphrasing, or summarizing.

When using a direct quotation , you will need to use quotation marks and cite the source in your paper. For example:

As Dr. Smith points out, “Teenagers spend a lot of time on social media platforms observing the lives of others and comparing themselves to what they see, which can lead to damaged self-esteem and depression.”

When paraphrasing or summarizing , you will need to make sure that you are conveying the main points of the source using different words. For example:

Dr. Smith argues that social media can have a negative impact on young people’s mental health because it makes them compare themselves to others.

4. Comment on your evidence

After you have stated your supporting evidence, you will need to explain how it supports your argument. This can be done by providing your own analysis or interpretation.

For example:

By constantly comparing themselves to others, young people are more likely to develop a negative view of themselves. This can lead to mental health problems such as depression and low self-esteem.

5. Repeat for additional evidence

If you have more than one piece of evidence that supports your own argument, you will need to repeat steps 2-4 for each additional piece.

6. Link back to your key points

Once you have finished discussing your evidence, it is important to link back to your initial argument in the last sentence of your body paragraph and transition to the next paragraph .

Example of a full body paragraph with all the steps applied:

One way social media has had a negative impact on young people is by causing them to compare themselves to others. According to Dr. Smith, “Teenagers spend a lot of time on social media platforms observing the lives of others and comparing themselves to what they see, which can lead to depression and damaged self-esteem” (qtd. in Jones). By constantly comparing themselves to others, young people are more likely to develop a negative view of themselves. This can lead to mental health problems such as depression and low self-esteem. But this is not the only way social media can negatively affect young people’s mental health.

7. Wrap it up in a conclusion

Once you have finished all your body paragraphs, you will need to write a conclusion . This is where you will wrap up your argument and emphasize the main points that you have proven.

Remember, using evidence is just one part of the essay-writing process . You also need to make sure that your paper is well organized, has a clear structure , and is free of grammar and spelling errors. But if you can master the use of evidence, you will be well on your way to writing a strong essay.

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Using Evidence: Analysis

Beyond introducing and integrating your paraphrases and quotations, you also need to analyze the evidence in your paragraphs. Analysis is your opportunity to contextualize and explain the evidence for your reader. Your analysis might tell the reader why the evidence is important, what it means, or how it connects to other ideas in your writing.

Note that analysis often leads to synthesis , an extension and more complicated form of analysis. See our synthesis page for more information.

Example 1 of Analysis

Without analysis.

Embryonic stem cell research uses the stem cells from an embryo, causing much ethical debate in the scientific and political communities (Robinson, 2011). "Politicians don't know science" (James, 2010, p. 24). Academic discussion of both should continue (Robinson, 2011).

With Analysis (Added in Bold)

Embryonic stem cell research uses the stem cells from an embryo, causing much ethical debate in the scientific and political communities (Robinson, 2011). However, many politicians use the issue to stir up unnecessary emotion on both sides of the issues. James (2010) explained that "politicians don't know science," (p. 24) so scientists should not be listening to politics. Instead, Robinson (2011) suggested that academic discussion of both embryonic and adult stem cell research should continue in order for scientists to best utilize their resources while being mindful of ethical challenges.

Note that in the first example, the reader cannot know how the quotation fits into the paragraph. Also, note that the word both was unclear. In the revision, however, that the writer clearly (a) explained the quotations as well as the source material, (b) introduced the information sufficiently, and (c) integrated the ideas into the paragraph.

Example 2 of Analysis

Trow (1939) measured the effects of emotional responses on learning and found that student memorization dropped greatly with the introduction of a clock. Errors increased even more when intellectual inferiority regarding grades became a factor (Trow, 1939). The group that was allowed to learn free of restrictions from grades and time limits performed better on all tasks (Trow, 1939).

In this example, the author has successfully paraphrased the key findings from a study. However, there is no conclusion being drawn about those findings. Readers have a difficult time processing the evidence without some sort of ending explanation, an answer to the question so what? So what about this study? Why does it even matter?

Trow (1939) measured the effects of emotional responses on learning and found that student memorization dropped greatly with the introduction of a clock. Errors increased even more when intellectual inferiority regarding grades became a factor (Trow, 1939). The group that was allowed to learn free of restrictions from grades and time limits performed better on all tasks (Trow, 1939). Therefore, negative learning environments and students' emotional reactions can indeed hinder achievement.

Here the meaning becomes clear. The study’s findings support the claim the reader is making: that school environment affects achievement.

Analysis Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

Related Resources

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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• Evidence and Analysis

Why It Matters

An assignment prompt’s guidance on evidence and analysis sets parameters for the content and form of a writing assignment: What kinds of sources should you be working with? Where should you find those sources? How should you be working with them?

More on "Evidence and Analysis"

The evidence and analysis you're asked to use (or not use) for a writing assignment often reflect the genre and size of the assignment at hand. With any writing assignment prompt, it’s important to step back and make sure you’re clear about the scope of evidence and analysis you’ll be working with.  For example: 

In terms of evidence,

• what kinds of evidence should be used (peer-reviewed articles versus op-ed pieces),
• which evidence in particular and how much (3–5 readings from class versus independent research), and
• why (because op-ed pieces capture a kind of public discourse better than peer-reviewed articles, or because 3–5 readings from class is manageable for a 4-page essay and also reinforces the readings assigned for the course, etc.).

In terms of analysis,

• is the assignment asking you to make an argument? If so, what kind of argument? (e.g., a rhetorical analysis weighing the pros and cons of a think piece, or a policy memo making normative claims about recommended courses of action, or a test a theory essay assessing the applicability of a framework to real-world cases?)
• if not, what is it asking you to do with evidence? (e.g., summarize a source’s argument, or draft a research question based on an annotated bibliography or data set)
• why? (because it’s important to establish other thinkers’ positions accurately before taking your own position, or because asking questions before moving on to a thesis or conclusion will make the research process more compelling).

What It Looks Like

• Science & Technology in Society
• Ethics & Civics
• Histories, Societies, Individuals
• Aesthetics & Culture

STEP 1: PROPOSAL WITH ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Length: 250–500 words, not including annotated bibliography. The annotated bibliography must have at least 5 different references from outside the course and 5 different references from the syllabus.

Source requirements:

• Minimum 5 different references from outside the course (at least 3 must be peer-reviewed scholarly sources)   [1]
• Minimum 5 different references from Gen Ed 1093 reading assignments listed on the syllabus; lectures do not count toward the reference requirement, and Reimagining Global Health will only count as one reference   [2]
• Citation format either AAA or APA   [3] , consistent throughout the paper
• Careful attention to academic integrity and appropriate citation practices
• The annotated bibliography does not count toward your word count, but in-text citations do.   [4]

__________ [1]  Explicit guidance about what kinds of sources and how many sources to include [2]  Clarification about what does / doesn't count toward the required number of sources [3]  Clear guidance about citation format  [4]  Clarification about what does / doesn't count toward the required word count  

Adapted from Gen Ed 1093 : Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Cares? Reimagining Global Health | Fall 2020

On p 13 of Why not Socialism?, G. A. Cohen states that the principle of “socialist equality of opportunity” is a principle of justice. What is the principle of “socialist equality of opportunity,” why does Cohen think it is a principle of justice, why does he think it is a desirable principle, and why does he think it is feasible? Which part of his argument do you think is most vulnerable to objections? Formulate some objections and explore how Cohen could respond. Do you think the objections succeed, or is Cohen’s view correct?

Proceed as follows:   [1]  State what socialist equality of opportunity is, by way of contrast with the two other kinds of equality of opportunity identified by Cohen. Explain why Cohen thinks, as a matter of justice, socialist equality of opportunity is preferable to the other two, and explain why an additional principle of community is needed to supplement that principle of justice. Then assess whether Cohen offers additional reasons (beyond the superiority of his principle over the alternatives) as to why equality and community are desirable, both for the camping trip and society at large. In a next step briefly summarize what he says about the feasibility of the principle. Devote about two thirds of your discussion to the tasks sketched so far, and then devote the remaining third to your exploration of the objections to parts of Cohen’s argument and an exploration of their success.

General Guidance

In section, your TF will discuss general guidelines to writing a philosophy paper.   [2] Please also consult the “Advice on Written Assignments” posted on Canvas before writing the paper. Recall that you will write three papers in this course. The assignments get progressively more demanding. In the first paper, the emphasis is on reconstructing arguments, allowing you to develop the skill of logical reconstruction rather than narrative summary of a text. …The second paper goes beyond reconstruction, putting more emphasis on the critically evaluating arguments. The third paper gives you an opportunity to develop a well-reasoned defense in support of your own view regarding one of the central issues of the class.   [3]  

__________ [1]   Students are given clear advice about how to use evidence differently at different points in their assignment. [2]  Students are assured that they will learn guidelines for working with evidence and analysis in a more disciplinary kind of writing (with which many of them will likely be unfamiliar). [3]  The move from “reconstruction” to “critically evaluating” to “well-reasoned defense” signals a scaffolded development of ways to work with evidence, along with reasons why students are being are being asked to work with evidence in a certain way for this first essay, viz., “ to develop the skill of logical reconstruction."

Adapted from Gen Ed 1121 : Economic Justice | Spring 2020 Professor Mathias Risse

Research Requirements

All projects, regardless of which modality you adopt, will need to include   [1]

• an annotated bibliography that includes at least 5 scholarly sources. These sources can include scholarly articles, books, or websites. For a website, please check with the TFs to confirm the viability of it as a source.   [2] There are legitimately scholarly websites, but many content-related sites are not scholarly.
• a 1-page artist statement.

See “How tos_Annotated Bibliography_your Artist Statement” for specific instructions for both the annotated bibliography and the artist statement.   [3]

__________ [1]  Explicit guidance about what kinds of sources and how many to include [2]  Advice on how to get help evaluating whether a source counts as viable evidence [3]  Additional resources (tied to guidelines and process) that help explain the roles of evidence and analysis in the assignment

Adapted from Gen Ed 1099 : Pyramid Schemes: What Can Ancient Egyptian Civilization Teach Us? Professor Peter der Manuelian

Introduce yourself to another student in the class by making a virtual mixtape for them. ⋮ Your tape should contain the following (in any order):   [1]

• The greeting on the Golden Record that best describes you (or record your own)
• One piece of music included on the Golden Record
• Your personal summer hit of 2020
• A “found sound” (recorded in your environment that seems characteristic or interesting)
• A piece of music that best describes you
• Your favorite piece/song by a musician outside the US/Canada

Use these guidelines as a starting point for your mixtape. Feel free to get creative. The mixtape should say something important about YOU. (There will be no written text accompanying your file. The sounds have to say it all.)   [2]

__________ [1]  Students are given a clear checklist of what to include in their assignment. [2]  In this assignment, the evidence makes its argument through curation, rather than additional written analysis. Making sure students understand that particular relationship of evidence to analysis ahead of time frames the assignment’s purpose and genre.

Adapted from Gen Ed 1006 : Music from Earth | Fall 2020 Professor Alex Rehding

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Academic writing often requires students to use evidence, and learning how to use evidence effectively is an important skill for college writers to master. Often, the evidence college writers are asked to use comes from their textbooks, course readings, or other written work by professional scholars. It is important to learn how to use these writings responsibly and accurately.

General Considerations

There are three methods of incorporating the writing of others into your paper as evidence:

• quotation , which is anything from a word to several sentences taken word-for-word from the original source and enclosed in quotation marks
• paraphrase , which is a rephrasing in your own voice and sentence structure of one portion of the original source and is about the same length as the original sentence or sentences you are paraphrasing
• summary , which is shorter than the original source and gives the text’s central idea in your own words

Some words to use in signal phrases are argues, asserts, contends, emphasizes, explains, observes, suggests, writes.

In what follows, you will learn some strategies for using these methods of incorporating evidence into your paper.

In Practice

When you use a quotation as evidence, you should integrate it into your own writing using a “signal phrase.” Take, for example, this quotation, taken from page 418 of the essay “Prejudice and the Individual” by Gordon Allport: “Much prejudice is caught rather than directly taught.” Here are three ways to integrate Allport’s quotation into a sentence of your own with a signal phrase:

Allport claims that “prejudice is caught rather than directly taught” (418). “Much prejudice is caught rather than directly taught,” claims Allport (418). “Much prejudice,” Allport claims, “is caught rather than directly taught” (418).

You can adapt a quotation to fit your own paragraph and sentence structure by making small changes to words and indicating those changes with square brackets. Say, for example, you liked this quotation from Allport:

“It should be added that overgeneralized prejudgments of this sort are prejudices only if they are not reversible when exposed to new knowledge” (417).

However, you want to apply Allport’s words to a specific example of your own. You could adapt the quotation like this:

The young man in my example was not prejudiced, according to Allport’s definition; his opinion was “reversible when [he was] exposed to new knowledge” (417).

You can also use ellipses to indicate that you have left irrelevant words out of a quotation. Again, say you wanted to use this quotation from Allport:

“The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination, then—as people become acquainted with one another on equal terms—attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance” (417).

But the middle part is less important to your paper than what Allport says at the start and the end. You could modify the quotation like this:

“The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination . . . attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance” (417).

Longer quotations must be formatted in a special way; usually, they are indented from the left margin and/or single-spaced. Depending on what citation style you use, guidelines differ regarding what defines a long quotation and how a long quotation should be formatted. Typically, a quotation of four or five lines is considered long.

Paraphrasing

To paraphrase a source for use as evidence, you should use as little of the original language as possible and put the passage in your own voice and sentence structure. Also, because paraphrasing involves wrapping your words around someone else’s idea, people often forget to give credit to the author. Even though a paraphrase is in your words, it is not your idea. Remember to cite your source when you paraphrase. Here is another quotation from Allport and an example of weak and strong paraphrase:

“Education combats easy overgeneralizations, and as the educational level rises we find a reduction in stereotyped thinking” (Allport 422).

WEAK PARAPHRASE: Learning fights against stereotypes, and as more people are more educated we notice a decrease in prejudice (422).

STRONG PARAPHRASE: Allport explains that the more we learn, the harder we will find it to make unfair assumptions about groups of people, which means as more people pursue more education, prejudice decreases (422).

In the weak example above, you can see the sentence structure in the paraphrase is very similar to the quotation—notice, for instance, the use in both the original sentence and the weak paraphrase of a comma plus the conjunction “and.” Also, the replacement of Allport’s words with synonyms makes the paraphrase too close to the original—Allport’s “education” is replaced with “learning” in the paraphrase; his “combats” is exchanged for “fights”; “overgeneralizations” becomes “stereotypes.” The strong example above does a better job of restating Allport’s idea in a new sentence structure and without simple word substitution. Also, notice the weak paraphrase does not give Allport credit by mentioning him, but the strong one does.

Summarizing

When you summarize another writer’s idea to use as evidence in a paper of your own, you are taking the essence of the writer’s idea and stating it more briefly, with less detail and explanation, than in the original. You may summarize an article or a chapter, or even a book, in a sentence, a paragraph, a page, or more—the purpose of your summary should dictate how specific you are. Summaries should be mostly in your own words, but often summaries include quotations or paraphrases when it is necessary to highlight a certain key point. When you are writing a summary, you need to be very careful not to use the original writer’s words without putting those words in quotation marks. You also need to be sure that when you summarize, you are fairly representing the original writer’s main idea. Here is a paragraph from Allport and examples of weak and strong summary:

“While discrimination ultimately rests on prejudice, the two processes are not identical. Discrimination denies people their natural or legal rights because of their membership in some unfavored group. Many people discriminate automatically without being prejudiced; and others, the “gentle people of prejudice,” feel irrational aversion, but are careful not to show it in discriminatory behavior. Yet in general, discrimination reinforces prejudices, and prejudices provide rationalizations for discrimination. The two concepts are most distinct when it comes to seeking remedies. The corrections for discrimination are legal, or lie in a direct change of social practices; whereas the remedy for prejudice lies in education and the conversion of attitudes. The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination, then—as people become acquainted with one another on equal terms—attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance.” (Allport 417)

WEAK SUMMARY: Discrimination is when people are denied their rights because they belong to some unfavored group, and it is addressed with legal action or a change in social practices. Eliminating discrimination from society would have a drastic effect on social attitudes overall, according to Allport (417).

STRONG SUMMARY: Allport explains that discrimination occurs when an individual is refused rights because he or she belongs to a group which is the object of prejudice. In this way, discrimination reinforces prejudice, but if instances of discrimination are ruled illegal or seen as socially unacceptable, prejudice will likely decrease along with discrimination (417).

You will notice that the weak summary above uses exact words and phrases from the source (“unfavored group,” “social practices”) and also some words and phrases very close to the original (“when people are denied,” “eliminating discrimination”). It does not effectively restate the original in different language. It also does not fairly represent the complete idea of the source paragraph: it does not explain the relationship between discrimination and prejudice, an important part of what Allport says. The strong example does a better job using independent language and fairly conveying Allport’s point.

How to choose which method of incorporating evidence to use

These methods of incorporating evidence into your paper are helpful in different ways. Think carefully about what you need each piece of evidence to do for you in your paper, then choose the method that most suits your needs.

You should use a quotation if

• you are relying on the reputation of the writer of the original source to give authority or credibility to your paper.
• the original wording is so remarkable that paraphrasing would diminish it.

A paraphrase is a good choice if

• you need to provide a supporting fact or detail but the original writer’s exact words are not important.
• you need to use just one specific idea from a source and the rest of the source is not as important.

Summary is useful when

• you need to give an overview of a source to orient your reader.
• you want to provide background that leads up to the point of your paper.

Last but certainly not least, remember that anytime you use another person’s ideas or language, you must give credit to that person. If you do not know the name of the person whose idea or language you are using, you must still give credit by referring to a title or any such available information. You should always check with your instructor to see what method of citing and documenting sources you should use. The examples on this handout are cited using MLA style.

The sample text in these exercises is Holly Devor’s “Gender Role Behaviors and Attitudes.”

1. Read the paragraph from Devor below, then identify which summary of it is weak and which is strong.

“Body postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability to trespass through a message of "no threat" make people appear to be feminine. They demonstrate subordination through a minimizing of spatial use: people appear to be feminine when they keep their arms closer to their bodies, their legs closer together, and their torsos and heads less vertical than do masculine-looking individuals. People also look feminine when they point their toes inward and use their hands in small or childlike gestures.” (486)

A. Devor argues that body language suggests a great deal about gender and power in our society. People who minimize the body space they occupy and whose physical gestures are minimal and unobtrusive appear inferior and feminine (486).

B. Devor says that body postures and demeanors that imply weakness make people look feminine. Minimizing the space one takes up and using infantile gestures also makes one appear feminine (486).

2. Read the sentence from Devor below, then identify which paraphrase of it is weak and which is strong.

“They demonstrate subordination through a minimizing of spatial use: people appear to be feminine when they keep their arms closer to their bodies, their legs closer together, and their torsos and heads less vertical than do masculine-looking individuals.” (486)

A. Devor explains that people demonstrate a lesser position by using less space, keeping arms close, legs together, and head less upright (486).

B. According to Devor, taking up less space with one’s body—keeping arms and legs close and hunching to reduce height—makes one appear inferior and implies femininity (486).

3. The quotations of Devor below, taken from the paragraph in exercise 1, contain technical errors. Identify and correct them.

A. Devor argues that “[b]ody postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability make people appear to be feminine” (486).

B. The actress looked particularly feminine because she “point their toes inward and use their hands in small or childlike gestures” (486).

C. Devor claims that “using their hands in small or childlike gestures” makes people look feminine (486).

Answers: 1. A. STRONG B. WEAK – This example uses too many exact words and phrases from the original.

2. A. WEAK – This example uses too many exact words and phrases from the source, and its sentence structure is also too close to the original. B. STRONG

3. A. Devor argues that “[b]ody postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability . . . make people appear to be feminine.” B. The actress looked particularly feminine because she “point[s her] toes inward and use[s her] hands in small or childlike gestures.” C. Devor claims that “us[ing] their hands in small or childlike gestures” makes people look feminine.

Allport, Gordon, “Prejudice and the Individual,” in The Borozoi College Reader , 6th ed. Eds. Charles Muscatine and Marlene Griffith (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1988): 416-22.

Devor, Holly, “Gender Role Behaviors and Attitudes,” in Signs of Life in the USA: Readings on Popular Culture for Writers , 4th ed. Eds. Sonia Maasik and Jack Solomon (New York: Bedford / St Martin's, 2003): 484-89.

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Definition and Examples of Evidence in Argument

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In argument, evidence refers to facts, documentation or testimony used to strengthen a claim, support an argument or reach a conclusion.

The evidence isn't the same as proof. "Whereas evidence allows for professional judgment, the proof is absolute and incontestable," said Denis Hayes in "Learning and Teaching in Primary Schools." 

Observations About Evidence

• "Without evidence to support them, any statements you make in your writing have little or no value; they're simply opinions, and 10 people may have 10 different opinions, none of which is more valid than the others unless there is clear and potent evidence to support it." Neil Murray, "Writing Essays in English Language and Linguistics ," 2012
• "When conducting empirical research, the researcher's primary responsibility is to provide evidence to support his or her claim about the relationship between the variables described in the research hypothesis. T]he researcher must collect data that will convince us of the accuracy of his or her predictions." Bart L. Weathington et al., "Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences," 2010

Making Connections

David Rosenwasser and Jill Stephen comment on making connections that leave out the steps that lead to them in 2009's "Writing Analytically."  

"A common assumption about evidence is that is is 'the stuff that proves I'm right.' Although this way of thinking about evidence is not wrong, it is much too limited. Corroboration (proving the validity of a claim) is one of the functions of evidence, but not the only one. Writing well means sharing your thought process with your readers, telling them why you believe the evidence means what you say it does.

"Writers who think that evidence speaks for itself often do very little with their evidence except put it next to their claims: 'The party was terrible: There was no alcohol' -- or, alternatively, 'The party was great: There was no alcohol.' Just juxtaposing the evidence with the claim leaves out the thinking that connects them, thereby implying that the logic of the connection is obvious.

"But even for readers prone to agreeing with a given claim, simply pointing to the evidence is not enough." 

Qualitative and Quantitative Evidence

Julie M. Farrar defines two kinds of evidence in "Evidence: Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition ," from 2006.

"The mere presence of information does not constitute evidence; the informative statements must be accepted as evidence by an audience and believed by it to be relevant to the claim at issue. Evidence can be generally classified as qualitative and quantitative. The former emphasizes explanation and description, appearing continuous rather than discrete, while the latter offers measurement and prediction. Both kinds of information require interpretation, for at no time do the facts speak for themselves."

Opening the Door

In "Evidence: Practice Under the Rules" from 1999, Christopher B. Mueller and Laird C. Kirkpatrick discuss evidence as it relates to trial law.

"The more far-reaching effect of introducing evidence [in a trial] is to pave the way for other parties to introduce evidence, question witnesses and offer argument on the subject in attempts to rebut or confine the initial evidence. In the customary phrase, the party who offers evidence on a point is said to have 'opened the door,' meaning that the other side may now make countermoves to answer or rebut the initial evidence, 'fighting fire with fire.'"

Dubious Evidence

In "Not on the Doctor’s Checklist, but Touch Matters" from 2010 in The New York Times, Danielle Ofri discusses findings called evidence that isn't actually valid.

"[I]s there any research to show that a physical exam -- in a healthy person -- is of any benefit? Despite a long and storied tradition, a physical exam is more a habit than a clinically proven method of picking up the disease in asymptomatic people. There is scant evidence to suggest that routinely listening to every healthy person’s lungs or pressing on every normal person’s liver will find a disease that wasn’t suggested by the patient’s history. For a healthy person, an 'abnormal finding' on a physical exam is more likely to be a false positive than a real sign of illness."

Other Examples of Dubious Evidence

• "America must not ignore the threat gathering against us. Facing clear evidence of peril, we cannot wait for the final proof, the smoking gun that could come in the form of a mushroom cloud." President George W. Bush, in justifying the invasion of Iraq in 2003
•  "We have it. The smoking gun. The evidence. The potential weapon of mass destruction we have been looking for as our pretext of invading Iraq. There's just one problem: it's in North Korea." Jon Stewart, "The Daily Show," 2005
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What is evidence in literary studies.

What is evidence in literary studies?  

Brought to you by the University of Houston Libraries.   

You’re taking an English class and your instructor asks you to write a paper that makes an argument about one of your class readings.  

The assignment also says that you need to include plenty of evidence.  

But, what is evidence in literary studies, and where does it come from?   

Evidence is information that you can use to support an argument, which is the main claim you are making in your paper.  

Because literary studies is focused on closely reading and analyzing written texts (or, sometimes, the rhetorical aspects of visual media), the most important type of evidence is quotations and paraphrases from the text you are analyzing.  

For example, let’s take a look at the theme song from the popular children’s TV show, Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood. If you were writing a paper analyzing the lyrics of this song, you could claim that the song discusses neighborhoods to teach children to appreciate and value the people in their lives and their communities.   

To support your claim, you will need to find evidence consisting of examples from the lyrics. One example would be the quote, “I have always wanted to have a neighbor just like you / I’ve always wanted to live in a neighborhood with you” because in this quote, Mr. Rogers expresses appreciation of other people and the value of communities.  

In this example, you find evidence to support your argument from the text itself.  

There are also other types of evidence that can be used to support your argument such as insights and viewpoints from other people who have read the same text that you are reading. This kind of evidence can be found in scholarly articles or books.  

Another type of evidence that may be useful is background information to provide context about the historical, political, or cultural setting of the text you are reading. Dictionaries, encyclopedias, and sometimes news articles can provide this kind of evidence.  

In our example of analyzing the Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood theme song, you could include evidence from an encyclopedia article about the show’s creator, Fred Rogers, to show how his life experiences outside of his work might have contributed to the values he taught in his TV series.  

You could also use information you find in a scholarly article about children’s literature to provide evidence about how Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood might have been similar to or different from other media created for children at the time when the TV show began.  

Scholarly and background evidence put your claims into context.  

They help your reader understand how the quotes and paraphrases you’ve chosen from the main text you are analyzing are important and relevant to the argument of your paper.  

If you have any questions about what type of evidence is most appropriate for your assignment, consult with your instructor. For research questions about finding sources of evidence, you can contact UH Libraries. We’re here to help!  

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How to Write a Definition Essay: Structure, Outline, Samples

Updated 15 Feb 2024

Learn the elements, outline, and logic behind a definition essay. Explore different types of definitions and their functions. Get tips on writing a solid essay, avoiding common mistakes, and crafting a strong thesis statement. Find inspiration and ideas through definition essay example.

So what is a definition essay ? As the name suggests, a definition essay is an essay that explains in detail a certain term or concept. However, instead of being limited to a simple dictionary definition, which normally takes a few phrases, such an essay contains an extended definition that includes additional details, such as examples, descriptions, an analysis of this term and other related ones, etc. Importantly, such essays present your personal opinion about corresponding concepts.

Knowing how to write a definition essay requires a good understanding of the required elements, outline, structure, logic as described below. These essays are important since they require integration of a few interpretations on the same concepts, making clear distinctions and generalizations, providing personal interpretations, etc.

Try to write the best definitive essay with the help of our guide!

The List of Essay Definitions Encountered in Academic Writing

As a rule, before you start with the first paragraph of your definition essay, it is crucial to understand all the different types that will make your writing fit the situation and academic objectives. Therefore, when you have something great for your thesis statement and topic sentences, consider these types of definitions first:

• Analytical . As the title implies, you must use analysis and divide your subject into several parts by approaching each aspect individually. Use one paragraph per idea.
• Classification . It means that you can apply systematization for your definition essay and find similarities or specific factors to classify your issues or processes. 
• Comparison . Just like classification type, you have to find elements that stand out and compare and contrast various things that differ or appear the same. Your thesis must sum up these differences.
• Detailed Method . This is where you must focus on certain characteristics and let your audience focus on details to understand the subject well.
• Negation Approach . It means that writing a definition essay you should use your arguments clearly to prevent your audience from a wrong understanding of a problem. In simple terms, it tells people what your issue is not.
• Origins & Causes . This is where you tell about the origins of your issue or things that have caused some event or changes. Remember to provide background information and the reasons why something is important.
• Scientific Problem . As a rule, it means that you should synthesize available information and explain the ways how something is used or studied by your fellow researchers.

Of course, you can always combine these different essay definition types for the best results, which is acceptable! Remember that it should also contain your thoughts and additions if it is applicable.

If you are looking for interesting exemplification essay examples , EduBirdie has some for you. These examples can provide you with inspiration and ideas on how to effectively use exemplification in your essay, showcasing real-life examples and evidence to support your arguments.

General Definition Essay Structure

Like with other essay types, definition essay format follows the following basic structure:

• Introduction - lists standard explanations and raises important rhetorical questions attempting to interpret them, it may list interesting facts related to the background of these terms (but not only), anecdotes, funny cases, personal experience, etc. Altogether, this helps in hooking attention and providing necessary background that would allow diving deeper into the matter.
• Thesis Statement  – this is not a distinct section but rather, a key element of the introduction. For definitive essay, it should state a generalized and comprehensive personal definition. It should be formulated as an arguable claim that closely summarizes the paper’s essence.
• Main body. All paragraphs should be related to this thesis through topic sentences – normally, this is the first sentence in a paragraph. Subsequent sentences constituting the paragraph explain them, support with arguments, provide evidence and examples, etc. Paragraphs should end up with concluding sentences, which synthesize the content presented within these paragraphs, or with transitioning sentences that help introduce subsequent paragraphs for smoother content flow.
• Conclusion – this is where thesis is restated considering all ideas, arguments, and evidence that has been provided. Apart from synthesizing information, conclusions may suggest related topics for exploration.

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Definition Essay Outline and Its Constitution

When assembling an essay outline, it is useful to consider what type of paragraphs and how many of each should be included and in what order. In terms of meaning, such types of essays have the following sections or paragraphs:

• Denotation – this part provides direct concept explanations, for instance, dictionary or formal interpretations integrated from multiple sources. This section is normally shorter and could be limited to one paragraph. If you are wondering how to start a definition essay, opening your essay by listing formal dictionary explanations would be perfectly acceptable and even fairly standard.
• Connotation – in this part, one describes related ideas or term implications, including from a personal perspective or judgement. A good method for identifying connotations is looking up the word in a thesaurus. The connotation part is typically more voluminous, being spread across multiple paragraphs.

Judged by their specific function, paragraphs can either:

• Describe – provide description of the words in detail; describe perspectives, standard or peculiar interpretations, worldviews, etc.
• Analyze – these paragraphs could dissect complex words or expressions into individual parts and analyze each of these separately, as well as in combination. This could be done, for instance, with terms “self-sufficiency”, (“self” + “sufficiency”) or “gratefulness” (“grate” + ”fulness”). Obviously, such “linguistic” analysis does not apply to simple words like “hate”, “respect”, etc. However, each word may be analyzed for multiple meanings, for instance globalization may be viewed as globalization of culture, of knowledge, commerce, lifestyle, life-quality expectations, etc.
• Exemplify – providing an eloquent and detailed example to accompany complex interpretations or argument increases understanding of it by readers, hence this is mandatory for good writing. Including good analogies has similar effects.
• Compare and contrast. These paragraphs help differentiate discussed words or concepts by strictly defining their boundaries and by highlighting similarities and differences between compared terms.
• Negate . One way of defining concepts is to tell what they are not – this is especially useful for closely related concepts.
• Provide background with regard to history and origin. While this is not practical for common words, it makes sense for neologisms, professional terms, and some other words whose origin is easily tracked (for instance, “democracy”).

Consider definition essay outline and structural requirements along with what types of paragraphs would constitute your essays and what they would be exactly about and you’ll end up with definitive and solid outline.

Tips On How to Write a Definition Essay

Although it may not sound application to writing a definition essay, it must inspire you or motivate you to know your subject because the purpose is to sound confident and clear as you deliver the facts and deliver some important concepts. Here are some tips you must consider before you start writing:

• Start With a List of Sources . Never ignore starting with a list of good references that will help you to support your existing perception of some subject. Remember about citation rules and do not overdo your quoting because it can lead to increased similarity rates and plagiarism risks.
• Proofread & Edit . Always proofread your definition essay to eliminate repetitions and the weak parts that may sound confusing to your reader. Pay attention to possible grammar and spelling issues. By doing so, you can improve your final grade and avoid those minor mistakes. It is also good to proofread your paper aloud to ensure that it sounds right.
• Check The Requires Structure . Even if you may think that you already know it all, it is recommended to check your grading rubric twice in terms of structure and the required paragraphs.
• Research Your Subject . It means that even if you have a good list of sources, you must provide your audience with an unbiased outlook. It will take some time to read through the various sources to determine how the subject is approached by others. Make sure that you check more than one source or dictionary for your definition. Writing a definition essay, doing so will give you a full picture and various semantic meanings.
• Avoid Copying Definitions . Do not copy definitions word-by-word even if you are turning to some dictionary. It is recommended to express your thoughts and paraphrase things to provide a better definition without plagiarism even if it is unintentional.

Common Mistakes That Occur While Writing Interpretations 

Below, we list some usual mistakes made when writing definition essay:

• Choosing topics that are either too narrow or concrete to allow extended definitions, various perspectives or interpretations. Rather than choosing terms like “Cold War”, “TV mass culture” more general and broad definition essay topics should be used, such as “war”, “culture”, “freedom”, “dignity”, “innovation”, etc.
• Selecting topics that are overly broad or that represent little potential for captivating discussion: “work”, “rain”, “sand”. It is generally advisable to choose controversial topics or concepts whose understanding varies significantly among individuals and might even be associated with conflicting positions.
• Failing to research term properly. Knowing how to define a word in an essay exhaustively implies working with dictionaries. Ignoring these results in a serious mistake, since these normally list all known word meanings in various contexts – exploring how concepts change depending on context is an important starting point for writing definition essays. Combining several good dictionaries could be especially powerful – this will help cover the entire semantic space of a given word, guiding further interpretations and description of connotations.
• Quoting overly lengthy formulations exactly as found in dictionaries – this should be avoided since it affects your level of uniqueness and may be treated as plagiarism by many software tools.

If you are keen to avoid mistakes, consider contracting our academic assistance service. Apart from definition essays, our writers are familiar with definition narrative essay, research papers, laboratory reports, coursework, case studies, capstone projects, speeches, how to write an informative essay , and virtually any other type of writing help one can imagine.

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Definition Essay Example for Students

Given that definition essay example  can be much more helpful in familiarizing readers with this type of essay, below we provide such a sample (the thesis is italicized).

Justice Justice is hugely important element for relationships between individuals and virtually for any human group, however small – obviously, this applies to society as a whole. Commonly understood meaning of justice is adherence to fairness and impartiality whenever dealing with other people or when conflicts management, be it in daily life or within the frames of legal system. The Cambridge online dictionary defines justice as "fairness in the way people are dealt with" or "the condition of being morally correct or fair". As a law term, it is "the system of laws in a country by which people are judged and punished". Moreover, here in the US, it also means a "judge in a law court". The Merriam-Webster dictionary adds a few other unique definitions, for instance "the maintenance or administration of what is just" for instance, by justly managing conflicting claims, rewarding, and punishing. Other definitions are "conformity to truth, fact, or reason", "the principle or ideal of just dealing or right action" but also conformity to this principle (righteousness). Thus, apart from being used to designate judges, all formal interpretations of justice, in a way or another, deal with fair treatment, regardless of whether individuals, groups, or state institutions are considered. Hence, this is regarded as the core and fairly universal meaning of the term. Importantly, many dictionaries mention impartiality as an essential component of this treatment. Impartiality ensures that deliverers of justice put fairness principles above their own interests and above interests of any given actor involved in conflicts that are managed. Apart from this, when thinking about justice or justice deliverers, the following concepts are implied:  integrity, honesty, equity, adherence to truth and law, legitimacy. Nevertheless, understanding of justice differs greatly across individuals but also across societies and cultural groups, which ultimately reflects in laws. For instance, principle of “an eye for an eye” practiced under Iran’s sharia law may seem totally weird here, in the US or western world, where we are used with standardized punishments proportional to crime gravity, such as incarceration, monetary fines, property sequestration. A renowned example involved an Iranian man who blinded a woman using acid and who was sentenced in 2008 to the same punishment. Thus, justice is essentially fair, impartial treatment, be it in interpersonal or collective interaction and whether it is reflected in simple actions or in laws. Importantly, this term has to be examined within societal and cultural context, as notions may vary significantly depending on this.

To conclude, definitive essay provides a broad overview of word or phrase meaning across different contexts along with implications, examples, explanations, and interpretation. Depending on the concepts approached, producing such essays are fairly challenging, which is a good reason to consider essay writing service provided by Edubirdie.

With us, you have greater liberty in selecting your preferred writer according to performance statistics. You can also continuously assess project progress by requesting outlines, drafts, writing samples and effectively correct or guide writers in real time. We also implemented an unlimited free revisions policy if order instructions are not met but also a money-back guarantee policy if revisions are unsatisfactory. Despite high quality output, we strive to minimize potential risks for clients, so that they feel maximally safe contracting our services. Considering all these, why not give it a try?

What makes a good definition essay?

A good definition essay will achieve three goals: it will tell your readers about what is being defined; it will present you with clear and basic information; it will turn to facts and good real-life examples that will help people to understand things. After all, it is the purpose of a good definition essay. Remember to make it vivid and accessible.

How to start a definition essay?

You should start with a good introduction to your subject. Make sure that you provide information about why something is important and how or why it is approached by the academic community or professionals in your field. Start with the most common definition that fits your topic and continue with the less common types.

How do you write a thesis statement for a definition essay?

An introduction of a definition essay ends with a thesis that should express personal and generalized definitions or interpretations of the explored concepts. These arguable statements are the focal points of definition essays, which means that papers revolve entirely around these. The thesis needs to be general enough to connect with and cover all paragraph topic sentences.

How do you write a definition term?    

Picking terms for such essays is done by considering how interesting or controversial the topics are, whether they engulf definitions that vary depending on different circumstances or contexts, whether they allow multiple perspectives, views, including conflictual, whether the author is familiar with these terms and provide an interpretation of these, etc.

How do you organize a definition essay?                  

Organizing essays involves considering the traditional structure, according to which there is an introduction, main body, conclusion, but also deciding how many paragraphs should be used for each section and what information should be each paragraph’s function: denotation, connotation, description, analysis, exemplification, comparison, etc.

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Every claim you make in an essay needs evidence to back it up. Evidence is an important part of illustrating your meaning and supporting your ideas. Evidence can include facts, examples, or quotes. Good writing blends different types of evidence. This gets your point across and convinces the reader you are an authority on the subject.

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What is  evidence ?

True or False: 

Evidence and examples are exactly the same thing.

Finish this sentence:

One can think of examples as _____. 

If an essay is like a court case, then what role does the reader play?

What are some of the different uses for evidence?

True or False:

Good writing uses several different types of evidence to support different claims.

What is  statistical evidence ?

What are some examples of government and nonprofit sources one can use to find statistical evidence? 

The Journal of American Medicine  is an example of what type of source for finding statistical evidence? 

Statistical evidence can come from one's own research projects. 

Finish this sentence: 

When using testimonial evidence, it is important to establish experts' _____. 

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Meaning of Evidence

You might think of evidence as proof that you know what you're talking about. Evidence doesn't have to prove that you are undeniably correct like in a court of law. But it should show the reader how you came to your conclusions and why your argument is logical.

• Evidence is what is used to back up the claims of an essay. Evidence can include facts, examples, or quotes.

Believe it or not, you use evidence all the time! Think about the last time you asked your parents to buy you something. You probably showed them the price to demonstrate that it wasn't too expensive. And what about the last time your friends wanted to go somewhere you didn't want to go? Perhaps you told your friend about a negative experience you had there. You used evidence to convince them you were right.

In an essay, evidence works the same way! You make a claim and then provide evidence to convince the reader.

Difference Between Evidence and Examples

You might be wondering if evidence and examples are the same. Examples are just one form of evidence.

People with autism see the world in a unique way. Dr. Temple Grandin, for example, revolutionized how we handle livestock by using her unique view of the world to understand animal behavior.

Think of examples as illustrations. They demonstrate your claims so others can understand them. But illustrations aren't always convincing on their own. They're strongest when you pair them with other forms of evidence. Below, we'll go over other types of evidence and how to use them.

The Importance and Purpose of Evidence

• Evidence is important because it shows the reader what you mean and why you are right.

Think of your essay as a court case. The reader is the jury. To convince the jury of your claims, you need to provide evidence.

You can tell the jury that you are right. But you also have to show them. Without something to back up your claims, the jury is unlikely to believe you.

Evidence can be used to :

• Show the differences between others' opinions.
• Demonstrate cause-effect relationships.
• Disprove the opinions of your opponents.
• Confirm the logic of your claims.
• Show how two texts or experiences compare to each other.

When selecting evidence, ask yourself, "What do I want to show the reader?"

Types of Evidence with Examples

The six types of evidence are anecdotal, statistical, testimonial, textual, analogical, and logical. Each type of evidence is useful in different ways. Good writing uses several different types of evidence to support different claims. As you read through each type of evidence below, think about which situations they would be most helpful for.

Statistical Evidence

Statistics are a powerful form of evidence.

Statistical evidence is numerical data, meaning it comes from information collected and translated through numbers.

When they come from credible sources, statistics are difficult to argue with. Therefore, they are effective for supporting your claims.

Statistics are especially useful for:

• Grabbing the reader's attention at the beginning of an essay (if the statistic is surprising).
• Showing how serious or widespread a problem or issue is.
• Precisely explaining the effects of something.
• Demonstrating the results of a scientific experiment.

Statistics can come from all kinds of sources. Look at the table below for examples of different types of statistics:

Testimonial Evidence

Expert opinions are another great way to support your claims. Testimonial evidence uses expert opinions to establish credibility and support your ideas.

When using testimonial evidence, introduce the expert whose testimony you are using. Let the reader know who they are. This establishes credibility .

Credibility is trustworthiness. To establish credibility, show the reader your sources can be trusted.

To establish credibility, ask yourself: what makes this person an expert on the subject? Do they have an advanced degree in the subject? Do they have a lot of well-known publications on the subject? Do they have extensive experience in this subject? Share this information with the reader so they know this person is an expert.

Ornithologist Dr. Allison Shultz says the rapid decline in bird populations in America is "alarming." As the resident bird expert for the Natural History Museum, she knows how bird populations reflect environmental health. 5

To get testimonial evidence, ask yourself: who is an expert on my topic?

Here are some places you might look for testimonial evidence:

• Published interviews with an expert
• Video interviews and documentaries featuring an expert
• Quotes from an expert’s book, journal article, or newspaper editorial
• Conclusions from peer-reviewed journal articles written by experts

Textual Evidence

Books, articles, blog posts, news reports, and other written sources all count as texts.

Textual evidence comes from texts you use as sources.

Textual evidence is particularly useful for analyzing stories or poems. For example, you might quote a passage from a short story you are analyzing. This would provide evidence for your analysis. You could show the reader how the writer uses their words to convey meaning.

In Chapter 15 of The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne uses Hester's daughter, Pearl, to describe how the scarlet letter on her mother's chest has shaped her life: “Mother, the sunshine does not love you. It runs away and hides itself, because it is afraid of something on your bosom. . . . It will not flee from me, for I wear nothing on my bosom yet!” (Hawthorne, 1850). Here, Pearl illustrates the symbolism of the scarlet letter. It is the brand that identifies her humanity but causes others to turn away from her.

Note how the above example explains how the quote supports the author's analysis. When using testimonial evidence, consider how you want to use it. Explain how the textual evidence supports your ideas.

Analogical Evidence

Remember how examples are forms of evidence? To be specific, examples are considered a form of analogical evidence. Analogical evidence uses analogies to support your ideas.

Analogies are comparisons between two or more things to explain an idea or concept. Similar to similes, analogies might use words such as "like," or "as" to make comparisons between different situations. However, analogies use these points of comparison to make a point.

Analogical evidence helps explain complicated ideas. They illustrate your meaning by making common-sense comparisons. For example, to explain how computer viruses work, you could compare them to cold and flu viruses in people. Or you might compare the results of a study to the results of a well-known study that the reader is already familiar with.

When using analogical evidence, ask yourself: what comparison would help the reader better understand what I am saying?

Like Pavlov's dogs, Americans have been conditioned to respond to ads designed to make them want.

Here are some examples of analogical evidence you might use:

• An expert opinion about a topic that is similar to your own
• A comparison of a concept or object to something that functions similarly
• An event or experience that is similar to one you are describing

Logical Evidence

Logical evidence considers how things could be. This type of evidence uses logic to propose a hypothetical outcome to a situation. Logical evidence is one of the weaker types of evidence. It isn't based on real events and facts. Therefore, it's best to use this type of evidence along with other types of evidence.

If the school district imposed the same dress code on all students regardless of gender, students would get to spend more time on their studies and less time dealing with suspensions for violating gendered dress code rules. Take, for example, the Texan male students that were suspended from school for wearing their hair too long. 7 According to Marissa Higgins in her Daily Kos article, these students lost valuable learning time because of gendered dress codes.

Note how the above example blends logical/hypothetical evidence with analogical evidence. The writer supports their hypothesis with a comparison to a real-world situation.

Here are some of the ways you could use logical/hypothetical evidence in an essay:

• A hypothetical story about what would likely happen if your argument is right
• A hypothesis about what will happen if an action is not taken soon
• A logical explanation of what will happen if experts on the subject turn out to be right

Anecdotal Evidence

Anecdotal evidence includes stories and case studies about individual experiences. Consider anecdotal evidence to be real-world experiences that are not documented anywhere.

There are two types of anecdotal evidence:

• personal stories (stories from your own experience)
• case studies (stories about someone else's experience)

Anecdotal evidence is based on individual experiences rather than group experiences. This means they're not very reliable for making arguments about large groups of people. Therefore, it's best to use anecdotal evidence along with another type of evidence.

Anecdotal evidence is most helpful at the beginning of an essay.

My sister has a speech impediment. She struggles with simple tasks like ordering fast food from a drive-thru menu, participating in oral school exams, or asking store workers for help. Why? Because society does not accommodate people with speech impediments. In her article, "Misfits: A Feminist Materialist Disability Concept," disability scholar Rosemarie Garland Thomson describes people with speech impediments as "misfits" who experience segregation and exclusion from experiences that are inadvertently designed for able-bodied people.

Here are some more examples of anecdotal evidence:

• A case study from an interview you conducted
• Stories about your personal experience
• Case studies from friends, family, and other people you know
• Excerpts from personal diaries, journals, and letters

Evidence - Key Takeaways

• Examples are just one form of evidence. Think of examples as illustrations that are strongest when used alongside other types of evidence.
• The six types of evidence are anecdotal, statistical, testimonial, textual, analogical, and logical.

1 UNESCO. "Facts and figures on marine pollution." 2017.

2 Jennifer Abasi. "Pushed to Their Limits, 1 in 5 Physicians Intends to Leave Practice," Journal of American Medicine. 2022.

3 Saloni Dattani. " At what age do people experience depression for the first time?" Our World in Data. 2022.

4 Katherine Schaffer. "Working moms in the U.S. have faced challenges on multiple fronts during the pandemic." Pew Research Center. 2022.

5 Allison Shultz. "Our Expert on Birds." Natural History Museum. 2019.

Flashcards in Evidence 110

Evidence is what is used to back up the claims of an essay. Evidence can include facts, examples, or quotes. 

False. Examples are just one form of evidence.

illustrations

To show the differences between others' opinions.

True! Each type of evidence offers a unique way to support one's claims. 

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Frequently Asked Questions about Evidence

What is the importance of evidence? 

Evidence is important because it shows the reader what you mean and why you are right.  

What is is the meaning of evidence? 

Evidence means whatever is used to back up the claims of an essay. Evidence can include facts, examples, or quotes. 

What are examples of evidence? 

Examples of evidence are quotes from sources, statistics, facts, and anecdotes. 

What is another word for evidence? 

Another word for evidence is support.

How do I use evidence in writing? 

To use evidence in writing, summarize, paraphrase, or quote sources that support your claims. 

What are the different types of evidence? 

The different types of evidence are anecdotal, statistical, testimonial, textual, analogical, and logical.

Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

True or False: Evidence and examples are exactly the same thing.

Finish this sentence:One can think of examples as _____. 

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WHAT THIS HANDOUT IS ABOUT

This handout will provide a broad overview of gathering and using evidence. It will help you decide what counts as evidence, put evidence to work in your writing, and determine whether you have enough evidence. It will also offer links to additional resources.

INTRODUCTION

Many papers that you write in college will require you to make an argument ; this means that you must take a position on the subject you are discussing and support that position with evidence. It’s important that you use the right kind of evidence, that you use it effectively, and that you have an appropriate amount of it. If, for example, your philosophy professor didn’t like it that you used a survey of public opinion as your primary evidence in your ethics paper, you need to find out more about what philosophers count as good evidence. If your instructor has told you that you need more analysis, suggested that you’re “just listing” points or giving a “laundry list,” or asked you how certain points are related to your argument, it may mean that you can do more to fully incorporate your evidence into your argument. Comments like “for example?,” “proof?,” “go deeper,” or “expand” in the margins of your graded paper suggest that you may need more evidence. Let’s take a look at each of these issues—understanding what counts as evidence, using evidence in your argument, and deciding whether you need more evidence.

WHAT COUNTS AS EVIDENCE?

Before you begin gathering information for possible use as evidence in your argument, you need to be sure that you understand the purpose of your assignment. If you are working on a project for a class, look carefully at the assignment prompt. It may give you clues about what sorts of evidence you will need. Does the instructor mention any particular books you should use in writing your paper or the names of any authors who have written about your topic? How long should your paper be (longer works may require more, or more varied, evidence)? What themes or topics come up in the text of the prompt? Our handout on understanding writing assignments can help you interpret your assignment. It’s also a good idea to think over what has been said about the assignment in class and to talk with your instructor if you need clarification or guidance.

WHAT MATTERS TO INSTRUCTORS?

Instructors in different academic fields expect different kinds of arguments and evidence—your chemistry paper might include graphs, charts, statistics, and other quantitative data as evidence, whereas your English paper might include passages from a novel, examples of recurring symbols, or discussions of characterization in the novel. Consider what kinds of sources and evidence you have seen in course readings and lectures. You may wish to see whether the Writing Center has a handout regarding the specific academic field you’re working in—for example, literature , sociology , or history .

WHAT ARE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES?

A note on terminology: many researchers distinguish between primary and secondary sources of evidence (in this case, “primary” means “first” or “original,” not “most important”). Primary sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, and so forth. Secondary sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by someone else. For example, if you are writing a paper about the movie “The Matrix,” the movie itself, an interview with the director, and production photos could serve as primary sources of evidence. A movie review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the film would be secondary sources. Depending on the context, the same item could be either a primary or a secondary source: if I am writing about people’s relationships with animals, a collection of stories about animals might be a secondary source; if I am writing about how editors gather diverse stories into collections, the same book might now function as a primary source.

WHERE CAN I FIND EVIDENCE?

Here are some examples of sources of information and tips about how to use them in gathering evidence. Ask your instructor if you aren’t sure whether a certain source would be appropriate for your paper.

Print and electronic sources

Books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines, and documentary films are some of the most common sources of evidence for academic writing. Our handout on evaluating print sources will help you choose your print sources wisely, and the library has a tutorial on evaluating both print sources and websites. A librarian can help you find sources that are appropriate for the type of assignment you are completing. Just visit the reference desk at Davis or the Undergraduate Library or chat with a librarian online (the library’s IM screen name is undergradref).

Observation

Sometimes you can directly observe the thing you are interested in, by watching, listening to, touching, tasting, or smelling it. For example, if you were asked to write about Mozart’s music, you could listen to it; if your topic was how businesses attract traffic, you might go and look at window displays at the mall.

An interview is a good way to collect information that you can’t find through any other type of research. An interview can provide an expert’s opinion, biographical or first-hand experiences, and suggestions for further research.

Surveys allow you to find out some of what a group of people thinks about a topic. Designing an effective survey and interpreting the data you get can be challenging, so it’s a good idea to check with your instructor before creating or administering a survey.

Experiments

Experimental data serve as the primary form of scientific evidence. For scientific experiments, you should follow the specific guidelines of the discipline you are studying. For writing in other fields, more informal experiments might be acceptable as evidence. For example, if you want to prove that food choices in a cafeteria are affected by gender norms, you might ask classmates to undermine those norms on purpose and observe how others react. What would happen if a football player were eating dinner with his teammates and he brought a small salad and diet drink to the table, all the while murmuring about his waistline and wondering how many fat grams the salad dressing contained?

Personal experience

Using your own experiences can be a powerful way to appeal to your readers. You should, however, use personal experience only when it is appropriate to your topic, your writing goals, and your audience. Personal experience should not be your only form of evidence in most papers, and some disciplines frown on using personal experience at all. For example, a story about the microscope you received as a Christmas gift when you were nine years old is probably not applicable to your biology lab report.

USING EVIDENCE IN AN ARGUMENT

Does evidence speak for itself.

Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for or against something, and you have to make that link clear.

As writers, we sometimes assume that our readers already know what we are talking about; we may be wary of elaborating too much because we think the point is obvious. But readers can’t read our minds: although they may be familiar with many of the ideas we are discussing, they don’t know what we are trying to do with those ideas unless we indicate it through explanations, organization, transitions, and so forth. Try to spell out the connections that you were making in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper, and drew conclusions based on it. Remember, you can always cut prose from your paper later if you decide that you are stating the obvious.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself about a particular bit of evidence:

• O.k., I’ve just stated this point, but so what? Why is it interesting? Why should anyone care?
• What does this information imply?
• What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking at a problem this way?
• I’ve just described what something is like or how I see it, but why is it like that?
• I’ve just said that something happens-so how does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is?
• Why is this information important? Why does it matter?
• How is this idea related to my thesis? What connections exist between them? Does it support my thesis? If so, how does it do that?
• Can I give an example to illustrate this point?

Answering these questions may help you explain how your evidence is related to your overall argument.

HOW CAN I INCORPORATE EVIDENCE INTO MY PAPER?

There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.

When you quote, you are reproducing another writer’s words exactly as they appear on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotations:

• Quote if you can’t say it any better and the author’s words are particularly brilliant, witty, edgy, distinctive, a good illustration of a point you’re making, or otherwise interesting.
• Quote if you are using a particularly authoritative source and you need the author’s expertise to back up your point.
• Quote if you are analyzing diction, tone, or a writer’s use of a specific word or phrase.
• Quote if you are taking a position that relies on the reader’s understanding exactly what another writer says about the topic.

Be sure to introduce each quotation you use, and always cite your sources. See our handout on quotations for more details on when to quote and how to format quotations.

Like all pieces of evidence, a quotation can’t speak for itself. If you end a paragraph with a quotation, that may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in terms of your argument. It’s important to avoid “plop quotations,” that is, quotations that are just dropped into your paper without any introduction, discussion, or follow-up.

Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase, you take a specific section of a text and put it into your own words. Putting it into your own words doesn’t mean just changing or rearranging a few of the author’s words: to paraphrase well and avoid plagiarism, try setting your source aside and restating the sentence or paragraph you have just read, as though you were describing it to another person. Paraphrasing is different than summary because a paraphrase focuses on a particular, fairly short bit of text (like a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You’ll need to indicate when you are paraphrasing someone else’s text by citing your source correctly, just as you would with a quotation.

When might you want to paraphrase?

• Paraphrase when you want to introduce a writer’s position, but his or her original words aren’t special enough to quote.
• Paraphrase when you are supporting a particular point and need to draw on a certain place in a text that supports your point—for example, when one paragraph in a source is especially relevant.
• Paraphrase when you want to present a writer’s view on a topic that differs from your position or that of another writer; you can then refute writer’s specific points in your own words after you paraphrase.
• Paraphrase when you want to comment on a particular example that another writer uses.
• Paraphrase when you need to present information that’s unlikely to be questioned.

When you summarize, you are offering an overview of an entire text, or at least a lengthy section of a text. Summary is useful when you are providing background information, grounding your own argument, or mentioning a source as a counter-argument. A summary is less nuanced than paraphrased material. It can be the most effective way to incorporate a large number of sources when you don’t have a lot of space. When you are summarizing someone else’s argument or ideas, be sure this is clear to the reader and cite your source appropriately.

Statistics, data, charts, graphs, photographs, illustrations

Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is a hard fact or visual representation of a fact. This type of evidence can be a solid backbone for your argument, but you still need to create context for your reader and draw the connections you want him or her to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graph, photographs, and illustrations are all open to interpretation. Guide the reader through the interpretation process. Again, always, cite the origin of your evidence if you didn’t produce the material you are using yourself.

DO I NEED MORE EVIDENCE?

Let’s say that you’ve identified some appropriate sources, found some evidence, explained to the reader how it fits into your overall argument, incorporated it into your draft effectively, and cited your sources. How do you tell whether you’ve got enough evidence and whether it’s working well in the service of a strong argument or analysis? Here are some techniques you can use to review your draft and assess your use of evidence.

Make a reverse outline

A reverse outline is a great technique for helping you see how each paragraph contributes to proving your thesis. When you make a reverse outline, you record the main ideas in each paragraph in a shorter (outline-like) form so that you can see at a glance what is in your paper. The reverse outline is helpful in at least three ways. First, it lets you see where you have dealt with too many topics in one paragraph (in general, you should have one main idea per paragraph). Second, the reverse outline can help you see where you need more evidence to prove your point or more analysis of that evidence. Third, the reverse outline can help you write your topic sentences: once you have decided what you want each paragraph to be about, you can write topic sentences that explain the topics of the paragraphs and state the relationship of each topic to the overall thesis of the paper.

For tips on making a reverse outline, see our handout on organization .

Color code your paper

You will need three highlighters or colored pencils for this exercise. Use one color to highlight general assertions. These will typically be the topic sentences in your paper. Next, use another color to highlight the specific evidence you provide for each assertion (including quotations, paraphrased or summarized material, statistics, examples, and your own ideas). Lastly, use another color to highlight analysis of your evidence. Which assertions are key to your overall argument? Which ones are especially contestable? How much evidence do you have for each assertion? How much analysis? In general, you should have at least as much analysis as you do evidence, or your paper runs the risk of being more summary than argument. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence you may need to provide in order to persuade your reader.

Play devil’s advocate, act like a child, or doubt everything

This technique may be easiest to use with a partner. Ask your friend to take on one of the roles above, then read your paper aloud to him/her. After each section, pause and let your friend interrogate you. If your friend is playing devil’s advocate, he or she will always take the opposing viewpoint and force you to keep defending yourself. If your friend is acting like a child, he or she will question every sentence, even seemingly self-explanatory ones. If your friend is a doubter, he or she won’t believe anything you say. Justifying your position verbally or explaining yourself will force you to strengthen the evidence in your paper. If you already have enough evidence but haven’t connected it clearly enough to your main argument, explaining to your friend how the evidence is relevant or what it proves may help you to do so.

COMMON QUESTIONS AND ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

• I have a general topic in mind; how can I develop it so I’ll know what evidence I need? And how can I get ideas for more evidence? See our handout on brainstorming .
• Who can help me find evidence on my topic? Check out UNC Libraries .
• I’m writing for a specific purpose; how can I tell what kind of evidence my audience wants? See our handouts on  audience , writing for specific disciplines , and particular writing assignments .
• How should I read materials to gather evidence? See our handout on reading to write .
• How can I make a good argument? Check out our handouts on argument and thesis statements .
• How do I tell if my paragraphs and my paper are well-organized? Review our handouts on paragraph development ,  transitions , and reorganizing drafts .
• How do I quote my sources and incorporate those quotes into my text? Our handouts on quotations and avoiding plagiarism offer useful tips.
• How do I cite my evidence? See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .
• I think that I’m giving evidence, but my instructor says I’m using too much summary. How can I tell? Check out our handout on using summary wisely.
• I want to use personal experience as evidence, but can I say “I”? We have a handout on when to use “I.”

WORKS CONSULTED

We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz, John J. Everything’s an argument. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1999

Miller, Richard E., and Kurt Spellmeyer. The New Humanities Reader Home Page. 22 Feb. 2005 http://www.newhum.com/for_students/tutorama/index.html.

http://www.lib.umd.edu/UES/library_guides_subject.html

• Evidence. Provided by : The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Located at : http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/evidence/ . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• Table of Contents

Instructor Resources (Access Requires Login)

• Overview of Instructor Resources

An Overview of the Writing Process

• Introduction to the Writing Process
• Introduction to Writing
• Your Role as a Learner
• What is an Essay?
• Reading to Write
• Defining the Writing Process
• Videos: Prewriting Techniques
• Thesis Statements
• Organizing an Essay
• Creating Paragraphs
• Conclusions
• Editing and Proofreading
• Matters of Grammar, Mechanics, and Style
• Peer Review Checklist
• Comparative Chart of Writing Strategies

Using Sources

• Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism
• Formatting the Works Cited Page (MLA)
• Citing Paraphrases and Summaries (APA)
• APA Citation Style, 6th edition: General Style Guidelines

Definition Essay

• Definitional Argument Essay
• How to Write a Definition Essay
• Critical Thinking
• Video: Thesis Explained
• Effective Thesis Statements
• Student Sample: Definition Essay

Narrative Essay

• Introduction to Narrative Essay
• Student Sample: Narrative Essay
• "Shooting an Elephant" by George Orwell
• "Sixty-nine Cents" by Gary Shteyngart
• Video: The Danger of a Single Story
• How to Write an Annotation
• How to Write a Summary
• Writing for Success: Narration

Illustration/Example Essay

• Introduction to Illustration/Example Essay
• "She's Your Basic L.O.L. in N.A.D" by Perri Klass
• "April & Paris" by David Sedaris
• Writing for Success: Illustration/Example
• Student Sample: Illustration/Example Essay

Compare/Contrast Essay

• Introduction to Compare/Contrast Essay
• "Disability" by Nancy Mairs
• "Friending, Ancient or Otherwise" by Alex Wright
• "A South African Storm" by Allison Howard
• Writing for Success: Compare/Contrast
• Student Sample: Compare/Contrast Essay

Cause-and-Effect Essay

• Introduction to Cause-and-Effect Essay
• "Cultural Baggage" by Barbara Ehrenreich
• "Women in Science" by K.C. Cole
• Writing for Success: Cause and Effect
• Student Sample: Cause-and-Effect Essay

Argument Essay

• Introduction to Argument Essay
• Rogerian Argument
• "The Case Against Torture," by Alisa Soloman
• "The Case for Torture" by Michael Levin
• How to Write a Summary by Paraphrasing Source Material
• Writing for Success: Argument
• Student Sample: Argument Essay
• Grammar/Mechanics Mini-lessons
• Mini-lesson: Subjects and Verbs, Irregular Verbs, Subject Verb Agreement
• Mini-lesson: Sentence Types
• Mini-lesson: Fragments I
• Mini-lesson: Run-ons and Comma Splices I
• Mini-lesson: Comma Usage
• Mini-lesson: Parallelism
• Mini-lesson: The Apostrophe
• Mini-lesson: Capital Letters
• Grammar Practice - Interactive Quizzes
• De Copia - Demonstration of the Variety of Language
• Style Exercise: Voice

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Definition of evidence

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of evidence  (Entry 2 of 2)

transitive verb

• attestation
• confirmation
• corroboration
• documentation
• substantiation
• testimonial

show , manifest , evidence , evince , demonstrate mean to reveal outwardly or make apparent.

show is the general term but sometimes implies that what is revealed must be gained by inference from acts, looks, or words.

manifest implies a plainer, more immediate revelation.

evidence suggests serving as proof of the actuality or existence of something.

evince implies a showing by outward marks or signs.

demonstrate implies showing by action or by display of feeling.

Examples of evidence in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'evidence.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

circa 1610, in the meaning defined above

Phrases Containing evidence

• anecdotal evidence
• circumstantial evidence
• counter - evidence
• give evidence
• hearsay evidence
• indirect evidence
• in evidence
• self - evidence
• state's evidence
• turn king's evidence
• turn Queen's evidence
• turn state's evidence

Dictionary Entries Near evidence

Cite this entry.

“Evidence.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evidence. Accessed 28 Aug. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of evidence.

Kids Definition of evidence  (Entry 2 of 2)

Legal Definition

Legal definition of evidence.

Note: Under the Federal Rules of Evidence, character evidence generally may not be used to prove that a person acted in accordance with that character. It is admissible for that purpose, however, if a criminal defendant offers it about himself or herself or about the victim, or if the prosecution offers evidence to rebut the defendant's evidence in either of those circumstances. The prosecution may also rebut a claim of self-defense by presenting evidence of the peaceful character of the victim. Additionally, the character of a witness with regard to truthfulness may be attacked or supported by opinion or by evidence of reputation.

called also corroborative evidence

called also illustrative evidence

called also indirect evidence , secondary evidence

Note: The prosecution in a criminal case is obligated to disclose to the defense any exculpatory evidence in its possession.

Note: A court may use extrinsic evidence to make sense of an ambiguity in a writing subject to some limitations.

Note: A witness may not be impeached by the use of extrinsic evidence.

called also real evidence

Note: Only testimonial evidence is protected by the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination.

Legal Definition of evidence  (Entry 2 of 2)

Medieval Latin evidentia , from Latin, that which is obvious, from evident -, evidens clear, obvious, from e - out of, from + videns , present participle of videre to see

More from Merriam-Webster on evidence

Nglish: Translation of evidence for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of evidence for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about evidence

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Other forms: evidences; evidenced; evidencing

Evidence is anything that can be used to prove something — like the evidence presented in a trial, or the trail of bread crumbs that is evidence of the path Hansel took through the woods.

The word evidence is derived from the Latin ēvidēnt-, meaning "obvious." The word evidence shows up frequently in legal documents and dramas, because evidence is necessary proof in linking someone to a crime or crime scene. Evidence is used in many ways to show that something is true, as in "the chocolate stains around your mouth and the crumbs on the table are evidence that you ate the last of the brownies."

• noun your basis for belief or disbelief; knowledge on which to base belief “the evidence that smoking causes lung cancer is very compelling” synonyms: grounds see more see less types: show 117 types... hide 117 types... probable cause (law) evidence sufficient to warrant an arrest or search and seizure cogent evidence , proof any factual evidence that helps to establish the truth of something disproof , falsification , refutation any evidence that helps to establish the falsity of something lead , track , trail evidence pointing to a possible solution symptom (medicine) any sensation or change in bodily function that is experienced by a patient and is associated with a particular disease sign (medicine) any objective evidence of the presence of a disorder or disease reductio , reductio ad absurdum (reduction to the absurd) a disproof by showing that the consequences of the proposition are absurd; or a proof of a proposition by showing that its negation leads to a contradiction check , confirmation , substantiation , verification additional proof that something that was believed (some fact or hypothesis or theory) is correct establishment , validation the cognitive process of establishing a valid proof confutation evidence that refutes conclusively counterexample refutation by example crepitation rale the crackling sound heard on auscultation when patients with respiratory diseases inhale; associated with tuberculosis and pneumonia and congestive heart failure hypermenorrhea , menorrhagia abnormally heavy or prolonged menstruation; can be a symptom of uterine tumors and can lead to anemia if prolonged alkalinuria , alkaluria a condition in which the urine (which is normally slightly acidic) is alkaline eosinopenia a decrease in the number of eosinophils in the blood haemoglobinemia , hemoglobinemia presence of excessive hemoglobin in the blood plasma haemoptysis , hemoptysis coughing up blood from the respiratory tract; usually indicates a severe infection of the bronchi or lungs hyperlipaemia , hyperlipemia , hyperlipidaemia , hyperlipidemia , hyperlipoidaemia , hyperlipoidemia , lipaemia , lipemia , lipidaemia , lipidemia , lipoidaemia , lipoidemia presence of excess lipids in the blood albuminuria , proteinuria the presence of excessive protein (chiefly albumin but also globulin) in the urine; usually a symptom of kidney disorder aminoaciduria abnormal presence of amino acids in the urine; usually a symptom of metabolic defects ammoniuria excessive ammonia in the urine Jacquemier's sign a purplish discoloration of the mucous membrane of the vagina that occurs early in pregnancy Kayser-Fleischer ring a pigmented ring at the outer edge of the cornea of the eye; a symptom of Wilson's disease keratomalacia softening and drying and ulceration of the cornea resulting from vitamin A deficiency; symptom of cystic fibrosis or sprue Kernig's sign symptom of meningitis; patient cannot extend the leg at the knee when the thigh is flexed because of stiffness in the hamstrings acetonemia , ketonemia , ketosis an abnormal increase of ketone bodies in the blood as in diabetes mellitus Koplik's spots small red spots with white centers found on the mucous membranes of the mouth and tongue; symptom of measles that appears one or two days before the measles rash appears glycosuria the presence of abnormally high levels of sugar in the urine lymphuria the presence of lymph in the urine monocytosis increase in the number of monocytes in the blood; symptom of monocytic leukemia thrombocytosis increase in the number of platelets in the blood which tends to cause clots to form; associated with many neoplasms and chronic infections and other diseases ochronosis an accumulation of dark pigment in cartilage and other connective tissue; usually a symptom of alkaptonuria or phenol poisoning hypercalcaemia , hypercalcemia the presence of abnormally high levels of calcium in the blood; usually the result of excessive bone resorption in hyperparathyroidism or Paget's disease hypocalcaemia , hypocalcemia abnormally low level of calcium in the blood; associated with hypoparathyroidism or kidney malfunction or vitamin D deficiency hypercalcinuria , hypercalciuria the presence of abnormally high levels of calcium in the urine; usually the result of excessive bone resorption in hyperparathyroidism or osteoporosis hypercholesteremia , hypercholesterolemia the presence of an abnormal amount of cholesterol in the cells and plasma of the blood; associated with the risk of atherosclerosis hyperkalemia higher than normal levels of potassium in the circulating blood; associated with kidney failure or sometimes with the use of diuretic drugs hypokalemia abnormally low level of potassium in the circulating blood leading to weakness and heart abnormalities; associated with adrenal tumors or starvation or taking diuretics kaliuresis , kaluresis the presence of excess potassium in the urine natriuresis the presence of abnormally large amounts of sodium in the urine hypoproteinemia abnormally low level of protein in the blood; can indicate inadequate diet or intestinal or renal disorders hypernatremia excessive amounts of sodium in the blood; possibly indicating diabetes insipidus hyponatremia abnormally low level of sodium in the blood; associated with dehydration hypersplenism enlarged spleen and a decrease in one or more types of blood cells; associated with many disorders acetonuria , ketoaciduria , ketonuria excessive amounts of ketone bodies in the urine as in diabetes mellitus or starvation vital sign sign of life; usually an indicator of a person's general physical condition amenia , amenorrhea , amenorrhoea absence or suppression of normal menstrual flow aura a sensation (as of a cold breeze or bright light) that precedes the onset of certain disorders such as a migraine attack or epileptic seizure chloasma , mask of pregnancy , melasma a tan discoloration of a woman's face that is associated with pregnancy or with the use of oral contraceptives clubbing a condition in which the ends of toes and fingers become wide and thick; a symptom of heart or lung disease cyanosis a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes; a sign that oxygen in the blood is dangerously diminished (as in carbon monoxide poisoning) diuresis increased secretion of urine; if not due to increased liquid intake or to the action of a diuretic drug it can be a symptom of diabetes mellitus prodroma , prodrome an early symptom that a disease is developing or that an attack is about to occur syndrome a pattern of symptoms indicative of some disease effect a symptom caused by an illness or a medication abscess symptom consisting of a localized collection of pus surrounded by inflamed tissue purulence , purulency symptom of being purulent (containing or forming pus) exophthalmos protrusion of the eyeball from the socket festination involuntary shortening of stride and quickening of gait that occurs in some diseases (e.g., Parkinson's disease) furring a furlike coating of matter as on the tongue haematuria , hematuria the presence of blood in the urine; often a symptom of urinary tract disease haemoglobinuria , hemoglobinuria presence of hemoglobin in the urine haemosiderosis , hemosiderosis abnormal deposit of hemosiderin; often a symptom of thalassemia or hemochromatosis nebula cloudiness of the urine sneeze , sneezing , sternutation a symptom consisting of the involuntary expulsion of air from the nose lump , puffiness , swelling an abnormal protuberance or localized enlargement bubo a lymph node that is inflamed and swollen because of plague or gonorrhea or tuberculosis palsy a condition marked by uncontrollable tremor pyuria presence of white blood cells in the urine; symptom of urinary tract infection hyperglycaemia , hyperglycemia abnormally high blood sugar usually associated with diabetes hypoglycaemia , hypoglycemia abnormally low blood sugar usually resulting from excessive insulin or a poor diet icterus , jaundice yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes caused by an accumulation of bile pigment (bilirubin) in the blood; can be a symptom of gallstones or liver infection or anemia congestion excessive accumulation of blood or other fluid in a body part eruption symptom consisting of a breaking out and becoming visible numbness partial or total lack of sensation in a part of the body; a symptom of nerve damage or dysfunction hurting , pain a symptom of some physical hurt or disorder paraesthesia , paresthesia abnormal skin sensations (as tingling or tickling or itching or burning) usually associated with peripheral nerve damage postnasal drip chronic secretion of mucus from the rear of the nasal cavity into the nasopharynx cardiomegaly , enlarged heart , megacardia , megalocardia an abnormal enlargement of the heart cardiac murmur , heart murmur , murmur an abnormal sound of the heart; sometimes a sign of abnormal function of the heart valves palpitation a rapid and irregular heart beat heartburn , pyrosis a painful burning sensation in the chest caused by gastroesophageal reflux (backflow from the stomach irritating the esophagus); symptomatic of an ulcer or a diaphragmatic hernia or other disorder flush , hot flash sudden brief sensation of heat (associated with menopause and some mental disorders) agita , dyspepsia , indigestion , stomach upset , upset stomach a disorder of digestive function characterized by discomfort or heartburn or nausea inflammation , redness , rubor a response of body tissues to injury or irritation; characterized by pain and swelling and redness and heat chill , shivering a sensation of cold that often marks the start of an infection and the development of a fever ague , chills and fever successive stages of chills and fever that is a symptom of malaria cough , coughing a sudden noisy expulsion of air from the lungs that clears the air passages; a common symptom of upper respiratory infection or bronchitis or pneumonia or tuberculosis hiccough , hiccup , singultus (usually plural) the state of having reflex spasms of the diaphragm accompanied by a rapid closure of the glottis producing an audible sound; sometimes a symptom of indigestion meningism symptoms that mimic those of meningitis but without inflammation of the meninges nausea , sickness the state that precedes vomiting cramp , muscle spasm , spasm a painful and involuntary muscular contraction cicatrice , cicatrix , scar a mark left (usually on the skin) by the healing of injured tissue hardening abnormal hardening or thickening of tissue floater , musca volitans , muscae volitantes , spots spots before the eyes caused by opaque cell fragments in the vitreous humor and lens febricity , febrility , fever , feverishness , pyrexia a rise in the temperature of the body; frequently a symptom of infection atrophy , wasting , wasting away a decrease in size of an organ caused by disease or disuse apnea transient cessation of respiration dyspnea , dyspnoea difficult or labored respiration constipation , irregularity irregular and infrequent or difficult evacuation of the bowels; can be a symptom of intestinal obstruction or diverticulitis diarrhea , diarrhoea , looseness , looseness of the bowels frequent and watery bowel movements; can be a symptom of infection or food poisoning or colitis or a gastrointestinal tumor dizziness , giddiness , lightheadedness , vertigo a reeling sensation; a feeling that you are about to fall anaemia , anemia a lack of vitality wheeziness presence of abnormal high-pitched sound heard with a stethoscope when an airway is blocked (as in asthma or chronic bronchitis) withdrawal symptom any physical or psychological disturbance (as sweating or depression) experienced by a drug addict when deprived of the drug hydrophobia a symptom of rabies in humans consisting of an aversion to swallowing liquids areflexia absence of a reflex; a sign of possible nerve damage myoglobinuria the presence of myoglobin in the urine oliguria abnormally small production of urine; can be a symptom of kidney disease or obstruction of the urinary tract or edema or an imbalance of fluids and electrolytes in the body eosinophilia a symptom of allergic states; increased eosinophils in the blood rhinorrhea persistent watery mucus discharge from the nose (as in the common cold) steatorrhea the presence of greater than normal amounts of fat in the feces which are frothy and foul smelling and floating; a symptom of disorders of fat metabolism and malabsorption syndrome stridor a whistling sound when breathing (usually heard on inspiration); indicates obstruction of the trachea or larynx tinnitus a ringing or booming sensation in one or both ears; a symptom of an ear infection or Meniere's disease uratemia presence of abnormal amounts of uric acid salts in the blood; symptom of gout uraturia presence of abnormally large amounts of uric acid in the urine; symptom of gout uricaciduria presence of abnormal amounts of uric acid in the urine; symptom of gout type of: information knowledge acquired through study or experience or instruction
• noun an indication that makes something evident “his trembling was evidence of his fear” see more see less types: show 36 types... hide 36 types... smoking gun indisputable evidence (especially of a crime) clew , clue , cue evidence that helps to solve a problem footprint evidence evidence in the form of footprints record anything (such as a document or a phonograph record or a photograph) providing permanent evidence of or information about past events testimonial , testimony something that serves as evidence argument , statement a fact or assertion offered as evidence that something is true attestation the evidence by which something is attested identification evidence of identity; something that identifies a person or thing ballistic fingerprinting , ballistic identification , bullet fingerprinting identification of the gun that fired a bullet from an analysis of the unique marks that every gun makes on the bullet it fires and on the shell ejected from it biometric authentication , biometric identification , identity verification the automatic identification of living individuals by using their physiological and behavioral characteristics written account , written record a written document preserving knowledge of facts or events memorabilia a record of things worth remembering check stub , counterfoil , stub the part of a check that is retained as a record data file , file a set of related records (either written or electronic) kept together account , chronicle , history , story a record or narrative description of past events mark , sign a perceptible indication of something not immediately apparent (as a visible clue that something has happened) proof a formal series of statements showing that if one thing is true something else necessarily follows from it good authority testimony by someone who should know testament strong evidence for something counterargument , counterclaim an argument offered in opposition to another argument pro an argument in favor of a proposal con an argument opposed to a proposal case a statement of facts and reasons used to support an argument clincher , determiner , determining factor an argument that is conclusive adducing citing as evidence or proof last word the final statement in a verbal argument working papers records kept of activities involved in carrying out a project specious argument an argument that appears good at first view but is really fallacious imprint an identification of a publisher; a publisher's name along with the date and address and edition that is printed at the bottom of the title page positive identification evidence proving that you are who you say you are; evidence establishing that you are among the group of people already known to the system; recognition by the system leads to acceptance negative identification evidence proving that you are not who you say you are not; evidence establishing that you are not among a group of people already known to the system; recognition by the system leads to rejection facial profiling identification of criminals and terrorist by means of videotapes of their faces fingerprint a generic term for any identifying characteristic linguistic profiling using speech characteristics or dialect to identify a speaker's race or religion or social class profiling recording a person's behavior and analyzing psychological characteristics in order to predict or assess their ability in a certain sphere or to identify a particular group of people transcript an official record of a student’s coursework and academic performance type of: indicant , indication something that serves to indicate or suggest
• noun (law) all the means by which any alleged matter of fact whose truth is investigated at judicial trial is established or disproved see more see less types: show 13 types... hide 13 types... exhibit an object or statement produced before a court of law and referred to while giving evidence testimony a solemn statement made under oath corpus delicti the body of evidence that constitute the offence; the objective proof that a crime has been committed (sometimes mistakenly thought to refer to the body of a homicide victim) direct evidence evidence (usually the testimony of a witness) directly related to the fact in dispute circumstantial evidence , indirect evidence evidence providing only a basis for inference about the fact in dispute corroborating evidence additional evidence or evidence of different kind that supports a proof already offered in a proceeding hearsay evidence evidence based on what someone has told the witness and not of direct knowledge state's evidence evidence for the prosecution in criminal proceedings witness testimony by word or deed to your religious faith declaration (law) unsworn statement that can be admitted in evidence in a legal transaction attestation the action of bearing witness affidavit written declaration made under oath; a written statement sworn to be true before someone legally authorized to administer an oath subornation perjured testimony that someone was persuaded to give type of: info , information a message received and understood
• verb provide evidence for; stand as proof of; show by one's behavior, attitude, or external attributes synonyms: attest , certify , demonstrate , manifest attest establish or verify the usage of see more see less types: show 8 types... hide 8 types... authenticate establish the authenticity of something reflect give evidence of reflect give evidence of a certain behavior notarise , notarize authenticate as a notary condemn demonstrate the guilt of (someone) prove obtain probate of mirror reflect or resemble attaint condemn by attainder type of: bear witness , prove , show , testify provide evidence for
• verb provide evidence for synonyms: bear witness , prove , show , testify see more see less types: show 8 types... hide 8 types... attest , certify , demonstrate , manifest provide evidence for; stand as proof of; show by one's behavior, attitude, or external attributes presume constitute reasonable evidence for abduce , adduce , cite advance evidence for authenticate establish the authenticity of something reflect give evidence of reflect give evidence of a certain behavior notarise , notarize authenticate as a notary condemn demonstrate the guilt of (someone) type of: inform impart knowledge of some fact, state or affairs, or event to
• verb give evidence synonyms: tell see more see less type of: inform act as an informer

Vocabulary lists containing evidence

How can you perform well on the reading section of the SAT if you don’t fully understand the language being used in the directions and in the questions? Learn this list of 25 words that are based on our analysis of the words likely to appear in question stems, answer options, and test directions. Following our Roadmap to the SAT ? Head back to see what else you should be learning this week.

Before you can answer a question on the PARCC English Language Arts/Literacy section, you first need to know what the question is asking. Learn this list of 45 words that we extracted from a PARCC practice test's directions, question stems, and answer options.

A thorough survey of various textbooks, assignments, content area standards, and examinations yields the following list of words compiled by Jim Burke . You cannot expect to succeed on assignments if you do not understand the directions.

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Intro.9.2.30 Smith v. Arizona : The Sixth Amendment’s Confrontation Clause and Testimony of a Substitute Expert Witness

The Sixth Amendment ’s Confrontation Clause guarantees a criminal defendant the right to be confronted with the witnesses against him. 1 Footnote U.S. Const. amend. VI . Consequently, a trial court may not admit a testimonial statement into evidence when the defendant has not had the opportunity to cross-examine the person who made the statement. 2 Footnote See Crawford v. Washington , 541 U.S. 36, 68–69 (2004) . The Supreme Court in Crawford recognized the existence of two common law Confrontation Clause exceptions that historically permitted the admission of testimonial statements, but it did not expressly approve or disapprove of either. See Crawford , 541 U.S. at 56 & n.6, 62 (recognizing the dying declarations and forfeiture by wrongdoing exceptions to the Confrontation Clause but declining to adopt either expressly). For more information, see, Amdt6.5.3.1 Admissibility of Testimonial Statements . Although the Supreme Court has not fully explained which statements are testimonial, it has held that a trial court may not admit into evidence a forensic laboratory report offered to prove a particular fact (e.g., that materials police found at a defendant’s house are drugs) if the accused has not had the opportunity to cross-examine the analyst who prepared or certified it. 3 Footnote Bullcoming v. New Mexico , 564 U.S. 647, 652 (2011) ; Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts , 557 U.S. 305, 308, 311 (2009) . Testimony by a surrogate witness who is familiar with general laboratory procedures, but otherwise uninvolved in the relevant certification, is insufficient to satisfy a defendant’s constitutional right. Bullcoming , 564 U.S. at 652 . The central issue in Smith v. Arizona is whether the Confrontation Clause prohibits a trial court from admitting expert testimony that relies on the analysis of a nontestifying forensic analyst to explain the expert’s own opinion. 4 Footnote Supreme Court of the United States Granted & Noted List, October Term 2023 Cases for Argument, No. 22-899, https://www.supremecourt.gov/qp/22-00899qp.pdf .

During Jason Smith’s trial on Arizona drug charges, the court admitted into evidence a forensic scientist’s testimony that materials seized from his father’s residence were methamphetamine, marijuana, and cannabis. 5 Footnote State v. Smith, No. 1 CA-CR 21-0451, 2022 WL 2734269, at *1 (Ariz. Ct. App. July 14, 2022). The scientist had reached his conclusions based on his review of testing conducted by a former, nontestifying forensic scientist whose analysis was not offered as evidence. 6 Footnote Id . Smith was subsequently convicted and sentenced for the drug offenses. 7 Footnote Id . He appealed his conviction to the Arizona Court of Appeals, contending that the trial court violated his Sixth Amendment confrontation rights by admitting drug-analysis testimony in which the testifying expert relied on data generated by a non-testifying expert. 8 Footnote Id .

The Arizona Court of Appeals affirmed Smith’s convictions and sentences, determining that the trial court’s admission of the expert witness’s drug-analysis testimony did not violate Smith’s Sixth Amendment confrontation rights. 9 Footnote Id . The court determined that an expert witness may reasonably rely on a nontestifying expert’s reports or analysis when offering an independent opinion, provided the testifying witness does not serve as a mere conduit for the non-testifying expert’s opinions. 10 Footnote Id . at *4 (internal quotation marks omitted). Furthermore, the appeals court determined that none of the U.S. Supreme Court’s Sixth Amendment precedents required exclusion of the drug-analysis testimony. 11 Footnote Id . at *5. After the Arizona Supreme Court denied discretionary review, Smith petitioned the Supreme Court to review the Arizona Court of Appeals’ judgment. 12 Footnote See Supreme Court of the United States Granted & Noted List, October Term 2023 Cases for Argument, No. 22-899, https://www.supremecourt.gov/qp/22-00899qp.pdf .

In his Supreme Court brief, petitioner Smith argued that Arizona violated his Sixth Amendment confrontation rights when the prosecution offered testimony by a substitute expert that conveyed a nontestifying forensic analyst’s testimonial statements in notes and a lab report without affording an opportunity for Smith to cross-examine the nontestifying analyst. 13 Footnote Brief for the Petitioner at 12, Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899 (U.S. Nov. 13, 2023). Smith also argued that he should not be faulted for declining to subpoena the nontestifying forensic analyst because a defendant bears no burden to call the prosecution’s absent analyst. 14 Footnote Id . at 15. By contrast, Arizona contends that the nontestifying forensic analyst’s statements were not offered for their truth and that the Confrontation Clause does not prohibit an expert from relying on out-of-court facts or revealing them to explain the expert’s opinion. 15 Footnote Brief for the Respondent at 1–2, Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899 (U.S. Dec. 13, 2023). Arizona also argued that Smith’s position would reimagine and vastly expand the reach of the Confrontation Clause, requiring testimony from a parade of analysts in countless individual cases. 16 Footnote Id . at 2. In an amcius brief supporting neither party, the United States argued that the Court should vacate and remand the Arizona appeals court’s decision on grounds specific to the facts of Smith’s case without more broadly calling into question the standard evidentiary rules governing expert testimony. 17 Footnote Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Neither Party at 7–8 , Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899 (U.S. Nov. 20, 2023) ( [The expert witness’s] particular testimony may have ventured into vouching for actions that he did not himself observe, or even given the impression that he was a mouthpiece for Rast’s out-of-court opinion. ).

The Supreme Court vacated and remanded the Arizona Court of Appeals’ decision, holding that the Confrontation Clause prohibits a surrogate analyst from introducing testimony from an absent forensic analyst even if those out-of-court statements are presented as the basis for his [own] expert opinion. 18 Footnote Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899, slip op. at 21 (U.S. June 21, 2024). The Court explained that the out-of-court statements [came] into evidence for their truth—because only if true [could] they provide a reason to credit the substitute expert. 19 Footnote Id . at 21–22. The Court left unresolved whether the out-of-court statements were testimonial, which the Court observed that the parties and earlier decisions took as a given. 20 Footnote Id . at 19.

QUESTION PRESENTED TO THE SUPREME COURT: Whether the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment permits the prosecution in a criminal trial to present testimony by a substitute expert conveying the testimonial statements of a nontestifying forensic analyst, on the grounds that (a) the testifying expert offers some independent opinion and the analyst’s statements are offered not for their truth but to explain the expert’s opinion, and (b) the defendant did not independently seek to subpoena the analyst. 21 Footnote Supreme Court of the United States Granted & Noted List, October Term 2023 Cases for Argument, No. 22-899, https://www.supremecourt.gov/qp/22-00899qp.pdf .

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION IMPLICATED: Sixth Amendment (Confrontation Clause)

CONSTITUTIONAL TOPICS: Confrontation Rights, Grand Jury, Trial Rights

SUPREME COURT DOCKET NUMBER: 22-899 22 Footnote Docket for 22-899, U.S. Supreme Court , https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename=/docket/docketfiles/html/public/22-899.html .

APPEAL FROM: Arizona Court of Appeals

LOWER COURT CASE NUMBER: No. 1 CA-CR 21-0451 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2022)

DECISION BELOW: 2022 WL 2734269

ORAL ARGUMENT: January 10, 2024 23 Footnote Oral Argument Transcript, Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899 (U.S. Jan. 10, 2024), https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/2023/22-899_3e04.pdf .

FINAL DECISION: June 21, 2024

Justice Kagan

Justice Thomas, concurring in part

Justice Gorsuch, concurring in part

Justice Alito (joined by Chief Justice Roberts) concurring in the judgment

•   Jump to essay-1 U.S. Const. amend. VI .
•   Jump to essay-2 See Crawford v. Washington , 541 U.S. 36, 68–69 (2004) . The Supreme Court in Crawford recognized the existence of two common law Confrontation Clause exceptions that historically permitted the admission of testimonial statements, but it did not expressly approve or disapprove of either. See Crawford , 541 U.S. at 56 & n.6, 62 (recognizing the dying declarations and forfeiture by wrongdoing exceptions to the Confrontation Clause but declining to adopt either expressly). For more information, see, Amdt6.5.3.1 Admissibility of Testimonial Statements .
•   Jump to essay-3 Bullcoming v. New Mexico , 564 U.S. 647, 652 (2011) ; Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts , 557 U.S. 305, 308, 311 (2009) . Testimony by a surrogate witness who is familiar with general laboratory procedures, but otherwise uninvolved in the relevant certification, is insufficient to satisfy a defendant’s constitutional right. Bullcoming , 564 U.S. at 652 .
•   Jump to essay-4 Supreme Court of the United States Granted & Noted List, October Term 2023 Cases for Argument, No. 22-899, https://www.supremecourt.gov/qp/22-00899qp.pdf .
•   Jump to essay-5 State v. Smith, No. 1 CA-CR 21-0451, 2022 WL 2734269, at *1 (Ariz. Ct. App. July 14, 2022).
•   Jump to essay-6 Id .
•   Jump to essay-7 Id .
•   Jump to essay-8 Id .
•   Jump to essay-9 Id .
•   Jump to essay-10 Id . at *4 (internal quotation marks omitted).
•   Jump to essay-11 Id . at *5.
•   Jump to essay-12 See Supreme Court of the United States Granted & Noted List, October Term 2023 Cases for Argument, No. 22-899, https://www.supremecourt.gov/qp/22-00899qp.pdf .
•   Jump to essay-13 Brief for the Petitioner at 12, Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899 (U.S. Nov. 13, 2023).
•   Jump to essay-14 Id . at 15.
•   Jump to essay-15 Brief for the Respondent at 1–2, Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899 (U.S. Dec. 13, 2023).
•   Jump to essay-16 Id . at 2.
•   Jump to essay-17 Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Neither Party at 7–8 , Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899 (U.S. Nov. 20, 2023) ( [The expert witness’s] particular testimony may have ventured into vouching for actions that he did not himself observe, or even given the impression that he was a mouthpiece for Rast’s out-of-court opinion. ).
•   Jump to essay-18 Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899, slip op. at 21 (U.S. June 21, 2024).
•   Jump to essay-19 Id . at 21–22.
•   Jump to essay-20 Id . at 19.
•   Jump to essay-21 Supreme Court of the United States Granted & Noted List, October Term 2023 Cases for Argument, No. 22-899, https://www.supremecourt.gov/qp/22-00899qp.pdf .
•   Jump to essay-22 Docket for 22-899, U.S. Supreme Court , https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename=/docket/docketfiles/html/public/22-899.html .
•   Jump to essay-23 Oral Argument Transcript, Smith v. Arizona, No. 22-899 (U.S. Jan. 10, 2024), https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/2023/22-899_3e04.pdf .