high school research paper structure

What are your chances of acceptance?

Calculate for all schools, your chance of acceptance.

Your chancing factors

Extracurriculars.

How to Write a Research Paper in High School

What’s covered:, how to pick a compelling research paper topic, how to format your research paper, tips for writing a research paper, do research paper grades impact your college chances.

A research paper can refer to a broad range of expanded essays used to explain your interpretation of a topic. This task is highly likely to be a common assignment in high school , so it’s always better to get a grasp on this sooner than later. Getting comfortable writing research papers does not have to be difficult, and can actually be pretty interesting when you’re genuinely intrigued by what you’re researching. 

Regardless of what kind of research paper you are writing, getting started with a topic is the first step, and sometimes the hardest step. Here are some tips to get you started with your paper and get the writing to begin! 

Pick A Topic You’re Genuinely Interested In

Nothing comes across as half-baked as much as a topic that is evidently uninteresting, not to the reader, but the writer. You can only get so far with a topic that you yourself are not genuinely happy writing, and this lack of enthusiasm cannot easily be created artificially. Instead, read about things that excite you, such as some specific concepts about the structure of atoms in chemistry. Take what’s interesting to you and dive further with a research paper. 

If you need some ideas, check out our post on 52 interesting research paper topics .

The Topic Must Be A Focal Point

Your topic can almost be considered as the skeletal structure of the research paper. But in order to better understand this we need to understand what makes a good topic. Here’s an example of a good topic:

How does the amount of pectin in a vegetable affect its taste and other qualities?

This topic is pretty specific in explaining the goals of the research paper. If I had instead written something more vague such as Factors that affect taste in vegetables , the scope of the research immediately increased to a more herculean task simply because there is more to write about, some of which is overtly unnecessary. This is avoided by specifications in the topic that help guide the writer into a focused path.

By creating this specific topic, we can route back to it during the writing process to check if we’re addressing it often, and if we are then our writing is going fine! Otherwise, we’d have to reevaluate the progression of our paper and what to change. A good topic serves as a blueprint for writing the actual essay because everything you need to find out is in the topic itself, it’s almost like a sort of plan/instruction. 

Formatting a research paper is important to not only create a “cleaner” more readable end product, but it also helps streamline the writing process by making it easier to navigate. The following guidelines on formatting are considered a standard for research papers, and can be altered as per the requirements of your specific assignments, just check with your teacher/grader!

Start by using a standard font like Times New Roman or Arial, in 12 or 11 sized font. Also, add one inch margins for the pages, along with some double spacing between lines. These specifications alone get you started on a more professional and cleaner looking research paper.

Paper Citations 

If you’re creating a research paper for some sort of publication, or submission, you must use citations to refer to the sources you’ve used for the research of your topic. The APA citation style, something you might be familiar with, is the most popular citation style and it works as follows:

Author Last Name, First Initial, Publication Year, Book/Movie/Source title, Publisher/Organization

This can be applied to any source of media/news such as a book, a video, or even a magazine! Just make sure to use citation as much as possible when using external data and sources for your research, as it could otherwise land you in trouble with unwanted plagiarism. 

Structuring The Paper

Structuring your paper is also important, but not complex either. Start by creating an introductory paragraph that’s short and concise, and tells the reader what they’re going to be reading about. Then move onto more contextual information and actual presentation of research. In the case of a paper like this, you could start with stating your hypothesis in regard to what you’re researching, or even state your topic again with more clarification!

As the paper continues you should be bouncing between views that support and go against your claim/hypothesis to maintain a neutral tone. Eventually you will reach a conclusion on whether or not your hypothesis was valid, and from here you can begin to close the paper out with citations and reflections on the research process.

Talk To Your Teacher

Before the process of searching for a good topic, start by talking to your teachers first! You should form close relations with them so they can help guide you with better inspiration and ideas.

Along the process of writing, you’re going to find yourself needing help when you hit walls. Specifically there will be points at which the scope of your research could seem too shallow to create sizable writing off of it, therefore a third person point of view could be useful to help think of workarounds in such situations. 

You might be writing a research paper as a part of a submission in your applications to colleges, which is a great way to showcase your skills! Therefore, to really have a good chance to showcase yourself as a quality student, aim for a topic that doesn’t sell yourself short. It would be easier to tackle a topic that is not as intense to research, but the end results would be less worthwhile and could come across as lazy. Focus on something genuinely interesting and challenging so admissions offices know you are a determined and hard-working student!

Don’t Worry About Conclusions

The issue many students have with writing research papers, is that they aren’t satisfied with arriving at conclusions that do not support their original hypothesis. It’s important to remember that not arriving at a specific conclusion that your hypothesis was planning on, is totally fine! The whole point of a research paper is not to be correct, but it’s to showcase the trial and error behind learning and understanding something new. 

If your findings clash against your initial hypothesis, all that means is you’ve arrived at a new conclusion that can help form a new hypothesis or claim, with sound reasoning! Getting rid of this mindset that forces you to warp around your hypothesis and claims can actually improve your research writing by a lot!

Colleges won’t ever see the grades for individual assignments, but they do care a bit more about the grades you achieve in your courses. Research papers may play towards your overall course grade based on the kind of class you’re in. Therefore to keep those grades up, you should try your absolute best on your essays and make sure they get high-quality reviews to check them too!

Luckily, CollegeVine’s peer review for essays does exactly that! This great feature allows you to get your essay checked by other users, and hence make a higher-quality essay that boosts your chances of admission into a university. 

Want more info on your chances for college admissions? Check out CollegeVine’s admissions calculator, an intuitive tool that takes numerous factors into account as inputs before generating your unique chance of admission into an institute of your selection!

Related CollegeVine Blog Posts

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List

A Guide to Writing a Scientific Paper: A Focus on High School Through Graduate Level Student Research

Renee a. hesselbach.

1 NIEHS Children's Environmental Health Sciences Core Center, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

David H. Petering

2 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Craig A. Berg

3 Curriculum and Instruction, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Henry Tomasiewicz

Daniel weber.

This article presents a detailed guide for high school through graduate level instructors that leads students to write effective and well-organized scientific papers. Interesting research emerges from the ability to ask questions, define problems, design experiments, analyze and interpret data, and make critical connections. This process is incomplete, unless new results are communicated to others because science fundamentally requires peer review and criticism to validate or discard proposed new knowledge. Thus, a concise and clearly written research paper is a critical step in the scientific process and is important for young researchers as they are mastering how to express scientific concepts and understanding. Moreover, learning to write a research paper provides a tool to improve science literacy as indicated in the National Research Council's National Science Education Standards (1996), and A Framework for K–12 Science Education (2011), the underlying foundation for the Next Generation Science Standards currently being developed. Background information explains the importance of peer review and communicating results, along with details of each critical component, the Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results , and Discussion . Specific steps essential to helping students write clear and coherent research papers that follow a logical format, use effective communication, and develop scientific inquiry are described.

Introduction

A key part of the scientific process is communication of original results to others so that one's discoveries are passed along to the scientific community and the public for awareness and scrutiny. 1 – 3 Communication to other scientists ensures that new findings become part of a growing body of publicly available knowledge that informs how we understand the world around us. 2 It is also what fuels further research as other scientists incorporate novel findings into their thinking and experiments.

Depending upon the researcher's position, intent, and needs, communication can take different forms. The gold standard is writing scientific papers that describe original research in such a way that other scientists will be able to repeat it or to use it as a basis for their studies. 1 For some, it is expected that such articles will be published in scientific journals after they have been peer reviewed and accepted for publication. Scientists must submit their articles for examination by other scientists familiar with the area of research, who decide whether the work was conducted properly and whether the results add to the knowledge base and are conveyed well enough to merit publication. 2 If a manuscript passes the scrutiny of peer-review, it has the potential to be published. 1 For others, such as for high school or undergraduate students, publishing a research paper may not be the ultimate goal. However, regardless of whether an article is to be submitted for publication, peer review is an important step in this process. For student researchers, writing a well-organized research paper is a key step in learning how to express understanding, make critical connections, summarize data, and effectively communicate results, which are important goals for improving science literacy of the National Research Council's National Science Education Standards, 4 and A Framework for K–12 Science Education, 5 and the Next Generation Science Standards 6 currently being developed and described in The NSTA Reader's Guide to A Framework for K–12 Science Education. 7 Table 1 depicts the key skills students should develop as part of the Science as Inquiry Content Standard. Table 2 illustrates the central goals of A Framework for K–12 Science Education Scientific and Engineering Practices Dimension.

Key Skills of the Science as Inquiry National Science Education Content Standard

National Research Council (1996).

Important Practices of A Framework for K–12 Science Education Scientific and Engineering Practices Dimension

National Research Council (2011).

Scientific papers based on experimentation typically include five predominant sections: Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion . This structure is a widely accepted approach to writing a research paper, and has specific sections that parallel the scientific method. Following this structure allows the scientist to tell a clear, coherent story in a logical format, essential to effective communication. 1 , 2 In addition, using a standardized format allows the reader to find specific information quickly and easily. While readers may not have time to read the entire research paper, the predictable format allows them to focus on specific sections such as the Abstract , Introduction , and Discussion sections. Therefore, it is critical that information be placed in the appropriate and logical section of the report. 3

Guidelines for Writing a Primary Research Article

The Title sends an important message to the reader about the purpose of the paper. For example, Ethanol Effects on the Developing Zebrafish: Neurobehavior and Skeletal Morphogenesis 8 tells the reader key information about the content of the research paper. Also, an appropriate and descriptive title captures the attention of the reader. When composing the Title , students should include either the aim or conclusion of the research, the subject, and possibly the independent or dependent variables. Often, the title is created after the body of the article has been written, so that it accurately reflects the purpose and content of the article. 1 , 3

The Abstract provides a short, concise summary of the research described in the body of the article and should be able to stand alone. It provides readers with a quick overview that helps them decide whether the article may be interesting to read. Included in the Abstract are the purpose or primary objectives of the experiment and why they are important, a brief description of the methods and approach used, key findings and the significance of the results, and how this work is different from the work of others. It is important to note that the Abstract briefly explains the implications of the findings, but does not evaluate the conclusions. 1 , 3 Just as with the Title , this section needs to be written carefully and succinctly. Often this section is written last to ensure it accurately reflects the content of the paper. Generally, the optimal length of the Abstract is one paragraph between 200 and 300 words, and does not contain references or abbreviations.

All new research can be categorized by field (e.g., biology, chemistry, physics, geology) and by area within the field (e.g., biology: evolution, ecology, cell biology, anatomy, environmental health). Many areas already contain a large volume of published research. The role of the Introduction is to place the new research within the context of previous studies in the particular field and area, thereby introducing the audience to the research and motivating the audience to continue reading. 1

Usually, the writer begins by describing what is known in the area that directly relates to the subject of the article's research. Clearly, this must be done judiciously; usually there is not room to describe every bit of information that is known. Each statement needs one or more references from the scientific literature that supports its validity. Students must be reminded to cite all references to eliminate the risk of plagiarism. 2 Out of this context, the author then explains what is not known and, therefore, what the article's research seeks to find out. In doing so, the scientist provides the rationale for the research and further develops why this research is important. The final statement in the Introduction should be a clearly worded hypothesis or thesis statement, as well as a brief summary of the findings as they relate to the stated hypothesis. Keep in mind that the details of the experimental findings are presented in the Results section and are aimed at filling the void in our knowledge base that has been pointed out in the Introduction .

Materials and Methods

Research utilizes various accepted methods to obtain the results that are to be shared with others in the scientific community. The quality of the results, therefore, depends completely upon the quality of the methods that are employed and the care with which they are applied. The reader will refer to the Methods section: (a) to become confident that the experiments have been properly done, (b) as the guide for repeating the experiments, and (c) to learn how to do new methods.

It is particularly important to keep in mind item (b). Since science deals with the objective properties of the physical and biological world, it is a basic axiom that these properties are independent of the scientist who reported them. Everyone should be able to measure or observe the same properties within error, if they do the same experiment using the same materials and procedures. In science, one does the same experiment by exactly repeating the experiment that has been described in the Methods section. Therefore, someone can only repeat an experiment accurately if all the relevant details of the experimental methods are clearly described. 1 , 3

The following information is important to include under illustrative headings, and is generally presented in narrative form. A detailed list of all the materials used in the experiments and, if important, their source should be described. These include biological agents (e.g., zebrafish, brine shrimp), chemicals and their concentrations (e.g., 0.20 mg/mL nicotine), and physical equipment (e.g., four 10-gallon aquariums, one light timer, one 10-well falcon dish). The reader needs to know as much as necessary about each of the materials; however, it is important not to include extraneous information. For example, consider an experiment involving zebrafish. The type and characteristics of the zebrafish used must be clearly described so another scientist could accurately replicate the experiment, such as 4–6-month-old male and female zebrafish, the type of zebrafish used (e.g., Golden), and where they were obtained (e.g., the NIEHS Children's Environmental Health Sciences Core Center in the WATER Institute of the University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee). In addition to describing the physical set-up of the experiment, it may be helpful to include photographs or diagrams in the report to further illustrate the experimental design.

A thorough description of each procedure done in the reported experiment, and justification as to why a particular method was chosen to most effectively answer the research question should also be included. For example, if the scientist was using zebrafish to study developmental effects of nicotine, the reader needs to know details about how and when the zebrafish were exposed to the nicotine (e.g., maternal exposure, embryo injection of nicotine, exposure of developing embryo to nicotine in the water for a particular length of time during development), duration of the exposure (e.g., a certain concentration for 10 minutes at the two-cell stage, then the embryos were washed), how many were exposed, and why that method was chosen. The reader would also need to know the concentrations to which the zebrafish were exposed, how the scientist observed the effects of the chemical exposure (e.g., microscopic changes in structure, changes in swimming behavior), relevant safety and toxicity concerns, how outcomes were measured, and how the scientist determined whether the data/results were significantly different in experimental and unexposed control animals (statistical methods).

Students must take great care and effort to write a good Methods section because it is an essential component of the effective communication of scientific findings.

The Results section describes in detail the actual experiments that were undertaken in a clear and well-organized narrative. The information found in the Methods section serves as background for understanding these descriptions and does not need to be repeated. For each different experiment, the author may wish to provide a subtitle and, in addition, one or more introductory sentences that explains the reason for doing the experiment. In a sense, this information is an extension of the Introduction in that it makes the argument to the reader why it is important to do the experiment. The Introduction is more general; this text is more specific.

Once the reader understands the focus of the experiment, the writer should restate the hypothesis to be tested or the information sought in the experiment. For example, “Atrazine is routinely used as a crop pesticide. It is important to understand whether it affects organisms that are normally found in soil. We decided to use worms as a test organism because they are important members of the soil community. Because atrazine damages nerve cells, we hypothesized that exposure to atrazine will inhibit the ability of worms to do locomotor activities. In the first experiment, we tested the effect of the chemical on burrowing action.”

Then, the experiments to be done are described and the results entered. In reporting on experimental design, it is important to identify the dependent and independent variables clearly, as well as the controls. The results must be shown in a way that can be reproduced by the reader, but do not include more details than needed for an effective analysis. Generally, meaningful and significant data are gathered together into tables and figures that summarize relevant information, and appropriate statistical analyses are completed based on the data gathered. Besides presenting each of these data sources, the author also provides a written narrative of the contents of the figures and tables, as well as an analysis of the statistical significance. In the narrative, the writer also connects the results to the aims of the experiment as described above. Did the results support the initial hypothesis? Do they provide the information that was sought? Were there problems in the experiment that compromised the results? Be careful not to include an interpretation of the results; that is reserved for the Discussion section.

The writer then moves on to the next experiment. Again, the first paragraph is developed as above, except this experiment is seen in the context of the first experiment. In other words, a story is being developed. So, one commonly refers to the results of the first experiment as part of the basis for undertaking the second experiment. “In the first experiment we observed that atrazine altered burrowing activity. In order to understand how that might occur, we decided to study its impact on the basic biology of locomotion. Our hypothesis was that atrazine affected neuromuscular junctions. So, we did the following experiment..”

The Results section includes a focused critical analysis of each experiment undertaken. A hallmark of the scientist is a deep skepticism about results and conclusions. “Convince me! And then convince me again with even better experiments.” That is the constant challenge. Without this basic attitude of doubt and willingness to criticize one's own work, scientists do not get to the level of concern about experimental methods and results that is needed to ensure that the best experiments are being done and the most reproducible results are being acquired. Thus, it is important for students to state any limitations or weaknesses in their research approach and explain assumptions made upfront in this section so the validity of the research can be assessed.

The Discussion section is the where the author takes an overall view of the work presented in the article. First, the main results from the various experiments are gathered in one place to highlight the significant results so the reader can see how they fit together and successfully test the original hypotheses of the experiment. Logical connections and trends in the data are presented, as are discussions of error and other possible explanations for the findings, including an analysis of whether the experimental design was adequate. Remember, results should not be restated in the Discussion section, except insofar as it is absolutely necessary to make a point.

Second, the task is to help the reader link the present work with the larger body of knowledge that was portrayed in the Introduction . How do the results advance the field, and what are the implications? What does the research results mean? What is the relevance? 1 , 3

Lastly, the author may suggest further work that needs to be done based on the new knowledge gained from the research.

Supporting Documentation and Writing Skills

Tables and figures are included to support the content of the research paper. These provide the reader with a graphic display of information presented. Tables and figures must have illustrative and descriptive titles, legends, interval markers, and axis labels, as appropriate; should be numbered in the order that they appear in the report; and include explanations of any unusual abbreviations.

The final section of the scientific article is the Reference section. When citing sources, it is important to follow an accepted standardized format, such as CSE (Council of Science Editors), APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or CMS (Chicago Manual of Style). References should be listed in alphabetical order and original authors cited. All sources cited in the text must be included in the Reference section. 1

When writing a scientific paper, the importance of writing concisely and accurately to clearly communicate the message should be emphasized to students. 1 – 3 Students should avoid slang and repetition, as well as abbreviations that may not be well known. 1 If an abbreviation must be used, identify the word with the abbreviation in parentheses the first time the term is used. Using appropriate and correct grammar and spelling throughout are essential elements of a well-written report. 1 , 3 Finally, when the article has been organized and formatted properly, students are encouraged to peer review to obtain constructive criticism and then to revise the manuscript appropriately. Good scientific writing, like any kind of writing, is a process that requires careful editing and revision. 1

A key dimension of NRC's A Framework for K–12 Science Education , Scientific and Engineering Practices, and the developing Next Generation Science Standards emphasizes the importance of students being able to ask questions, define problems, design experiments, analyze and interpret data, draw conclusions, and communicate results. 5 , 6 In the Science Education Partnership Award (SEPA) program at the University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, we found the guidelines presented in this article useful for high school science students because this group of students (and probably most undergraduates) often lack in understanding of, and skills to develop and write, the various components of an effective scientific paper. Students routinely need to focus more on the data collected and analyze what the results indicated in relation to the research question/hypothesis, as well as develop a detailed discussion of what they learned. Consequently, teaching students how to effectively organize and write a research report is a critical component when engaging students in scientific inquiry.

Acknowledgments

This article was supported by a Science Education Partnership Award (SEPA) grant (Award Number R25RR026299) from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences of the National Institutes of Health. The SEPA program at the University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee is part of the Children's Environmental Health Sciences Core Center, Community Outreach and Education Core, funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Award Number P30ES004184). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health or the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

Scaffolding Methods for Research Paper Writing

• Resources & Preparation
• Instructional Plan
• Related Resources

Students will use scaffolding to research and organize information for writing a research paper. A research paper scaffold provides students with clear support for writing expository papers that include a question (problem), literature review, analysis, methodology for original research, results, conclusion, and references. Students examine informational text, use an inquiry-based approach, and practice genre-specific strategies for expository writing. Depending on the goals of the assignment, students may work collaboratively or as individuals. A student-written paper about color psychology provides an authentic model of a scaffold and the corresponding finished paper. The research paper scaffold is designed to be completed during seven or eight sessions over the course of four to six weeks.

Featured Resources

• Research Paper Scaffold : This handout guides students in researching and organizing the information they need for writing their research paper.
• Inquiry on the Internet: Evaluating Web Pages for a Class Collection : Students use Internet search engines and Web analysis checklists to evaluate online resources then write annotations that explain how and why the resources will be valuable to the class.

From Theory to Practice

• Research paper scaffolding provides a temporary linguistic tool to assist students as they organize their expository writing. Scaffolding assists students in moving to levels of language performance they might be unable to obtain without this support.
• An instructional scaffold essentially changes the role of the teacher from that of giver of knowledge to leader in inquiry. This relationship encourages creative intelligence on the part of both teacher and student, which in turn may broaden the notion of literacy so as to include more learning styles.
• An instructional scaffold is useful for expository writing because of its basis in problem solving, ownership, appropriateness, support, collaboration, and internalization. It allows students to start where they are comfortable, and provides a genre-based structure for organizing creative ideas.
• In order for students to take ownership of knowledge, they must learn to rework raw information, use details and facts, and write.
• Teaching writing should involve direct, explicit comprehension instruction, effective instructional principles embedded in content, motivation and self-directed learning, and text-based collaborative learning to improve middle school and high school literacy.

Common Core Standards

This resource has been aligned to the Common Core State Standards for states in which they have been adopted. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, CCSS alignments are forthcoming.

State Standards

This lesson has been aligned to standards in the following states. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, standard alignments are not currently available for that state.

NCTE/IRA National Standards for the English Language Arts

• 1. Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works.
• 2. Students read a wide range of literature from many periods in many genres to build an understanding of the many dimensions (e.g., philosophical, ethical, aesthetic) of human experience.
• 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics).
• 4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.
• 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes.
• 6. Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and nonprint texts.
• 7. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience.
• 8. Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge.
• 12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).

Materials and Technology

Computers with Internet access and printing capability

• Research Paper Scaffold
• Example Research Paper Scaffold
• Example Student Research Paper
• Internet Citation Checklist
• Research Paper Scoring Rubric
• Permission Form (optional)

Preparation

Student objectives.

Students will

• Formulate a clear thesis that conveys a perspective on the subject of their research
• Practice research skills, including evaluation of sources, paraphrasing and summarizing relevant information, and citation of sources used
• Logically group and sequence ideas in expository writing
• Organize and display information on charts, maps, and graphs

Session 1: Research Question

You should approve students’ final research questions before Session 2. You may also wish to send home the Permission Form with students, to make parents aware of their child’s research topic and the project due dates.

Session 2: Literature Review—Search

Prior to this session, you may want to introduce or review Internet search techniques using the lesson Inquiry on the Internet: Evaluating Web Pages for a Class Collection . You may also wish to consult with the school librarian regarding subscription databases designed specifically for student research, which may be available through the school or public library. Using these types of resources will help to ensure that students find relevant and appropriate information. Using Internet search engines such as Google can be overwhelming to beginning researchers.

Session 3: Literature Review—Notes

Students need to bring their articles to this session. For large classes, have students highlight relevant information (as described below) and submit the articles for assessment before beginning the session.

Checking Literature Review entries on the same day is best practice, as it gives both you and the student time to plan and address any problems before proceeding. Note that in the finished product this literature review section will be about six paragraphs, so students need to gather enough facts to fit this format.

Session 4: Analysis

Session 5: original research.

Students should design some form of original research appropriate to their topics, but they do not necessarily have to conduct the experiments or surveys they propose. Depending on the appropriateness of the original research proposals, the time involved, and the resources available, you may prefer to omit the actual research or use it as an extension activity.

Session 6: Results (optional)

Session 7: conclusion, session 8: references and writing final draft, student assessment / reflections.

• Observe students’ participation in the initial stages of the Research Paper Scaffold and promptly address any errors or misconceptions about the research process.
• Observe students and provide feedback as they complete each section of the Research Paper Scaffold.
• Provide a safe environment where students will want to take risks in exploring ideas. During collaborative work, offer feedback and guidance to those who need encouragement or require assistance in learning cooperation and tolerance.
• Involve students in using the Research Paper Scoring Rubric for final evaluation of the research paper. Go over this rubric during Session 8, before they write their final drafts.
• Strategy Guides

Add new comment

• Print this resource

Explore Resources by Grade

• Kindergarten K

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and...

Appendices – Writing Guide, Types and Examples

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and...

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Scope of the Research – Writing Guide and...

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Research paper
• Academic Paragraph Structure | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Academic Paragraph Structure | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on October 25, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on March 27, 2023.

Every piece of academic writing is structured by paragraphs and headings . The number, length and order of your paragraphs will depend on what you’re writing—but each paragraph must be:

• Unified : all the sentences relate to one central point or idea.
• Coherent : the sentences are logically organized and clearly connected.
• Relevant : the paragraph supports the overall theme and purpose of the paper.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Step 1: identify the paragraph’s purpose, step 2: show why the paragraph is relevant, step 3: give evidence, step 4: explain or interpret the evidence, step 5: conclude the paragraph, step 6: read through the whole paragraph, when to start a new paragraph.

First, you need to know the central idea that will organize this paragraph. If you have already made a plan or outline of your paper’s overall structure , you should already have a good idea of what each paragraph will aim to do.

You can start by drafting a sentence that sums up your main point and introduces the paragraph’s focus. This is often called a topic sentence . It should be specific enough to cover in a single paragraph, but general enough that you can develop it over several more sentences.

Although the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind students at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted before its adoption throughout France.

This topic sentence:

• Transitions from the previous paragraph (which discussed the invention of Braille).
• Clearly identifies this paragraph’s focus (the acceptance of Braille by sighted people).
• Relates to the paper’s overall thesis.
• Leaves space for evidence and analysis.

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

The topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is about—but why does this point matter for your overall argument? If this isn’t already clear from your first sentence, you can explain and expand on its meaning.

This support was necessary because sighted teachers and leaders had ultimate control over the propagation of Braille resources.

• This sentence expands on the topic and shows how it fits into the broader argument about the social acceptance of Braille.

Now you can support your point with evidence and examples. “Evidence” here doesn’t just mean empirical facts—the form it takes will depend on your discipline, topic and approach. Common types of evidence used in academic writing include:

• Quotations from literary texts , interviews , and other primary sources .
• Summaries , paraphrases , or quotations of secondary sources that provide information or interpretation in support of your point.
• Qualitative or quantitative data that you have gathered or found in existing research.
• Descriptive examples of artistic or musical works, events, or first-hand experiences.

Make sure to properly cite your sources .

Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth resisted Braille’s system because they found the tactile method of reading difficult to learn (Bullock & Galst, 2009).

• This sentence cites specific evidence from a secondary source , demonstrating sighted people’s reluctance to accept Braille.

Now you have to show the reader how this evidence adds to your point. How you do so will depend on what type of evidence you have used.

• If you quoted a passage, give your interpretation of the quotation.
• If you cited a statistic, tell the reader what it implies for your argument.
• If you referred to information from a secondary source, show how it develops the idea of the paragraph.

This resistance was symptomatic of the prevalent attitude that the blind population had to adapt to the sighted world rather than develop their own tools and methods.

• This sentence adds detail and interpretation to the evidence, arguing that this specific fact reveals something more general about social attitudes at the time.

Steps 3 and 4 can be repeated several times until your point is fully developed. Use transition words and phrases to show the connections between different sentences in the paragraph.

Over time, however, with the increasing impetus to make social contribution possible for all, teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system (Bullock & Galst, 2009). Access to reading could help improve the productivity and integration of people with vision loss.

• The evidence tells us about the changing attitude to Braille among the sighted.
• The interpretation argues for why this change occurred as part of broader social shifts.

Finally, wrap up the paragraph by returning to your main point and showing the overall consequences of the evidence you have explored.

This particular paragraph takes the form of a historical story—giving evidence and analysis of each step towards Braille’s widespread acceptance.

It took approximately 30 years, but the French government eventually approved the Braille system, and it was established throughout the country (Bullock & Galst, 2009).

•  The final sentence ends the story with the consequences of these events.

When you think you’ve fully developed your point, read through the final result to make sure each sentence follows smoothly and logically from the last and adds up to a coherent whole.

Although the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind students at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted before its adoption throughout France. This support was necessary because sighted teachers and leaders had ultimate control over the propagation of Braille resources. Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth resisted learning Braille’s system because they found the tactile method of reading difficult to learn (Bullock & Galst, 2009). This resistance was symptomatic of the prevalent attitude that the blind population had to adapt to the sighted world rather than develop their own tools and methods. Over time, however, with the increasing impetus to make social contribution possible for all, teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system (Bullock & Galst, 2009). Access to reading could help improve the productivity and integration of people with vision loss. It took approximately 30 years, but the French government eventually approved the Braille system, and it was established throughout the country (Bullock & Galst, 2009).

Not all paragraphs will look exactly like this. Depending on what your paper aims to do, you might:

• Bring together examples that seem very different from each other, but have one key point in common.
• Include just one key piece of evidence (such as a quotation or statistic) and analyze it in depth over several sentences.
• Break down a concept or category into various parts to help the reader understand it.

The introduction and conclusion paragraphs will also look different. The only universal rule is that your paragraphs must be unified , coherent and relevant . If you struggle with structuring your paragraphs, you could consider using a paper editing service for personal, in-depth feedback.

As soon as you address a new idea, argument or issue, you should start a new paragraph. To determine if your paragraph is complete, ask yourself:

• Do all your sentences relate to the topic sentence?
• Does each sentence make logical sense in relation to the one before it?
• Have you included enough evidence or examples to demonstrate your point?
• Is it clear what each piece of evidence means and why you have included it?
• Does all the evidence fit together and tell a coherent story?

Don’t think of paragraphs as isolated units—they are part of a larger argument that should flow organically from one point to the next. Before you start a new paragraph, consider how you will transition between ideas.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, March 27). Academic Paragraph Structure | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/paragraph-structure/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, example of a great essay | explanations, tips & tricks, how to write topic sentences | 4 steps, examples & purpose, transition words & phrases | list & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Just another WordPress site

How to Write a High School Research Paper in 6 Easy Steps

What is a research paper? It is a piece of writing where its author conducts a study on a certain topic, interprets new facts, based on experiments, or new opinions, based on comparing existing scientific concepts, and makes important conclusions or proves a thesis.

Your writing assignments, such as essays, are very important for your future career. Excellent mastering the language is very important for you if you decide to enter a university or a college. It shows that you read a lot of books and your cultural level is high.

For an excellent paper writing you need to operate facts and concepts, know the subject well enough to see what has not been studied yet, what new sides of the scientific question have to be highlighted. So, the first important condition for writing a remarkable research paper is to have enough knowledge on the topic.

A well-written research paper should be properly structured. The process of writing can be subdivided into six steps:

• Conducting preliminary research and choosing a topic;
• Writing a thesis;
• Writing an outline;
• Writing the introduction, the body, the conclusion;
• Creating a reference page;
• Editing and proofreading the paper.

The length of the paper may be different. You should keep focused on the essence of your arguments. Your style of writing depends on the topic, but you should remember that it is an academic paper and it requires to be specially formatted. Sounds difficult? Not at all! In this article, we’ll teach you how to write an A+ paper the easy way. Each of the steps will be explained in detail so that you could start your work and write your paper with enthusiasm even if you are not a born prolific writer. After all, it is the result that matters. But if you understand your purpose and have a perfect plan of action, top-notch quality is guaranteed! In this article, you will find tips on how to write a research paper in an easy way.

Preparatory Stage – Understand Your Assignment and Research Your Topic

They say a journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. It may be true for writing a research paper as well. It may be difficult to start writing a research paper in high school. The first thing you will have to do is to read and understand your assignment. That may be a real problem if you don’t understand it. Anyway, you should know the length of the paper, what types of sources are allowed to be used when you will have to hand in your paper, how will you have to format the paper.

Sometimes a topic for your paper is provided and sometimes you have to choose a topic yourself. Your topic should be interesting for you and the reader. You will have to spend a lot of time researching, looking through different sources in the library, browsing through websites to find good research paper topics. That is why your enthusiasm matters. The paper should answer a certain question, it should point out new information in the given scientific area.

If you choose a topic yourself, you have to find out if there is enough material on the topic. There have to be a lot of different sources to write a research topic, pay attention to trusted sources (books, cited articles, scientific journals). You should have enough information to study the topic from different angles. If there is not enough information you might want to choose a different topic. Choosing an interesting paper topic with a lot of resources is vital for your success. You can use brainstorming to choose a better topic. The more interesting the topic is for you the more interesting the results you may attain. Maybe, you will make a discovery, and we wish you success!

Write Your Research Paper

#1. define your thesis statement.

To write a thesis statement is very important for your high school research paper. It may consist of one or two sentences and express the main idea of the paper or essay, defining your point on the topic. It briefly tells the reader what the paper is about. The thesis statement outlines the contents of the paper you create and conveys important and significant results of your study, it explains why your research paper is valuable and worth reading. A good research paper should always contain a strong and clear thesis statement. Explain your point of view and what position you will support and why. Your thesis will serve as a transition to the body of your paper.

#2. Construct Your Outline

After browsing through resources you find out how much information on the topic is available. Now you can start constructing your outline. The outline is not always required, though. But sometimes your paper structure overview is needed to point out the most important aspects of your writing assignment. An outline is your plan for the research paper and it can be a short one (up to 5 sentences) or a detailed one.

Writing an outline can seem difficult, but if you have enough information, it will be easy to sort your ideas and facts for writing your research papers. It will be helpful if you write an outline for your research paper. It might be helpful for your essay writing.

#3. Write the Body Paragraphs

The body is the central and the longest part of your research paper being of the most important informational value. It may include new arguments supported by experimental facts. You write about new concepts and support them with your practical results. Or it this part you analyze the resources, compare the opinions of different authors and make your conclusions.

Writing your research paper you should pay attention to more credible sources, for example, more cited articles. Scientific journals are a good source of such trusted resources. When you write the body, try to use newer and trusted contemporary materials that will contain more recent scientific data and results of contemporary research. More cited sources are more preferable, because that means they have more value in this field of research and they are more trusted and credible. In the body, the main concepts of your research paper are explained. You express your point of view on the subject and give a detailed and logically proved explanation to that.

As the body is the longest and the most informative part of your work, it will helpful to divide it into body paragraphs. Each paragraph should express a certain idea. The use of headings and subheadings to logically structure this part is a good idea. Each paragraph should express and develop a new idea.

#4. Create Your Introduction and Conclusion

The introduction is the first part of your high school research paper. When you write this part, consider using a compelling first sentence that will grab the reader’s attention. Even if it is research it doesn’t matter what your writing should be dull. You should explain the purpose of your research paper and what scientific methods you used to obtain the desired result. Analysis of existing scientific concepts and comparing facts and opinions don’t require conducting any experiments. Some topics require an experimental part, though. Briefly outline what methods you used. The introductory part may be concluded with a thesis statement, though it is not obligatory in all research papers.

You may start your introductory part writing about the main idea of your paper so that the reader can make ahead or tail of it. Then you should persuasively prove that your idea is scientifically important, that it is new and why the reader should go on reading your paper. A valuable and clear message should be conveyed in the introduction, to stimulate the reader to read further.

The conclusion is the final part of your research paper. How do you write it? It is one of the most important parts of your scientific paper. It contains an overview of the whole paper and also some suppositions about the future of the scientific question.

Some students writing a research paper underestimate the meaning of the conclusion but it should not be the case. A good beginning makes a good ending, as they say. A poorly written conclusion may spoil the impression of the reader even from a very well written research paper, while an impressive one may stimulate further research of the subject.

You should very well understand the purpose of the final part of your research paper. Understanding the purpose of your paper is significant because it summarizes all the research you have conducted, it underlines and points out the results of your study. You may not be a scientist yet, but you already try to think over some of the scientific questions. Your conclusion shows the input you’ve made into the contemporary state of the scientific problem and indicates possible directions for further research. A powerfully written conclusion is significant for your academic paper, if it produces a favorable effect on your teacher, you will get a high grade. Don’t forget that it is one of the most important parts of the paper and it should be nicely written.

#5. Cite Your Sources Properly

To give credit to the author when you cite a scientific source in your paper is a must. If you don’t want your academic writing to be considered plagiarized you should always cite the scientific sources you used in your research (books, articles, scientific journals and websites).

Citing the sources doesn’t only give due credit to the authors of the research sources used, it helps your readers to find these sources and later conduct their research.

When you write your research paper, you should remember that you will have to use academic formatting when you cite your scientific sources. There are various citation formats, the APA Style being one of the most widespread.

How to cite a scientific source using the APA Style?

Example: Smith, K., & Browd J., (1989, May 19) The Influence of the Dry Matter on Dairy Cattle, Journal of Diary Science 117, 122-127.

If you need to cite a source in the reference list, write the following:

• The last name and the initial of the author;
• The year of publication;
• The title of the article or book;
• Additional information (where you got the source from).

If you need to use an in-text citation in the APA Style, you should mention the last names of the authors and the year when their work was published. If you use a direct quotation, the number of the page should be used.

Example: (Smith & Browd, 2014, p. 27)

If you are going to cite main Roman or Greek classical works, in APA it is recommended to use only in-text citations for such sources, where you mention the name of the author and the year of translation.

Example: (Aristotle, 1945)

#6. Proofread and Make the Final Corrections

Your paper should be error-free, original and authentic. What does it take to edit and proofread your paper? You can do it yourself, but there are writing services that offer editing and proofreading at an affordable price. Editing is the first step. You should read your paper several times paying attention to the content. Your paper should be relevant to the topic, it is very important. The structure of an academic paper is usually standard and you have to pay attention to every part.

The introduction briefly outlines the research process, explaining to the reader why your paper is important and why he should read it. Your thesis statement contained in this part is of special importance. In the body, which is the central and the most voluminous part, you give detailed information on the research you conducted, main concepts, prove your arguments by facts or results of your experiments and express what point of view you support and why. In the final part, you draw logical conclusions. Your reference page (bibliography) where you list the sources mentioned should be correctly formatted using one of the standard styles, such as the APA Style. Upon the whole, pay attention to the logical structure of your research paper, the language and how precisely you express your thoughts.

After editing read the paper one more time and make sure everything is correct. Now you should proofread your paper. Read it attentively several times, paying attention to spelling, grammar, punctuation, the structure of sentences and the style. Make sure your academic paper is error-free because errors distract the attention of the reader from the contents. Also, completing any writing assignment remember that your writing is of great importance for your future career. You cannot get a good job if your writing is incorrect or if you cannot express your thoughts correctly. So, make sure your paper is brilliantly written and error-free. Good luck and get the highest grade!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Write and Review

• How to Get Started
• How to Structure a Research Paper
• Writing the Paper
• Revising the Paper
• Editing the Paper

In high school, you probably learned about the “five paragraph essay” in which three paragraphs (each with its own “point”) are sandwiched between your introduction and conclusion. In college, essay assignments are often longer and more complex and therefore require different types of structure.

The following are possible some outline structures for college-level persuasive research essays. These are not the only ways to structure a paper and you might find yourself combining them or coming up with your own organizational strategy. (As always, be sure to check with the assignment instructions to see if your instructor wants a specific organizational style).

• Background-Argument Structure. This is the most traditional way to structure a research essay and it can be adapted to suit many different subject and writing styles. The basic idea is that you give the reader all of the contextual information they need to understand your argument before you try to convince them to believe you. The background section can be anywhere from one paragraph to several pages long and should cover the facts, history, and current debates about your topic. The argument section develops your argument about the topic and shows the reader how it fits into the debate described in your background section.
• Problem-Solution Structure. This is a more specific form of the background-argument structure in which the first section of your paper establishes a problem and the need to fix it, and the second half argues for a specific solution.
• Response-Counterargument Structure. This structure uses a response to someone else’s argument as a starting point for your own ideas. In this type of essay, you would begin by showing why another viewpoint is wrong or incomplete and then present your own argument as an alternative to it.

Which type of structure you choose will depend on the purpose of your paper, your topic, and the research you have done.

• << Previous: Outlining
• Next: Writing the Paper >>
• Last Updated: Oct 21, 2020 4:11 PM
• URL: https://crk-umn.libguides.com/c.php?g=902519

Please give attribution to the University of Minnesota Crookston

Structure of a Research Paper: Tips to Improve Your Manuscript

You’ve spent months or years conducting your academic research. Now it’s time to write your journal article. For some, this can become a daunting task because writing is not their forte. It might become difficult to even start writing. However, once you organize your thoughts and begin writing them down, the overall task will become easier.

We provide some helpful tips for you here.

Organize Your Thoughts

Perhaps one of the most important tasks before you even begin to write is to get organized. By this point, your data is compiled and analyzed. You most likely also have many pages of “notes”. These must also be organized. Fortunately, this is much easier to do than in the past with hand-written notes. Presuming that these tasks are completed, what’s next?

Related: Ready with your title and looking forward to manuscript submission ? Check these journal selection guidelines  now!

When suggesting that you organize your thoughts, we mean to take a look at what you have compiled. Ask yourself what you are trying to convey to the reader. What is the most important message from your research? How will your results affect others? Is more research necessary?

Write your answers down and keep them where you can see them while writing. This will help you focus on your goals.

Aim for Clarity

Your paper should be presented as clearly as possible. You want your readers to understand your research. You also do not want them to stop reading because the text is too technical.

Keep in mind that your published research will be available in academic journals all over the world. This means that people of different languages will read it. Moreover, even with scientists, this could present a language barrier. According to a recent article , always remember the following points as you write:

• Clarity : Cleary define terms; avoid nonrelevant information.
• Simplicity : Keep sentence structure simple and direct.
• Accuracy : Represent all data and illustrations accurately.

For example, consider the following sentence:

“Chemical x had an effect on metabolism.”

This is an ambiguous statement. It does not tell the reader much. State the results instead:

“Chemical x increased fat metabolism by 20 percent.”

All scientific research also provide significance of findings, usually presented as defined “P” values. Be sure to explain these findings using descriptive terms. For example, rather than using the words “ significant effect ,” use a more descriptive term, such as “ significant increase .”

For more tips, please also see “Tips and Techniques for Scientific Writing”. In addition, it is very important to have your paper edited by a native English speaking professional editor. There are many editing services available for academic manuscripts and publication support services.

Research Paper Structure

With the above in mind, you can now focus on structure. Scientific papers are organized into specific sections and each has a goal. We have listed them here.

• Your title is the most important part of your paper. It draws the reader in and tells them what you are presenting. Moreover, if you think about the titles of papers that you might browse in a day and which papers you actually read, you’ll agree.
• The title should be clear and interesting otherwise the reader will not continue reading.
• Authors’ names and affiliations are on the title page.
• The abstract is a summary of your research. It is nearly as important as the title because the reader will be able to quickly read through it.
• Most journals, the abstract can become divided into very short sections to guide the reader through the summaries.
• Keep the sentences short and focused.
• Avoid acronyms and citations.
• Include background information on the subject and your objectives here.
• Describe the materials used and include the names and locations of the manufacturers.
• For any animal studies, include where you obtained the animals and a statement of humane treatment.
• Clearly and succinctly explain your methods so that it can be duplicated.
• Criteria for inclusion and exclusion in the study and statistical analyses should be included.
• Discuss your findings here.
• Be careful to not make definitive statements .
• Your results suggest that something is or is not true.
• This is true even when your results prove your hypothesis.
• Discuss what your results mean in this section.
• Discuss any study limitations. Suggest additional studies.
• Acknowledge all contributors.
• All citations in the text must have a corresponding reference.
• Check your author guidelines for format protocols.
• In most cases, your tables and figures appear at the end of your paper or in a separate file.
• The titles (legends) usually become listed after the reference section.
• Be sure that you define each acronym and abbreviation in each table and figure.

Helpful Rules

In their article entitled, “Ten simple rules for structuring papers,” in PLOS Computational Biology , authors Mensh and Kording provided 10 helpful tips as follows:

• Focus on a central contribution.
• Write for those who do not know your work.
• Use the “context-content-conclusion” approach.
• Avoid superfluous information and use parallel structures.
• Summarize your research in the abstract.
• Explain the importance of your research in the introduction.
• Explain your results in a logical sequence and support them with figures and tables.
• Discuss any data gaps and limitations.
• Allocate your time for the most important sections.
• Get feedback from colleagues.

Some of these rules have been briefly discussed above; however, the study done by the authors does provide detailed explanations on all of them.

Helpful Sites

Visit the following links for more helpful information:

• “ Some writing tips for scientific papers ”
• “ How to Structure Your Dissertation ”
• “ Conciseness in Academic Writing: How to Prune Sentences ”
• “ How to Optimize Sentence Length in Academic Writing ”

So, do you follow any additional tips when structuring your research paper ? Share them with us in the comments below!

Thanks for sharing this post. Great information provided. I really appreciate your writing. I like the way you put across your ideas.

Enago, is a good sources of academics presentation and interpretation tools in research writing

Rate this article Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published.

Enago Academy's Most Popular Articles

• Reporting Research

Beyond Spellcheck: How copyediting guarantees error-free submission

Submitting a manuscript is a complex and often an emotional experience for researchers. Whether it’s…

• Old Webinars
• Webinar Mobile App

How to Find the Right Journal and Fix Your Manuscript Before Submission

Selection of right journal Meets journal standards Plagiarism free manuscripts Rated from reviewer's POV

• Manuscripts & Grants

Research Aims and Objectives: The dynamic duo for successful research

Picture yourself on a road trip without a destination in mind — driving aimlessly, not…

How Academic Editors Can Enhance the Quality of Your Manuscript

Avoiding desk rejection Detecting language errors Conveying your ideas clearly Following technical requirements

Effective Data Presentation for Submission in Top-tier Journals

Importance of presenting research data effectively How to create tables and figures How to avoid…

Top 4 Guidelines for Health and Clinical Research Report

Top 10 Questions for a Complete Literature Review

Sign-up to read more

Subscribe for free to get unrestricted access to all our resources on research writing and academic publishing including:

• 2000+ blog articles
• 50+ Webinars
• 10+ Expert podcasts
• 50+ Infographics
• 10+ Checklists
• Research Guides

We hate spam too. We promise to protect your privacy and never spam you.

I am looking for Editing/ Proofreading services for my manuscript Tentative date of next journal submission:

What should universities' stance be on AI tools in research and academic writing?

papertons.com

• Structuring an MLA research project
• Getting research projects online
• APA format reference page
• Introduction for sociology essay
• Reference page of research paper
• Bibliography of Chicago format
• Argumentative research project
• Abstract or introduction?
• Zuckerberg the leader: a term paper
• Project writing on Nigerian terrorism
• Creating a research project title
• Writing a project study background
• Crafting an MLA Literature project
• Sample research project methods
• Directions to write a research project
• Outlining an APA research paper
• Getting research project assistance
• Example Psychology APA projects
• Selecting a project writing service
• Beginning a term project
• Sample paper thesis statements
• Research paper writing tricks
• Crafting a project about breast cancer
• Chicago research paper guide
• Format tips for project writing
• Preliminary parts of research projects
• Introduction writing directions
• The writing agency selection
• Sample research projects on obesity
• A manual on middle school papers
• Sample MLA research projects
• Guidelines on paper introductions
• Composing a great term project
• Down syndrome paper tips
• Consequences of global warming
• Outlining a project on graphic design
• Research paper ideas in English
• History research project topics
• A midterm paper topic: basic tips
• Biology research project topics
• High school research paper topics
• Best ideas for anthropology essay
• Prompts on body language essay
• Titles for a research paper on sports
• In search of a research paper writer
• Leadership: research paper ideas
• Selecting a term paper topic idea
• Inventing Nursing project ideas
• Template research project appendices
• Organic food research paper ideas
• Chicago style proposal samples
• Biology term paper writing prompts
• Getting research projects for sale
• Out-tasking research project writing
• Picking a term project writing agency
• Paper sample: employee retention
• The academic paper structure
• Ideas on software project writing
• A manual on titling a research paper
• Writing a Social Studies project
• Composing better papers
• Anthropology term paper questions
• Custom projects: a writing guide
• Paper tips on thesis statement
• Companies to edit college projects
• Outlines for research projects
• Ideas on the search for examples
• Career: paper writing hints
• Writing service selection rules
• Sample research paper outlines
• Research project writers: the search

The Main Parts Of A Research Paper For High School Students

Good preparation is required in writing a research paper especially for highs school students. When you are well-prepared, then, working on this project is no longer considered a big deal. While it is true that writing isn’t for everyone, still, you can come up with a good writing piece if you follow the right guidelines.

There are four main parts of a research paper and these compose of the introduction, the body of the writing composition, conclusion and the last one is the reference page. In addition, these components can be categorized into smaller components hinging on the kind of theme that is being composed.

Some writing tasks necessitate experiment methods, an abstract as well as results. Take note that the best writing piece is something which provides the reader with comprehensive data regarding a particular topic.

The Four Main Parts

• Introduction

This refers to the first paragraph and deemed as the most essential component of the writing piece. The main question or principal idea of the topic must be clearly stated. This comprises of what the researcher or writer expected to uncover during the analysis process termed as hypothesis.

This contains greater part of information. It can be classified into 3 parts comprising of experimental methods, the outcomes and a clear discussion. The steps which the author took to answer the presented question refer to experimental methods while the answer to the question or the actions and responses which took place at the time of experiment refers to results. Aside from these, the discussion section is where the author notes about the experimental results and how those results connect to the original hypothesis.

This pertains to the last section and must connect all of the parts of the writing piece together. Here, the researcher must expound why the analysis conducted was valuable and how it connects to other analysis which has already been disclosed. Typically, this is a total of a single or two paragraphs in a short written discourse.

• Reference page

This should cite all the websites, journals, other publications and books that were used to accomplish the writing piece. This is also known as a bibliography. Most writers adhere to certain guidelines hinging on what type of writing composition is being draft.

Take into consideration that it is very crucial for high school students to know the preferred writing style prior starting to work on the draft. Some renowned writing styles compose of Chicago writing style, American Psychological Association (APA) and also the Modern Language Association (MLA).

Writing Guides

• MLA research paper writing
• Structure of psychology research paper
• Crafting a research project in Psychology
• Looking for a term paper company
• Crafting a great project on writing
• Elements of high school project
• Nazi's antisemitism: paper example
• Choosing a project writing company
• Offline research project assistance
• Formatting a term project well
• Finding Chicago papers with endnotes
• Advantages of buying term projects

Topic Ideas

• Topics for accounting research paper
• Term paper on Facebook: writing tips

Formatting Guides

• Using a qualitative approach in research essay
• Formatting a term paper correctly

Get in touch

2024 © papertons.com. | Writing Guides For Your Research Paper

How to Publish a Research Paper In High School: 19 Journals and Conferences to Consider

By Alex Yang

Graduate student at Southern Methodist University

9 minute read

So you've been working super hard writing a research paper , and you’ve finally finished. Congrats! It’s a very impressive accolade already, but there’s a way to take it a level further. As we’ve talked about before in our Polygence blog, “ Showcasing your work and sharing it with the world is the intellectual version of ‘pics or it didn’t happen.’ ” Of course, there are lot of different ways to showcase your work , from creating a Youtube video to making a podcast. But one of the most popular ways to showcase your research is to publish your research. Publishing your research can take the great work you’ve already done and add credibility to it, and will make a stronger impression than unpublished research. Further, the process of having your work reviewed by advanced degree researchers can be a valuable experience in itself. You can receive feedback from experts and learn how to improve upon the work you’ve already done.

Before we dive into the various journals and conferences to publish your work, let’s distinguish between the various publishing options that you have as a high schooler, as there are some nuances. Quick disclaimer: this article focuses on journals and conferences as ways to showcase your work. There are also competitions where you can submit your work, and we have written guides on competing in premier competitions like Regeneron STS and competing in Regeneron ISEF . 

Publishing Options for High School Students

Peer-reviewed journals.

This is rather self-explanatory, but these journals go through the peer review process, where author(s) submit their work to the journal, and the journal's editors send the work to a group of independent experts (typically grad students or other scientists with advanced degrees) in the same field or discipline. These experts are peer reviewers, who evaluate the work based on a set of predetermined criteria, including the quality of the research, the validity of the methodology, the accuracy of the data, and the originality of the findings. The peer reviewers may suggest revisions or leave comments, but ultimately the editors will decide which suggestions to give to the student. 

Once you’ve received suggestions, you have the opportunity to make revisions before submitting your final product back to the journal. The editor then decides whether or not your work is published.

Non-Peer-Reviewed Journals

These are just journals that do not undergo a review process. In general, peer-reviewed journals may be seen as more credible and prestigious. However, non-peer-reviewed journals may make it easier and faster to publish your work, which can be helpful if you are pressed for time and applying to colleges soon .

Pre Print Archives

Preprint archives or servers are online repositories where student researchers can upload and share their research papers without undergoing any review process. Preprints allow students to share their findings quickly and get feedback from the scientific community, which can help improve the research while you’re waiting to hear back from journals, which typically have longer timelines and can take up to several months to publish research. Sharing your work in a preprint archive does not prohibit you from, or interfere with submitting the same work to a journal afterwards.

Research Conferences

Prefer to present your research in a presentation or verbal format? Conferences can be a great way to “publish” your research, showcase your public speaking skills, speak directly to your audience, and network with other researchers in your field. 

Student-led Journals vs Graduate Student / Professor-led Journals 

Some student-led journals may have peer-review, but the actual people peer-reviewing your work may be high school students. Other journals will have graduate students, PhD students, or even faculty reviewing your work. As you can imagine, there are tradeoffs to either option. With an advanced degree student reviewing your work, you can likely expect better and more accurate feedback. Plus, it’s cool to have an expert look over your work! However, this may also mean that the journal is more selective, whereas student-led journals may be easier to publish in. Nonetheless, getting feedback from anyone who’s knowledgeable can be a great way to polish your research and writing.

Strategy for Submitting to Multiple Journals

Ultimately, your paper can only be published in one peer-reviewed journal. Submitting the same paper to multiple peer-reviewed journals at the same time is not allowed, and doing so may impact its publication at any peer-reviewed journal. If your work is not accepted at one journal, however, then you are free to submit that work to your next choice and so on. Therefore, it is best to submit to journals with a strategy in mind. Consider: what journal do I ideally want to be published in? What are some back-ups if I don’t get published in my ideal journal? Preprints, like arXiv and the Research Archive of Rising Scholars, are possible places to submit your work in advance of seeking peer-reviewed publication. These are places to “stake your claim” in a research area and get feedback from the community prior to submitting your paper to its final home in a peer-reviewed journal. You can submit your work to a preprint prior to submitting at a peer-reviewed journal. However, bioRxiv, a reputable preprint server, recommends on their website that a preprint only be posted on one server, so that’s something to keep in mind as well.

Citation and Paper Formats

All of the journals listed below have specific ways that they’d like you to cite your sources, varying from styles like MLA to APA, and it’s important that you double-check the journal’s requirements for citations, titling your paper, writing your abstract, etc. Most journal websites have very detailed guides for how they want you to format your paper, so follow those closely to avoid having to wait to hear back and then resubmit your paper. If you’re looking for more guidance on citations and bibliographies check out our blog post!

19 Journals and Conferences to Publish Your Research as a High Schooler

Now that we’ve distinguished the differences between certain journals and conferences, let’s jump into some of our favorite ones. We’ve divided up our selections based on prestige and reliability, and we’ve made these selections using our experience with helping Polygence students showcase their research .

Most Prestigious Journals

Concord review.

Cost: $70 to Submit and $200 Publication Cost (if accepted)

Deadline: Fixed Deadlines in Feb 1 (Summer Issue), May 1 (Fall), August 1 (Winter), and November 1 (Spring)

Subject area: History / Social Sciences

Type of research: All types of academic articles

The Concord Review is a quarterly journal that publishes exceptional essays written by high school students on historical topics. The journal has been around since 1987 and has a great reputation, with many student winners going to great universities. Further, if your paper is published, your essays will be sent to subscribers and teachers all around the world, which is an incredible achievement.

Papers submitted tend to be around 8,000 words, so there is definitely a lot of writing involved, and the Concord Review themselves say that they are very selective, publishing only about 5% of the essays they receive.

We’ve posted our complete guide on publishing in the Concord Review here.

Journal of Emerging Investigators (JEI)

Deadline: Rolling

Subject area: STEM 

Type of research: Original hypothesis-driven scientific research

JEI is an open-access publication that features scientific research papers written by middle and high school students in the fields of biological and physical sciences. The journal includes a comprehensive peer-review process, where graduate students and other professional scientists with advanced degrees will review the manuscripts and provide suggestions to improve both the project and manuscript itself. You can expect to receive feedback in 6-8 weeks.

This should be the go-to option for students that are doing hypothesis-driven, original research or research that involves original analyses of existing data (meta-analysis, analyzing publicly available datasets, etc.). This is not an appropriate fit for students writing literature reviews. Finally, a mentor or parent must submit on behalf of the student.

We’ve had many Polygence students successfully submit to JEI. Check out Hana’s research on invasive species and their effects in drought times.

Very Prestigious Journals

Stem fellowship journal (sfj).

Cost: $400 publication fee

Subject area: All Scientific Disciplines

Type of research: Conference Proceedings, Review Articles, Viewpoint Articles, Original Research

SFJ is a peer-reviewed journal published by Canadian Science Publishing that serves as a platform for scholarly research conducted by high school and university students in the STEM fields. Peer review is conducted by undergraduate, graduate student, and professional reviewers.

Depending on the kind of research article you choose to submit, SFJ provides very specific guidelines on what to include and word limits.

Journal of Student Research (JSR)

Cost: $50 to Submit and $200 Publication Cost (if accepted)

Deadline: Fixed Deadlines in February, May, August, and November

Subject area: All Academic Disciplines

Type of research: Research and review articles, as well as other article types (not peer-reviewed)

The Journal of Student Research (JSR) is an academic journal based in Houston, Texas. It is reviewed by faculty members and accepts research and review articles, as well as other research projects (although those will not undergo the peer-review process).

From our experience, JSR sometimes experiences delays in acceptances and communication during the fall when many students are submitting, so try to submit early if possible and be mindful of deadlines.

Other Great Journal Options

National high school journal of science (nhsjs).

Cost: $250 for publication 

Deadline: Rolling 

Subject area: All science disciplines 

Type of research: Original research, literature review

NHSJS is a journal peer reviewed by high schoolers from around the world, with an advisory board of adult academics. Topics are STEM related, and submission types can vary from original research papers to shorter articles.

Curieux Academic Journal

Cost: $185-215

Subject area: Engineering, Humanities, and Natural Science, Mathematics, and Social Science

Type of research: Including but not limited to research papers, review articles, and humanity/social science pieces.

Curieux Academic Journal is a non-profit run by students and was founded in 2017 to publish outstanding research by high school and middle school students. Curieux publishes one issue per month (twelve per year), so there are many opportunities to get your research published. 

The Young Scientists Journal 

Deadline: December

Subject area: Sciences

Type of research: Original research, literature review, blog post

The Young Scientists Journal , while a popular option for students previously, has paused submissions to process a backlog. The journal is an international peer-reviewed journal run by students, and creates print issues twice a year. 

The journal has also been around for a decade and has a clear track record of producing alumni who go on to work in STEM.

Here’s an example of research submitted by Polygence student Ryan to the journal.

Journal of Research High School (JRHS)

Subject area: Any academic subject including the sciences and humanities

Type of research: Original research and significant literature reviews.

JRHS is an online research journal edited by volunteer professional scientists, researchers, teachers, and professors. JRHS accepts original research and significant literature reviews in Engineering, Humanities, Natural Science, Math, and Social Sciences.

From our experience working with our students to help publish their research, this journal is currently operating with a 15-20 week turnaround time for review. This is a bit on the longer side, so be mindful of this turnaround time if you’re looking to get your work published soon.

Youth Medical Journal

Deadline: March (currently closed)

Subject area: Medical or scientific topics

Type of research: Original research, review article, blog post, magazine article

The Youth Medical Journal is an international, student-run team of 40 students looking to share medical research.

We’ve found that this journal is a good entry point for students new to research papers, but when submissions are busy, in the past they have paused submissions. 

Journal of High School Science (JHSS)

Subject area: All topics

Type of research: Original research, literature review, technical notes, opinion pieces

This peer-reviewed STEAM journal publishes quarterly, with advanced degree doctors who sit on the journal’s editorial board. In addition to typical STEM subjects, the journal also accepts manuscripts related to music and theater, which is explicitly stated on their website.

Due to the current large volume of submissions, the review process takes a minimum of 4 weeks from the time of submission.

Whitman Journal of Psychology

Subject area: Psychology

Type of research: Original research, podcasts

The WWJOP is a publication run entirely by students, where research and literature reviews in the field of psychology are recognized. The journal is run out of a high school with a teacher supervisor and student staff.

The WWJOP uniquely also accepts podcast submissions, so if that’s your preferred format for showcasing your work, then this could be the journal for you!

Cost: $180 submission fee

Subject area: Humanities

Type of research: Essay submission

The Schola is a peer-reviewed quarterly journal that showcases essays on various humanities and social sciences topics authored by high school students worldwide. They feature a diverse range of subjects such as philosophy, history, art history, English, economics, public policy, and sociology.

Editors at Schola are academics who teach and do research in the humanities and social sciences

Critical Debates in Humanities, Science and Global Justice

Cost: $10 author fee

Subject area: Ethics and frontiers of science, Biology and ecosystems, Technology and Innovation, Medical research and disease, Peace and civil society, Global citizenship, identity and democracy, Structural violence and society, Psychology, Education, AI, Sociology, Computer Science, Neuroscience, Cultural politics, Politics and Justice, Computer science and math as related to policy, Public policy, Human rights, Language, Identity and Culture, Art and activism

Critical Debates is an international academic journal for critical discourse in humanities, science and contemporary global issues for emerging young scholars

International Youth Neuroscience Association Journal

Subject area: Neuroscience

Type of research: Research papers

Although this student peer-reviewed journal is not currently accepting submissions, we’ve had students recently publish here. 

Here’s an example of Nevenka’s research that was published in the November 2022 issue of the journal.

Preprint Archives to Share Your Work In

Subject area: STEM, Quantitative Finance, Economics

arXiv is an open access archive supported by Cornell University, where more than 2 million scholarly articles in a wide variety of topics have been compiled. arXiv articles are not peer-reviewed, so you will not receive any feedback on your work from experts. However, your article does go through a moderation process where your work is classified into a topic area and checked for scholarly value. This process is rather quick however and according to arXiv you can expect your article to be available on the website in about 6 hours. 

Although there’s no peer review process, that means the submission standards are not as rigorous and you can get your article posted very quickly, so submitting to arXiv or other preprint archives can be something you do before trying to get published in a journal.

One slight inconvenience of submitting to arXiv is that you must be endorsed by a current arXiv author, which can typically be a mentor or teacher or professor that you have. Here’s an example of a Polygence student submitting their work to arXiv, with Albert’s research on Hamiltonian Cycles.

Subject area: Biology

Type of research: Original research

bioRxiv is a preprint server for biology research, where again the research is not peer-reviewed but undergoes a check to make sure that the material is relevant and appropriate.

bioRxiv has a bit of a longer posting time, taking around 48 hours, but that’s still very quick. bioRxiv also allows for you to submit revised versions of your research if you decide to make changes.

Research Archive of Rising Scholars (RARS)

Subject area: STEM and Humanities

Type of research: Original research, review articles, poems, short stories, scripts

Research Archive of Rising Scholars is Polygence’s own preprint server! We were inspired by arXiv so we created a repository for articles and other creative submissions in STEM and the Humanities.

We launched RARS in 2022 and we’re excited to offer a space for budding scholars as they look to publish their work in journals. Compared to other preprint archives, RARS also accepts a wider range of submission types, including poems, short stories, and scripts.

Conferences to Participate In

Symposium of rising scholars.

Deadline: Twice a year - February and July

Polygence’s very own Symposium of Rising Scholars is a bi-annual academic conference where students present and share their research with their peers and experts. The Symposium also includes a College Admissions Panel and Keynote Speech. In our 8th edition of the Symposium this past March, we had 60 students presenting live, approximately 70 students presenting asynchronously, and over 100 audience members. The keynote speaker was Chang-rae Lee, award-winning novelist and professor at Stanford University.

We’re looking to have our 9th Symposium in Fall of 2023, and you can express your interest now. If you’re interested to see what our Polygence scholars have presented in the past for the Symposium, you can check out their scholar pages here.

Junior Science and Humanities Symposium (JSHS)

Deadline: Typically in November, so for 2024’s competition look to submit in Fall 2023

Subject area: STEM topics

JSHS is a Department of Defense sponsored program and competition that consists of first submitting a written report of your research. If your submission is selected, you’ll be able to participate in the regional symposium, where you can present in oral format or poster format. A select group from the regional symposium will then qualify for the national symposium.

One of the great things about JSHS compared to the journals mentioned above is that you’re allowed to work in teams and you don’t have to be a solo author. This can make the experience more fun for you and your teammates, and allow you to combine your strengths for your submission.

Related Content:

Top 8 Business Journals to Publish Your Research

Why Teens Should Attend the National Student Leadership Conference (NSLC)

How to Brainstorm Your Way to Perfect Research Topic Ideas

Top 20 Most Competitive Summer Programs for High School Students

Want to start a project of your own?

Click below to get matched with one of our expert mentors who can help take your project off the ground!

100+ High School Research Paper Topics [Updated]

Hey there, high school students! Have you ever felt a bit overwhelmed when your teacher mentioned a research paper? No worries – it’s totally normal. In fact, tackling a research paper is like embarking on an exciting journey where you get to explore topics you’re interested in, do your own research, and become a critical thinking pro! This blog post is like your trusty map for this adventure. It’s here to help you create top-notch high school research paper topics without the stress.

What is The Significance of Research?

Table of Contents

Before delving into the intricacies of crafting a research paper, it’s crucial to understand the significance of this academic exercise. Research papers serve as a platform for students to explore a chosen topic in depth, analyze existing literature, and contribute to the broader conversation within a particular field. 

The process of conducting research enhances critical thinking, analytical, and communication skills—essential attributes for success in higher education and beyond.

How to Write a Research Paper?

Writing a research paper can seem like a daunting task, but with a structured approach, it becomes much more manageable. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you through the process:

• Choose a Topic
• Pick a topic that interests you and is relevant to your assignment.
• Make sure it’s not too broad or too narrow; find a balance.
• Conduct Preliminary Research
• Gather some initial information to ensure there’s enough material available.
• Note down key points and potential sources.
• Develop a Thesis Statement
• Formulate a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main purpose or argument of your paper.
• Create an Outline
• Form an outline that is structured based on your research and ideas.
• Assign headings to the sections of your work, such as introduction, methods, findings, discussion, and conclusion.
• Write the Introduction
• Provide background information on your topic.
• State the purpose of your research and present your thesis statement.
• Review the Literature
• Summarize existing research related to your topic.
• Identify gaps or controversies in the literature.
• Detail the Methodology
• Explain your research design (e.g., experiment, survey, case study).
• Describe the data collection process and justify your chosen method.
• Present the Results
• Showcase your findings using tables, graphs, or charts.
• Analyze the results and connect them to your thesis statement.
• Discuss Your Findings
• Compare your results to existing research.
• Explore the broader implications and practical applications.
• Encourage critical thinking and discussion.
• Write the Conclusion
• Summarize the key findings.
• Restate your thesis and highlight its importance.
• Suggest directions for future research.
• Cite Your Sources
• Compile a list of all sources cited in your paper.
• Use a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA) as per your assignment guidelines.
• Revise and Edit
• Review your paper for clarity, coherence, and grammar.
• Make sure your arguments flow logically, and check for any spelling or punctuation errors.
• Seek Feedback
• Ask a friend, family member, or teacher to review your paper.
• Consider their feedback and make necessary revisions.
• Finalize Your Paper
• Double-check formatting and ensure your paper adheres to any specific requirements.
• Submit your well-crafted research paper on time!

100+ High School Research Paper Topics

• Climate Change: Impact and Mitigation Strategies
• The Effects of Social Media on Teenagers’ Mental Health
• Cybersecurity: Protecting Against Online Threats
• The History and Impact of Vaccines
• Gender Inequality in the Workplace
• Artificial Intelligence: Boon or Bane?
• Environmental Pollution: Causes and Solutions
• The Influence of Pop Culture on Society
• The Importance of Financial Literacy for High School Students
• The Rise of E-commerce and Its Effects on Traditional Retail
• Bullying in Schools: Causes and Prevention
• The Role of Women in History
• Genetic Engineering: Ethical Considerations
• The Impact of Video Games on Adolescent Behavior
• Youth Activism: Examining Movements and Causes
• The Relationship Between Diet and Academic Performance
• The History and Impact of Space Exploration
• Mental Health Stigma: Breaking the Silence
• The Future of Renewable Energy
• The Evolution of Language: From Ancient to Modern
• The Influence of Art and Music on Society
• Cultural Appropriation: Understanding the Debate
• The Rise of Online Education: Pros and Cons
• Human Trafficking: A Global Issue
• The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Academic Performance
• The Impact of Social Class on Educational Opportunities
• The History of Civil Rights Movements
• Technology Addiction: Causes and Solutions
• The Role of Government in Public Health
• Animal Testing: Ethical Dilemmas
• The Influence of Literature on Social Change
• Gun Control: Balancing Rights and Safety
• The Importance of Diversity in Education
• The Rise of Single-Parent Families: Causes and Effects
• The Role of Mass Media in Shaping Public Opinion
• The Future of Space Travel and Colonization
• The Impact of Globalization on Local Cultures
• Teenage Pregnancy: Causes and Prevention
• The History and Impact of Rock and Roll Music
• The Ethics of Cloning and Genetic Modification
• The Effectiveness of Anti-Smoking Campaigns
• The Impact of Social and Economic Inequality
• Human Rights Violations: A Global Perspective
• The Role of Religion in Shaping Societal Norms
• The History and Impact of Hip-Hop Culture
• Online Privacy: Balancing Security and Freedom
• The Effects of Fast Food on Health
• The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment
• Climate Change Denial: Causes and Consequences
• The Influence of Ancient Philosophers on Modern Thought
• Internet Censorship: Balancing Free Speech and Security
• The Effects of Parental Involvement on Academic Achievement
• The Impact of Social Media Influencers on Consumer Behavior
• Renewable Energy: Exploring Alternatives
• The History and Impact of Feminism
• Technology and Education: Enhancing or Hindering Learning?
• The Role of Social Institutions in Shaping Behavior
• The Impact of Colonialism on Indigenous Peoples
• The Evolution of Human Rights
• The Influence of Advertising on Consumer Choices
• The Importance of STEM Education
• The Effects of Peer Pressure on Teenagers
• The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Healthcare
• The Role of Religion in Shaping Political Beliefs
• Cyberbullying: Causes and Solutions
• The Influence of Literature on Cultural Identity
• The Impact of Social Media on Political Activism
• The Importance of Critical Thinking in Education
• The Effects of Air Pollution on Health
• The History and Impact of LGBTQ+ Rights Movements
• The Impact of Social Media on Body Image
• The Influence of Technology on Human Relationships
• The Role of Education in Combating Racism
• The History and Impact of the Internet
• The Effects of Childhood Obesity on Long-Term Health
• The Role of NGOs in Addressing Global Issues
• The Impact of Immigration on Society

Tips For Successful High School Research Paper

• Choose a topic you’re passionate about and align with the assignment.
• Start your research early to allow sufficient time for thorough investigation.
• Craft a clear thesis statement that encapsulates your main argument.
• Create a well-organized outline to structure your paper effectively.
• Use reliable and diverse sources for a comprehensive literature review.
• Clearly explain your research methodology, showcasing its relevance.
• Present your findings using visual aids like graphs or charts.
• Engage in critical discussion in the results and discussion sections.
• Conclude by summarizing key findings and suggesting future research.
• Follow the prescribed citation style diligently for accurate referencing.
• Revise and edit your paper for clarity, coherence, and grammar.
• Seek feedback from peers or teachers to enhance your paper further.
• Pay attention to formatting details to meet assignment requirements.
• Proofread carefully before submission to catch any last-minute errors.

Crafting a high school research paper is an intellectual journey that allows students to explore their passions, hone critical skills, and contribute to the academic discourse.

By following the outlined structure, students can navigate the process with confidence, producing a well-organized and impactful research paper that not only fulfills academic requirements but also serves as a testament to their intellectual curiosity and prowess. I hope this topic on high school research paper topics will help you out with a number of suggestions.

Related Posts

Step by Step Guide on The Best Way to Finance Car

The Best Way on How to Get Fund For Business to Grow it Efficiently

Leave a comment cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

share this!

March 8, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

Research unveils effective STEM program models for high school students from historically marginalized communities

by Institute for Systems Biology

An Institute for Systems Biology (ISB)-led study has unveiled important insights and actionable protocols into providing equitable STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) experiences for high school students from historically marginalized communities. The research highlights the transformative power of informal STEM learning in addressing societal challenges and the ease with which many organizations could provide these important opportunities.

In a paper published in Humanities and Social Science Communications , ISB researchers demonstrate significant gains among high school students participating in in-person and remote informal STEM programs, ranging from 22 to 320 hours in length. Key factors contributing to this success include authentic research experiences, connections with STEM professionals, hands-on projects, and collaborative group work.

"Real-world experiences and interactions with STEM professionals were found to play a pivotal role in guiding students' educational decisions and fostering awareness of STEM career paths and societal connections," said Claudia McLaughlin Ludwig, lead author of the paper and director of ISB's Systems Education Experiences (SEE) program. "Informal STEM programs can be implemented with minimal resources while also being effectively scaled."

The study offers consequential insights for advancing informal STEM learning, emphasizing the importance of co-creating experiences with students. A few other practical insights include utilizing transparent program management tools, providing a means for students' work to be broadly shared, and helping students stay connected to their mentors and peers. Furthermore, virtual programming has emerged as a promising avenue, promoting inclusivity and expanding opportunities for STEM education.

"One of the most important findings of our study was that there are numerous ways in which any organization can make impactful contributions toward broadening participation in STEM careers. What is absolutely key, however, is that the informal learning experiences should be engaging, authentic, and contextualized by real world problems," said ISB Professor and Director Dr. Nitin Baliga, the senior author on the paper.

Baliga founded the SEE program specifically to provide authentic scientific experiences to high school students from diverse backgrounds.

These programs have the potential to address societal challenges by diversifying the STEM workforce, enhancing problem-solving skills, and preparing communities for future STEM advancements.

This research marks a significant stride toward creating a more inclusive STEM education landscape, and underscores the importance of collaborative efforts to ensure that all high school students, regardless of background, can access quality STEM education and realize their full potential.

Provided by Institute for Systems Biology

Explore further

Feedback to editors

New archive of ancient human brains challenges misconceptions of soft tissue preservation

6 hours ago

Study reveals 'cozy domesticity' of prehistoric stilt-house dwellers in England's ancient marshland

Study finds large accumulations of plastics in the ocean, even outside so-called garbage patch

9 hours ago

Researchers investigate how freshwater diatoms stay in the light

NASA study: Asteroid's orbit, shape changed after DART impact

Research team establishes synthetic dimension dynamics to manipulate light

10 hours ago

Nanoparticles target multiple COVID variants through the twist in the spike protein

Researchers use an edible blue-green algae to protect honey bees against viruses

12 hours ago

Astrophysicist's research could provide a hint in the search for dark matter

Sandy soil reptiles are more threatened by climate change than has been supposed, study shows

Relevant physicsforums posts, the new california math framework: another step backwards.

Mar 14, 2024

The changing physics curriculum in 1961

Feb 26, 2024

Rant about working in the tutoring lab: How should I deal with this?

Feb 25, 2024

Are Degree Apprenticeships a Good idea

Feb 23, 2024

Opinion: When Pro Scientists Explain Using Pop Science

Feb 15, 2024

Various Intuitions and Conceptualizations of Measurable Cardinals.

Feb 14, 2024

More from STEM Educators and Teaching

Related Stories

Students build science identity through immersive research experience

Jan 4, 2024

STEM Career Days boost high school students' career aspirations in STEM fields, study finds

Nov 6, 2023

Why don't students stick with STEM degrees?

Jan 11, 2023

Summer camp conversations lead boys to have more positive views of girls' STEM ability

Oct 6, 2023

Sense of belonging helps high school students engage with STEM

Mar 3, 2022

Researchers design survey to tap students' motivation in STEM

Nov 20, 2017

Recommended for you

Gender and racial discrimination uncovered in leadership positions at Australia's leading universities

Mar 15, 2024

Study finds children in Flint experienced educational declines even if they did not have lead pipes

Could iPhones replace microscopes in early STEM education?

Research finds a college degree remains a sound investment despite rising tuition

Mar 12, 2024

Doing more but learning less: Addressing the risks of AI in research

Mar 8, 2024

How to build your own robot friend: Making AI education more accessible

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 19.3.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Long-Term Effectiveness of a Multi-Strategy Choice Architecture Intervention in Increasing Healthy Food Choices of High-School Students From Online Canteens (Click & Crunch High Schools): Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

Long-term effectiveness of a multi-strategy choice architecture intervention in increasing healthy food choices of high-school students from online canteens (click & crunch high schools): cluster randomized controlled trial.

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Tessa Delaney 1, 2, 3 , PhD   ; 
• Jacklyn Jackson 1, 2, 3 , PhD   ; 
• Christophe Lecathelinais 1, 2, 3 , DESS   ; 
• Tara Clinton-McHarg 4 , PhD   ; 
• Hannah Lamont 1, 2, 3 , BNutrDiet (Hons)   ; 
• Sze Lin Yoong 5 , PhD   ; 
• Luke Wolfenden 1, 2, 3 , PhD   ; 
• Rachel Sutherland 1, 2, 3 , PhD   ; 
• Rebecca Wyse 1, 2, 3 , PhD  

1 School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Wallsend, Australia

2 Hunter New England Population Health, Hunter New England Local Health District, Wallsend, Australia

3 Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, Australia

4 Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

5 Faculty of Health, School of Health and Social Development, Global Centre for Preventive Health and Nutrition, Institute for Health Transformation, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia

Corresponding Author:

Tessa Delaney, PhD

School of Medicine and Public Health

University of Newcastle

Locked Bag 10

Wallsend, 2287

Phone: 61 294617441

Email: [email protected]

Background: School canteens are a recommended setting to influence adolescent nutrition due to their scope to improve student food choices. Online lunch ordering systems (“online canteens”) are increasingly used and represent attractive infrastructure to implement choice architecture interventions that nudge users toward healthier food choices. A recent cluster randomized controlled trial demonstrated the short-term effectiveness (2-month follow-up) of a choice architecture intervention to increase the healthiness of foods purchased by high school students from online canteens. However, there is little evidence regarding the long-term effectiveness of choice architecture interventions targeting adolescent food purchases, particularly those delivered online.

Objective: This study aimed to determine the long-term effectiveness of a multi-strategy choice architecture intervention embedded within online canteen infrastructure in high schools at a 15-month follow-up.

Methods: A cluster randomized controlled trial was undertaken with 1331 students (from 9 high schools) in New South Wales, Australia. Schools were randomized to receive the automated choice architecture intervention (including menu labeling, positioning, feedback, and prompting strategies) or the control (standard online ordering). The foods purchased were classified according to the New South Wales Healthy Canteen strategy as either “everyday,” “occasional,” or “should not be sold.” Primary outcomes were the average proportion of “everyday,” “occasional,” and “should not be sold” items purchased per student. Secondary outcomes were the mean energy, saturated fat, sugar, and sodium content of purchases. Outcomes were assessed using routine data collected by the online canteen.

Results: From baseline to 15-month follow-up, on average, students in the intervention group ordered significantly more “everyday” items (+11.5%, 95% CI 7.3% to 15.6%; P <.001), and significantly fewer “occasional” (–5.4%, 95% CI –9.4% to –1.5%; P =.007) and “should not be sold” items (–6%, 95% CI –9.1% to –2.9%; P <.001), relative to controls. There were no between-group differences over time in the mean energy, saturated fat, sugar, or sodium content of lunch orders.

Conclusions: Given their longer-term effectiveness, choice architecture interventions delivered via online canteens may represent a promising option for policy makers to support healthy eating among high school students.

Trial Registration: Australian Clinical Trials ACTRN12620001338954, https://anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=380546 ; Open Science Framework osf.io/h8zfr, https://osf.io/h8zfr/

Introduction

Adolescents internationally are prone to having poor quality diets [ 1 - 3 ], which are associated with a higher risk of obesity, poor mental health and well-being, and an increased risk of chronic diseases during adulthood [ 4 ]. In particular, data from the most recent national survey of Australian high school children (aged 12-17 years) found that on average 5.7 (SE 0.2) to 6.6 (SE 0.7) serves of discretionary food choices are consumed per day, contributing to 38%-41% of total daily energy intake [ 5 ]. Adolescence represents a transitional life stage, which often coincides with increased autonomy regarding food choices and eating behaviors. Healthy eating interventions that can reach the adolescent population during this key stage are required [ 6 ], as dietary behaviors during adolescence have been shown to track throughout the life span [ 7 ].

High schools are an ideal setting to deliver interventions to improve adolescent nutrition, as they offer ongoing and widespread access to this traditionally hard-to-reach population [ 8 ]. Students have also been shown to consume up to 40% of their daily food intake during school hours, and in Australia over 60% of high school students purchase food at least once per week from their school canteen. However, the foods most commonly purchased from this setting are “less healthy,” discretionary foods high in energy, fat, salt, and sugar [ 9 ].

Interventions that incorporate choice architecture strategies (eg, provision of information, changing default options, and using incentives) [ 10 ] are effective in improving adolescent diet-related outcomes. A recent systematic review found that out of 137 included choice architecture interventions that aimed to modify child or adolescent diet-related outcomes, 74% were effective [ 10 ]. Despite this, of the 137 studies, only 9 were conducted in high schools and while 6 of the 9 studies (67%) were shown to be effective, all of the interventions were short in duration (average 10 weeks) and none assessed long-term effectiveness [ 11 ].

Online lunch ordering systems (henceforth referred to as “online canteens”), where students select and preorder their lunch using the web or mobile apps, are common in Australian schools [ 12 ]. Online canteens represent the optimal infrastructure to implement choice architecture strategies that support students in selecting healthier foods. The research team recently conducted the “Click & Crunch High Schools” cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT). The trial assessed the short-term (2-month) effectiveness of a multi-strategy choice architecture intervention embedded into an online canteen in increasing the relative healthiness of foods purchased at lunch by high school students. At a 2-month follow-up, relative to controls, intervention students purchased significantly more items classified as “everyday” (healthy +5.5%, P <.001) and significantly fewer items classified as “should not be sold” (unhealthy –4.4%, P <.001) [ 13 ]. Although these initial results are promising, evidence suggests that the effects of behavioral interventions can attenuate over time [ 14 , 15 ]. As such, an assessment of the longer-term impact of the intervention on high school students’ lunch purchases is required to better understand how it contributes to long-term behavior change.

Given digital intervention for public health nutrition is still an emerging field, limited studies have been conducted to assess the sustainability of effective interventions. For example, a 2021 umbrella review of 11 systematic reviews of digital interventions to promote healthy eating in children reported that the effectiveness of such interventions in the medium-term and long-term was not well studied [ 16 ]. The research targeting adolescents and high school students is sparser still. As this trial [ 13 ] was the first to investigate the effectiveness of embedding choice architecture strategies into online canteen ordering systems in high school students, this longer-term follow-up represents a novel contribution to the public health nutrition literature regarding the sustainability of digital health interventions for this underresearched group.

Therefore, this study aims to assess the long-term effectiveness (baseline to 15 months) of the “Click & Crunch High Schools” intervention on increasing the relative healthiness of school canteen lunch purchases by high school students.

A description of the trial methods has been previously published [ 13 ]. The original trial methods and 2-month follow-up were prospectively deposited on the Open Science Framework on October 23, 2020 [ 17 ]. The 15-month follow-up was not preregistered however it was conducted per procedures and outcomes as previously registered.

Study Design

This cohort study was conducted as a parallel-group, cluster RCT. Consenting high schools that were using an existing online canteen hosted by Flexischools (InLoop Pty Ltd; a commercial online canteen provider and partner on this research) and located in NSW Australia were randomized to receive either a multi-strategy choice architecture intervention delivered via the online canteen infrastructure or a usual practice control (ie, standard online canteen). Outcome data were collected over 8 weeks at baseline (October-December 2020), 2 months (the period immediately following intervention commencement, February-April 2021; results previously published) [ 13 ], and again at 15-months postintervention commencement (February-April 2022). This paper reports the 15-month findings.

Sample and Recruitment

School canteen managers from eligible schools were contacted by mail and telephone to invite study participation. A total of 9 (4 intervention and 5 control) government and nongovernment (ie, independent or catholic) schools located in NSW Australia that enrolled high school students (aged ~12-18 years), and used Flexischools as their online canteen provider were eligible to participate in the 15-month follow-up. Schools were ineligible for the trial if they had participated in another unrelated “online canteen” research program conducted by the team or were a catholic school located within a diocese in which ethical approval had not been obtained.

As per prespecified eligibility criteria, students were ineligible for inclusion if; they were in grade 12 at baseline data collection as they were unlikely to be still attending school at the follow-up data collection period; or if they had placed recurring lunch orders set before the intervention period as these orders would not have been exposed to the intervention.

Randomization and Blinding

Following recruitment, an independent statistician block randomized schools (in blocks of 2 and 4) using a random number function in Microsoft Excel. Randomization was stratified by school sector (eg, government vs nongovernment), as evidence suggests there are differences in the availability of healthy food between the school sectors [ 18 ]. Schools were unable to be blinded to their group allocation. However, the intervention was applied centrally, and only students at intervention schools could access the intervention strategies via the online ordering system. All student purchasing data was centrally collected by the online provider, reducing any risk of intervention contamination between the groups.

Intervention

The “Click & Crunch High Schools” intervention is described in full elsewhere [ 13 ]. The intervention was underpinned by the principals of choice architecture and sought to encourage the purchase of healthier (ie, “everyday”) items from the school’s online canteen menu. All intervention strategies were integrated into the schools’ existing online canteen and were displayed to students at the point of purchase. All student users of the online canteen at eligible high schools had access to the intervention strategies. The intervention was in place for approximately 15 months (February 2021 to April 2022) until after the 15-month follow-up data collection period. Intervention strategies (see Figure 1 ) are described in the following sections.

Menu Labeling

All menu items were classified as either “everyday,” “occasional,” or “should not be sold” based on the criteria outlined in the NSW Healthy School Canteen Strategy. Menu items were labeled with a small colored symbol: a green circle was added next to “everyday” foods, an amber circle was added next to “occasional” foods, and a red circle was added next to “should not be sold” (“caution”) foods. A “menu label key” appeared at the top of the page (eg, “Everyday- best choice for healthy happy students”; “Occasional- choose in combination with Everyday”; “Caution- consider switching, low nutritional value”).

Positioning

“Everyday” menu items and healthier food categories (eg, fruit, salad, and sandwiches) were positioned prominently (ie, first) in the online menu. Research suggests items placed in the middle of menu lists are two times less likely to be purchased than those at the beginning or end [ 19 ]. Therefore, the least healthy “should not be sold” items were placed in the middle and “occasional” items were placed last in menu category lists, respectively. Further, “occasional” or “should not be sold” items with multiple flavors (eg, potato crisps) required the user to first “click” on the item before the full list of flavors appeared (eg, plain, salt and vinegar, and chicken).

Before each lunch order was finalized within the online ordering system, users were shown a personalized summary of the healthiness of their lunch order. The summary included a pie graph displaying the proportion of items in their order that was “everyday,” “occasional,” and “should not be sold,” and a tailored message based on the proportion of “everyday” items in the order (eg, if <99% of items were “everyday”: “Try adding some ‘Everyday’ items for a more balanced meal.” If 100% of items were “everyday”: “Excellent choice! 100% ‘Everyday’ items”).

When “occasional” or “should not be sold” hot food items were chosen they included a prompt to add a fruit or vegetable snack and water. Healthier menu categories (eg, fruit, salad, and sandwiches) included an appealing image and positive purchase prompt (eg, “This is a good choice”).

To support canteen managers’ understanding of the NSW Healthy School Canteen classification system which underpinned the menu labeling, each canteen manager in the intervention group received a “menu feedback report.” The report included feedback comparing the online canteen menu to the recommendations of the NSW Healthy School Canteen Strategy and provided suggestions on how to improve the relative availability of “everyday” items on the menu.

Intervention Fidelity

Once every term during the intervention period (approximately every 10 weeks), a member of the research team monitored each school’s online canteen menu via the Flexischools website. They checked that all menu items, including any new items, were correctly classified according to the NSW Healthy School Canteen Strategy, and that the intervention strategies were applied accordingly. If any menu items were found to be unlabeled or incorrectly labeled, the research team would notify Flexischools and provide instructions for how to apply the intervention strategy correctly.

Control schools did not receive any of the intervention strategies, and were only provided access to the standard online ordering system.

Data Collection and Outcomes

Student purchasing data were automatically collected and stored by Flexischools. Data were collected over 3 distinct 8-week periods, with baseline occurring from October to December 2020 and long-term follow-up occurring 15 months after the intervention commenced (February-April 2022). The 2-month follow-up was the primary trial end point (data collected immediately following intervention commencement, February-April 2021), and has been previously published [ 13 ].

Primary Trial Outcomes

The primary trial outcomes at the 15-month follow-up were identical to those at the 2-month follow-up and included the mean percentage of all online lunch items purchased per student that were classified according to the NSW Healthy School Canteen Strategy as (1) “everyday,” (2) “occasional,” and (3) “should not be sold.” The NSW Healthy Canteen Strategy classifies foods as “everyday” based on their alignment with the core foods groups within the Australian Dietary Guidelines (eg, fruit, vegetables, dairy and alternatives, lean meat and alternatives, and grains) [ 20 ]. Menu items classified as “occasional” or “should not be sold” are considered “noncore” or discretionary foods that are mostly high in energy, saturated fat, sugar, and salt. Further information on the NSW Healthy School Canteen strategy including the nutrition criteria underpinning the strategy are reported elsewhere [ 20 ].

Each canteen menu item was classified against the strategy by a research dietitian using detailed item information (ie, brand, product name, service size, flavor, or recipe) obtained from the canteen manager via telephone or email. Following this, a statistician was able to apply the menu item classification (eg, “everyday”) to the automatically collected purchase data supplied by Flexischools (eg, fresh fruit equaled “everyday”).

Secondary Trial Outcomes

Energy, saturated fat, sugar, and sodium content of online lunch orders.

Secondary outcomes included the mean total energy (kJ), saturated fat (g), sugar (g), and sodium (mg) content of online lunch orders. Using previously established procedures, the dietitian generated the nutrition profile for each menu item by using data from food product databases (for commercially packaged menu items [ 13 , 21 , 22 ]) or FoodWorks (version 9; Xyris Software; for menu items requiring a recipe). The statistician then applied the nutritional profile of each menu item to the student purchasing data provided by Flexischools.

Weekly Canteen Revenue From Online Orders

Purchasing data that were automatically collected by Flexischools were used to calculate the mean weekly revenue from all student online lunch orders for the weeks that the canteen was operational at baseline and long-term follow-up. This outcome was assessed to explore any potential adverse effect of the intervention (eg, a reduction in canteen revenue due to the application of the intervention strategies).

School Characteristics

At baseline, school characteristics including the number of student enrollments, year range, sector (eg, government vs nongovernment), school type (combined primary and high school students’ vs high school only), and postcode were obtained from the government “MySchool” website. As the number of high school student enrollments for combined schools was not available on the “MySchool” website, this data was collected directly from the school.

Canteen Characteristics

Canteen characteristics including operating days per week, frequency of use, and student grade data were obtained from the student purchasing data supplied by Flexischools.

Menu Composition (Pre-Post Intervention)

Using the methods outlined above, a research dietitian assessed the proportion of items on each school’s online menus that were classified as “everyday,” “occasional,” and “should not be sold.” This is reported by intervention and control groups at baseline and 15-month follow-up.

Statistical Analysis

All outcome data were analyzed in SAS (version 9.3; SAS Institute) under an intention-to-treat (ITT) approach whereby all student lunch orders and schools were analyzed based on the groups they were originally allocated. All nutrition outcomes included data from the student cohort (grades 7-11) that had placed at least one order during the baseline period.

Primary and secondary outcomes were assessed using separate linear mixed models by comparing differences between intervention and control groups over time (baseline to 15 months) through the inclusion of a group-by-time interaction fixed effect. All models included a random intercept for schools (to account for potential school-level clustering), a nested random intercept and random time effect for students (to account for repeated measurements between time points), and fixed effects for the school sector and SEIFA (Socio-Economic Indexes for Australia). All available data (baseline, 2 months, and 15 months) were incorporated into the model.

Consistent with previous publications, the denominator for the unit of analysis for primary trial outcomes was the total number of individual items purchased for each student over the three 8-week data collection periods (baseline: October-December 2020; 2 months: February-April 2021; 15 months: February-April 2022).

Differences in the average weekly revenue (a school-level outcome) were assessed using linear mixed models and included data from all students who had placed any order during any of the data collection periods. School and canteen characteristics were previously reported in the 2-month outcome paper and are included here for context.

Given no differences were observed by subgroups (student grade, frequency of canteen use, or school sector) at the primary trial end point (2 months), no subgroup analyses were conducted at the 15-month follow-up.

Sample Size

No sample size calculation was performed for long-term follow-up, sample size estimates were calculated a priori based on the primary trial end point of 2 months [ 13 ]. The original sample size required the participation of 10 schools (222 students per school) to ensure a mean detectable difference of 13% of everyday items with 80% power, an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.05, and an α of .05 at 2-month follow-up.

Ethical Considerations

The ethical approval for the conduct of this study was provided by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of Newcastle (H-2017-0402), and State Education Research Approval Process (SERAP 2018065), as well as relevant Catholic School Dioceses.

The baseline characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1 . At baseline, on average, control schools had higher student enrollments compared with intervention schools (mean enrollments 800, SD 318 vs 496, SD 226). All other baseline characteristics were similar between groups (no significance testing was performed). For example, all school canteens operated 5 days per week, the majority of schools were located in areas of most socioeconomic advantage, and the majority of students were in grades 7 to 9. The number of participants and orders at baseline and 15-month follow-up can be seen in Figure 2 . While 1331 students from 9 schools provided data at baseline, 332 (25%) students did not place an online order at the 2-month follow-up, and an additional 268 (20%) students did not place an online order at the 15-month follow-up. Of these 268 students, 70 had completed high school (ie, students that were in grade 11 at baseline were no longer at school 15 months later). There were no statistically significant differences between intervention and control participants being lost to follow-up ( P =.08).

a NSW: New South Wales.

b Nongovernment schools were Catholic and independent schools.

c Based on publicly available school statistics (MySchool 2020) or verbally from schools (combined schools only).

d Socio-Economic Indexes for Australia 2016, based on the postcode of the school locality and dichotomized at the NSW median.

e Based on Flexischools purchasing data.

f As classified by a dietitian according to the New South Wales Healthy School Canteen Strategy.

Primary Outcomes

The primary outcomes were the average proportion, per student, of “everyday,” “occasional,” and “should not be sold” online lunch items purchased. Relative to controls, over time from baseline to 15-month follow-up, students in the intervention group ordered on average significantly more “everyday” items (+11.5%, 95% CI 7.3% to 15.6%; P <.001), and significantly fewer “occasional” (–5.4%, 95% CI –9.4% to –1.5%; P =.007) and “should not be sold” items (–6%, 95% CI –9.1% to –2.9%; P <.001) in an intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis ( Table 2 ).

a All models included a random intercept for school, a nested random intercept and random time effect for students, and fixed effects for the school sector and Socio-Economic Indexes for Australia. All available data were incorporated into the model (baseline, 2-months, and 15-months) to describe purchasing patterns over time.

b P <.05.

c All $ amounts are in Aus $. A currency exchange rate of Aus $1 = US $0.65 was applicable as of February 2024.

Secondary Outcomes

Average energy, saturated fat, sugar, and sodium content of online lunch orders.

There were no between-group differences over time (baseline to 15-month follow-up) in the average energy (+48.8 kJ, 95% CI –34.6 to 132.2; P =.25), saturated fat (–0.0 g, 95% CI –0.5 to 0.5; P =.99), sugar (+1.7 g, 95% CI –0.1 to 3.5; P =.07), or sodium (+0.35, 95% CI –36.2 to 36.9; P =.99) content of student lunch orders.

Weekly Online Canteen Revenue (Potential Adverse Effect)

While both intervention and control groups increased in revenue (a currency exchange rate of Aus $1=US $0.65 applies) over time (intervention-group baseline: Aus $896.10; intervention-group 15-month follow-up: Aus $1243.80; control-group baseline: Aus $769.60; control-group 15-month follow-up: Aus $1798.50), the increase in the intervention group was significantly lower than the increase in the control group (differential effect –Aus $673.40, 95% CI –Aus $1252.60 to –Aus $94.20; P =.03). To further qualify this effect, a post hoc exploratory analysis was undertaken to explore if students spent more money per order between intervention and control groups over time. The exploratory analysis found no difference in the average spend per student order by intervention and control groups over time (difference Aus $0.07, 95% CI –Aus $0.14 to Aus $0.28; P =.48).

Menu Composition

While no significance testing was performed, the proportion of “everyday,” “occasional,” and “should not be sold” items available on menus at baseline and 15-month follow-up were similar for the intervention and control schools ( Table 3 ).

Of the 4 intervention schools, 3 had 99% (1256/1269 items) of their menu labeled correctly during the 15-month intervention period. The remaining school removed all of their labels in the last 12 weeks of the intervention, resulting in 81% fidelity across the 15-month intervention period.

Principal Results

This is the first study to assess the long-term effectiveness of an intervention embedded within an online lunch ordering system for high school students and is one of few studies to assess the long-term effectiveness of food choice architecture interventions more broadly [ 10 , 23 , 24 ]. The Click & Crunch High Schools cluster RCT found that intervention students, relative to control, ordered significantly more healthy “everyday” items and significantly fewer “less healthy” items from baseline to 15-month follow-up. There were no between-group differences over time in the average energy, saturated fat, sugar, and sodium content of high school student online lunch orders. This study found that the online canteen revenue for both groups increased over 15 months, however, the revenue in the intervention group grew more slowly than the control group. These findings were surprising, given other trials in the school food setting have found no differences between groups in revenue [ 25 - 27 ].

Comparison With Prior Work

While there is limited research to draw direct comparisons of this study, systematic reviews of the school setting have found that very few studies have assessed the long-term effectiveness of nutrition interventions in high schools [ 24 , 28 ]. A systematic review by Mingay and colleagues [ 24 ] found that only 6 of 35 studies assessed the long-term effect (≥12 months) of school meal interventions on the selection or purchase of healthier foods by high school students. Similar to our study, the review found mixed evidence for studies that included multiple dietary outcomes (eg, nutrients vs food groups) in their assessment of long-term effectiveness. In contrast to our study, the review found that shorter interventions (<3 months) had a greater effect on dietary outcomes for high school students [ 24 ]. Contrary to these review findings, our study found that there was a greater magnitude of effect at 15-months compared to the 2-month follow-up (previously reported) [ 13 ]. For example, at 2 months the Click & Crunch High School intervention was effective in increasing “everyday” items (+5.5%, P <.001) and decreasing “should not be sold” (–4.4%, P <.001) items purchased by students, with no difference in the purchase of “occasional” items (–1.2%, P =.47) [ 13 ]. At the 15-month follow-up, the magnitude of effect was greater than that observed at 2 months and the decrease in “occasional” items purchased was now significant (15-months: everyday +11.5%, P <.001; occasional –5.4%, P =.007; should not be sold –6%, P <.001). The increase in effect size over time may in part be explained by the high intervention fidelity, the intervention type (choice architecture vs food provision), and the number of strategies employed in this trial. Furthermore, the greater length of time that students were exposed to the intervention may have increased the likelihood of habitual patterns in the purchasing of more healthy foods. The sustained intervention effectiveness may also be attributable to the precommitment involved with “preordering,” which may prevent impulse purchasing of “less healthy” foods due to hunger-based cues [ 10 ].

Although this is the first RCT to describe the long-term effectiveness of an online choice architecture intervention in the high school setting (enrolling students aged ~12-18 years) a similar pattern of results has been found in related food service settings [ 29 , 30 ]. For example, a longitudinal study undertaken with adults in a large hospital cafeteria found that a 2-year choice architecture intervention involving traffic light labeling, product placement, and promotion increased the sale of “healthy” items by 5% and decreased the sale of unhealthy items by 3% ( P <.001). In the primary school setting (aged 5-12 years), the same Click & Crunch intervention was found to be effective at improving healthy food purchases by primary school students at 18 months (+3.8% “everyday” and –2.6% “less healthy” items purchased) [ 29 ]. Such findings demonstrate the potential merit of the Click & Crunch intervention on improving the nutritional quality of both primary and high school student online lunch purchases over both the short and longer term and challenge the previously held notion that choice architecture interventions may attenuate over time due to their “novelty effect” or “label fatigue” experienced by end users [ 10 ].

Broader Implications of This Research

The findings of this trial may have broader relevance to the online food ordering systems more generally. The World Health Organization has identified the need to leverage online food delivery systems for public health benefits [ 31 ]. This is the first trial to embed public health nutrition strategies within online food ordering systems for adolescents. With the exponential rise in related meal delivery app use particularly by adolescents and young adults (aged >15 years) [ 32 ], these research findings are likely to be of interest to policy makers investigating how to leverage such systems for public health benefit.

Strengths and Limitations

This cluster RCT had several strengths, including the robust trial design, objectively collected purchase data, and the use of a real-world online lunch ordering system to deliver simple choice architecture strategies. Importantly, it is one of few studies assessing the long-term effects on food purchase or consumption of a choice architecture intervention and the first to do so in the high school setting. Despite this, this study had several limitations. In addition to those already discussed in the 2-month follow-up [ 13 ], this study did not assess intervention costs or acceptability which are key determinants of intervention scalability [ 33 ]. Therefore, to support public health decision-making regarding the scalability of these interventions, future research that explores the acceptability of the intervention to end users (high school canteen managers and students) and intervention costs including cost-effectiveness may be warranted. Furthermore, as this study did not find differences in nutrient outcomes (energy, saturated fat, sugar, and sodium), future research may be required to understand the differential effect of alternate menu labeling systems (eg, kJ labeling) on nutrient-based outcomes. Finally, as outlined in the 2-month follow-up [ 13 ], to achieve population-wide improvements in adolescent nutrition this intervention should be considered in addition to broader public health nutrition strategies that reach both users and nonusers of online canteens in the high school setting.

Conclusions

Despite the limitations, this is the first RCT to explore the long-term effectiveness of a choice architecture intervention embedded within an online canteen targeting high-school students and one of only a few choice architecture interventions delivered in the high-school setting. The findings suggest that there are long-term effects of up to 15 months after intervention commencement, including a significant increase in healthy “everyday” items and a significant reduction in less healthy “occasional” and “should not be sold” items. This provides valuable evidence about the potential long-term effect of choice architecture interventions delivered via online canteens on adolescent school lunch ordering and may be useful to policy makers interested in improving adolescent diet within the high school setting. Further research is required to determine the feasibility of disseminating such interventions to schools at scale, and if these effects transfer to other online food environments targeting different end users (ie, adults and health care workers) such as workplaces, hospital settings, and the fast food sector.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Flexischools, the research advisory group, and the participating schools, canteen managers, and canteen users. This research was funded by the National Heart Foundation of Australia (102809). RW is supported by a Heart Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship (102156) and Cancer Institute NSW Early Career Fellowship (2021/ECF1355). LW receives salary support from a National Health and Medical Research Council Investigator Grant Fellowship (APP1197022). RS is supported by a Medical Research Future Fund Investigator Grant (APP1194768). SLY is supported by a National Heart Foundation Future Leader Fellowship (106654). The funders had no role in the conduct of the trial or the analysis or interpretation of findings. The provider (Flexischools) was selected through a competitive tender process. Flexischools is a commercial organization that provided the online canteen ordering infrastructure to schools that were included in this study. Flexischools had no role in this study’s design, data analysis, data interpretation, or writing of this paper.

Data Availability

The data sets generated during or analyzed for this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request, pending ethics approval.

Authors' Contributions

RW conceived this study. TD and RW developed the methodology. CL conducted the formal analysis. TD, TC-M, RW, and HL conducted research. CL, TC-M, and TD curated data. TD and JJ led the writing of this paper with all authors contributing to paper revisions. LW, SLY, RS, and RW provided supervision. RW acquired funding. All authors read and approved the final paper.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

CONSORT eHEALTH checklist.

• Champion KE, Chapman C, Gardner LA, Sunderland M, Newton NC, Smout S, et al. Lifestyle risks for chronic disease among Australian adolescents: a cross-sectional survey. Med J Aust. 2022;216(3):156-157. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Mayne SL, Virudachalam S, Fiks AG. Clustering of unhealthy behaviors in a nationally representative sample of U.S. children and adolescents. Prev Med. 2020;130:105892. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Benetou V, Kanellopoulou A, Kanavou E, Fotiou A, Stavrou M, Richardson C, et al. Diet-related behaviors and diet quality among school-aged adolescents living in Greece. Nutrients. 2020;12(12):3804. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Khalid S, Williams CM, Reynolds SA. Is there an association between diet and depression in children and adolescents? A systematic review. Br J Nutr. 2016;116(12):2097-2108. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Dutch DC, Golley RK, Johnson BJ. Diet quality of Australian children and adolescents on weekdays versus weekend days: a secondary analysis of the national nutrition and physical activity survey 2011-2012. Nutrients. 2021;13(11):4128. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Todd AS, Street SJ, Ziviani J, Byrne NM, Hills AP. Overweight and obese adolescent girls: the importance of promoting sensible eating and activity behaviors from the start of the adolescent period. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12(2):2306-2329. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Craigie AM, Lake AA, Kelly SA, Adamson AJ, Mathers JC. Tracking of obesity-related behaviours from childhood to adulthood: a systematic review. Maturitas. 2011;70(3):266-284. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Hunter D, Giyose B, PoloGalante A, Tartanac F, Bundy D, Mitchell A, et al. Schools as a system to improve nutrition: a new statement for school-based food and nutrition interventions. United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition. 2017. URL: https://www.unscn.org/uploads/web/news/document/School-Paper-EN-WEB-8oct.pdf [accessed 2024-02-21]
• Clinton-McHarg T, Delaney T, Lamont H, Lecathelinais C, Yoong SL, Wolfenden L, et al. A cross-sectional study of the nutritional quality of New South Wales high school student food and drink purchases made via an online canteen ordering system. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4327. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Chambers T, Segal A, Sassi F. Interventions using behavioural insights to influence children's diet-related outcomes: a systematic review. Obes Rev. 2021;22(2):e13152. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Ensaff H, Homer M, Sahota P, Braybrook D, Coan S, McLeod H. Food choice architecture: an intervention in a secondary school and its impact on students' plant-based food choices. Nutrients. 2015;7(6):4426-4437. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Delaney T, Wolfenden L, Wyse R. Online food delivery systems and their potential to improve public health nutrition: a response to 'a narrative review of online food delivery in Australia'. Public Health Nutr. 2023;26(1):273-274. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Delaney T, Yoong SL, Lamont H, Lecathelinais C, Wolfenden L, Clinton-McHarg T, et al. The efficacy of a multi-strategy choice architecture intervention on improving the nutritional quality of high school students' lunch purchases from online canteens (click and crunch high schools): a cluster randomized controlled trial. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2022;19(1):120. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Dave JM. Assessing long-term impact of dietary interventions: important but challenging. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;109(1):5-6. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Yavuz HM, van Ijzendoorn MH, Mesman J, van der Veek S. Interventions aimed at reducing obesity in early childhood: a meta-analysis of programs that involve parents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2015;56(6):677-692. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Prowse R, Carsley S. Digital interventions to promote healthy eating in children: umbrella review. JMIR Pediatr Parent. 2021;4(4):e30160. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• A cluster randomised controlled trial of the impact of a multi-strategy behavioural intervention on the nutritional quality of secondary school student food purchases from online canteens. Open Science Framework. 2020. URL: https://osf.io/h8zfr/ [accessed 2024-02-21]
• Reilly KL, Nathan N, Wiggers J, Yoong SL, Wolfenden L. Scale up of a multi-strategic intervention to increase implementation of a school healthy canteen policy: findings of an intervention trial. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):860. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Dayan E, Bar-Hillel M. Nudge to nobesity II: menu positions influence food orders. Judgm Decis Mak. 2011;6(4):333-342. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• The NSW Healthy School Canteen Strategy: Food and Drink Criteria (4th Edition). St Leonards, Australia. NSW Ministry of Health; 2020.
• FoodFinder. Healthy food finder. NSW Government. URL: https://www.foodfinder.health.nsw.gov.au [accessed 2024-02-21]
• FoodSwitch. The George Institute for Global Health. URL: https://www.foodswitch.com.au/ [accessed 2024-02-21]
• Metcalfe JJ, Ellison B, Hamdi N, Richardson R, Prescott MP. A systematic review of school meal nudge interventions to improve youth food behaviors. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2020;17(1):77. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Mingay E, Hart M, Yoong S, Palazzi K, D'Arcy E, Pursey KM, et al. The impact of modifying food service practices in secondary schools providing a routine meal service on student's food behaviours, health and dining experience: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2022;14(17):3640. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Delaney T, Wyse R, Yoong SL, Sutherland R, Wiggers J, Ball K, et al. Cluster randomized controlled trial of a consumer behavior intervention to improve healthy food purchases from online canteens. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017;106(5):1311-1320. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• French SA, Story M, Fulkerson JA, Hannan P. An environmental intervention to promote lower-fat food choices in secondary schools: outcomes of the TACOS study. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(9):1507-1512. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Wolfenden L, Nathan N, Janssen LM, Wiggers J, Reilly K, Delaney T, et al. Multi-strategic intervention to enhance implementation of healthy canteen policy: a randomised controlled trial. Implement Sci. 2017;12(1):6. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Durão S, Wilkinson M, Davids EL, Gerritsen A, Kredo T. Effects of policies or interventions that influence the school food environment on children's health and nonhealth outcomes: a systematic review. Nutr Rev. 2024;82(3):332-360. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Wyse R, Delaney T, Stacey F, Lecathelinais C, Ball K, Zoetemeyer R, et al. Long-term Effectiveness of a multistrategy behavioral intervention to increase the nutritional quality of primary school students' online lunch orders: 18-month follow-up of the Click and Crunch cluster randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res. 2021;23(11):e31734. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Thorndike AN, Riis J, Sonnenberg LM, Levy DE. Traffic-light labels and choice architecture: promoting healthy food choices. Am J Prev Med. 2014;46(2):143-149. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Slide to order: a food systems approach to meals delivery apps: WHO European Office for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases. World Health Organization. 2021. URL: https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/WHO-EURO-2021-4360-44123-62247 [accessed 2024-02-21]
• Partridge SR, Gibson AA, Roy R, Malloy JA, Raeside R, Jia SS, et al. Junk food on demand: a cross-sectional analysis of the nutritional quality of popular online food delivery outlets in Australia and New Zealand. Nutrients. 2020;12(10):3107. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Milat AJ, King L, Bauman AE, Redman S. The concept of scalability: increasing the scale and potential adoption of health promotion interventions into policy and practice. Health Promot Int. 2013;28(3):285-298. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]

Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 21.07.23; peer-reviewed by S Beresford; comments to author 25.09.23; revised version received 01.10.23; accepted 30.01.24; published 19.03.24.

©Tessa Delaney, Jacklyn Jackson, Christophe Lecathelinais, Tara Clinton-McHarg, Hannah Lamont, Sze Lin Yoong, Luke Wolfenden, Rachel Sutherland, Rebecca Wyse. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 19.03.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

Physical Review B

Covering condensed matter and materials physics.

• Collections
• Editorial Team

Detection of the chirality of twisted bilayer graphene by the optical absorption

Xin-miao qiu, ning yang, weidong chu, and jie-yun yan, phys. rev. b 109 , 125419 – published 18 march 2024.

• No Citing Articles
• INTRODUCTION
• RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Twisted bilayer graphene possesses intrinsic chirality, which has received less attention among the extensive research conducted on twistronics. In this paper, the optical absorption theory beyond the common linear perturbation is developed with more sophisticated light-electron interactions considered. Numerical calculations based on the theory found that reducing the twisted angle produces a redshift of absorption in the high-frequency range, while increasing absorption strength in the low-frequency domain, which can be further significantly enhanced when applying an interlayer bias. More importantly, the absorption spectroscopy is shown to be an effective way to detect both the chirality and the anisotropy of the twisted bilayer structure.

• Received 27 November 2023
• Revised 7 January 2024
• Accepted 4 March 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.109.125419

©2024 American Physical Society

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

• Research Areas
• Physical Systems

Authors & Affiliations

• 1 School of Science, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China
• 2 Institute of Applied Physics and Computational Mathematics, Beijing 100088, China
• 3 National Key Laboratory of Computational Physics, Beijing 100088, China
• 4 State Key Laboratory of Information Photonics and Optical Communications, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China
• * Corresponding author: [email protected]

Article Text (Subscription Required)

References (subscription required).

Vol. 109, Iss. 12 — 15 March 2024

Access Options

• Buy Article »
• Log in with individual APS Journal Account »
• Log in with a username/password provided by your institution »
• Get access through a U.S. public or high school library »

Authorization Required

Other options.

• Buy Article »
• Find an Institution with the Article »

Download & Share

Diagram of TBG. (a) The schematics of optical absorption for either the right and the left circularly polarized light passing through the chiral TBG. (b) The moiré pattern of the TBG lattice. (c) The first Brillouin zone of TBG, where a 1 , a 2 are the basis vectors in real space, and b 1 and b 2 are the reciprocal lattice vectors. Γ ,   K , and M are high-symmetry points.

The energy bands of the TBG system in a series of twisted angles. (a)  21 . 8 ∘ . (b)  13 . 17 ∘ . (c)  9 . 43 ∘ . (d)  7 . 34 ∘ .

Polar diagram of light absorption of 21 . 8 ∘ TBG for 514 nm light. The angle is the polarization angle, whose zero point is defined as shown of the lattice in the background.

Optical absorption of TBG at different twisted angles at the higher- and lower-energy range of light.

(a) The energy band structure around the K point and (b) the optical absorption in the low-energy domain of 21 . 8 ∘ TBG subjected to different interlayer electric fields.

CD spectrum of TBG. The insets are diagrams of the twisting direction of TBG. θ represents the twisted angle of the upper layer relative to the bottom layer along the direction of incident light.

Sign up to receive regular email alerts from Physical Review B

• Forgot your username/password?
• Create an account

Article Lookup

Paste a citation or doi, enter a citation.