contingency theory of leadership case study

Browse Topics
Executive Committee
Affiliated Faculty
Harvard Negotiation Project
Great Negotiator
American Secretaries of State Project
Awards, Grants, and Fellowships
Negotiation Programs
Mediation Programs
One-Day Programs
In-House Training and Custom Programs
In-Person Programs
Online Programs
Advanced Materials Search
Contact Information
The Teaching Negotiation Resource Center Policies
Frequently Asked Questions
Negotiation Journal
Harvard Negotiation Law Review
Working Conference on AI, Technology, and Negotiation
Free Reports and Program Guides

Free Videos

Upcoming Events
Past Events
Event Series
Our Mission
Keyword Index

contingency theory of leadership case study

PON – Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School - https://www.pon.harvard.edu

Team-Building Strategies: Building a Winning Team for Your Organization

Discover how to build a winning team and boost your business negotiation results in this free special report, Team Building Strategies for Your Organization, from Harvard Law School.

The Contingency Theory of Leadership: A Focus on Fit

The contingency theory of leadership diverges from many other leadership theories in its assertion that leaders should fill roles that best suit their natural inclinations rather than trying to adapt their style to the situation. Here’s a closer look at this intriguing and enduring leadership theory.

By Katie Shonk — on March 21st, 2024 / Leadership Skills

When choosing our personal leadership style, we have many different models to choose from, including participative leadership , charismatic leadership , directive leadership , authoritarian leadership , paternalistic leadership , and servant leadership theory . Each leadership theory promotes a particular approach to running organizations, from involving employees fully in decisions to handing down directives. By contrast, the contingency theory of leadership argues that rather than adapting their style to the organization, leaders should fill roles based on how well they “match” the situation. Let’s take a closer look at the contingency theory of leadership .

What Is the Contingency Theory of Leadership ?

The contingency theory of leadership , which emerged from numerous scholars in the 1960s, is rooted in the belief that earlier management theories had neglected the influence of situational factors, or contingencies, on organizations. Examples of contingencies include the state of the economy, the availability of trained labor, the organization’s culture, government policies and laws, the effects of climate change, and other factors. In a 1995 paper , Roya Ayman, Martin M. Chemers, and Fred Fiedler write that two main factors contribute to effective leadership: (1) attributes of the leader and (2) the degree to which the situation gives the leader power, control, and influence.

Claim your FREE copy: Real Leaders Negotiate

If you aspire to be a great leader, not just a boss, start here: Download our FREE Special Report, Real Leaders Negotiate: Understanding the Difference between Leadership and Management , from Harvard Law School.

In particular, the contingency theory of leadership distinguishes between leaders who are task oriented vs. relationship oriented. Task-oriented leaders focus primarily on ensuring that the tasks needed to meet particular goals are completed well and on time. These leaders tend to have a more autocratic, authoritarian, or directive leadership style. They also tend to manage projects effectively, but they can stifle creativity and leave employees feeling uninspired. Relationship-oriented leaders, by contrast, focus on building strong, lasting relationships with their employees and prioritize a healthy work culture. These leaders tend to have highly motivated, engaged employees, but tasks may run late and over budget.

Rather than valuing one of these leadership styles over the other, the contingency theory of leadership asserts that leaders with different styles will succeed based on the level of control they have over the situation—known as situational control .

Situational control has three components, according to Ayman and colleagues:

Leader-member relations: the amount of cohesiveness in the work team and the team’s support for the leader. “Leader-member relations is the most important aspect of the situation,” they write, “because if the leader lacks group support, energy is diverted to controlling the group rather than toward planning, problem-solving, and productivity.”
Task structure: the clarity and certainty in tasks, goals, and procedures that allow leaders to confidently guide group activities. The more predictable and certain a task is, the greater the leader’s sense of situational control.
Position power: the amount of administrative authority that an organization grants a leader. Like task structure, position power contributes to a leader’s perceived situational control.

Task-oriented leaders will be more successful in situations where they have high or low control, and leaders who are relationship oriented will be more successful in situations where they have moderate control, write Ayman and colleagues.

What Contingencies Matter?

In a chapter on the contingency theory of leadership in the Handbook of Leadership Theory and Practice , Jay Lorsch posits that leaders’ personalities and style are shaped at a young age and difficult to change. As such, he argues, “the most important benefit of a modern contingency theory would be to enable individual leaders and those who select them to understand clearly what qualities leaders will need to succeed in different situations.” That is, leaders can be chosen to match the existing demands of the organization.

Lorsch notes several contingencies that affect the ideal type of leader for an organization:

Followers’ expectations of their leaders , such as the degree to which leaders are expected to be involved in decisions and provide direction; their level of technical or professional competence; and the degree to which they bond with followers.
Organizational complexity , including the size of the organization, which affects many factors, including the levers of power and influence available to leaders and the relative difficulty of conveying one’s message, competence, and charisma.
International differences. Operating in a single location makes it easier for leaders to be known by their followers and to project their competence than operating in multiple, far-flung locations. Some leaders may excel at cross-cultural communication, while others will be challenged by it.
The organization’s tasks. The work of organizations tends to range from routine and repetitive (such as manufacturing established products) to innovative and novel (such as launching untested products). When tasks are certain and straightforward, a more directive leadership style is more effective; when tasks are uncertain, a more participative leadership style would be more suitable.

In sum, the contingency theory of leadership emphasizes the value of ensuring the right “fit” among leaders, employees, and the organization as a whole, rather than assuming that leaders will be able to adapt their skills and tendencies to the demands of the situation.

What pros and cons do you see in the contingency theory of leadership when applied to the daily life of organizations?

Advantages and Disadvantages of Leadership Styles: Uncovering Bias and Generating Mutual Gains
Servant Leadership and Warren Buffett’s Giving Pledge
How to Negotiate in Cross-Cultural Situations
Counteracting Negotiation Biases Like Race and Gender in the Workplace
The Trait Theory of Leadership

Click here to cancel reply.

Negotiation and Leadership

Learn More about Negotiation and Leadership

NEGOTIATION MASTER CLASS

Learn More about Harvard Negotiation Master Class

Negotiation Essentials Online

Learn More about Negotiation Essentials Online

Beyond the Back Table: Working with People and Organizations to Get to Yes

Download Program Guide: March 2024
Register Online: March 2024
Learn More about Beyond the Back Table

Beyond the Back Table Spring 2024 Program Guide

Select Your Free Special Report

Negotiation and Leadership Fall 2024 Program Guide
Negotiation Essentials Online (NEO) Spring 2024 Program Guide
Beyond the Back Table Spring 2024 Program Guide
Negotiation Master Class May 2024 Program Guide
Negotiation and Leadership Spring 2024 Program Guide
Make the Most of Online Negotiations
Managing Multiparty Negotiations
Getting the Deal Done
Salary Negotiation: How to Negotiate Salary: Learn the Best Techniques to Help You Manage the Most Difficult Salary Negotiations and What You Need to Know When Asking for a Raise
Overcoming Cultural Barriers in Negotiation: Cross Cultural Communication Techniques and Negotiation Skills From International Business and Diplomacy

Teaching Negotiation Resource Center

Teaching Materials and Publications

Stay Connected to PON

Preparing for negotiation.

Understanding how to arrange the meeting space is a key aspect of preparing for negotiation. In this video, Professor Guhan Subramanian discusses a real world example of how seating arrangements can influence a negotiator’s success. This discussion was held at the 3 day executive education workshop for senior executives at the Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School.

Guhan Subramanian is the Professor of Law and Business at the Harvard Law School and Professor of Business Law at the Harvard Business School.

Articles & Insights

For Sellers, The Anchoring Effects of a Hidden Price Can Offer Advantages
BATNA Examples—and What You Can Learn from Them
Taylor Swift: Negotiation Mastermind?
Power and Negotiation: Advice on First Offers
The Good Cop, Bad Cop Negotiation Strategy
The Importance of Negotiation in Business and Your Career
Negotiation in Business: Starbucks and Kraft’s Coffee Conflict
Negotiation Examples in Real Life: Buying a Home
How to Negotiate a Business Deal
Negotiations in the News: Lessons for Business Negotiators
How to Maintain Your Power While Engaging in Conflict Resolution
Conflict-Management Styles: Pitfalls and Best Practices
Causes of Conflict: When Taboos Create Trouble
Mediation and the Conflict Resolution Process
Managing Expectations in Negotiations
Negotiating Change During the Covid-19 Pandemic
AI Negotiation in the News
Crisis Communication Examples: What’s So Funny?
Crisis Negotiation Skills: The Hostage Negotiator’s Drill
Police Negotiation Techniques from the NYPD Crisis Negotiations Team
Managing Difficult Employees, and Those Who Just Seem Difficult
How to Deal with Difficult Customers
Negotiating with Difficult Personalities and “Dark” Personality Traits
Consensus-Building Techniques
Ethics in Negotiations: How to Deal with Deception at the Bargaining Table
Dealmaking and the Anchoring Effect in Negotiations
Negotiating Skills: Learn How to Build Trust at the Negotiation Table
How to Counter Offer Successfully With a Strong Rationale
Negotiation Techniques: The First Offer Dilemma in Negotiations
5 Dealmaking Tips for Closing the Deal
Alternative Dispute Resolution Examples: Restorative Justice
Choose the Right Dispute Resolution Process
Union Strikes and Dispute Resolution Strategies
What Is an Umbrella Agreement?
What is Dispute System Design?
Top 10 International Business Negotiation Case Studies
Hard Bargaining in Negotiation
Prompting Peace Negotiations
Political Negotiation: Negotiating with Bureaucrats
Top International Negotiation Examples: The East China Sea Dispute
What Makes a Good Mediator?
Why is Negotiation Important: Mediation in Transactional Negotiations
The Mediation Process and Dispute Resolution
Negotiations and Logrolling: Discover Opportunities to Generate Mutual Gains
How Mediation Can Help Resolve Pro Sports Disputes
5 Types of Negotiation Skills
5 Tips for Improving Your Negotiation Skills
10 Negotiation Failures
When a Job Offer is “Nonnegotiable”
In Negotiation, How Much Do Personality and Other Individual Differences Matter?
Ethics and Negotiation: 5 Principles of Negotiation to Boost Your Bargaining Skills in Business Situations
10 Negotiation Training Skills Every Organization Needs
Trust in Negotiation: Does Gender Matter?
Use a Negotiation Preparation Worksheet for Continuous Improvement
Collaborative Negotiation Examples: Tenants and Landlords
Renegotiate Salary to Your Advantage
How to Counter a Job Offer: Avoid Common Mistakes
Salary Negotiation: How to Ask for a Higher Salary
How to Ask for a Salary Increase
Setting Standards in Negotiations
Asynchronous Learning: Negotiation Exercises to Keep Students Engaged Outside the Classroom
Planning for Cyber Defense of Critical Urban Infrastructure
New Simulation: Negotiating a Management Crisis
New Great Negotiator Case and Video: Christiana Figueres, former UNFCCC Executive Secretary
Download Your Next Mediation Video
How to Win at Win-Win Negotiation
Labor Negotiation Strategies
How to Create Win-Win Situations
For NFL Players, a Win-Win Negotiation Contract Only in Retrospect?
Win-Lose Negotiation Examples

PON Publications

Negotiation Data Repository (NDR)
New Frontiers, New Roleplays: Next Generation Teaching and Training
Negotiating Transboundary Water Agreements
Learning from Practice to Teach for Practice—Reflections From a Novel Training Series for International Climate Negotiators
Insights From PON’s Great Negotiators and the American Secretaries of State Program
Gender and Privilege in Negotiation

Remember Me This setting should only be used on your home or work computer.

Lost your password? Create a new password of your choice.

Advisory boards aren’t only for executives. Join the LogRocket Content Advisory Board today →

Product Management
Solve User-Reported Issues
Find Issues Faster
Optimize Conversion and Adoption

Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership: Definition, examples

If you’re seeking the optimal way to guide your team and boost employee productivity, you might find yourself overwhelmed by the multitude of theories on the best leadership style. It can be challenging to discern which approach is truly the most effective. However, contingency theory proposes that there isn’t a single “best” leadership style — rather, the ideal approach depends on the specific situation.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory Of Leadership: Definition, Examples

Contingency theory prompts managers to consider various aspects of their employees and the current circumstances. Equipped with this understanding, you can modify your leadership style to elicit the most positive response from their team members.

Contingency theory definition

The core premise of contingency theory is that there’s no universally correct way to lead a team or make decisions. Instead, it advocates for a strategy that’s flexible and adaptable to the situation at hand.

Leaders who embrace contingency theory adjust their leadership style based on factors such as interpersonal relationships within the workplace or feedback from employees.

Origins of contingency theory

Contingency theory was first introduced by Fred Fiedler , a prominent researcher in organizational psychology during the 20th century. Rather than categorizing leaders as either bad or good, Fiedler’s contingency theory emphasized aligning necessary leadership traits with specific challenges.

Fiedler identified leaders as either relationship-oriented or task-oriented, asserting that success in leadership depended on how favorable the situation was. In essence, contingency theory suggests that numerous variables can alter the requirements of a scenario. Consequently, leaders need to adapt their style or delegate tasks to individuals with suitable skill sets to navigate these challenges effectively.

Advantages of adopting contingency theory

Contingency theory presents several advantages for managers. Given that product managers often collaborate with cross-functional teams , it’s crucial to understand how to effectively respond to a range of personalities and employee needs. Contingency theory can introduce the necessary level of adaptability for diverse situations.

Some other benefits include:

Self-reflection — Contingency theory fosters self-reflection in leadership styles
Situation focus — It tends to focus on the situation rather than the individual leader
Leadership determination — It offers a straightforward way to determine who might be the best leader for a given situation
Team awareness — It promotes awareness of team members and the situation
Guidance — It provides clear guidance on what factors to consider when choosing a leadership style

4 types of contingency theory

Over time, four distinct contingency theories have been developed. While they all adhere to basic principles, each one exhibits slight variations.

Fiedler model

The Fiedler model is the original contingency theory. To apply it, a leader must possess situational awareness and understand their own leadership style.

The Fiedler model uses a scale known as the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) as a guide to evaluate a coworker they find most challenging to work with:

Fiedler's Contingency Theory Of Leadership

A high score indicates that the leader is an HPC leader with a strong tendency toward being relationship-oriented — ideal for situations like conflict management and morale building. Conversely, a low score suggests that the leader is an LPC leader who is more task-oriented. These leaders are better suited for project management and logistical tasks.

Once you’ve identified your leadership style, it’s time to assess situational favorableness. This is determined by three variables that significantly influence a product manager’s ability to lead effectively:

Leader-member relations — The extent to which a manager is liked by their team
Task structure — The degree of organization of a task or process and whether it’s understood by the team
Leader-position power — The amount of formal authority a manager has over their work

These characteristics determine situational favorableness. More favorable situations require task-oriented leaders, while less favorable ones benefit from relationship-oriented leaders.

Situational leadership model

Unlike Fiedler’s model, the situational leadership model allows leaders greater flexibility in adapting their approach based on circumstances. It focuses on the team’s maturity before determining an appropriate leadership style:

Maturity often refers to aspects such as team members’ experience, autonomy, willingness to take responsibility, confidence, and capability. This model outlines four leadership styles:

Delegating style — Ideal for experienced and capable team members; this style involves assigning tasks or leading projects
Participating style — Used when building confidence in team members; this style often involves one-on-one mentoring sessions where ideas are shared and collaboration occurs
Selling style — Designed for team members who lack motivation or initiative; this style aims at persuading team members to complete their tasks
Telling style — Beneficial for inexperienced team members; this approach involves giving directions and closely supervising them until they mature

Path-goal model

The Path-Goal model centers around employees and their individual goals. Leaders assist their team members in developing daily, weekly, or career goals and then collaborate with them to achieve those objectives. The aim of the Path-Goal model is to enhance employee motivation and productivity by fostering job satisfaction:

This approach requires leaders to be highly adaptable since they need to tailor their leadership style according to each individual’s needs. Leaders also need awareness of their employees’ skill sets and what areas may require coaching for success.

Over 200k developers and product managers use LogRocket to create better digital experiences

There are four different leadership styles within the Path-Goal model:

Directive clarifying leader — This type of leader provides explicit instructions on specific tasks they want their team members to accomplish. Teams with ambiguous or unstructured roles may benefit most from this type of leadership
Achievement-oriented leader — Leaders who manage confident high-achievers may set high expectations and goals while encouraging autonomy at work
Participative leader — These leaders solicit feedback from employees before making decisions — typically effective in small teams or when employees have vested interest in outcomes
Supportive leader — Alongside productivity concerns, supportive leaders care about employees’ well-being and mental health — taking into account individual employee preferences

Decision-making model

The decision-making model focuses on how decisions are made, which ultimately determines the relationship between a leader and their team members:

This model outlines five leadership styles:

Autocratic (A1) — The leader makes decisions independently without input from their team
Autocratic (A2) — The leader makes decisions independently but gathers information from their team first
Consultative (C1) — The leader makes decisions independently but gathers information from individual team members first
Consultative (C2) — The leader makes decisions independently but frequently gathers information from team members before doing so
Collaborative (G2) — A group discusses the situation collectively and makes decisions together through voting

How to apply the contingency theory of management

To implement the contingency theory effectively, a certain level of self-awareness and understanding of your team members is crucial. Here are some steps to follow when applying contingency theory as a product manager:

Identify your leadership style — Use the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale test to determine whether you’re more relationship-oriented or task-oriented. It’s also beneficial to observe how you naturally react in different work situations, especially how you adapt based on the task at hand, the team members involved, and other variables
Seek feedback from your team — A potential drawback of contingency theory is that your perspective might be biased, leading you to overlook signs of an unfavorable situation. To counter this, ask your team members for their opinions on task clarity and their trust in management
Improve situational favorableness — Enhance leader-member relations through open and transparent communication. Make tasks and processes clearer and more structured, and seek opportunities to increase your authority, such as pursuing higher-level positions
Understand your employees — Knowing what your employees want to achieve in their careers is essential. As a product manager, being aware of individual employee goals and skill sets can help ensure their success
Assess your situation regularly — Numerous factors can impact your workplace, including customer demand, changes in government policies, and other unpredictable challenges. Maintaining awareness of both external factors and the internal work environment can help you decide which leadership style will best promote productivity and boost morale among employees

What does contingency theory look like in practice?

Let’s consider a practical example of how contingency theory might be applied.

Suppose you’ve just been hired as a product manager at an established company. According to Fiedler’s model, leader-member relations would initially be poor because you’re new and haven’t yet built trust with the team. The task structure is high due to the company’s established nature, but your leader-position power is low as a junior manager.

In this case, adopting a relationship-oriented leadership style could help improve relations with your new colleagues while also paving the way for advancement within the company.

What are some limitations of contingency theory?

One critique of Fiedler’s model is that it suggests a leader who excels in one situation may struggle in another. This implies that changing leaders may be necessary — an option that isn’t always feasible or desirable. It doesn’t account for the possibility that managers can adapt their leadership style according to situational needs.

To address this issue, consider exploring other types of contingency theories to identify a leadership style that suits the specific circumstances you encounter at work.

While there are various types of contingency theories with differing approaches to team management, they all share common elements. Your leadership style will need to adapt based on the task at hand, employee behaviors, and the level of authority you hold in your position.

Being a great leader requires flexibility in your leadership style. Adapting to changing circumstances can help propel projects forward and keep employees motivated.

LogRocket generates product insights that lead to meaningful action

Get your teams on the same page — try LogRocket today.

Stop guessing about your digital experience with LogRocket

Leader Spotlight: Making magic with the right SDLC model, with Trevor Riley

Trevor Riley talks about how adaptation is crucial to long-term success and how you need to adapt your software development life cycle.

Leader Spotlight: Enabling a cultural mind shift, with Nancy Wang

Nancy Wang shares how she’s spearheaded a “cultural mind shift” away from an IT plan-build-run organization to a product-centric one.

A guide to decentralized decision-making

Decentralized decision-making is the process where stakeholders distribute strategic decisions within an organization to lower-level teams.

Cumulative flow diagrams: Unraveling Kanban metrics

A cumulative flow diagram is an advanced analytic tool that represents the stability of your workflow over time.

It depends. Understanding the contingency theory of leadership

Lead with confidence and authenticity

Develop your leadership and strategic management skills with the help of an expert Coach.

contingency-theory-of-leadership-leader-coaching-employee

Jump to section

What is the contingency theory of leadership?

What does the contingency theory of leadership focus on, why is contingency theory important in leadership, 2 examples of contingency leadership theory in action, looking at the models of the contingency theory at work, how to apply the contingency theory of leadership at work.

When asked what it means to be a "good leader," what comes to mind? Do you think of certain skills or traits, or do you picture a specific person or a leader from your own life?

The truth is, the answer varies. Good leadership can’t be defined in a single person or a laundry list of personality traits. But we can, however, identify key skills and traits that great leaders share. We know that people simply aren’t born leaders. After all, skills, behaviors, and mindsets can grow and develop with the right support.

At BetterUp, we’ve studied leadership . We've studied how people have invested in developing much-needed leadership skills. Leadership skills are critical whether employees are in a managerial position or not. A person's ability to understand their own strengths, weaknesses, and style of leadership is critical to being a good leader.

We know that the contingency theory of leadership follows this school of thought. The contingency theory of leadership tells us that effective leadership depends on the situation. In simple terms, a leader could be highly effective in one situation and ineffective in another.

It might be true that leaders respond differently in certain situations. But this theory minimizes people’s ability to develop new skills and behaviors. People are capable of building new skills to adapt to new situations with the right support and resources. It might take some muscle in certain areas more than others. But human growth and transformation are more than possible.

Good leadership isn’t just about a leader’s skills. It’s about a leader’s awareness and adaptability in a specific situation. It’s more fruitful to understand our different leadership styles and build self-awareness . In other words, it’s critical that we build mental fitness to be able to recognize where we can improve.

And science tells us that when we invest in developing our leadership skills, our teams benefit, too. Our research shows that leaders who balance optimistic action with thoughtful pragmatism have higher-performing teams . The results? Teams show increased agility, team engagement, innovation, performance, and resilience.

If you’re looking for new ways to connect with your team members and grow in your career, keep reading. You'll learn more about the contingency theory of leadership and how it can help you approach leadership in a whole new light.

The contingency theory of leadership states that effective leadership is contingent upon the situation at hand. Essentially, it depends on whether an individual's leadership style befits the situation. According to this theory, someone can be an effective leader in one circumstance and an ineffective leader in another.

This theory ignores the false dichotomy that someone is either a "good" or "bad" leader. Instead, it focuses on matching the right leadership traits to the situation.

This theory of leadership accommodates the reality that success in an undertaking is often a combination of the attributes of the leader and the attributes of the challenge. "Good leadership" is contingent upon how one responds to the situation.

The very first contingency theory was developed by Austrian psychologist Fred E. Fiedler in the 1960s . Fiedler's model continues to be one of the leading contingency leadership theories.

From Fiedler's research, more modes of thinking were born:

The Situational Leadership® model, developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard in 1982
The Path-Goal model, developed by Martin Evans and Robert House in 1971
The Decision-Making model, developed by Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton in 1973

All four models present different ways to approach and apply the contingency theory of leadership. We'll dig deeper into each later in this guide. First, let's unpack the approach as a whole.

Download The Connection Crisis: Why community matters in the new world of work

Firstly, the contingency theory of leadership focuses on leadership styles . To apply this theory or any of its models, leaders must be aware of their own leadership style as well as their strengths and weaknesses. This requires honesty, self-reflection, and vulnerability for a person to identify how they’re showing up as a leader.

Acknowledging these things can be uncomfortable but can make someone a better leader in the long run.

We’ll get into leadership styles — and how they align to each of the four models — later in this article. But some of the leadership styles include:

Delegating style . Leaders who easily delegate goals, projects, and tasks to team members
Participating style . Leaders who share ideas to motivate their team members, gain buy-in, and help them build confidence and autonomy
Selling style . Leaders who "sell" their instructions and tasks to team members who may need extra motivation
Telling style . Leaders who delegate and supervise their team members who may lack experience or confidence in their roles
Supportive style . Leaders who consider their team members' personal preferences and treat well-being as important as productivity
Participative style . Leaders who work alongside their team and ask for input or feedback before making decisions
Directive-clarifying style . Leaders who give explicit tasks and instructions
Achievement-oriented style. Leaders who set high expectations and goals for their team and encourage autonomy and independence
Autocratic style . Leaders who make decisions independently
Consultative style . Leaders who consult their team members but ultimately make decisions independently
Collaborative style . Leaders who make decisions democratically

This theory focuses on the circumstances surrounding a situation or a challenge. Different models use different factors to predict what kind of leadership style would be most effective.

contingency-theory-of-leadership-manager-coaching-employee-over-project

If anything, this approach to leadership surfaces how many variables are at play in any given situation in the workplace. Only by being aware of and understanding these factors can someone be an effective leader.

Those include (but aren't limited to):

Work schedules
Work styles and paces
Task structures
Team structures
Professional and personal goals
Feedback preferences (for both giving and receiving)
Leaders' and employees' maturity levels and personality types
Relationships between and among employees and leaders
Employee morale
Company hierarchy and power levels
Company performance
Company policies and behavioral standards

(Note that you'll see some of these factors pop up in the models we discuss below.)

Consider how a football quarterback 'reads the field' before he calls a route for his offensive line. He likely has to change the play from down to down, especially as the opposing team changes their defensive line.

So, too, do factors vary within and between every employee and their employers. With so many moving parts within an organization, it's clear why a "one size fits all" approach to leadership simply can't work.

Let’s say you manage a team of four people. You’ve tasked your project management expert to take the lead on an upcoming cross-functional campaign. However, as the campaign progresses, you realize the work requires a different skill set. Many of the deliverables are focused on creating copy, design, and other sorts of creative work. Your project management person has been going back to the content marketing manager for certain asks. Yet the content marketing manager wasn’t originally a part of the project. You decide that your content marketing manager would be better equipped to help the team reach success. So, you swap out your project management expert with your content marketing lead.

Contingency theory isn't one that we at BetterUp necessarily believe in. We know that people are capable of learning, growing, and developing leadership skills .

So, it's important to understand that this theory is one that some leaders may believe in. But in reality, it's even more important to understand that people can grow and change.

Essentially, it’s critical that your leaders understand they can build skills to succeed in situations where they might feel especially challenged. We all have a sense of our strengths and weaknesses .

The contingency theory of leadership can help bring awareness to those areas of opportunity for your leaders. However, it’s important your leaders understand that just because they’re not seeing the desired outcome in certain situations doesn’t mean they can’t build the skills to succeed.

Approaching leadership with this lens allows more individuals to explore leadership in their careers and better understand themselves as well as in what situations they may be effective leaders.

Most believe that leadership exists on a spectrum, with poor leaders and great leaders. Contingency theory debunks this thought process and instead presents the idea that for every situation or challenge, there is a best-fit leadership style.

For those employees and individuals who desire to improve their leadership skills, the contingency leadership theory argues that they must look within, work to understand themselves and develop their strengths, and then approach challenges objectively to determine what (and who) can lead.

At BetterUp, we use the practice of Inner Work® . And according to our research, looking inward makes you a better leader. When leaders practice Inner Work® , teams are more engaged, more productive, and gain more clarity. We also see better work-life balance and reduced burnout, which helps support overall employee well-being.

contingency-theory-of-leadership-a-new-way-to-think-about-leadership-development

Let's review a couple of examples that illustrate the contingency theory of leadership and its models.

Example #1: Adapting to feedback preferences

Jason manages a team of writers for his company's publication. Every Friday, he holds a meeting for his writers to share their current assignments and receive feedback from their colleagues. Jason has found that this helps his team hone their writing, editing, and feedback-giving skills. He also employs the Supportive Leader style of the Path-Goal model.

A new writer joins Jason's team and immediately expresses discomfort about these Friday feedback sessions. They don't enjoy public speaking and dislike the public nature of the feedback. They prefer to receive edits via Google Docs.

Does this make Jason a bad manager? No. Yet, the contingency theory of leadership states that to remain a good and effective leader, he must adapt to his new employee's preferred feedback method. Jason can still ask his new team member to join the meeting but not feel pressured to share their work.

Example #2: Delegating a leadership responsibility to another

Four years ago, Abby founded her software company alongside two former colleagues, both of whom enjoy sales, networking, and attending and speaking at events.

In other words, her two partners are the "face of the company," while Abby enjoys staying out of the spotlight and working with her team of developers to build and improve the company's product. Abby has a Delegating Style of leadership according to the situational leadership model.

One day, Abby's cofounder surfaces an opportunity to lead a keynote presentation at a top conference for their company's industry. Unfortunately, even thinking about presenting in front of many people gives Abby anxiety.

Does Abby become a lousy leader if she turns down the speaking opportunity? No. Leaders aren't required to be natural extroverts or enjoy public speaking to lead.

Because she's cultivated a culture of delegation and trust among her team, Abby could work with one of her lead developers—someone who is also experienced in the topic but more comfortable with public speaking —to present the keynote speech instead.

There are many ways to put the contingency leadership theory into action. This section covers four distinct perspectives on contingent leadership. Each model has its defined leadership styles, but there's plenty of overlap between the styles.

Note: These models aren't designed to "diagnose" leadership styles; they're intended to identify where leaders should work with their coaches to identify how (and where) to work on certain capabilities.

Using these leadership styles as references, leaders can identify and be aware of the behaviors and mindsets they're using with their teams and where they can improve.

1. Fiedler’s contingency model

The first of the contingency leadership models were developed in the 1960s by Austrian psychologist and professor Fred Fiedler. Through years of research into the personalities and characteristics of leaders, Fiedler’s theory was that life experiences shape leadership styles .

As a result, according to this model, leadership styles tend to be fixed and near-impossible to change.

Fiedler’s contingency theory is quite simple: By comparing their natural (and fixed) leadership style to three situational factors, leaders can determine if they can be effective leaders.

First, to determine their leadership style, individuals can use the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale to describe a coworker with whom they least enjoy working.

Chart of the least preferred coworker scale ranking character traits 1 to 8

Individuals with high scores (typically ~70 or higher) are considered high LPC leaders and tend to be relationship-oriented leaders. Those with lower scores (typically ~50 or below) are considered low LPC leaders and are more likely to be task-oriented leaders.

If leaders score between 50 and 70, they can be considered both relationship- and task-oriented and need to approach situations with more subjectivity and self-reflection . (The other three models can help with this.)

As you can imagine, high LPC leaders can combat interpersonal conflict , boost team synergy and morale, and build relationships among their teams. Low LPC leaders excel at project management, organizational skills, and logistical team management .

This isn't to say that high LPC and low LPC leaders don't share some skills, but Fiedler's LPC score presents a helpful baseline for individuals wanting to better understand their different leadership styles and combat unfavorable situations.

To implement Fiedler’s model, leaders must then evaluate the situation at hand to determine how well their leadership style befits the challenge:

Leader-member relations refer to the strength of a leader’s relationship with their team and employees. Relationship strength can be determined by the level of trust and respect shared between a team and its leader. The stronger the leader-member relations, the more favorable the situation
Task structure refers to how clearly defined and organized a project's tasks are. Well-structured tasks have high task structure and vice versa. The higher the task structure, the more favorable the situation
Leader position power refers to the level of authority a leader has over their team. The higher up on a company's hierarchy or organizational structure , the more power a leader has. The higher the position of power, the more favorable the situation

The following chart developed by CEO Carl Lindberg helps compare leadership styles with these three situational variables:

chart comparing task-oriented leaders with relationship-oriented leaders on leader-member relations, task structure, position power

"The novelty with [this model] was that Fiedler stated that a leader could be effective in one situation and not in another," Lindberg shared. "A good leader is not necessarily successful when heading all types of organizations in all situations."

Who does Fiedler's model of contingency leadership theory benefit most?

While the Fiedler model is the flagship model of the contingency theory of leadership, it isn't a fit for every leader. Let's look at a few pros and cons of the theory:

2. Situational Leadership® model

Also called the "Hersey-Blanchard model," the Situational Leadership model states that individuals should adapt their leadership style to the situation at hand and the employees involved.

The model focuses on one workplace factor: the maturity level of leaders and their employees.

Experienced, autonomous employees who can make decisions independently are high maturity. Capable employees that struggle with confidence or following through are moderate maturity. Enthusiastic, receptive employees that lack basic leadership or experience are low maturity.

The Situational Leadership model presents four different leadership types for all maturity levels:

The Delegating Style of leadership is best suited for leaders who delegate goals, projects, and tasks to high-maturity employees. This leadership style also requires a healthy amount of trust between leaders and their teams . (Consider the low LPC leader in the Fiedler model.)
The Participating Style of leadership involves a give-and-take between leaders and their teams. Leaders share ideas to motivate their moderate-maturity team members and help them build the confidence to move into a high-maturity mindset.
The Selling Style of leadership refers to when leaders must "sell" their instructions to moderate-maturity employees. This type of leader often surfaces when employees lack motivation or aren't self-starters.
The Telling Style of leadership works best for teams of low-maturity employees who lack experience or foresight to determine their projects and tasks. Leaders in this style must delegate and supervise their team members, at least until they move up in maturity level.

contingency-theory-of-leadership-leader-at-team-meeting-smiling

3. Path-Goal model

The Path-Goal model says that effective leaders help their employees reach their goals. Simple enough, right?

By working with employees to determine their daily, weekly, or career goals, leaders can map the path to completing those goals and adapt their coaching leadership style to coach each employee to achieve them.

The contingency leadership theory comes into play as individuals' leadership styles will vary based on each goal path. This requires flexibility and self-awareness on the part of the leader. In other words, the leader must be aware of their employees’ goals. They must also be aware of the skills employees have — and what they must coach their employees on to reach their goals.

The Path-Goal theory emphasizes employee morale, employee engagement , satisfaction, and productivity as factors to help leaders determine what style is best for their team. This model has four primary leadership styles:

The Supportive Leader takes into account their employees' personal preferences and treats their well-being as important as their productivity. Leaders in stressful work environments may implement this approach.
The Participative Leader works alongside their team and often asks for input or feedback before making decisions. Leaders at startups, in small teams, or whose team members are personally invested in the outcome may implement this approach.
The Directive Clarifying Leader gives explicit tasks and explains how tasks should be done. Leaders of teams with ambiguous roles or unstructured tasks may implement this approach.
The Achievement - Oriented Leader sets high expectations and goals for their team and often encourages autonomy and independence at work. Leaders who manage distributed leaders or high-achieving teams may implement this approach.

4. Decision-Making model

Also known as the " Vroom-Yetton contingency model ," the Decision-Making model uses decision-making and leader-member relations to determine effective leadership.

This model presents five leadership styles:

The Autocratic (A1) leader makes decisions independently and doesn't consult others before doing so.
The Autocratic (A2) leader makes decisions independently but passively consults with team members to gather information before doing so.
The Consultative (C1) leader makes decisions independently but consults with team members individually to understand everyone’s opinions before doing so.
The Consultative (C2) leader makes decisions independently but consults with team members often, perhaps through a group discussion to gather suggestions, before doing so.
The Collaborative (G2) leader makes decisions through a democratic leadership process, often organizing a group discussion to discuss suggestions before voting for the final decision.

The contingency theory of leadership can help bring levels of awareness and education to how leadership styles manifest in the workplace. However, it's not necessarily a model that will unlock the full potential of your workforce.

At BetterUp, we've studied how leaders can grow and develop their skills (especially after they've reflected on their own areas of opportunity). Here are five ways you can help develop inclusive leaders and future-minded leaders who will have an impact.

1. Identify where you see the contingency theory of leadership showing up in your own behaviors and mindset

Pay attention to how you react to specific challenges or situations at work. Take stock of your reactions—internally and externally—and how you adapt based on whom you're working with, what you're working on, and other variables in the situation.

2. Figure out what leadership style you're leveraging for specific situations

Using the models above, determine your leadership style—or styles, as different situations may surface different responses.

Consider doing this early in your leadership role instead of waiting until a situation or challenge arises, and reevaluate your style regularly as you gain more experience, change your team or employer, or even invest in coaching.

3. Identify your ideal outcome. What skills do you need to achieve that outcome?

What kind of leader do you aspire to be? What outcomes do you hope to achieve or even expect from your team? If your team is struggling to achieve those outcomes, it may be a reflection of how effective you are as a leader.

Thankfully, leadership is all about adapting and growing into the skills you may be lacking to lead effectively. A coach can help you do this.

4. Work with your coach to develop and grow

Learning the skills needed to adapt and improve your leadership style can be tough, and you don't have to do it alone. Coaching is a surefire way to shape your leadership skills and work towards the ideal outcomes you identified above.

A leadership coach can help you become more self-aware and acknowledge the inherent complexity of leadership.

5. Commit to growing and learning

As we've discussed in this article, there's no single right approach or right set of leadership characteristics for every workplace circumstance. Instead, adopt a growth mindset and allow yourself to learn from and thrive in difficult situations.

Commit to developing skills that make you an adaptable, open-minded leader—the best kind of leader there is.

Start to develop great leaders in your organization

So, what does it mean to be a good leader?

In today's fast-paced world, being flexible and open to change is a prerequisite for success—especially for those in leadership positions. Good leadership isn't a one-size-fits-all approach—it's about taking the time to understand yourself, your team, and your workplace to determine how to be the best leader.

With BetterUp, you can invest in developing leaders that will help unlock your workforce's full potential. Help your people build the skills they need to become the leaders they can be.

Madeline Miles

Madeline is a writer, communicator, and storyteller who is passionate about using words to help drive positive change. She holds a bachelor's in English Creative Writing and Communication Studies and lives in Denver, Colorado. In her spare time, she's usually somewhere outside (preferably in the mountains) — and enjoys poetry and fiction.

Are people born leaders? Debunking the trait theory of leadership

Refine your approach with these 7 leadership theories, how to be an empathetic leader in a time of uncertainty, how leadership coaching helps leaders get (and keep) an edge, the most critical skills for leaders are fundamentally human, types of leadership styles to maximize your team's potential, 7 key leadership behaviors you must have, what is a leader, what do they do, and how do you become one, 5 top companies share their best leadership development practices, similar articles, what is a disc assessment and how can it help your team, situational leadership®: what it is and how to build it, need to move faster and smarter level up with distributed leadership, democratic leadership style: how to make it work as a team, social learning theory: bandura’s hypothesis (+ examples), how to help leaders play up their unique superpowers, learn what participative leadership is and how to practice it, stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

3100 E 5th Street, Suite 350 Austin, TX 78702

Platform Overview
Integrations
Powered by AI
BetterUp Lead
BetterUp Manage™
BetterUp Care™
Sales Performance
Diversity & Inclusion
Case Studies
Why BetterUp?
About Coaching
Find your Coach
Career Coaching
Communication Coaching
Life Coaching
News and Press
Leadership Team
Become a BetterUp Coach
BetterUp Labs
Center for Purpose & Performance
Leadership Training
Business Coaching
Contact Support
Contact Sales
Privacy Policy
Acceptable Use Policy
Trust & Security
Cookie Preferences

Harvard Business School →
Faculty & Research →
Handbook of Leadership Theory and Practice

A Contingency Theory of Leadership

Format: Print

About The Author

Jay W. Lorsch

How the Harvard Business School Changed the Way We View Organizations

A nonprofit board in transition at farrington nature linc.

June 2017 (Revised October 2017)

Uber in 2017: One Bumpy Ride

How the Harvard Business School Changed the Way We View Organizations By: Jay W. Lorsch
A Nonprofit Board in Transition at Farrington Nature Linc By: Jay Lorsch and Emily Irving
Uber in 2017: One Bumpy Ride By: Suraj Srinivasan, Jay W. Lorsch and Quinn Pitcher

Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance pp 2463–2469 Cite as

Contingency Theory of Leadership

Manuel Villoria 2
Reference work entry
First Online: 01 January 2023

20 Accesses

Contextual; Democratic and authoritarian leadership; Potestas and auctoritas in leadership; Situational

Introduction: Contingency Theory

The main purpose of this article is to summarize the main ideas and contributions of the contingency theory of leadership (CTL) and to show its usefulness for the public sector. To do that, we are going to adapt it to the special characteristics and traits of public management considered as a design science (Barzelay and Thompson 2010 ).

The most important theoretical backgrounds of the CTL are the behavioral school and McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y. According to McGregor’s thesis ( 1960 ), leadership strategies are influenced by a leader’s assumptions about human nature. A leader holding Theory X assumptions would prefer an autocratic style, whereas one holding Theory Y assumptions would prefer a more participative style. Anyway, the best style of leadership was the participatory. Later on, Blake and Mouton ( 1964 ) created the “managerial...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution .

Buying options

Available as PDF
Read on any device
Instant download
Own it forever
Available as EPUB and PDF
Durable hardcover edition
Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Adair J (1973) Action-centred leadership. McGraw-Hill, New York

Google Scholar

Barzelay M, Thompson F (2010) Back to the future: making public administration a design science. Public Adm Rev 70(1):295–297

Article Google Scholar

Benn SI, Gaus GF (1983) Public and private in social life. Sts Martin’s, New York

Blake R, Mouton J (1964) The managerial grid: the key to leadership excellence. Gulf, Houston

Cook BJ (1998) Politics, political leadership and public management. Public Adm Rev 58(3):225–231

Dahl R, Lindblom C (1976) Politics economics and welfare. University of Chicago Press, Chicago/London

Fiedler FE (1967) A theory of leadership effectiveness. Mc Graw Hill, New York

Heifetz RA (1994) Leadership without easy answers. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA

Book Google Scholar

Hersey P, Blanchard K (1977) Management of organizational behavior: utilizing human resources. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs

Lindell M, Rosenqvist G (1992) Is there a third management style? Finn J Bus Econ 3:171–198

McGregor D (1960) The human side of enterprise. McGrawHill, New York

Perry JL (1993) “Public management theory”: what is it? What should it be? In: Bozeman B (ed) Public management. Jossey Bass, San Francisco

Rainey H (1997) Understanding and managing public organizations. Jossey Bass, San Francisco

Selznick P (1949) TVA and the grass roots. University of California Press, Berkeley

Tannenbaum R, Schmidt W (1958) How to choose a leadership pattern. Har Bus Rev 36(2):95–101

Terry LD (1995) Leadership of public bureaucracies. Sage, London

Van Wart M (2003) Public sector leadership theory: an assessment. Public Adm Rev 63(2):214–228

Vroom V, Yetton PW (1967) Leadership and decision making. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh

Weber M (1984) Economía y sociedad. Fondo de Cultura Económica, México

Wilson JQ (1989) Bureaucracy: what government agencies do and why they do it. Basic Books, New York

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University King Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain

Manuel Villoria

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Manuel Villoria .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA

Ali Farazmand

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Villoria, M. (2022). Contingency Theory of Leadership. In: Farazmand, A. (eds) Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66252-3_2227

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66252-3_2227

Published : 06 April 2023

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-66251-6

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-66252-3

eBook Packages : Economics and Finance Reference Module Humanities and Social Sciences Reference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

Share this entry

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Find a journal
Track your research

Leadership Styles Portal
Leadership Styles Articles
Charismatic Leadership
Democratic Leadership
Laissez-Faire Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Leadership Theories
Leadership Advice
Communication
About the author

Learn about Resonant Leadership, Emotional Intelligence the six leadership styles and how to practically switch between the styles to become a more effective , flexible and impactful leader!

Contingency Theory of Leadership explained by a CEO

In my leadership role as a CEO, I must use a contingency theory of leadership due to the fast-changing, complex environment of today. Contingency leadership theories allow for different leadership tools for various contingencies or situations, ranging from working with a new inexperienced team, handling change, coaching when appropriate, and being more commanding when required. To be a successful leader today, you simply must use a contingency leadership theory, as previous theories are inadequate for the job.

What is the contingency theory of leadership?

The contingency theory of leadership stipulates that leaders should maximize their impact using situationally appropriate leadership styles and behaviors, depending on circumstances, people, environment, etc.

This article explains the contingency theory of leadership, its history, examples of contingency theories, and why you should start using a contingency approach in your leadership. I also provide a few examples of how I use a contingency leadership approach in my job as a CEO in real life. You can read about this and many other leadership theories in our Leadership Origins E-book .

Contingency Theory of Leadership: Background, History, Evolution

The different models of contingency theory of leadership, how is contingency theory used in leadership, contingency theory of leadership advantages and disadvantages, contingency theory of leadership example situations, contingency theory example: commanding leadership, contingency theory example: affiliative and democratic leadership, contingency theory example: visionary leadership, summary on the contingency theory of leadership.

The phenomenon of leadership has been studied in different scientific directions and by many researchers. In the 1960s, some researchers realized that the earlier trait theory of leadership and the ensuing behavioral leadership theory were insufficient. Leadership models simply had to consider the situational aspects, including the team members involved and the organization’s state. Adding situational and contingency elements increased the complexity substantially, and previous approaches to leadership could not completely keep up. This new approach to leadership, which is the contingency theory of leadership, or situational leadership theories, opened up for several new and more advanced leadership models. Bear in mind that all these theories, including trait theory and behavioral leadership theory , bring something new to the table and enable you to understand leadership better or from another perspective.

The advocates of the contingency theory of leadership believe that a person can be a good leader in one situation and fail in another. The best type of leadership depends on the environmental situation that arises in the context of a particular action or behavior [1]. In other words, the contingency leadership theory includes the situational prerequisites and effects when studying leadership success or failure. To be a good leader, you should be self-aware, objective, and adaptable and use the leadership style each situation requires. After all, a leader’s personality, behaviors, and skills should be used differently depending on the situation, the involved people, and many other factors. An obvious example is how a police officer leads the apprehension of an armed criminal differently than when comforting a lost child found in the subway. Of course you act differently depending on the situation you are experiencing. Everybody does that to a degree. One way of achieving this effect as a leader is to use different leadership styles that are meant for different situations , i.e., a leadership styles toolbox. You can find styles, trait theory, beavioral theory and many others in Leadership Origins . Here is some additional inspiration as well: 12 common leadership styles and how to select yours .

LEADERSHIP ORIGINS A 116 page E-book with articles on Great Man Theory, Trait Theory, Behavioral Theories (Lewin, Ohio, Michigan, Blake & Mouton), Contingency Theories (Fiedler, Path-Goal, Situational)

Which are the contingency leadership theories?

The contingency theories of leadership are Fiedler’s Contingency Model, Situational Leadership Model, Path-Goal theory, Vroom-Yetton Contingency Model, multiple-linkage model, the six leadership styles by Goleman, to name some of the most famous ones.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Fred Fiedler introduced what now is referred to as Fiedler’s Contingency Theory in the mid-sixties, and this was one of the first situational leadership models[2]. Fred Fiedler was an Austrian-born American psychologist that headed organizational research at the University of Washington for more than two decades before leaving in 1992. Fiedler combined several previous studies’ results and came up with a formula known as Fiedler’s Situation Leadership Model or Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership.

According to Fiedler, a leader’s contribution to performance depends on leadership behavior and the level of compliance with each situation’s circumstances. The novelty with this was that Fiedler stated that a leader could be effective in one situation and not in another. A good leader is not necessarily successful when heading all types of organizations in all situations. To cover this aspect, Fiedler included numerous leader-situation combinations that can guide leaders on how to act. (This paragraph is an extract from our Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership Article.) This new approach attracted scholars who wanted to explore leadership from this new and different angle.

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

After Fiedler’s theory, Path-Goal Theory by House, based on path-goal ideas proposed by Vroom and Gerogropolous, emerged. House submitted his Path-Goal Theory in 1971 but revised it 25 years later in 1996. This theory takes a big step further from the Fiedler model and assumes that leaders can and should adapt to different situations. There are two major assumptions in the Path-Goal theory:

Leadership behaviors are acceptable as long as they contribute to the satisfaction of the followers, either short-term or long-term
Leadership behaviors are motivated if they provide support, guidance, coaching, and other aspects to the followers as needed to drive performance and create the right atmosphere

Path-Goal focuses on leadership styles depending on the situation and the leader’s behavior while the above assumptions reaming accurate. You will start to recognize some more well-known leadership styles at this point since the four styles or behaviors that House used in his theory are directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented, which you might recognize.

The Situational Leadership Model

In 1982, Dr. Paul Hersey and Dr. Ken Blanchard published their book “Management of Organizational Behaviour: Utilizing Human Resources”. They probably didn’t realize that this book would help them become world-renowned leadership experts. The central theme of their message was a new approach to leadership, one based on relationship-building and leadership adjustment. This new approach was dubbed the Situational Leadership Model and is often thought to be the leadership model that is perfect for every situation. A Situational leader works assiduously to create meaningful connections with team members. Ultimately, the team receives leadership with the necessary leadership style to fit the organization’s current situation. The Situational Leadership Model is a contingency theory approach to leadership where a leader uses one out of four leadership styles depending on group readiness, competency, experience, and commitment. A situational leader can use telling, selling, participating, and delegating leadership styles. You can read more about this interesting contingency theory in our Situational Leadership Model article.

The contingency theory of leadership kept developing through the 1970s and 1980s, but gradually lost some of its popularity after the 1990s, when researchers began developing interest in other types of leadership theories, slightly gravitating away from the contingency approach. In the early 2000s, this shift resulted in leadership theories such as Ethical Leadership / Moral Leadership and Servant leadership theory . The 2000s also saw Daniel Goleman’s six leadership styles based on Emotional Intelligence , which also has a strong situational approach, although not as concretely and clearly defined with examples situations as earlier contingency theories of leadership.

Situational leadership and contingency theory of leadership are very much in use today, especially regarding the radical and sudden change we have seen during the last couple of years with a global pandemic, supply chain imbalances, work from home, etc. These events underline the need for situational awareness, adaptive leadership, and flexible use of leadership styles [3].

These are the contingency models of leadership [4].

Fiedler’s model says there are three important factors for “situational favorableness”: leader-member relations, task structure, and leader’s position power.
The situational leadership model (aka Hersey-Blanchard model) thinks leaders should determine which leadership style would be more effective for a particular team and situation. For this, leaders ought to choose from four leadership styles – Delegating style, Participating style, Selling style, and Telling style.
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership states that leaders should be extremely flexible in selecting a concrete style to help team members reach their individually set goals. When saying leadership styles, the model mentions The Directive Clarifying Leader, The Achievement-Oriented Leader, The Participative Leader, and The Supportive Leader.
The Decision-Making model (aka the Vroom-Yetton contingency model) proves that decision-making is the most important factor affecting the relationship between the leader and the team members. So the formers should build and maintain the relationship. In this model, there are five leadership styles, including Autocratic (A1), Autocratic (A2), Consultative (C1), Consultative (C2), and Collaborative (G2).
The Multiple-Linkage Model (developed by Gary Yukl in 1981) says that it is impossible to assess factors of a leader’s behavior on group performance separately. It is complex, consisting of Managerial behaviors, Intervening, Criterion, and Situational variables. Leaders will influence these factors in several ways, and it is related to the situation.
Cognitive Resource Theory is considered to be the reevaluation of the Fred Fiedler contingency model. It considers three main factors, such as personality, the degree of situational stress, and group-leader relations.

All these models might seem substantially different, but they are all leadership contingency theorie and most of them can be found in Leadership Origins , our e-book on leadership theories. So there is a noticeable red line seen in all models – effective leadership is contingent on the situation, task, and people involved. The leader should adopt the leadership style that results in maximum effectiveness.

Leadership effectiveness and outcomes correlate with various factors such as the scope of a project, organization, or endeavor, type and structure of the team, deadlines, tasks specifications, etc. All leaders will organize the management of these factors with some sort of personal judgment and touch. Hopefully, every leader purposely selects one or a few leadership styles based on these factors and switches when the circumstances have changed enough to justify another leadership style. In this sense, contingency theorists believe that every situation is challenging. No matter how many times a leader succeeds, no personal skill or experience would guarantee success every time, unless the leader can act differently and appropriately. Proper analysis and situational assessment, resulting in a selected leadership style approach, combined with personal skills and behaviors, simply increase the likelihood of success, making contingency theory crucial to any modern leader.

There could be situations that no leadership style a leader is familiar and skilled at will fit situations. In those situations, the leader should consider using other talented people more suitable for the situation. I will give you a personal example. As a CEO, I have a VP in my team that possesses excellent presentation skills and industry knowledge. Although I am a decent presenter, certain topics suit this VP better, rendering a stronger impact if he holds the presentation. Hence, I try to inject him on such occasions to maximize the impact of our scheduled presentations. A more complex situation is when I switched places on two VPs with different leadership approaches depending on the situational readiness in two other parts of the company. One area had been led by a very relationship-oriented VP for some time and needed more systems and structure, which the replacement could put in place. The other area had a very new team and needed strong people skills to build team commitment and recruit new members, a perfect fit for the relationship-oriented VP.

Generally, a myriad of factors affects the effectiveness of leadership and impact on the team and organization. When talking about the team, those factors might be the maturity level of the employees, relationships between coworkers, various working styles of employees, team morale, etc. ( The Situational Leadership Model does a great job at providing structure on team readiness.) Another group of factors might include the work pace, deadlines, clearly set goals or outcomes, etc. Lastly, a company’s management style and policy might play a crucial role in leadership effectiveness.

Perhaps it sounds like selecting which leadership style to use is a time-consuming and challenging task, but that is hardly the case. Once you have gotten used to various leadership styles for different types of situations and gained enough experience, the shift can become natural and fluid. I have done this for years, and you can do it too. You might not always use the most optimum leadership style , but you will for sure do a better job by adapting than by using the same constant behaviors regardless of what is going on around you.

All theories have limitations, and these are some of the advantages and disadvantages of the contingency theory of leadership.

Pros of Leadership Contingency Theory

The Contingency theory of leadership has the following advantages:

Contingency theory shifted leadership research from traits and behaviors to also include situational and team aspects.
Lots of empirical research supports the contingency theory of leadership. The situation truly matters, and a behavior-only model is inadequate.
Contingency theory underlines that there is no single ideal leadership style. This pushes leaders to be more adaptive and flexible by using multiple leadership styles , taking the situation and team members, etc., into account.
The adaptive mindset of contingency theory helps underline the importance of leaders keeping up with changes in operational and strategic environments and requirements, such as market shifts, trade flows, technological disruption, competition, etc.

Cons of Leadership Contingency Theory

The Contingency theory of leadership has the following disadvantages:

Contingency theory does not provide detailed guidance for every possible situation – but again, no leadership theory does, and contingency theory probably comes the closest.
The contingency models are more difficult to explain and understand due to their increased complexity, and learning them takes longer.
All applications of contingency leadership theory involve large amounts of subjective judgment when assessing situational criteria, making it particularly difficult for leaders with little experience or low emotional intelligence .

Let me provide you with a few concrete, practical examples of how to approach contingency theory as a leader. This chapter involves a few examples where I have used a contingency leadership approach in my job as a CEO. You can also read multiple contingency theory situation examples in our article on Fiedler’s contingency model if you are interested.

Most leadership styles are available in several contingency models of leadership under different names. Since I mostly use the six leadership styles by Goleman , I will use those in this chapter.

When immediate compliance is required or consequences are dire, the commanding leadership style can be appropriate. However, you should try to achieve the same with alternative leadership styles if possible.

A commanding leader makes all the decisions and gives orders to his or her team. Tight control and follow-up combined with high clarity in rules, roles, and expectations are key elements of Commanding leadership. This style can be efficient in low-skilled teams and when decisions must be made very quickly. This style can lead to micromanagement, which is detrimental to employee engagement, especially in highly skilled teams in complex environments. (From our article on Commanding Leadership. You can find it in our leadership styles portal or in the article about the six leadership styles by Daniel Goleman .)

I use the commanding leadership style for specific non-negotiable requirements, even if it is not my first and primary approach. We have certain ethical rules in the company where I work that we never can breach. Although I use affiliative, democratic, and visionary leadership to explain why we have those rules, how it helps the team, and discuss the consequences with people, I will not hesitate to use the commanding style if required. As a result, it is perfectly clear to all my subordinates that I will not accept any breaches of these ethical rules. I have clearly, and with emphasis, explained that such actions will not be tolerated.

I have also used commanding leadership in safety situations when I have come across unsafe conditions in factories within my control span. Do note that I gave the local managers who were with me a minute to react, but when no reaction came, I stepped in. I immediately ordered the hazardous activity to stop. I instructed the local head to get the safety representative and the Health and Safety Manager to come to the scene at once, and everyone else had to stand down and wait. Once they were all there, I outlined the severity of the situation and my disappointment in them allowing it in the first place. I told them to seize any such activities at once and find alternate ways of getting the job done.

You can read more about commanding leadership and the other styles mentioned in this example in our leadership styles portal or in the article about the six leadership styles by Daniel Goleman .

If a team member has a stress breakdown or a difficult personal situation, commanding them rarely helps, and I always use the affiliative leadership style as a first resort.

The Affiliative Leadership Style is another style among the six leadership styles by Goleman . Affiliative leadership is completely focused on the people and relationships in an organization. The leader’s primary task is to ensure harmony and friendship in the workplace. This leads to happy employees but can at the same time lead to poor performance.

Inevitably, team members will go through difficult times. On those occasions, I try to empathize, understand, and truly listen to them. Once I know the situation, we discuss how the team and I can help the team member. Note that this is not necessarily relieving the cause of the problem but perhaps helping out with some symptoms. It is not my job to be a marriage counselor, for example, but it is my job to shuffle tasks and resources around temporarily to provide an environment for team members to act effectively if they are experiencing personal problems such as relationship concerns. Typically, I try to involve other team members and discuss how we can temporarily assist the troubled individual. This could involve absorbing some of the workload, delaying some deadlines, and doing similar things to give the team member some breathing space, making this an affiliative and democratic leadership exercise. Such an arrangement must be temporary since you cannot tolerate people underperforming due to personal issues in the long term. When this is done correctly and successfully, the affiliative approach delivers several good results: the troubled team member gets the required help, and the other team members realize that they too would be helped in case they run into trouble. This emphasizes team bonding, empathy, trust, and camaraderie. If done right, that is.

You can read more about affiliative and democratic leadership in their detailed articles available in our leadership styles portal or in the article about the six leadership styles by Daniel Goleman .

I use the visionary leadership style to provide people with purpose and underline inclusion and transparency.

Visionary Leadership is when a leader inspires others to pursue through the use of a long-term vision. The Visionary Leadership style builds on participation, communication, and goal setting. A visionary leader risks tunnel vision and losing short-term focus since all efforts are focused on the long-term results.

I communicate regularly and thoroughly via town hall meetings, written updates, cascaded information , etc., so people understand the big picture, how it fits with short-term events, and where the entire organization is heading. If people understand the problems that other departments have, they will feel included, cooperate better, and be able to provide creative solutions in a much better way than if they remain uninformed. If I need to use the pacesetting leadership style temporarily, I always add visionary elements providing people with an understanding of why the pacesetting is needed, and how it connects to our common, long-term vision, that we all work to achieve.

Compare the motivation levels if someone feels they are packing boxes, or if they understand that the medical equipment they pack will help to save lives for instance. You can read more about visionary and pacesetting leadership in their detailed articles available in our leadership styles portal or in the article about the six leadership styles by Daniel Goleman .

Now that you have read this article, I hope you understand and embrace the fact that any leadership activities depend on the situation the leader and the stakeholders are in. There are multiple theories available as leadership toolboxes, where the situational leadership model and the Goleman leadership styles are some of the more modern ones.

I have heard leaders explaining their behaviors with different versions of: “This is who I am, deal with it”. This will not lead to the best outcome. I advise you to become the leader that others need you to be for them to maximize their performance, and not have others adapt to your personality. As contingency theory proves, your personality as a leader might work in some situations, but it definitely will not in all situations.

Intrapersonal Communication: Your Inner Dialogue

- Understand Your Thinking - Self-Coaching - Channel Your Thoughts - Improve Social Skills

Leadership Styles The Classics

- Learn the Lewin Styles: Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez-Faire Leadership - Understand the Experiments And Conclusions

Leadership Origins

A 116 page E-book with Leadership Theories Over The Years: From Great Man And Trait Theory To Situational Leadership Theories

Pacesetting Leadership: A CEO's Blueprint

- Master Pacesetting!

- Get results without unnecessary team stress

- Learn How to Push Performance from a CEO

What Is the Contingency Theory of Leadership?

Categories Social Psychology

“Effective leadership is finding a good fit between behaviour, context, and need.” – White & Hodgson, 2003

What is it exactly that makes a leader effective? According to one theory of leadership that became prominent during the 1970s and 80s, effective leadership is dependent upon the interaction between a leader’s behaviors and the situation itself. This approach is known as the contingency theory of leadership .

Gill (2011) explains, “Contingency theories suggest that there is no one best style of leadership. Successful and enduring leaders will use various styles according to the nature of the situation and the followers.”

Understanding the Contingency Theory of Leadership

Contingency theory suggests that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the characteristics of the situation. A person can be a highly effective leader in one situation, but they might be much less effective in other situations.

The theory is not focused on whether someone is an inherently good or bad leader. Instead, it is all about determining whether certain leadership traits are well-suited to the situation. This means that the traits that make a leader effective vary depending on the circumstances.

How Do Contingency Theories Work?

Those who support contingency theory suggest that the best leaders are those who known how to adopt different styles of leadership in different situations. These leaders know that just because one approach to leadership worked well in the past, it does not mean that it will work again when the situation or task is not the same.

So what are some of the variables that might influence which leadership style is most effective?

Gill (2011) suggests that these might include:

The maturity levels of the subordinates or followers
Whether the relationship between the leader and the followers is a positive one
The clarity of the task at hand
The amount of personal power held by the leader
The level of power given by the leader’s position
The culture of the organization
The amount of time available to complete the task
The speed at which the task must be completed

Other factors that can determine whether a leader is effective in a particular situation include characteristics of the workplace, work schedules, how tasks and teams are structured, and the relationships between employees and leaders.

Contingency Leadership Models

A number of different approaches to contingency theory have emerged over the years. The following are just a few of the most prominent theories:

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

The contingency theory of leadership was one of the first situational leadership theories. One of the very first contingency theories was proposed by Fred. E. Fiedler in the 1960s. Fiedler’s theory proposes that a leader’s effectiveness hinges on how well his or her leadership style matches the current context and task.

Fiedler’s pioneering theory suggests that leaders fall into one of two different leadership styles: task-oriented or people-oriented. The effectiveness of a person’s style in a particular situation depends on how well-defined the job is, how much authority the leader has, and the relationship between the followers and the leader.

The Evans and House Path-Goal Theory

The path-goal contingency theory of leadership, first proposed by Martin Evans and later expanded by Robert House during the 1970s, focuses on how leadership behavior can help followers achieve the group’s goals. Four key types of behavior are identified (directive, supportive, achievement-oriented, and participative), and the type of behavior applied should depend upon the nature of the task.

Supportive leadership : This approach involves assessing each team member’s goals and preferences in order to help maximize productivity.
Participating leadership : This involves leaders working with and supporting team members.
Directive-clarifying leadership : This approach involves giving directions, explanations, and instructions to keep team members on task.
Achievement-oriented leadership : This approach gives team members more independence, but also comes with high goals and expectations.

Hershey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

Paul Hershey and Kenneth Blanchard proposed a situational theory of leadership characterized by four leadership styles.

These four styles are:

The delegating style : This approach involves delegating tasks to skilled, knowledgeable team members. This approach works best when followers are high-level experts.
The participating style : This approach involves more give-and-take between leaders and followers. This approach works best when team members are skilled, but may need some additional support.
The selling style : In this approach, leaders must “sell” and motivate employees to buy into their ideas. This approach can be helpful when motivation and initiative are low.
The telling style : This approach involves more supervision and direct instruction. It is best suited for when team members are inexperienced and lack skills or maturity.

The style that should be used in a particular situation depends upon the maturity level of the subordinates. For example, if followers lack both knowledge and responsibility, the leader should adopt a directive leadership style in that situation.

Decision-Making Theory

Decision-making theory, more formally known as the Vroom-Yetton-Jago decision-making model of contingency leadership, suggests that effective leaders engage in certain decision-making behaviors that are suited to the situation. This includes evaluating the specific situation, deciding how much support group members needs, and then adjusting their own leadership approach to suit the demands of the situation and the group.

This model describes five different leadership styles:

Autocratic style 1 : This is an authoritarian approach in which the leader makes all the decisions without consulting members of the group.
Autocratic style 2 : In this approach, the leader still makes all the decisions but they gather information from team members before making decisions.
Consultive style 1 : In this style, the leader makes decisions but first consults with group members to learn what everyone else thinks.
Consultive style 2 : This involves more regular discussion and information-sharing, but the leader ultimately makes the final choice.
Collaborative style : This is a democratic approach to leadership where group members offer input, discuss options, and work together to make decisions.

Why the Contingency Theory of Leadership Matters

Understanding the contingency theory of leadership can help provide a better understanding of how leadership traits and situational factors interact.

Some theories of leadership promote the idea that great leaders are born and not made. Others suggest that people possess a predominant leadership style that persists across different situations. Both of these approaches stress the idea that some people are great leaders while others are poor.

Contingency leadership theory disputes this idea. Instead, it stresses that great leadership is more about the fit between the characteristics of the leader and the nature of the situation.

While the contingency theory suggests that some leaders will be effective in certain situations and not in others, it is important to note that people can learn, adapt, and change. Learning more about your own strengths and weaknesses as a leader can help you find ways to adapt your own approach to leadership based on the situation.

How to Use the Contingency Theory of Leadership

Contingency leadership can be useful in a variety of ways:

Understand the impact of the situation : Recognizing that your own leadership style will interact with many different factors, including the situation, the task, and the people involved, can be helpful.
Know your weaknesses : Just as it is important to know when you are most effective, understanding your weak spots is also critical. When you know there are situations where your leadership might be less effective, you can then look for ways to modify your approach to best suit the situation.
Consider leadership training : Strengthen your skills and educate yourself about how situational factors can impact the efficacy of your leadership. Knowing more about the complex nature of the situation will allow you to better excel as a leader.

The contingency approach to leadership remains popular today, but it is not without criticism. Gill (2011) suggests that two of the key criticisms of contingency theories are that they do not account for the position of the leader or how styles change. While these theories help account for the importance of the situation, they do not explain the processes behind how leadership styles vary according to factors such as the organization or the position of the leader within the structure. Perhaps most importantly, they do not explain how leaders can change their behavior or style depending on the situation or features of the group.

If you want to learn more about your own leadership strengths and weaknesses, take our leadership style quiz .

Fiedler FE. A contingency model of leadership effectiveness . In: Advances in Experimental Social Psychology . Vol 1. Elsevier; 1964:149-190. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60051-9

Gill R. Theory and practice of leadership. London: SAGE Publications; 2011.

Hersey P, Blanchard KH. An introduction to situational leadership. Training and Development Journal. 1969;23:26–34.

House RJ. Path–goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory. Leadership Quarterly. 1996;7:323–352.

Mills JK, McKimm J. Contingency theories of leadership: how might we use them in clinical practice ? Br J Hosp Med (Lond) . 2016;77(5):268-271. doi:10.12968/hmed.2016.77.5.268

White RP, Hodgson P. The newest leadership skills. In M. Goldsmith, V. Govindarajan, B. Kaye, & A. A. Vicere (Eds.)., The many Facets of Leadership. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education; 2003.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection

A Contingency Theory Approach to Understanding Small Retail Business Continuity During COVID‐19

Michelle childs.

1 The University of Tennessee

2 Lenoir‐Rhyne University

Christopher Sneed

Small retail businesses are particularly vulnerable to turbulence caused from the COVID‐19 pandemic. To consider what actions retailer owners/managers can take to maneuver during such trying times, this study investigated leadership qualities associated with managing during times of crisis. Through in‐depth interviews with 12 small retail leaders, thematic data analysis revealed an emergence of contingent leadership, including an internal focus on cash flow and employees and an external focus on preserving key stakeholder relationships. Retail leaders displayed a resilient mindset, showing passion, agility, innovation, and relationship development. A conceptual model is proposed to further illustrate findings from the study.

INTRODUCTION

Small businesses are particularly vulnerable to turbulence caused by the COVID‐19 pandemic. While no businesses are immune to the pandemic’s effects, small businesses are most threatened due to their limited resources and their potential lack of planning and preparation for disaster (Josephson et al., 2017 ). Research is limited on the long‐term or lasting impacts of COVID‐19 on small businesses. However, early evidence indicates that the pandemic has been widely disruptive to business continuity and that businesses which are influenced by change in consumer behavior, especially retail businesses, are most at risk (Fairlie, 2020 ). Fairlie’s ( 2020 ) early research at the onset of the COVID‐19 pandemic indicates a bleak outlook for small businesses. Using Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data, Fairlie ( 2020 ) shows that the number of small businesses plummeted from 15.0 million in February, 2020, to 11.7 million in April, 2020. This decrease of 3.3 million active business owners (22%) was the largest decrease considered on record. Retail businesses are the most fragile given the mandated operational restrictions and physical distance guidelines (Dua et al., 2020 ).

While Fairlie’s ( 2020 ) research highlights that small retail businesses are severely at risk according to employment statistics, there is no clear understanding of retail businesses that are able to thrive during this trying time and how owners are able to maneuver business continuity. Some recent research indicates that leadership qualities of the owner/manager play a strong role in business continuity during the COVID‐19 pandemic (Blattner et al., 2021 ; Lombardi et al., 2021 ); however, this research is limited to businesses outside of the US (e.g., Lombardi et al., 2021 ) and research on workplace culture (e.g., Blattner et al., 2021 ). Therefore, the purpose of this research is to explore in depth the experiences of small retail leaders during COVID‐19 particular to their qualities and strategies associated with managing during times of crisis. This understanding can provide rich practical information to small retail business owners and managers on strategic direction as part of crisis and contingency planning.

Contingency theory (Fiedler, 1951 ) is used as a lens to understand leadership qualities and strategies of small retail leaders during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Contingency theory explains how leadership decisions and actions are contingent on the internal and external determinants based on situations that are present. Given the unexpected nature of the COVID‐19 pandemic, contingency theory provides a framework to shed light on the responsive and flexible nature of small retail business leaders.

To provide an in‐depth analysis of the experiences of small retail leaders, this study utilizes a qualitative approach (Matthews et al., 2019 ). This method provides rich information to advance the understanding of characteristics of business owners during the current crisis. Understanding leadership characteristics specific to the small retailer provides insights and builds a deeper understanding of these leaders. Fan and Zhan ( 2020 ) stress the recent and urgent need to be equipped for the COVID‐19 disaster. Therefore, this study explores small retail business responses as the COVID‐19 pandemic crisis unfolds and it provides discovery of small retail business leaders’ actions taken during business uncertainty. By exploring the onset and the early periods of the COVID‐19 pandemic, emerging data can aid in preparing for future crises.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

Contingency theory.

Contingency theory of leadership, first introduced by Fiedler ( 1951 ), is fundamentally concerned with organizational leadership and decision‐making and helps to explain leadership decisions and actions which are contingent on any internal and external determinants in a particular situation. In essence, decisions that are made by contingent leaders are flexible in nature and present adaption to current situations as they arise. Thus, leadership characteristics are dependent on contextual factors and there is no “one size fits all” style of leadership (Blanchard, 2008 ). Instead, contingent leaders seek to have a rational understanding of the situation that arises and adjust their behavior, subsequently assuming a leadership style that is most appropriate for the situation at present (Bates, 2016 ).

Internal factors are factors that exist within an organization (e.g., resources, experience) and external factors occur outside the organization (e.g., natural disasters, changes in consumer trends); both are part of the decision‐making process for contingent leaders. In an effort to understand organizational change, contingency theory has been utilized in several research studies to understand leadership behavior (Park, 2020 ; Vidal et al., 2017 ; Williams et al., 2017 ) and it is useful to understand small business leaders as their essential role centers on growth and survival (Dunne et al., 2016 ). The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the resulting impacts on tourism and the travel industry serve as examples of how disasters can impact business operations and, in turn, managerial responses. For example, this catastrophic event had severe impacts on air travel, lodging, and tourism, which have been well documented in the literature (Goodrich, 2002 ; Korstanje, 2011 ; Paraskevas & Arendell, 2007 ). Most importantly, given the unprecedented nature of the COVID‐19 pandemic, contingency theory helps shed light on leadership responses during an unexpected disaster.

Small Business Leadership Responses to Disasters and the COVID‐19 Pandemic

While some businesses can capitalize on disasters, such as the COVID‐19 pandemic (e.g., online shopping, remote learning; McKinsey, 2021 ), small businesses (i.e., <500 employees; Small Business Association, 2016 ) are seen as particularly vulnerable during times of crisis when compared to larger businesses (i.e., >500 employees; Josephson et al., 2017 ; Zhang et al., 2009 ). Larger businesses often have a greater pool of financial resources that can be devoted to a disaster recovery plan, whereas small business lack this luxury in resources (Zhang et al., 2009 ). Unfortunately, the impact of disasters on small businesses is a growing concern given the increased prevalence of natural disaster occurrences over the last five decades (Ritchie & Roser, 2018 ).

Literature on business responses to disaster indicate that several factors may influence small business continuity when struck by disaster. The nature of the disaster (i.e., large or sudden) can halter business continuity and future growth opportunities (Klomp & Valckx, 2014 ) either directly through loss of revenue or equipment (Ritchie & Roser, 2018 ) or indirectly by decreased property values or sustained environmental damages (Asgary et al., 2012 ). Responses to disaster may also be burdened by costs associated with infrastructure and essential items, which lowers small business owners’ capacity to rebuild following disaster (Amadeo, 2018 ). While firm characteristics, such as size, resources available, and financial conditions, are important factors in how businesses respond and recover from unexpected disasters (Marshall et al., 2015 ), recent literature emphasizes the influence of business owner characteristics or leadership qualities in post‐disaster business recovery (Morrish & Jones, 2020 ).

Research within the hospitality sector stresses the importance of particular leadership qualities that can help small businesses in weathering and overcoming the turbulence of the COVID‐19 pandemic on business operations (Lombardi et al., 2021 ). Specifically, researchers found that when confronted with trauma or stress, leaders can benefit a business by providing nurturing behavior and organizing key resources to help the business flourish (Lombardi et al., 2021 ). Overall, research indicates that when leaders tend to invest their time and resources in creating a work environment that is resilient pre‐disaster, they can more easily pivot to focus on big‐picture strategies within the organization.

Similarly, in their case study within the food service industry, authors indicate that a key to business continuity during the COVID‐19 pandemic was a leader with high morale which fostered a strong company culture (Blattner et al., 2021 ). Moreover, Liguori and Pittz ( 2020 ) suggest practical and tactical responses for navigating COVID‐19 risks based on collaboration, nimble problem solving, and a relentless focus on customers, while staying connected to the entrepreneurial ecosystem. Therefore, building on these sparse and early research streams, it is vital to further explore small retail leadership qualities that contribute to sustaining business continuity during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Deeper research provides important implications for small retail leaders in overcoming future crises where overall business disruptions occur. Therefore, the following research question guides this qualitative research: What are the experiences of small retail leaders during COVID‐19 particular to their qualities and strategies associated with managing during times of crisis?

Following IRB approval, an exploratory qualitative research study was conducted to investigate small retail business leaders during COVID‐19. Qualitative research helps to shed light on the phenomenon and is a common methodology among social sciences when a lack of understanding occurs (Rashid et al., 2016 ). Through this qualitative approach, researchers took an inductive approach and captured an in‐depth understanding of specific experiences as participants shared their personal points of view of first‐hand situations and worked to make general observations (Kvale, 2006 ).

Data Collection and Analysis

The sample for this study consisted of 12 small retail leaders in the Southeastern United States. According to Crouch and McKenzie ( 2016 ), this number of participants allows for researchers to have in‐depth and extensive exploration of experiences and behaviors. The participants in this study varied in their personal characteristics, experiences, and general retail operations (Table 1 ). The Southeast was chosen due to its proximity to the study authors’ home institutions. Additionally, the southern United States was anticipated to be hit especially hard in terms of death and economic loss due to the COVID‐19 pandemic (Vestal, 2020 ). At the time of initial data collection, the state was under a state of emergency order. Social distancing and mask wearing were encouraged. Some of the most stringent COVID‐19 business restrictions were lifted mid‐May before data collection (TN Office of the Governor, 2021 ). Respondents reflected on their responses to the COVID‐19 pandemic during a time of restrictions, including the closures for non‐essential businesses, restrictions on indoor dining, and mask wearing. Small retail leaders were recruited through convenience sampling using the researchers’ business connections and the researchers proceeded with snowball sampling for additional interviews. This sampling technique allowed researchers to sample from a diverse range of small retail businesses with varying years in business, number of employees, and leader gender. Given the exploratory nature of this research, the sample size and method for establishing reliability and validity are in line with recommendations (Denzin, 2017 ; Hodges, 2011 ). Previous researchers have applied this method to understand challenges faced by business owners (Ha et al., 2020 ).

Participant Descriptions

Data were collected through interviews that lasted between 40 and 75 min each and were conducted and recorded via Zoom with the participants’ consent. Using a semi‐structured interview protocol, participants were first asked, “can you tell us about your business” (McCracken, 1988 ) and the researcher proceeded to more detailed questions, including: “can you walk us through your experiences and how you had (or are having) to pivot your business during the COVID‐19 crisis?”, “What strategies did you implement that worked well (not well)?”, and “ How would you describe your leadership style when having to pivot during COVID‐19?”. Data were collected from June, 2020 to December, 2020. During this period of time, businesses were actively responding to the pandemic given the prevalent nature of the virus in the community.

Upon completion of each interview, audio data were transcribed verbatim and pseudonyms were used to maintain confidentiality of the participants. Following Spiggle’s ( 1994 ) systematic approach to qualitative research interpretation, transcripts were manually analyzed independently by two researchers through an iterative process. Transcripts were manually coded for common meanings and themes that emerged from the collection of interview data. This included a back‐and‐forth process between the interview transcripts to compare, contrast, and group themes according to common experiences. Researchers discussed their manual interpretation of the data to refine themes and achieve internal consistency of the interpretive data (Van Manen, 1990 ). The iterative process continued until data saturation was reached in the thematic analysis and no new data were collected.

INTERPRETATION

Participant personas.

Interestingly, participants varied in their general disaster response, with some “hoping [the pandemic] would just be temporary and it wouldn’t last very long” (AT) and others taking a long‐term view in “transitioning from a brick‐and‐mortar shop to an online store” (YH). Participants were eager to meet consumers’ rapidly changing needs by quickly ordering masks (KH) for in‐store shopping and bundling products together as kits or baskets to create a unique offering (NB). While some participants approached their disaster responses by playing it “day‐by‐day” (AM), others “wanted to try to be proactive about what could happen” (NR) and placed “themselves on a [increased] schedule” (VJ) to actively respond to consumers’ needs. Interestingly, none of the participants reported having a disaster management plan prior to the pandemic and, surprisingly, none of the participants felt the need to develop a disaster management plan to address future business disruptions.

Emergence of Contingent Leadership

As the COVID‐19 pandemic unfolded, actions taken by the small retail business leaders suggest the emergence of contingency leadership traits whereby leaders adjusted to contextual factors of the pandemic to manage internal and external factors during much uncertainty. Both internal factors within the organization (e.g., resources, experience) and external factors outside the organization (e.g., natural disasters, stakeholders outside the organization, and changing consumers) were continuously balanced as leaders worked to sustain their businesses.

Internal Focus

Participants shared their early experiences of adjusting their internal resources (product inventory, finances, and labor) to adapt to the constraints of the pandemic as it began. AM, a brewery owner, explained the actions taken to sustain their supply chain with the proper inventory of materials used in production of craft beers:

We knew that there was going to be a problem with the supply of those 32‐ounce cans and the lids…We needed to try and track down a pretty good supply. The factory manager and I about in a week tracked down at least half a pallet, which is about 1200 cans out of Charlotte. We jumped in a truck and drove to Charlotte and completely loaded the truck up and drove back. That kept us going.

In addition to an internal focus on supply change needs, participants also discussed steps taken to support strained financial structures. KH explains:

Moving forward, [we] have private investors, so that's also nice to have their support. That's helpful…I kind of have them to fall back on but also, I had savings… I've cut some expenses and I've stopped paying myself to build up the savings account back up.

YH shared financial decisions needed to respond to the business slowdown, “I had to break my lease, which was hard for me because I know that was a commitment that I made, and I didn't see another path.”

For many retailers, balancing labor needs and reducing staff while balancing business needs was a primary concern. NR shared changes implemented to support shortened work hours while strengthening on‐line support:

Our store hours are shortened. I only have eight people here every day, which is crazy. Because I'm used to having about 20 people here a day. Because we'll do some overlapping shifts. Especially our most labor‐intensive department…When we realized what was going to be happening, and we still had trucks coming too…I was receiving our goods and just kind of organizing things and keeping them squared away. We kind of came up with our game plan as far as servicing the guest online.

Focusing on decisions for the internal areas of maintaining production, changing in‐store operations, modifying the capital structure, and focusing on employee retention were common themes among participants.

External Focus

Recognizing that key external stakeholders (e.g., customers, investors, and suppliers) played a vital part of their business survival, participants provided insights on actions taken to bolster these business relationships. Discussing revised payment terms with their suppliers, NR explains:

A lot of our vendors let us cancel orders or not have to pay them right away. For example, last week, they were telling us this big chunk [of payments due]… [With] the money that has been coming in from our stores being open, we were able to write a significant check to pay those vendors [after normal due dates].

Ultimately, to protect key stakeholders, primarily investors, some retailers had to make tough decisions. KH explained the temporarily closing of her store ahead of the required shutdown:

I just decided to close the shop, one because people were not thinking about buying clothes and vacations are getting cancelled, contracts are getting canceled, everything was getting canceled… People were just not buying clothes and going to events.

These small retail leaders spent significant time understanding and responding to their customers’ changing buying habits. AM explains how their business responded to customer shifts in demands for buying in volume and curbside delivery:

So, we were able to curbside, which would be us to leave with the beer in a keg. We can fill kegs as well…they definitely started wanting more since a lot of people are staying in…I've even gone and set up a kegerator at a friend's house…We can actually leave the premises, walk it [the keg] to the car, and deliver it to them there.

Additionally, as the pandemic created more in‐store restrictions, these small retail business leaders responded to changing customer shopping behaviors. Discussing a shift to curbside pick‐up for older demographic customers, YH explains:

We even allowed them to come curbside and pick up things. If they didn't want to come to the store, we had their contact info. We would just fix the order up and just run it out to their car and hand it to them and they were on their merry way. That worked really well because a lot of my customers are older. A lot of them have their health compromised.

The foresight in shifting to changing customer needs was prevalent and provided an understanding of how these small retail businesses continued to support their customers’ needs.

Moreover, community partners became more important as small retail leaders adjusted to the “new” environment with more collaborative effort between parties. KH shared the importance of starting their store in her hometown and how the community, in turn, supported their store. KH explains:

I wanted to have a store where I kind of grew up in my community. So, it's been good. That's been definitely been a great thing through all this, is that I feel like my community has really supported me and kind of been the foundation.

Strengthening the external relationships with suppliers, investors, customers, and ultimately the local community suggests a type of reciprocal goodwill that extends beyond tangible benefits with community support. Importantly, the research indicates that the tenets of contingency theory were supported in that retail managers successfully balanced internal and external needs while also adapting to circumstances of the pandemic in real time while underlining their responsiveness.

Resilient Mindset: Passion, Agility, Innovation, and Relationships (P.A.I.R.)

In line with the participants’ contingent leadership, research findings indicate that participants displayed resiliency and responded to crisis by standing firm to adversity and found creative means to overcome the challenges presented. Further extending the interpretation, a conceptual model was developed that highlights the resilient mindset of the small retail leaders in what we are calling the P.A.I.R . model. Pandemic retail leaders exhibited traits that were necessary to perform beyond the day‐to‐day tactical needs. The model highlights the factors required during crisis and suggests that the resilient mindset is a deeper pursuit of maintaining business success through the combination of passion, agility, innovation, and relationships (see Figure 1 ).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is FCSR-50-216-g001.jpg

Conceptual model: P.A.I.R. – passion, agility, innovation, and relationships.

Small retail leaders continued to display passion for their businesses even during the crisis. This passion embodied a sense of entrepreneurial spirit, tenacity, and drive when dealing with the issues presented day to day. KH expresses their drive to succeed:

What kept me motivated was that it's a dream of mine. That was kind of the easy part. [I] just kind of kept pushing. Keep faith and, you know, pushing on and just keep posting fun new stuff… just trying to keep focus and remind myself that this isn't going to last forever, hopefully.

Similarly, VJ explains their motivation as an entrepreneurial leader:

I would say I am naturally a leader. I like doing my own things. At first, I wasn’t sure I would do something like this. I wasn’t opposed to it since I had seen businesses starting up through my life. I think it chose me in a way.

Furthermore, small retail leaders explained their need to keep the situation in perspective while maintaining personal balance. VJ expounds:

The most stressful part of it is learning how to juggle a lot at once and figure out which ball you can drop with limited time. You need to make time for yourself. That was stressful to me because sometimes I want to sit and relax but I want to work. (You must) separate yourself.

In addition to upholding their passion, small retail leaders focused on agility as part of their resilient mindset.

Small retail leaders sought out ways to respond quickly as business needs changed during the pandemic. This involved gathering necessary data, processing it, and creating meaningful actions. In explaining ways in which information processing occurred, AM submits:

It was just (processing) as much information as we can. We would push out for everyone to see and read questions. If we could find the answer, if we didn't have the answer, try and find it. That's just kind of what we've always done. We'll try and find out what's going on.

NR explains how her company reacted to local safety guidelines imposed, “I would send the resources to the leadership team and use that information. Outside of (store) I just communicated with my other neighbors and kept being patient with them. My neighbors were the biggest help.”

Beyond passion and agility, the small business owners/managers incorporated innovation across many internal and external practices.

Small retail leaders exhibited a number of innovative practices with their COVID‐19 responses. A constant flow of ideation, creation, and delivery of new solutions for their businesses and customers persisted. Internal innovation centered on technology, practices, creative thinking, and services. In explaining new ways of thinking and communicating, CT expounds:

It’s been incredibly challenging for me working from home and communicating with everyone…I trust my markets team to work out what they need, and I touch base. We do Tuesday morning staff meetings. That’s the only time we are all kind of together in a sense. We are redoing everything we have to do and how we do it.

Likewise, SA explains adopting a new online retail format:

Once I made the decision, it was easy for me to be decisive about it. I wanted to bring my customers along with me to my new format entirely… it's almost like it gave me the push to do what I really kind of wanted to do anyway [move to an online format].

The research highlights the technology shift which, for many, included launching their store websites, “That was like the biggest blessing because just having that and at least having a presence online, gave me a little bit of income” (KH).

Relationships

Sustaining relationships makes up the last part of the resilient mindset. Small retail leaders expressed a variety of ways in how this occurred. Specifically, VJ discussed an approach to understand their customers more deeply, “You learn more about what you like and the psychology behind consumers buying habits.” Moreover, AM brings forth the importance of community in supporting small business. AM explains:

People are really looking for a local product whether it is beer or produce or a farmer’s markets. If it can be made local there is a lot of support behind it. That really helps out and gives us a tie to the community and city as well.

In all cases, the reciprocal nature of small business and community support was important. AM summarizes:

I know one thing that we've heard, and I will say it constantly, but we've heard it definitely, more than a handful of times was from the old customers and new customers alike, that they felt very comfortable coming here that they said they had been to some other places, and they were really appreciative of our efforts.

In summary, the key components of passion, agility, innovation, and relationships make up the small retail leader resilient mindset.

Research shows that small retail leaders are constantly moving through these areas (passion, agility, innovation, and relationships) to steer their businesses through crises. Their passion for their businesses, agility in solutions, innovation in finding new ways to operate, and sustaining relationships were intangible traits of resiliency across internal and external functions. This research helps support how leaders incorporated shifts in small retail businesses during the pandemic to survive. Leaders learned something new and looked at the pandemic as an opportunity to enrich their organizational competencies (Lombardi et al., 2021 ).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Based on a variety of business leader personas included in the data, it was clear that although participants attempted to reach their changing customers through a variety of strategies and retail channels, all participants relied on their contingent leadership. In other words, retail leaders acted with in‐the‐moment decision‐making abilities to tackle changes in business operations as a result of the pandemic. Surprisingly, small retail leaders did not have a disaster management plan and most expressed a lack of future need for one. In line with previous literature (Ha et al., 2020 ), it is possible that owner/managers’ naïve outlook toward future disasters may occur due to their in‐the‐moment focus on day‐to‐day operations. As disasters are expected to increase over time (Ritchie & Roser, 2018 ), it may become necessary by law to implement a mandatory disaster management/action plan for all businesses. Such is the case in California where each business is responsible for developing and disseminating an Injury and Illness Prevention Program (IIPP) to all employees upon hire (California Department of Industrial Relations, 2021 ).

Interestingly, findings indicated that resilient leaders during the COVID‐19 pandemic were contingent leaders. That is, small retail leaders were rapidly attuned to internal and external contextual factors that were incorporated into their decision‐making during the pandemic. While there seems to be no specific best way to lead an organization during times of disaster or crisis, it is important for leaders to respond to unforeseen circumstances in a contingent manner (Bates, 2016 ). With a rational understanding of the COVID‐19 pandemic, small retail leaders in this study were flexible in their leadership style to best handle the situation specific to their small business. Internally, small retail leaders focused on store inventory, financial resources, and employees as key elements for business continuity. Based on findings, it is recommended that small retail leaders develop and adopt these qualities and strategies to enhance business continuity. While outside the scope of this study, it is possible that U.S. Federal Unemployment subsidies and the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP) loans to small businesses may have influenced small business owners’ internal responses. That is, additional financial support may have provided a luxury for small business owners to focus on product and people, with a possible reduction in anguish for the financial state of operations.

Importantly, small retail leaders had a strong focus on maintaining employee cohesion and safety, often commenting on their desire to physically protect employees from the virus while also maintaining their employment and income. While this may be challenging, it is recommended that small retail leaders focus on these aspects of relationship building. Aligned with previous disaster literature during the COVID‐19 pandemic, business continuity was complemented with leaders’ high morale and strong company culture (Blattner et al., 2021 ; Lombardi et al., 2021 ). In this case, prioritizing employees’ needs as an internal resource is fundamental to business continuity in times of disaster and crisis.

In terms of external contextual factors, small retail leaders focused on supporting the needs of external stakeholder relationships, including customers, investors, and suppliers, to assist in overcoming business turbulence during the COVID‐19 pandemic. As seen by the participants, and recommended for retailers, long‐standing relationships were a cornerstone of capacity‐building for business continuity, despite the obstacles. Similar to previous research findings on small business disaster recovery (Ha et al., 2020 ), small businesses during the COVID‐19 pandemic prepared for disaster and recovery through strong business‐to‐business (e.g., small business to vendor) relationships and local community connections with customers. For instance, small retail leaders reported a smooth transition to decreased or delayed inventory through respectful relationships with vendors while understanding customers’ shifting requirements for quick response. All respondents expressed their desire to pivot for customer needs, whether related to customer safety or product needs for acquisition. Thus, despite any business continuity disturbance caused from disaster or crisis, it remains vital for small retail leaders to focus on the changing needs of their target customers.

Contributing to the literature on small business leadership responses to disaster, particularly during the COVID‐19 pandemic (e.g., Blattner et al., 2021 ; Lombardi et al., 2021 ), the conceptual model based on findings of this research highlights the key components that small retail business leaders can foster as a strategy to lead during times of disaster and crisis. Across participants, it was clear that small retail leaders led with a strong passion for their work, showing affection toward their customers and employees. This passion fostered a strong endurance regardless of the obstacles small business owners/managers faced. Leaders also possessed a quick agility that allowed small businesses to remain receptive and reactive to the changing needs in the marketplace. Small retail leaders were receptive to the new normal experiences that allowed them to remain innovative and creative in their business strategy. With this innovative skillset, small retail business leaders utilized technology at hand and creatively offered products and services catered to the changing customer during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Furthermore, relationship‐building remains fundamental to overcoming turbulence and maintaining business continuity in times of disaster and crisis. This points to the notion that small retail business resilience is built through community support spanning across employees, vendors, and local customers. Notably, small retail business leaders should seek to continually foster their passion, work to develop agile responses, embrace innovation, and sustain and advance their close relationships across businesses and customers to contribute to the small retail leaders’ resilient mindset.

Limitations and Future Research

Participants in this study were conveniently sampled. As such, the sample included a majority of small retail business leaders that led micro (<10 employees; Small Business Association, 2015) small businesses and were primarily in their infancy in development (i.e., the majority of businesses were open less than 5 years). Businesses with these characteristics may experience an increased lack of resources (e.g., employees, accumulated knowledge), which may have influenced their resilient mindset and thus the findings of this study.

As was evident throughout the pandemic, COVID‐19 had varying levels of community spread differing across states, cities, and communities. Additionally, this study collected data over a period of 7 months. During the period of the COVID‐19 pandemic, there were changes in local, state, and federal mandates and societal upheaval was heightened with issues related to Black Lives Matter (BLM), all increasingly collective shocks to social, political, and economic systems. Thus, the findings of this study must be contextualized. Due to the nature of this study, we did not investigate whether retail business size, type, or product category influenced small business responses or if there were retailers that may have benefited from the COVID‐19 pandemic. An investigation of characteristics of different business and leaders, and if these characteristics encouraged business prosperity during the COVID‐19 pandemic, would be worthy of future investigation. Furthermore, researchers failed to survey participants’ business financial status (e.g., revenue, profit, and liquidity etc.) during the time of data collection. An understanding of the effectiveness of leadership qualities may be linked with financial outcomes. Lastly, the model developed from this study should be further refined and developed through additional qualitative interviews with other small business owners and through quantitative research. A mixed methods study would help to strengthen the leadership and retailing literature while also helping to refine a model that could be applied to understanding leadership in the context of future disasters.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Childs and Sneed collaborated to plan the study and interviewed the research participants. Childs and Turner conducted the data analysis and were lead authors for the writing of the manuscript. Childs, Turner, Sneed, and Berry contributed to revising the article for publication.

Amadeo, K. (2018). Hurricane Katrina facts, damage, and costs: What made katrina so devastating? https://www.thebalance.com/hurricane‐katrina‐facts‐damage‐and‐economic‐effects‐3306023 [ Google Scholar ]
Asgary, A. , Anjum, M. I. , & Azimi, N. (2012). Disaster recovery and business continuity after the 2010 flood in Pakistan: Case of small businesses . International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction , 2 , 46–56. [ Google Scholar ]
Bates, C. (2016). A methodology study of Hersey and Blanchard situational leadership theory . International Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology Management of Applied Science , 3 ( 11 ), 42–48. [ Google Scholar ]
Blanchard, K.H. (2008). Situational leadership: Adapt your style to their development level . Leadership Excellence , 25 ( 5 ), 19. [ Google Scholar ]
Blattner, J.F. , Karmia, W.P. , & Walter, T.J. (2021). How culture, leadership and engagement helped a small business survive during the pandemic . Strategic HR Review , 20 ( 3 ), 88–93. [ Google Scholar ]
California Department of Industrial Relations (2021). The Worker Occupational Safety and Health Training and Education Program (WOSHTEP) . https://www.dir.ca.gov/chswc/woshtep/iipp/ [ Google Scholar ]
Crouch, M. , & McKenzie, H. (2016). The logic of small samples in interview‐based qualitative research . Social Sciences Information , 45 ( 4 ), 485–499. [ Google Scholar ]
Denzin, N.K. (2017). Critical qualitative inquiry . Qualitative Inquiry , 23 ( 1 ), 8–16. [ Google Scholar ]
Dua, K. , Ellingrud, D.M. , & Silberg, J. (2020). Which business are most vulnerable to COVID‐19‐ and when . McKinsey & Company. https://familyenterprisefoundation.org/media/2526/which‐small‐businesses‐are‐most‐vulnerable‐to‐covid‐19‐and‐when‐vf.pdf [ Google Scholar ]
Dunne, T.C. , Aaron, J.R. , McDowell, W.C. , Urban, D.J. , & Geho, P.R. (2016). The impact of leadership on small business innovativeness . Journal of Business Research , 69 ( 11 ), 4876–4881. [ Google Scholar ]
Fairlie, R. (2020). The impact of COVID‐19 on small business owners: Evidence from the first three months after widespread social‐distancing restrictions . Journal of Economics & Management Strategy , 29 ( 4 ), 727–740. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Fan, L. , & Zhang, L. (2020). The influence of financial education sources on emergency savings: The role of financial literacy . Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal , 49 ( 4 ), 344–361. [ Google Scholar ]
Fiedler, F.E. (1951). A method of objective quantification of certain countertransference attitudes . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 7 ( 2 ), 101–107. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Goodrich, J.N. (2002). September 11, 2001 attack on America: A record of the immediate impacts and reactions in the USA travel and tourism industry . Tourism Management , 23 ( 6 ), 573–580. [ Google Scholar ]
Ha, S. , Childs, M. , Kim, Y.‐K. , & Fairhurst, A. (2020). After the fire: An assessment of small business preparedness and recovery in Gatlinburg, Tennessee . International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Administration , 1–26. 10.1080/15256480.2020.1727812 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hodges, N. (2011). Qualitative research: A discussion of frequently articulated qualms (FAQs) . Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal , 40 ( 1 ), 90–92. [ Google Scholar ]
Josephson, A. , Schrank, H. , & Marshall, M. (2017). Assessing preparedness of small businesses for hurricane disasters: Analysis of pre‐disaster owner, business and location characteristics . International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction , 23 , 25–35. [ Google Scholar ]
Klomp, J. , & Valckx, K. (2014). Natural disasters and economic growth: A meta‐analysis . Global Environmental Change , 26 , 183–195. [ Google Scholar ]
Korstanje, M.E. (2011). The fear of traveling: A new perspective for tourism and hospitality . Anatolia , 22 ( 2 ), 222–233. [ Google Scholar ]
Kvale, S. (2006). Dominance through interviews and dialogues . Qualitative Inquiry , 12 ( 3 ), 480–500. [ Google Scholar ]
Liguori, E.W. , & Pittz, T.G. (2020). Strategies for small business: Surviving and thriving in the era of COVID‐19 . Journal of the International Council for Small Business , 1 ( 2 ), 106–110. [ Google Scholar ]
Lombardi, S. , Pina e Cunha, M. , & Giustiniano, L. (2021). Improvising resilience: The unfolding of resilient leadership in COVID‐19 times . International Journal of Hospitality Management , 95 , 102904. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Marshall, M.I. , Niehm, L.S. , Sydnor, S. , & Schrank, H.L. (2015). Predicting small business demise after a nature disaster: An analysis of pre‐existing conditions . Natural Hazards , 79 ( 1 ), 331–354. [ Google Scholar ]
Matthews, D. , Blanchflower, T. , & Childs, M. (2019). Beyond brick and mortar: The experiences of U.S. female mobile truck entrepreneurs . Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal , 47 ( 4 ), 307–323. [ Google Scholar ]
McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview . Sage Publications. [ Google Scholar ]
McKinsey . (2021). The impact of COVID‐19 on capital markets, one year in . https://www.mckinsey.com/business‐functions/strategy‐and‐corporate‐finance/our‐insights/the‐impact‐of‐covid‐19‐on‐capital‐markets‐one‐year‐in [ Google Scholar ]
Morrish, S.C. , & Jones, R. (2020). Post‐disaster business recovery: An entrepreneurial marketing perspective . Journal of Business Research , 113 , 83–92. [ Google Scholar ]
Paraskevas, A. , & Arendell, B. (2007). A strategic framework for terrorism prevention and mitigation in tourism destinations . Tourism Management , 28 ( 6 ), 1560–1573. [ Google Scholar ]
Park, S. (2020). Size matters: Towards a Contingency Theory of diversity effects on performance . Public Performance & Management Review , 43 ( 2 ), 278–303. [ Google Scholar ]
Rashid, A. , Barnes, L. , & Warnaby, G. (2016). Management perspectives on country of origin . Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management , 20 ( 2 ), 230–244. [ Google Scholar ]
Ritchie, H. , & Roser, M. (2018). Natural disasters . https://ourworldindata.org/natural‐disasters [ Google Scholar ]
Small Business Association . (2016). Table of Size Standards . Retrieved from https://www.sba.gov/document/support‐table‐size‐standards
Spiggle, S. (1994). Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data in consumer research . Journal of Consumer Research , 21 ( 3 ), 491–503. [ Google Scholar ]
TN Office of the Governor (2021). COVID‐19 timeline . https://www.tn.gov/governor/covid‐19/covid19timeline.html [ Google Scholar ]
van Manen, M. (1990). Turning to the nature of lived experience. In van Manen M. (Ed.), Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy (pp. 35–46). SUNY Press. [ Google Scholar ]
Vestal, C. (2020). The south may be the largest share of coronavirus mystery . https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research‐and‐analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/04/13/the‐south‐may‐see‐the‐largest‐share‐of‐coronavirus‐misery [ Google Scholar ]
Vidal, G.G. , Campdesuñer, R.P. , Rodríguez, A.S. , & Vivar, R.M. (2017). Contingency theory to study leadership styles of small businesses owner‐managers at Santo Domingo, Ecuador . International Journal of Engineering Business Management , 9 , 1–11. [ Google Scholar ]
Williams, P. , Ashill, N. , & Naumann, E. (2017). Towards a contingency theory of CRM adoption . Journal of Strategic Marketing , 25 ( 5–6 ), 454–474. [ Google Scholar ]
Zhang, Y. , Lindell, M.K. , & Prater, C.S. (2009). Vulnerability of community businesses to environmental disasters . Disaster , 33 ( 1 ), 38–57. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

The works of an overzealous math teacher.

Queen of Mathematical Hearts

A case study in contingency theory: what’s the best leader match.

Contingency Theory

Contingency theory is a framework for examining leadership. Contingency theory provides a lens and perspective to predict and analyze leadership based on the constructs of leadership style and the context of the situation. The structure shifts from a typical focus on the leader and to a focus on the matching of a leader and to the context of a situation. Further suggesting effective leadership is the result of matching leaders to appropriate situations. The leader-match contingency theory describes effective leadership as “contingent on matching a leader’s style to the right setting” (Northouse, 2013, p. 123).

Leadership Styles

In alignment with contingency theory, leadership styles are sorted into two categories; task motivated and relationship motived. Task orientated leaders are recognized as individuals who are focused on reaching a goal. Relationship motivated leaders are focused on interpersonal relations.

To measure individual leadership styles Fiedler, a leader in contingency theory, and colleagues developed the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Measure. A leader completes the questionnaire by answering questions about a least preferred coworker, not to be confused with the least liked coworker. The results of measure provide the individual with a LPC score that categorizes leaders.

Low LPC’s (57 or below) identify leaders who are task motivated. Northouse (2013) describes these leaders as individuals who increase their self-esteem by achieving goals and tend to interpersonal relationships after the task is defined. High LPC’s (64 and above) name leaders who are relation motivated. The leader with a high LPC is first concerned with interpersonal relationships and the task as secondary. This is the leader who sees good in all coworkers and values the work relationship as essential in leadership. In the mix of the low and high LPC’s is the middle LPC (58 to 63). It is the middle LPC that identifies the leader who is “self-directed and not overly concerned with the task or with how others view them” (Northouse, 2013, p. 133). The middle LPC pinpoints the leader who is independent and removed from the situation (Northouse, 2013).

Contingency theory utilizes the LPC measures to profile leaders and match leaders to appropriate situations. According to the contingency theory a low LPC leader is most effective in extreme situations while a high LPC leader is most effective in moderately favorable situations. Leaders placed in situations other than those proposed by the LPC are likely experience stress, and anxiety leading to poor decision-making (Northouse, 2013). Contingency theory matches the leader to the situation.

Situational Variables

To place leaders in the correct situations, leader-member relations, task structure and positive are evaluated. Leader-member relations are ranked as good or poor based on the group atmosphere, loyalty, trust and willingness to follow a leader. Task structure is rated as high or low structure. High structured task are characterized as those where the steps to goal achievement are clearly defined, few alternatives are available to achieve said goal, task completion is clearly defined with few ways to show success (Northouse, 2013). Low task structure is then defined as a task that has multiple avenues for achievement as well as various ways to express achievement. The final rating is that of position of power where a rating is either defined as weak or strong. This rating is defined as those with strong power being the leaders who have the authority to promote, give a raise or fire individuals.

The combinational ratings of these situational variables are used to evaluate the situation in need of a leader. Extreme situations are identified as most favorable; having good leader-member relations, strong position power and highly structured tasks. Extreme situations are also defined as least favorable; those with poor leader-member relations, weak position power and low structured tasks. According to the LPC Measure developed by Fiedler, these are situations in need of a low LPC. High LPC leaders are needed in situations where extremes are moderate.

Leader-Match

Contingency theory and LPC provide a predictive model for leader success. The profile developed via the LPC Measure is said to remain as such with empirical research showing that LPC scores remain stable over time (Northouse, 2013). As a result the LPC Measure is recognized as a model for companies looking to promote leaders within. Not all leaders are successful in all situation based on contingency theory. However, a LPC is a predictor of leader effectiveness with the LPC remaining consistent over time. As a result it can be used as a predictor in hiring. Northouse (2013) recognizes a strength of contingency theory as a model for upper management to utilize when looking to hire lower-management to fit a specific contextual situation.

What’s the Best Leader Match?

The application of the contingency theory and LPC Measure is plausible for the case study What’s the Best Leader Match proposed by Northouse (2013). The two internal applicants, Bill and Martha, are recognized as potential finalists who have completed the LPC Measure. Bill is identified as a high LPC leader with a score of 89. Martha is recognized as a low LPC leader with a score of 52. Based on previous success within the company, Martha and Bill are both effective leaders. Contingency theory and the LPC Measures support the consistency in their profiles. However, the situation must be analyzed to determine the best match.

The leader-member relations appear to be poor in this case. The owners share a strong interest in more teamwork. Previous leadership followed that of an authoritarian style, which lends to poor leader-member relations. Authoritarian leadership is defined as “a leadership style in which the leader dictates policies and procedures , decides what goals are to be achieved, and directs and controls all activities without any meaningful participation by the subordinates ” (Business Dictionary, 2014). This lends to a lacking in group decision-making. Authoritarian leaders make the decisions, demand compliance and end up with members who resent the leader. Poor leader-member relations are relayed.

The task structure extended by the case study appears to be of low structure. The owners have not relayed any task or goal other than that of creating teamwork. Teamwork is a goal which to achieve with many avenues in achieving this goal. A discussion as to what teamwork looks like is worthy discussion for the owners and the leader to have in this situation. As of now, there is no clear path to teamwork, the vision of what team work will look like once it is accomplished or what the expectation of the individuals members may be. This lacking of structure makes the task low.

The power position is appears to be strong in this context. Members are expected to report directly to the new leader. The new leader is also responsible for performance reviews. There is a lacking of clarity as to whether the leader has the power to fire, promote or give a rise. Performance reviews and the reporting directly to a person can be aligned to these authoritative powers.

The situation presented is moderately favorable. Poor leader-members relations, low task structure and strong position power lends to a situation in need of a high LPC. In this case, the leader who may best fit the situation is Bill with a score of 89. Bill’s high LPC is a predictor of a leader who is relationship motivated and best suited for moderately favorable situations. Bill’s LPC measure predicts him as an effective leader where “there is some degree of uncertainty but things are neither completely under their control nor completely out of their control” (Northouse, 2013, p. 125). According to the contingency theory, the new owner should choose Bill to head the new management structure.

Defining Position

Contingency theory identifies leaders as stable in their leadership styles. Leaders are identifies as relation or task motivated. Situations have three variables that impact the needs of leaders. As a result leader-member relations, position power and task structure can have a direct impact on the chosen leader.

The owner of this company could tailor the job description to either Bill or Martha. Utilizing the contingency model, the current situation is categorized as a 7 (Northouse, 2013). A Category 8 identifies a situation as one that is need of a low LPC, Martha. If the owner were to remove power from the new leader then the situation would be one which is extreme and in need of a low LPC or the leadership style of Martha.

The vagueness of the case study could also provide clarification dictating a change in the situation. The assumption was made that the leader-member relations were poor based on the authoritarian leadership. If the leader-member relations were truly good and the assumption here is not current then there is potential for a different leadership style. A discussion based on leader-member relations could determine a good ranking therefore changing the need to a low LPC or Middle LPC.

A clarifying discussion with the owner and/or members could provide clarity to the situation and impact the demands of the situation. If the power of the leader where clarified as not being as strong as proposed the new position would be defined for Martha. If the leader-member relations were defined as good rather than poor, then the position could be again written to fit the style of Martha or even a middle LPC, which is neither Bill or Martha. Clarification on the teamwork goal could also impact the demand of the leader. In essence, any misread on the categorizing of the leader-member relations, position power and task structure can redefine the positional needs.

Theory and Structure

The use of contingency theory for hire internally may prove to be the wrong theory for this owner. At this point the details provided by each of the situational variables are lacking. Without clear categorization, the new owner can easily hire an individual who has proven to be a great leader but does not match the given situation. Reflecting on the contingency model and ensuring that the situational variables are clearly defined would help the owner to categorize the situation. As it currently, stands there are assumptions being made that could directly impact the leader-member match.

If contingency theory was the preferred model in choosing a leader to fulfill the situation, I could not say in confidence that Bill was the correct leader. Based on the assumptions made, Bill’s high LPC suggest he is relationship motived and prepared to lead in the current situations. Clarification with the owner could easily change the situation to an extreme situation where Martha is in need or even a situation where a middle LPC could fulfill the leadership position.

Contingency theory is supportive in profiling leaders in filling the needs of situations. A challenge is evaluating the situational variables. Although seemingly simple, a slight misinterpretation can lead to a mismatch of leader to situation. With a mismatch in place, there is no solution as to how to support the leader. According to contingency theory, the leader should be changed which brings an organization back to the hiring process and additional change for a group. An awareness of all aspects of the contingency theory and LPC measures is advised before implementing into any organization.

Authoritarian Leadership. (2014). Business Dictionary . Retrieved from http://www.businessdictionary.com

Northhouse, P.G. (2013). Leadership: theory and practice . (6 th Edition). Sage Publications.

Product details

Open access
Published: 25 March 2024

Care complexity, perceptions of complexity and preferences for interprofessional collaboration: an analysis of relationships and social networks in paediatrics

Lisa-Maria van Klaveren ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2281-3806 1 ,
Vincent Geukers 2 &
Rien de Vos 1

BMC Medical Education volume 24 , Article number: 334 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

In the context of increasingly intricate healthcare systems, professionals are compelled to collaborate within dynamically changing interprofessional teams. Moreover, they must adapt these collaborative processes to effectively and efficiently manage the evolving complexity of care needs. It remains unclear how professionals determine care complexity and relate this complexity to their preferences for interprofessional collaboration (IPC). This study investigated the relationships between care complexity, professionals’ perceived complexity and IPC preferences, and examined the variation in individual and team characteristics of IPC-practices across different levels of complexity in paediatric care.

In an online questionnaire, 123 healthcare professionals working at an academic tertiary children’s hospital scored their perceptions of complexity and preferences for IPC. They also selected family and various professions as members of the interprofessional (IP-) team based on thirteen patient cases. We employed conjoint analysis to systematically model the complexity of case descriptions across the five domains of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). Additionally, we applied social network analysis to identify important professions, crucial connectors and influential professions in the IP-team, and to describe the cohesiveness of IP-teams.

Modelled case complexity, professionals’ perceived complexity and IPC preferences were positively associated. We found large inter-individual variations in the degree of these associations. Social network analysis revealed that the importance and influence of professions was more equally distributed when case complexity increased. Depending on the context and complexity of the case, different professions (e.g. medical doctors, social professionals, extramural professionals) were considered to be more crucial connectors within the IP-team. Furthermore, team cohesion was positively associated with modelled and perceived care complexity.

Conclusions

In conclusion, our study contributes to the existing knowledge by integrating task-specific insights and broadening the use of conjoint and social network analysis in the context of IPC. The findings substantiate the contingency theory that relates characteristics of IPC to care complexity, offering quantified insights into how IP-teams adapt to situational needs. This understanding of relationships and variations within IPC holds crucial implications for designing targeted interventions in both clinical and health profession education contexts. Consequently, it contributes to advancements in healthcare systems.

Peer Review reports

In recent decades, healthcare systems have undergone substantial transformations, giving rise to complexities that surpass the knowledge and skills of single health professions [ 1 , 2 ]. As a result of advancements in modern medicine, conditions that were once lethal have transformed into chronic illnesses. This transformation has led to increased survival rates and aging of the population, with higher prevalence and severity of chronic and comorbid conditions, also among paediatric patients [ 3 , 4 ]. A growing number of children and adolescents with chronic conditions face the risk of cognitive, social, and emotional setbacks. This compromises their educational paths and places strain on family finances. Consequently, these children and adolescents may encounter fewer opportunities in life compared to their peers without chronic conditions [ 5 ]. As a consequence, traditional multi ple mono-disciplinary consultations without cohesive coordination can result in unclear decision-making and leadership ambiguity. This may give rise to conflicts in advices, counter-effective therapies, and unsafe transitions between health institutions, adding to communicative and logistic burdens of patients and their families.

Interprofessional collaboration (IPC) is proposed as a promising approach for navigating the growing complexities of healthcare effectively and efficiently [ 6 , 7 ]. It involves the collaborative creation and implementation of an integrated care plan, engaging patients, their families, doctors from various medical specialties, nurses as well as allied health and social professionals within and across diverse care settings [ 8 , 9 ]. To facilitate the integration of diverse perspectives and expertise in IPC, Glader and colleagues [ 10 ] advocate for the adoption of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) [ 11 ] as standard framework for care planning and evaluation in complex paediatric care. The ICF can be a useful tool for describing various health and welfare domains, encompassing both personal and environmental factors and their influence on patients’ functioning [ 12 ]. By providing a more holistic biopsychosocial model and, thus, a shared language, Snyman et al. [ 13 ] argue that the ICF facilitates interprofessional (IP-) teams, engaging patients and their families, in constructing a shared understanding of complex care needs. This understanding can subsequently be incorporated into and executed as a comprehensive care plan.

IPC is not a fixed entity but varies across different types of practice. Reeves et al. [ 14 ] argue that the degree of interprofessional collaborative (IPC-) practice is positively related to healthcare complexity. They suggest adopting a contingency approach as a theoretical foundation to more effectively delineate the variations in IPC. Specifically, they classify IPC practices into four levels, ranging from networks as the least intense form of IPC to coordination, collaboration, and teamwork as the most comprehensive and intensive practices. Differences between practices can be explained by six elements: shared team identity, clear roles and goals, interdependence, integration, shared responsibility and team tasks [ 15 ]. In unpredictable complex care, all elements are crucial and very close interprofessional teamwork is necessary to deliver appropriate care. When complex care becomes more predictable, shared identity, integration and interdependence become less important during IPC-practices such as collaboration and coordination. In predictable and low complex care, loosely connected IP-teams in networks are sufficient [ 15 ].

Thus, to deliver appropriate care that effectively and efficiently aligns priorities and circumstances [ 16 ], professionals and IP-teams need to attune their IPC-practices to changing situations considering team constellations and roles, and the degrees of integration and interdependence between their members. To ensure high levels of team functioning and performance within and across patients’ changing care needs, these complex adaptive IP-teams need to know when and how to deploy members’ expertise and skills to match situational needs [ 17 ].

In practice, however, perceptions of complexity of care and preferences for IPC seem to be more permeable. Professional, social, physical and task-related gaps persist in integrating expertise into joint care planning [ 18 ]. Also, challenges on various levels, including ideological, organizational, structural or relational aspects hinder the realization of IPC’s full potential [ 19 ]. These unsolved issues may not only result in compromised quality of care and care outcomes for patients and their families [ 20 ], but may also lead to reduced job satisfaction among health and social professionals [ 21 ]. A comprehensive understanding of professionals’ perceptions of complexity and related preferences can enhance IPC, thus contributing to advancements of healthcare systems. This improvement may lead to enhanced care experiences, cost reductions, increased professional satisfaction and improved health equity [ 22 ].

The goal of this study is twofold: First, to expand the understanding of the relationships between case complexity, professionals’ perceived case complexity and IPC preference in practice. Second, to gain insights into the variations in individual and team characteristics of IPC-practices across levels of case complexity.

With this study, we aim to contribute to the existing literature in three ways: First, we empirically test the theoretical contingency approach to IPC [ 15 ]. Second, we add task specific insights to existing knowledge from questionnaires on professionals’ general attitudes to IPC [ 23 ]. Third, we extend recent applications of social network analysis to IPC-practices to substantiate the conceptualization of appropriate care as an effort of complex adaptive IP-teams [ 17 , 24 , 25 ].

In line with the two goals mentioned above, we formulated three research questions: (1) What are the associations between modelled case complexity, professionals’ perceived case complexity and IPC preference in terms of professionals’ inclination towards integrated care planning and their indicated need of an IP-team meeting? (2) What is variation in individual characteristics of IPC-practices in terms of important professions, crucial connectors and influential professions between levels of modelled case complexity? (3) What are the associations between (modelled and perceived) case complexity and team characteristics of IPC-practices in terms of cohesion?

To answer these research questions, we conducted an observational study at a tertiary, academic paediatric hospital. Participants were administered a web-based questionnaire through Qualtrics (Provo, UT), comprising thirteen systematically modelled patient case descriptions with varying complexities. These cases were presented in a random order to the participants. For each case, participants answered three required and two follow-up questions. After finishing the last patient case, participants answered a short series of demographic questions about their professional background and number of years of experience.

The study was pre-registered prior to accessing the data on the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/6cr83 ). Data was collected between December 2022 and June 2023.

Participants and setting

Participants were professionals working in direct patient care at the Emma Children’s Hospital that is situated in the Amsterdam Universities Medical Centres, the Netherlands. The Emma Children’s Hospital houses a spectrum of specialized fields. Specifically within the realm of urology, the Emma Children’s Hospital exhibits distinctive proficiency in managing congenital disorders affecting the kidneys, bladder and urethra. We included medical doctors, nursing professionals, other health professionals (e.g. dieticians or physiotherapists), and social professionals (e.g., paediatric psychologists or social workers) (ISO) [ 26 ]. From all professions, we also included professionals-in-training (e.g., registered nurses in training for paediatric nurse, registered doctors in training for paediatrician). Participants were recruited through email invitations. To encourage responses from those who had not yet participated, two reminder emails were sent at four and eight weeks following the initial invitation. No incentives were offered for participation.

Case descriptions

The case descriptions were systematically modelled using elements of conjoint analysis [ 27 ]. This scientific method is considered an optimal approach for measuring the value that professionals place on features of products or situations in economics and in healthcare [ 28 , 29 ]. Set in the context of paediatric urology and the management of congenital disorders in particular, we modelled case descriptions based on five domains of the ICF for Children and Youth [ 30 ]: (1) personal factors, (2) environmental factors, (3) body functions and anatomical structures, (4) activities, and (5) participation. Conform to the ICF-framework, we chose to group body functions and structures together, and to separate activities and participation. Within each domain, we chose two representative elements of the ICF-coding system with three levels of complexity (low, medium, complex). The selection of elements within the ICF-domains as well as the operationalization into concrete examples was done by the research team consisting of a psychologist (LK), paediatrician-intensivist (VG) and clinical epidemiologist (RV). During this iterative process of feedback and adaptation, the validity and applicability of the preliminary case descriptions were frequently verified with the input of two paediatric nurses, a paediatrician, a paediatric urologist and a physiotherapist. In a pilot involving two specialized nurses, two nurses in training and two medical doctors in training, we evaluated the comprehensibility of case descriptions, questions and response options. Subsequently, adjustments were made based on the feedback received, and the materials were finalized.

As the ICF does not specify Personal factors [ 31 , 32 , 33 ], we followed Heerkens et al. [ 34 ] and operationalized them as personal characteristics in terms of 1a) chronic health condition and 1b) medical needs. Following the ICF, Environmental factors were operationalized as facilitators or barriers to functioning in terms of 2a) social security and 2b) social network. Body functions and anatomical structures were operationalized as impairments in body functioning in terms of 3a) metabolic or urogenital functions and 3b) sensory or mental functions. Activities were operationalized as limitations in activities in terms of 4a) mobility and 4b) self-care. Participation was operationalized as restrictions in participation in terms of 5a) education and 5b) leisure activities. Table 1 shows the operationalization of the five ICF-domains, featuring two representative elements each across three levels of complexity. The complete list of verbatim translated cases is available in the supplementary material.

Modelled case complexity

To describe the modelled complexity, we calculated the sum and product score per case based on the three complexity levels ( low = 1 to high = 3) for each of the five ICF-domains. This led to potential ranges of sum scores, spanning from 5 to 15, and product scores, ranging from 1 to 243.

Case selection

The combination of five ICF-domains with three levels of complexity yielded a total of 243 potential case descriptions. Considering respondent feasibility and employing conjoint analysis methodology, thirteen cases were randomly chosen for the final questionnaire, controlling for the complexity weight of individual ICF-domains. In each ICF-domain, the lowest and highest complexity levels were incorporated five times in the selected cases. Medium levels were featured three times, except in the ICF-domain Activities . In this domain, the medium level was included five times, while the high level occurred three times.

To address the first research question, we measured professionals’ perceived case complexity and IPC preference in terms of their inclination towards integrated care planning and their indicated need of an IP-team meeting.

Perceived case complexity

To measure professionals’ perceived care complexity, we employed the following question for each case: “How do you evaluate the situation of the described patient at this moment?” Responses were scored on a continuous scale from zero (very simple) to 100 (very complex).

IPC preference

We differentiated in professionals’ IPC preference using two measures to gain a more nuanced understanding: (1) their inclination towards integrated care planning and (2) their indicated need for an IP-team meeting. First, to measure professionals’ inclination towards integrated care planning, we utilized the following question for each case: “How do you evaluate the importance of the creation of an integrated care plan for the described patient?” Responses were scored on a continuous scale from zero (very unimportant) to 100 (very important). An integrated care plan was defined as a shared care plan that includes all healthcare domains and integrates perspectives of involved team members [ 35 ]. Second, to measure professionals’ need for an IP-team meeting, we posed the following question for each case: “Do you think that a multi- or interdisciplinary round-table consultation should take place to create an integrated care plan for the described patient?” Participants selected one of the following options: “No, go to the next patient case” ( score = 1) or “Yes, choose team members for this consultation” ( score = 2). Importantly, we chose the “multi- or interdisciplinary round-table consultations” as an indicator for IPC due to its widespread usage and recognition within the local context of our study [ 36 ]. By adopting this locally established terminology, we aimed to enhance precision and clarity in the questionnaire.

To address the second and third research question, we operationalized the characteristics of IPC-practices. Individual characteristics were measured based on important professions, crucial connectors and influential professions, while team characteristics were assessed by team cohesion.

Characteristics of IPC-practice

To measure the characteristics of IPC-practice, we employed the following question for each case: “A multi- or interdisciplinary round-table consultation will take place to create an integrated care plan for the described patient. Who do you think should certainly be present at this consultation?” Participants chose professions as team members that should certainly or optional be present. To enhance clarity and convenience, options were divided into five groups: family, nursing, medical, other and external. The first group included one option: parents. In line with the principles of IPC, we intentionally included the option for parents as potential team members participating in multi- or interdisciplinary round-table consultations, reflecting the widely accepted view of the parents’ role in paediatrics. The nursing category refers to nursing professionals and encompassed three options: paediatric nurse, specialist nurse urology and other nurse specialist (open text box). The medical category pertained to medical doctors and also included three options: paediatrician, paediatric urologist and other medical specialist (open text box). The other group encompasses other health and social professionals and comprised the following options: dietician, physiotherapist, social worker, pedagogical care provider, psychologist and other health professional (open text box). The external or extramural group refers to professionals outside the paediatric hospital and included two options: general practitioner and other external health professional (open text box). This question was only presented to participants for cases in which they had indicated the need multi- or interdisciplinary round-table consultation.

Utilizing social network analysis [ 37 ], we created social networks for each case based on the selection of team members deemed to be essential by participants. The social networks are depicted with node sizes and edge weights. Node sizes indicate the proportion of participants who selected a specific IP-team member as certainly present during the multi- or interdisciplinary round-table consultation. Meanwhile, edge weights signify the number of participants who indicated that the two connected nodes should both be certainly present IP-team members.

To quantify the individual characteristics of IPC-practice, we calculated (1) degree centrality, (2) betweenness centrality and (3) closeness centrality for all potential IP-team members. First, to find important professions, we calculated the degree centrality for each member for each case by counting the number of edges or co-occurrences with other IP-members for each individual IP-team member [ 37 ]. The metric provides insights into the overall structure of an IP-team by revealing which professions are more central in terms of connectivity. Second, to identify crucial connectors that coordinate the information flow in the IP-team, we assessed betweenness centrality by calculating the proportion of all shortest paths in the IP-team that pass through a given member [ 37 ]. The metric is valuable for detecting critical professions that mediate interactions within an IP-team. Third, to find influential professions, we calculated closeness centrality by assigning a score to each member based on its sum of shortest paths between this member and all other colleagues in the IP-team [ 37 ]. The metric is particularly useful for identifying professions that are strategically positioned to facilitate quick communication within a complex system, and it contributes valuable insights into the overall efficiency and accessibility of the IP-team.

To quantify the team characteristics of IPC-practice, we calculated network density by dividing the actual number of connection times two by all potential interactions [ 37 ]. This metric characterizes the degree of cohesion or fragmentation within the network, offering valuable insights into the potential for group formation and information diffusion. The verbatim translated questionnaire is available in the supplementary material.

Ethical considerations

The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Amsterdam Universities Medical Centres, location Amsterdam Medical Centre, who waived the need for a full ethical review (W22_295#22.356). Participants were informed about the study and asked for consent before answering the digital questionnaire. Participants were informed about the study during staff meetings, in newsletters and through email. Informed consent was given immediately before answering the questionnaire.

The data underwent two pre-processing steps. First, to account for individual participants’ general perceptions and preferences, mean-centred (MC) values were computed for each respondent concerning perceived complexity and inclination towards integrated care planning [ 38 ]. Second, to address non-normal distributions, rank transformations were applied to all variables when appropriate [ 39 ].

To describe the sociodemographic properties of the sample, we computed frequencies for professional background and training status, along with measures of central tendency for work experience.

To assess the associations between modelled case complexity, professionals’ perceived case complexity and IPC preference in terms of their inclination towards integrated care planning and their indicated need of an IP-team meeting, we calculated Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients. These coefficients were computed between rank-transformed (RT) sum and product scores of modelled complexity, MC/RT scores of perceived complexity, MC/RT scores of inclination towards integrated care planning, and the scores of indicated need for an IP-team meeting. To account for the repeated measures design, correlations were calculated per participant. Weighted means for correlation coefficients and p-values were derived across all participants, adjusting for the number of completed cases [ 40 ]. Weighted confidence intervals were employed to describe inter-individual variations [ 41 ]. To depict inter-individual variation, we generated scatterplots with smoothing lines using local regression (LOESS) for continuous scores [ 42 ] and generalized linear models (GLM) for binary scores [ 43 ]. Following the contingency approach proposed by Reeves et al. [ 14 ], we predicted that RT sum and product scores of modelled complexity, MC/RT scores of perceived complexity, MC/RT scores of inclination towards integrated care planning, and the RT scores of indicated need for an IP-team meeting were positively correlated.

To determine the variation in individual characteristics of IPC-practices in terms of important professions, crucial connectors and influential professions between levels of modelled case complexity,, we compared the degree, betweenness and closeness centrality per IP-team member between five networks. The networks were chosen based on the (1) minimum, (2) lower quartile, (3) median, (4) upper quartile and (5) maximum scores of modelled complexity. We visualized individual characteristics of IPC-practice for these networks using the Kamada-Kawai drawing algorithm for undirected graphs [ 44 ]. Taking the perspective of adaptive teams [ 17 ], we expected that the degree, betweenness and closeness centrality of IP-team members differed across levels of case complexity.

Lastly, to assess the associations between (modelled and perceived) case complexity and team characteristics of IPC-practices in terms of cohesion, we calculated Kendall’s rank correlations coefficients. These coefficients were computed for sum and product scores of modelled complexity, averaged MC perceived complexity and network density. Following the perspective of care teams as adaptive systems [ 17 ], we predicted that sum and product scores of modelled complexity, averaged MC scores of perceived complexity, network density were positively correlated with network density.

Statistical significance was set at the level of p <.05. All analyses were performed using R (4.0.3, 2020-10-10).

In total, 439 professionals (197 nursing professionals, 174 medical doctors, and 68 health or social professionals) working at the Emma Children’s Hospital were invited to participate in this observational study, of whom 123 (28%) consented to participate. We included 110 participants (52 nursing professionals, 46 medical doctors, and 12 health or social professionals) who completed the questionnaire for more than 50% of the cases in the final analyses. Twenty-eight participants were in specialist training. The median professional experience was 8 years ( IQR = 15).

Associations between modelled case complexity, perceived case complexity and IPC preferences

Descriptive analysis revealed that MC scores of perceived complexity ranged between − 58.31 and 42.77 across all cases. Overall MC scores of inclinations towards integrated care planning varied between − 69.39 and 50.77. In total, participants opted for an (IP-team meeting 732 times (52.51%), while there were 662 occurrences (47.49%) when no IP-team meeting was indicated. Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for each of the thirteen cases.

Associations with modelled case complexity.

RT scores of modelled case complexity and MC/RT scores of perceived complexity were significantly correlated in terms of sum score ( R weighted = 0.639, 95% CI weighted [0.250, 1], p weighted = 0.027) and product score ( R weighted = 0.630, 95% CI weighted [0.240, 1], p weighted = 0.033). RT scores of modelled case complexity were also significantly correlated with MC/RT scores of inclinations towards integrated care planning (sum score: R weighted = 0.621, 95% CI weighted [0.225, 1], p weighted = 0.035; product score: R weighted = 0.618, 95% CI weighted [0.223, 1], p weighted = 0.040). The 95% weighted confidence interval showed inter-individual variations, and indicated that, on population level, the correlation coefficients between RT scores of modelled complexity and the two outcome measures ranged from 0.250/0.240 to 0.225/0.223 and 1. Post-hoc analyses revealed no correlation between individuals’ coefficients and their variation in MC/RT scores, as measured by standard deviations. RT scores of modelled case complexity and scores of indicated IP-team meeting were not significantly correlated (sum score: R weighted = 0.505, 95% CI weighted [0.061, 1], p weighted = 0.076; product score: R weighted = 0.503, 95% CI weighted [0.058, 1], p weighted = 0.078).

While Fig. 1 illustrates general trends, indicating that higher RT sum and product scores of modelled case complexity correspond to higher MC/RT scores of perceived complexity (Fig. 1 A-B), higher MC/RT scores of inclination towards integrated care planning (Fig. 1 C-D), and higher RT scores of indicated need for an IP-team meeting (figure E-F), individual trajectories appear to be diverse. This inter-individual variation in MC/RT scores of perceived complexity and inclination towards integrated care planning is particularly evident towards high RT modelled complexity. Conversely, the opposite trend is observed for the RT score of need for an IP-team meeting. In order to explore the visual trends, and inter individual variations, we compared the interquartile ranges across modelled complexity ranks. Smaller interquartile ranges ( IQR = 1–2.5) were observed for MC/RT scores of perceived complexity at lower modelled complexity (ranks two, three, and four, Fig. 1 A-B). Wider interquartile ranges ( IQR = 4) were noted at rank one as well as at high ranks. A similar analysis was carried out for MC/RT scores of inclination towards integrated care planning. High interquartile ranges ( IQR = 4–5) were only observed at the highest ranks of modelled complexity, while the lowest interquartile ranges ( IQR = 2) were again seen at ranks three and four (Fig. 1 C-D). This supports the visual trend that the inter-individual variation increases with increased complexity.

Scatterplots for modelled case complexity, perceived case complexity and IPC preferences with smoothing lines per participant

Note: The scatterplots show the RT scores of all variables. Labels of the x- and y-axes refer to the range of possible ranks within a variable

Associations between perceived case complexity and IPC preferences.

MC/RT scores of inclination towards integrated care planning were correlated with MC/RT scores of perceived complexity ( R weighted = 0.779, 95% CI [0.510, 1], p weighted = 0.009), as well as with scores of indicated need for IP-team meetings ( R weighted = 0.679, 95% CI [0.230, 1], p weighted = 0.032). The correlation between MC/RT scores of perceived complexity and RT scores of indicated need for IP-team meeting was not significant ( R weighted = 0.565, 95% CI [0.147, 1], p weighted = 0.056). Post-hoc analyses revealed no correlation between individuals’ coefficients and their variation in MC/RT scores, as measured by standard deviations.

Figure 2 A-C illustrates the inter-individual variations in the associations between MC/RT perceived complexity, MC/RT scores of inclination towards integrated care planning and RT scores of indicated need for IP-team meeting. While some participants appear to have strong general tendency towards IP-team meetings in general, independent from care complexity, others indicate the need for a team meeting only on few occasions.

Scatterplots for perceptions of complexity and preference for IPC with smoothing lines per participant

Variation of individual characteristics of IPC-practice between levels of modelled case complexity

Degree centrality of IP-team members varied between cases of different complexity levels. While all selected IP-team members were highly connected and equally important in IPC-practices for maximum complex cases (case 153, range DC = 11–14), less members were involved in IPC-practices with more differences in their individual importance between them at the lowest modelled complexity (case 82, range DC = 0–8). Betweenness centrality also seemed to differ between cases. For instance, while the psychologist appeared to be a crucial connector ( BC 82 = 11.000, BC 21 = 26.583) in cases 82 and 21, the paediatric urologist ( BC = 19.357) and nurse specialist ( BC = 24.968) were most influential in the network of case 201. Moreover, other professionals such as medical and nursing specialists from other discipline such as pulmonology, psychiatry or nephrology, and extramural professionals such as school officials, youth services and home care representatives seemed to be more crucial connectors when complexity increased. Lastly, there seemed to be a decreasing trend in average closeness centrality related to rising complexity. Figure 3 visualizes the IPC-practices for the five exemplary cases (3 A minimum, 3B first quartile, 3 C median, 3D second quartile, 3E maximum). Table 3 provides descriptive statistics for the centrality measures.

Social networks for five cases based on modelled complexity (min, Q1, median, Q3, maximum)

Associations between (modelled and perceived) case complexity and team characteristics of IPC-practice

Modelled case complexity, both in terms of sum and product scores, was positively correlated with network density (sum score: tau = 0.641, p =.004; product score: tau = 0.641, p =.003). Additionally, perceived case complexity was positively correlated with network density ( tau = 0.560, p =.004). This finding suggests that the degree of IPC-practice increased with rising complexity.

The goal of this study was to expand the understanding of the relationship between case complexity, professionals’ perceptions of complexity, and preferences for IPC, and to gain insights into the variations in individual and team characteristics of IPC-practices across levels of case complexity. Building on the contingency approach outlined by Reeves et al. [ 14 ], our results, indicating positive associations between modelled case complexity, perceived case complexity and IPC preference, lend support to this theory. Nevertheless, the observed variance between individuals’ associations could not be entirely accounted for. For instance, individual variation in perceptions and IPC preferences across cases was not related to individual associations. Consequently, we hypothesize that one or more additional pertinent factors might be associated with professionals’ perceptions and preferences for IPC [ 45 ]. Potential factors that may explain the observed inter-individual variation include professional background and work experience, proficiency in interprofessional competencies as well as personal believes and motivations. Moreover, the extent of inter-individual variation differed across levels of modelled complexity. This might also indicate that separate ICF-domains influence individual perceptions of complexity and preferences for IPC differently.

Taking the perspective of complex adaptive teams [ 17 ], our data substantiates the theory by revealing that individual characteristics of IPC-practices vary across case complexity. Social network analyses revealed that important professions, crucial connectors and influential professions seemed to change when care became more complex. First, the importance of members from various professions became more equally distributed among the whole IP-team. In correspondence with the contingency theory, this might be an indicator for an increase in interdependence and shared responsibility between members that is essential in close IPC-practices in order to effectively deal with high degrees of complexity [ 14 , 15 ]. Second, the profession of crucial connectors changed based on care situations. This apparent adaption to situational needs might signal the clarity of roles, goals and tasks with IP-teams that is necessary in all IPC-practices [ 15 ]. Third, the influence of members from various professions became more equally distributed with increasing complexity. This might afford quick communication between all team members in order to reach optimal efficiency and accessibility to interprofessional expertise. In line with the contingency theory, this equal distribution may suggest an increased need for integration that is necessary to provide appropriate care in highly complex situations [ 15 ]. Overall, team cohesions was positively associated with modelled and perceived complexity. This might indicate that group formation or shared team identity becomes stronger when complexity increases. To conclude, social network analysis might provide empirical indices for the four levels of IPC-practice described in the contingency theory [ 14 ].

Strengths and limitations

The findings of this study should be interpreted in light of several limitations. Firstly, the use of paper-based cases, while designed as a practical approximation of professionals’ intentions in real-life scenarios and carefully modelled, may limit the generalizability of the results to their actual actions in real-world settings. However, the research question can hardly be systematically answered by other means, and the used technique of case descriptions and conjoint analysis is a valid way of elucidating preferences [ 29 , 46 ]. Additionally, the range of case complexity in this study is somewhat restricted by selected elements with the five ICF-domains and their complexity levels. While there are alternative approaches to model health complexity, we chose to utilize the ICF model as it has been proposed as a comprehensive framework for complex care [ 10 , 11 ]. Although a broader array of professionals could be considered for the study population, we believe that the professions included in this study are representative of complex paediatric care in our setting. Besides, IPC has been a longstanding and common practice in paediatrics. Therefore, the study of perceptions of complexity and preferences for IPC is extremely relevant within this healthcare domain, that is generally believed ‘doing well’ in this respect. Although the results cannot be transferred to adult medicine unequivocally, they can be of great relevance to those fields that are still at the brink of developing IPC communities.

To our knowledge this is one of the few study underpinning theories behind IPC. Such underpinning is crucially important since information on intended actions provide evidence for large efforts and costly efforts made in healthcare to improve health outcomes in view of complexity. This study particularly supports the contingency theory of Reeves et al. [ 14 , 15 ] and theories of complex adaptive teams [ 17 ]. It provides advanced methodological and statistical techniques to quantify IPC-practice. Additionally, the findings suggest substantial inter-individual variations, and thus complex responses, as well as show the complexity of IP-teams. This information bears significant implications to advance IPC in clinical and (continuous) health profession education contexts.

Implications for interprofessional collaboration and education

To optimize IPC in clinical contexts, these insights may serve as a starting point for the development of effective network models customized to address continuously changing care needs for the delivery of appropriate care. Grounded in clinical outcomes, these models can act as valuable tools for making informed decisions on structuring IPC processes effectively and efficiently over time [ 46 , 47 ]. Specifically, these models may offer insights into decisions related to team compositions and processes by identifying crucial team members and determining the appropriate degrees of IPC-practices. This information may also provide relevant guidance for policy makers and healthcare leaders in adjusting policies and regulations to create healthcare environments that promote IPC.

To foster IPC in (continuous) health profession educational contexts, interventions should be designed to align perceptions of complexity and preferences for ICP and to develop a shared terminology among (future) professionals within and across various healthcare professions, patients and their families [ 36 , 47 , 48 ]. Especially, interprofessional education (IPE) may have the potential to enhance (future) professionals’ comprehension of care complexity as degrees of interrelatedness [ 49 ] and IP-teams as complex adaptive systems [ 17 , 50 , 51 ]. This may help (future) professionals and teams develop necessary interprofessional competencies, and to effectively and efficiently adapt to continuously changing complexities [ 14 , 16 , 52 ].

Future directions.

To further validate the theory of Reeves et al. [ 15 ], future studies using similar methodology could be expanded towards the field of adult complex care, rehabilitation and community care. To examine inter-individual variation, mixed method approaches could prove useful to investigate determinants such as sociodemographic data, professional and personal value systems, and interprofessional competencies. To substantiate the relevance of the contingency approach for appropriate care, future studies could also examine associations between complexity, IPC-practices and health outcomes. Our social network research was carried out from the perspective of complex adaptive IP-teams [ 17 ], such research could be further expanded by longitudinal and interventional studies following real-life actions of IP-teams over longer periods of time to better understand (the development of) team adaptiveness and performance in changing circumstances. These enhancements will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of relationships and variations IPC processes. This understanding can advance healthcare systems by enhancing care experiences, reducing costs, fostering professional satisfaction and increasing health equity [ 22 ].

This study provides empirical support for the contingency theory underlying IPC processes and their determinants. It offers quantified insights into the ways in which complex adaptive IP-teams may attune to situational needs in the context of care complexity. Through systematic examination utilizing conjoint analysis and expanding recent applications of social network analysis IPC, we contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of care complexity and IPC-practices.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study will be made publicly available on the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/6cr83).

Abbreviations

betweenness centrality

closeness centrality

degree centrality

International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health

Interprofessional

Interprofessional collaboration

Interquartile range

Mean-centred

Rank-transformed

Standard deviation

Cohen E, Berry JG, Sanders L, Schor EL, Wise PH. Status Complexicus? The emergence of Pediatric Complex Care. Pediatrics. 2018;141(Suppl 3):S202–11.

Article Google Scholar

Tran PB, Kazibwe J, Nikolaidis GF, Linnosmaa I, Rijken M, van Olmen J. Costs of multimorbidity: a systematic review and meta-analyses. BMC Med. 2022;20(1):234.

Pygott N, Hartley A, Seregni F, Ford TJ, Goodyer IM, Necula A, et al. Research Review: Integrated healthcare for children and young people in secondary/tertiary care - a systematic review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2023;64(9):1264–79.

Murphy Salem S, Graham RJ. Chronic illness in Pediatric critical care. Front Pediatr. 2021;9:686206.

van den Akker M, Dieckelmann M, Hussain MA, Bond-Smith D, Muth C, Pati S, et al. Children and adolescents are not small adults: toward a better understanding of multimorbidity in younger populations. J Clin Epidemiol. 2022;149:165–71.

Plochg T, Klazinga NS, Starfield B. Transforming medical professionalism to fit changing health needs. BMC Med. 2009;7(1):64.

Framework for Action on. Interprofessional Education and collaborative practice. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.

Google Scholar

A Conceptual Framework for Interprofessional Teamwork. Interprofessional Teamwork for Health and Social Care2010. p. 57–76.

Brenner M, Kidston C, Hilliard C, Coyne I, Eustace-Cook J, Doyle C, et al. Children’s complex care needs: a systematic concept analysis of multidisciplinary language. Eur J Pediatr. 2018;177(11):1641–52.

Glader L, Plews-Ogan J, Agrawal R. Children with medical complexity: creating a framework for care based on the International Classification of Functioning, disability and health. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2016;58(11):1116–23.

International Classification of. Functioning, disability, and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001.

Stallinga HA. The concept of ‘functioning’. In: de Kraus O, Simon L, Ronen GM, Rosenbaum PL, editors. ICF: a hands-on Approach for clinicians and families. Mac Keith; 2019. pp. 19–24.

Snyman S, Simon L, Kraus de Camargo O. The development of effective health and social care teams: ICF as the glue! In: de Kraus O, Simon L, Ronen GM, Rosenbaum PL, editors. ICF: a hands-on Approach for clinicians and families. Mac Keith; 2019. pp. 76–94.

Reeves S, Xyrichis A, Zwarenstein M. Teamwork, collaboration, coordination, and networking: why we need to distinguish between different types of interprofessional practice. J Interprof Care. 2018;32(1):1–3.

Reeves S, Lewin S, Espin S, Zwarenstein M. Interprofessional teamwork for health and social care. Oxford, UK: Blackwell-Wiley; 2010.

Book Google Scholar

Robertson-Preidler J, Biller-Andorno N, Johnson TJ. What is appropriate care? An integrative review of emerging themes in the literature. BMC Health Serv Res. 2017;17(1):452.

Pype P, Mertens F, Helewaut F, Krystallidou D. Healthcare teams as complex adaptive systems: understanding team behaviour through team members’ perception of interpersonal interaction. BMC Health Serv Res. 2018;18(1):570.

Schot E, Tummers L, Noordegraaf M. Working on working together. A systematic review on how healthcare professionals contribute to interprofessional collaboration. J Interprof Care. 2020;34(3):332–42.

Sangaleti C, Schveitzer MC, Peduzzi M, Zoboli E, Soares CB. Experiences and shared meaning of teamwork and interprofessional collaboration among health care professionals in primary health care settings: a systematic review. JBI Database Syst Rev Implement Rep. 2017;15(11):2723–88.

Hargreaves DS, Elliott MN, Viner RM, Richmond TK, Schuster MA. Unmet Health Care need in US adolescents and Adult Health outcomes. Pediatrics. 2015;136(3):513–20.

Wei H, Horsley L, Cao Y, Haddad LM, Hall KC, Robinson R, et al. The associations among nurse work engagement, job satisfaction, quality of care, and intent to leave: a national survey in the United States. Int J Nurs Sci. 2023;10(4):476–84.

Nundy S, Cooper LA, Mate KS. The Quintuple Aim for Health Care Improvement: a new imperative to Advance Health Equity. JAMA. 2022;327(6):521–2.

Ansa BE, Zechariah S, Gates AM, Johnson SW, Heboyan V, De Leo G. Attitudes and behavior towards interprofessional collaboration among Healthcare professionals in a large Academic Medical Center. Healthc (Basel). 2020;8(3).

Smit LC, Dikken J, Moolenaar NM, Schuurmans MJ, de Wit NJ, Bleijenberg N. Implementation of an interprofessional collaboration in practice program: a feasibility study using social network analysis. Pilot Feasibility Stud. 2021;7(1):7.

Pomare C, Long JC, Ellis LA, Churruca K, Braithwaite J. Interprofessional collaboration in mental health settings: a social network analysis. J Interprof Care. 2019;33(5):497–503.

Occupational health and. Safety management systems—requirements with guidance for use. International Organization for Standardization; 2018.

Allenby GM, Hardt N, Rossi PE. Chapter 3 - economic foundations of conjoint analysis. In: Dubé J-P, Rossi PE, editors. Handbook of the Economics of Marketing. Volume 1. North-Holland; 2019. pp. 151–92.

Ryan M, Farrar S. Using conjoint analysis to elicit preferences for health care. BMJ. 2000;320(7248):1530–3.

Al-Omari B, Farhat J, Ershaid M. Conjoint Analysis: A Research Method to Study Patients’ Preferences and Personalize Care. J Pers Med. 2022;12(2).

ICF-CY. International Classification of Functioning, disability, and Health: Children & Youth version. Geneva: World Health Organisation; 2007.

Geyh S, Peter C, Müller R, Bickenbach JE, Kostanjsek N, Üstün BT, et al. The personal factors of the International Classification of Functioning, disability and health in the literature– a systematic review and content analysis. Disabil Rehabil. 2011;33(13–14):1089–102.

Geyh S, Schwegler U, Peter C, Müller R. Representing and organizing information to describe the lived experience of health from a personal factors perspective in the light of the International Classification of Functioning, disability and health (ICF): a discussion paper. Disabil Rehabil. 2019;41(14):1727–38.

Kraus de Camargo O. Personal factors in clinical practice and public health. In: de Kraus O, Simon L, Ronen GM, Rosenbaum PL, editors. ICF: a hands-on Approach for clinicians and families. Mac Keith; 2019. pp. 25–36.

Heerkens YF, de Weerd M, Huber M, de Brouwer CPM, van der Veen S, Perenboom RJM, et al. Reconsideration of the scheme of the international classification of functioning, disability and health: incentives from the Netherlands for a global debate. Disabil Rehabil. 2018;40(5):603–11.

Khan AI, Arthurs E, Gradin S, MacKinnon M, Sussman J, Kukreti V. Integrated Care Planning for Cancer patients: a scoping review. Int J Integr Care. 2017;17(6):5.

Mitzkat A, Berger S, Reeves S, Mahler C. More terminological clarity in the interprofessional field - a call for reflection on the use of terminologies, in both practice and research, on a national and international level. GMS J Med Educ. 2016;33(2):Doc36.

O’Malley AJ, Marsden PV. The analysis of Social Networks. Health Serv Outcomes Res Methodol. 2008;8(4):222–69.

Hofer M. Mean Centering. The International Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods2017. p. 1–3.

Conover WJ. The rank transformation—an easy and intuitive way to connect many nonparametric methods to their parametric counterparts for seamless teaching introductory statistics courses. WIRE Comput Stat. 2012;4(5):432–8.

Mohr DL, Marcon RA. Testing for a ‘within-subjects’ association in repeated measures data. J Nonparametric Stat. 2005;17(3):347–63.

Schober P, Boer C, Schwarte LA. Correlation coefficients: appropriate use and interpretation. Anesth Analg. 2018;126(5):1763–8.

Jacoby WG. Loess:: a nonparametric, graphical tool for depicting relationships between variables. Electoral Stud. 2000;19(4):577–613.

Zuur AF, Ieno EN, Walker NJ, Saveliev AA, Smith GM. GLM and GAM for Count Data. In: Zuur AF, Ieno EN, Walker N, Saveliev AA, Smith GM, editors. Mixed effects models and extensions in ecology with R. New York, NY: Springer New York; 2009. pp. 209–43.

Chapter Google Scholar

Kamada T, Kawai S. An algorithm for drawing general undirected graphs. Inform Process Lett. 1989;31(1):7–15.

Rodgers JL, Nicewander WA. Thirteen ways to look at the correlation coefficient. Am Stat. 1988;42(1):59–66.

Lim AH, Ng SW, Teh XR, Ong SM, Sivasampu S, Lim KK. Conjoint analyses of patients’ preferences for primary care: a systematic review. BMC Prim Care. 2022;23(1):234.

Jensen CB, Norbye B, Dahlgren MA, Iversen A. Patient participation in interprofessional learning and collaboration with undergraduate health professional students in clinical placements: a scoping review. J Interprofessional Educ Pract. 2022;27:100494.

Romme S, Bosveld MH, Van Bokhoven MA, De Nooijer J, Van den Besselaar H, Van Dongen JJJ. Patient involvement in interprofessional education: a qualitative study yielding recommendations on incorporating the patient’s perspective. Health Expect. 2020;23(4):943–57.

Kannampallil TG, Schauer GF, Cohen T, Patel VL. Considering complexity in healthcare systems. J Biomed Inform. 2011;44(6):943–7.

Khan S, Vandermorris A, Shepherd J, Begun JW, Lanham HJ, Uhl-Bien M, Berta W. Embracing uncertainty, managing complexity: applying complexity thinking principles to transformation efforts in healthcare systems. BMC Health Serv Res. 2018;18(1):192.

Ramos-Villagrasa PJ, Marques-Quinteiro P, Navarro J, Rico R. Teams as Complex Adaptive systems: reviewing 17 years of Research. Small Group Res. 2017;49(2):135–76.

Dow AW, Zhu X, Sewell D, Banas CA, Mishra V, Tu S-P. Teamwork on the rocks: rethinking interprofessional practice as networking. J Interprof Care. 2017;31(6):677–8.

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Eveline Berman-De Jong, Hylke Brouwer, Karin Molenaar, Annemarie Smid and Eric van der Horst for their valuable feedback on the cases.

The research was funded by a stimulation grand for interprofessional care from the board of directors of the Amsterdam Academic Medical Centre, The Netherlands.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Institute for Education and Training, Amsterdam Universities Medical Centres location University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Lisa-Maria van Klaveren & Rien de Vos

Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam Universities Medical Centres location University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Vincent Geukers

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

LK, VG and RV conceived and designed the study; LK and RV performed the research process and collected the data; LK performed the statistical analyses; LK drafted the manuscript; LK prepared the figures and tables; LK, VG and RV edited and revised the manuscript; RV was the project manager; LK, VG and RV approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lisa-Maria van Klaveren .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Approval was provided by the Institutional Review Board of the Amsterdam University Medical Centre. location Academic Medical Centre, who waived the need for a full ethical review (W22_295#22.356). Participants were informed about the study and provided informed consent before answering the questionnaire.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Supplementary material 2, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

van Klaveren, LM., Geukers, V. & de Vos, R. Care complexity, perceptions of complexity and preferences for interprofessional collaboration: an analysis of relationships and social networks in paediatrics. BMC Med Educ 24 , 334 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05304-6

Download citation

Received : 30 November 2023

Accepted : 13 March 2024

Published : 25 March 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05304-6

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Social network analysis
Interprofessional education

BMC Medical Education

ISSN: 1472-6920

Submission enquiries: [email protected]
General enquiries: [email protected]

Study Guides
Homework Questions

Case Study 1 ITM125 Leadership and Communication

IMAGES

Contingency Leadership Theory and Its Various Models
What is Fiedler's Contingency Theory of Leadership
What Is Contingency Theory of Leadership? Models Explained
Fiedler's Contingency Theory of Leadership
10 Contingency Theory of Leadership Examples (2023)
Three Contingency and Situational Theories of Leadership

VIDEO

PMS3263 Organizational Leadership
Contingency Leadership
OL CASE STUDY 3
Contingency Plan & Disaster Case Study (Group 8)
contingency theory
Net Preparation

COMMENTS

The Contingency Theory of Leadership: A Focus on Fit
The contingency theory of leadership, which emerged from numerous scholars in the 1960s, is rooted in the belief that earlier management theories had neglected the influence of situational factors, or contingencies, on organizations. Examples of contingencies include the state of the economy, the availability of trained labor, the organization ...
Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership: Definition, examples
The core premise of contingency theory is that there's no universally correct way to lead a team or make decisions. Instead, it advocates for a strategy that's flexible and adaptable to the situation at hand. Leaders who embrace contingency theory adjust their leadership style based on factors such as interpersonal relationships within the ...
An Overview and Discussion of Fred E. Fiedler's Contingency Model of
conducted over 30 studies (1974). Fiedler's model arose in response to limitations in the two major questions focused on in leadership study at that time; what the personality factors are which make someone a leader, and what the personality traits are which make them effective (1964). The two main concepts in Fiedler's theory are
Contingency theory to study leadership styles of small businesses owner
This study is anchored on contingency theories which fundamental underpinning is that there is no one best or unique style of leadership that transcends across all situations, 2,15,16,17,18 what is effective in some situations could have no effects or even dysfunctional effects in others. Those theories argue that the best type of leadership depends on situational variables and that no one ...
Contingency Theory of Leadership: Definition and Models
The contingency theory of leadership focuses on how specific situations affect a leader's effectiveness and how a leader's ability to adapt can be their most important tool in the workplace. In this article, we define the contingency theory of leadership and examine three specific models for how it can be applied in a work environment.
It depends. Understanding the contingency theory of leadership
The contingency theory of leadership states that effective leadership is contingent upon the situation at hand. Essentially, it depends on whether an individual's leadership style befits the situation. According to this theory, someone can be an effective leader in one circumstance and an ineffective leader in another.
Contingency Theory
According to Fiedler, the contingency theory of management states that leaders attempt to adjust the appropriate leadership style to the specific situation that will drive them to accomplish the organizational purpose (Northouse, 2013).Core aspects of Fiedler's contingency model are situational favorableness (leader's control and influence) and leadership style (as measured by the LPC ...
A Contingency Theory of Leadership
The idea of a contingency theory of leadership is not novel. In the 1960s several scholars conducted research and proposed such an approach arguing that the style of leadership that would be most effective depended upon the situation (Fiedler, Tannenbaum and Schmidt, and Vroom and Yetton). This work was an integral part of the wave of ...
Revisiting the contingency theories of leadership: Key features
The present study examines the performance of middle least preferred co-worker (LPC) leaders in relation to the performance of high and low LPC leaders and tests Fiedler's contingency model of ...
Contingency Theory of Leadership
Introduction: Contingency Theory. The main purpose of this article is to summarize the main ideas and contributions of the contingency theory of leadership (CTL) and to show its usefulness for the public sector. To do that, we are going to adapt it to the special characteristics and traits of public management considered as a design science ...
Complex Leadership in Healthcare: A Scoping Review
During the 1960s, theory on leadership moved away from the trait and personality theories towards theories that recognised the importance of leadership styles and behaviours. 4 Contingency leadership, developed by Fiedler 5 holds that managers have a preferred style of leading, which ranges from task-orientated to relation-orientated styles ...
Contingency Theory of Leadership explained by a CEO
The Contingency theory of leadership has the following advantages: Contingency theory shifted leadership research from traits and behaviors to also include situational and team aspects. Lots of empirical research supports the contingency theory of leadership. The situation truly matters, and a behavior-only model is inadequate.
Mcdonald's Contingency Theory Case Study
In the case of McDonald's, it practices each theory to a certain degree. Fieldler's contingency theory states that in order to maximize work group performance, leaders must be matched to the right leadership situation (Williams, 2007). Different managers have different styles that do not change and are better suited for different tasks.
What Is the Contingency Theory of Leadership?
Contingency theory suggests that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the characteristics of the situation. A person can be a highly effective leader in one situation, but they might be much less effective in other situations. The theory is not focused on whether someone is an inherently good or bad leader.
The Fall and Rise of The Contingency Theory of Leadership
The Contingency Theory of Leadership with the main approach to leadership appropriate depending on the environmental situation that arises in the context of a particular action or behavior ...
Contingency Theories of Leadership: A Study
Abstract. In this paper a brief review of the major contingency leadership theories is made. A study testing Fiedler's contingency model of leadership effectiveness is also reported here. It is suggested that longitudinal study of the leadership process encompassing the leader, his subordinates, and the situation needs to be made; the exact ...
(PDF) The Contingency Theory of Management as a Factor of Acknowledging
The contingency theory suggests that the best management approach depends on the contexts of organizational position and environmental factors and how they are controlled determines the ...
PDF Contingency Theories of Leadership
Situational Leadership Theory. The situational leadership theory put forth by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard in 1969 proposes that leadership effectiveness depends on the leader's ability to tailor his or her behavior to the demands of the situation, namely, the subordinate's level of maturity. This theory builds on the earlier Ohio and Michigan ...
Contingency Theories of Leadership: A Study
In this paper a brief review of the major contingency leadership theories is made. A study testing Fiedler's contingency model of leadership effectiveness is also reported here. It is suggested that longitudinal study of the leadership process encompassing the leader, his subordinates, and the situation needs to be made; the exact nature of the contingency relationship also needs to be ...
A Contingency Theory Approach to Understanding Small Retail Business
Contingency Theory. Contingency theory of leadership, first introduced by Fiedler ... Similarly, in their case study within the food service industry, authors indicate that a key to business continuity during the COVID‐19 pandemic was a leader with high morale which fostered a strong company culture ...
A Case Study in Contingency Theory: What's the Best Leader Match
Contingency theory identifies leaders as stable in their leadership styles. Leaders are identifies as relation or task motivated. Situations have three variables that impact the needs of leaders. As a result leader-member relations, position power and task structure can have a direct impact on the chosen leader.
(PDF) The Contingency of Leadership
Abstract. The paper elaborates on the contingency of leadership, referring to specific circumstances that require deliberate interventions, while challenging efforts to implement concerted action ...
A Contingency Theory of Leadership
The idea of a contingency theory of leadership is not new. In the 1960s several scholars, most notably Frederick Fiedler, argued that effective leadership style depended on situational contingencies, such as the nature of the task-specifically, how certain or uncertain it was. ... Classical Sociological Approaches to the Study of Leadership ...
Care complexity, perceptions of complexity and preferences for
Such underpinning is crucially important since information on intended actions provide evidence for large efforts and costly efforts made in healthcare to improve health outcomes in view of complexity. This study particularly supports the contingency theory of Reeves et al. [14, 15] and theories of complex adaptive teams . It provides advanced ...
Case Study 1 ITM125 Leadership and Communication
ITM125 Leadership and Communication - Case Study 1 Leadership Styles, Motivation and Recognition Due Wednesday, February 21, via Dropbox by 11:59 pm Case Background: You are the Project Manager hired by QwickZipp. QwickZipp is a leading technology company that is about to launch a groundbreaking software product.

Free Videos

Team-Building Strategies: Building a Winning Team for Your Organization

What Is the Contingency Theory of Leadership ?

Claim your FREE copy: Real Leaders Negotiate

What Contingencies Matter?

Related Posts

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Negotiation and Leadership

NEGOTIATION MASTER CLASS

Negotiation Essentials Online

Beyond the Back Table: Working with People and Organizations to Get to Yes

Select Your Free Special Report

Teaching Negotiation Resource Center

Stay Connected to PON

Articles & Insights

PON Publications

Advisory boards aren’t only for executives. Join the LogRocket Content Advisory Board today →

Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership: Definition, examples

Contingency theory definition

Origins of contingency theory

Advantages of adopting contingency theory

4 types of contingency theory

Fiedler model

Situational leadership model

Path-goal model

Over 200k developers and product managers use LogRocket to create better digital experiences

Decision-making model

How to apply the contingency theory of management

What does contingency theory look like in practice?

What are some limitations of contingency theory?

LogRocket generates product insights that lead to meaningful action

Share this:

Stop guessing about your digital experience with LogRocket

Leader Spotlight: Making magic with the right SDLC model, with Trevor Riley

Leader Spotlight: Enabling a cultural mind shift, with Nancy Wang

A guide to decentralized decision-making

Cumulative flow diagrams: Unraveling Kanban metrics

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

It depends. Understanding the contingency theory of leadership

Lead with confidence and authenticity

What is the contingency theory of leadership?

Example #1: Adapting to feedback preferences

Example #2: Delegating a leadership responsibility to another

1. Fiedler’s contingency model

Who does Fiedler's model of contingency leadership theory benefit most?

2. Situational Leadership® model

3. Path-Goal model

4. Decision-Making model

1. Identify where you see the contingency theory of leadership showing up in your own behaviors and mindset

2. Figure out what leadership style you're leveraging for specific situations

3. Identify your ideal outcome. What skills do you need to achieve that outcome?

4. Work with your coach to develop and grow

5. Commit to growing and learning

Start to develop great leaders in your organization

Madeline Miles

Are people born leaders? Debunking the trait theory of leadership

A Contingency Theory of Leadership

About The Author

Jay W. Lorsch

How the Harvard Business School Changed the Way We View Organizations

Uber in 2017: One Bumpy Ride

Contingency Theory of Leadership

Introduction: Contingency Theory

Buying options

Author information

Corresponding author

Editor information

Rights and permissions

Copyright information

About this entry

Download citation

Share this entry

Contingency Theory of Leadership explained by a CEO

Contingency Theory of Leadership: Background, History, Evolution

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

Pros of Leadership Contingency Theory

Cons of Leadership Contingency Theory

Recommended reading

Intrapersonal Communication: Your Inner Dialogue