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The four main types of essay | Quick guide with examples

The Four Main Types of Essay | Quick Guide with Examples

Published on September 4, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade. There are many different types of essay, but they are often defined in four categories: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive essays.

Argumentative and expository essays are focused on conveying information and making clear points, while narrative and descriptive essays are about exercising creativity and writing in an interesting way. At university level, argumentative essays are the most common type.

Essay type	Skills tested	Example prompt
		Has the rise of the internet had a positive or negative impact on education?
		Explain how the invention of the printing press changed European society in the 15th century.
		Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself.
		Describe an object that has sentimental value for you.

In high school and college, you will also often have to write textual analysis essays, which test your skills in close reading and interpretation.

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Argumentative essays, expository essays, narrative essays, descriptive essays, textual analysis essays, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of essays.

An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a strong thesis statement —a clearly defined stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince the reader of your thesis using evidence (such as quotations ) and analysis.

Argumentative essays test your ability to research and present your own position on a topic. This is the most common type of essay at college level—most papers you write will involve some kind of argumentation.

The essay is divided into an introduction, body, and conclusion:

The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement
The body presents your evidence and arguments
The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its importance

The example below is a paragraph from the body of an argumentative essay about the effects of the internet on education. Mouse over it to learn more.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic.

Expository essays test your familiarity with a topic and your ability to organize and convey information. They are commonly assigned at high school or in exam questions at college level.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides some general background, the body presents the details, and the conclusion summarizes the information presented.

A typical body paragraph from an expository essay about the invention of the printing press is shown below. Mouse over it to learn more.

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you have not experienced.

Narrative essays test your ability to build up a narrative in an engaging, well-structured way. They are much more personal and creative than other kinds of academic writing . Writing a personal statement for an application requires the same skills as a narrative essay.

A narrative essay isn’t strictly divided into introduction, body, and conclusion, but it should still begin by setting up the narrative and finish by expressing the point of the story—what you learned from your experience, or why it made an impression on you.

Mouse over the example below, a short narrative essay responding to the prompt “Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself,” to explore its structure.

Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the humanities. My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious than classes like English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But recently I had an experience that taught me my academic interests are more flexible than I had thought: I took my first philosophy class.

Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students and wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined something pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But what I got was something quite different.

A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-haired, buttoned-up old man I had half-expected. And rather than pulling us into pedantic arguments about obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us on our level. To talk free will, we looked at our own choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas we had faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d discovered that questions with no right answer can turn out to be the most interesting ones.

The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not just because it was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I can actually get a lot out of subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me—in more ways than one—to look at things with an open mind.

A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative essays, they allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are more tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or object, rather than telling a whole story.

Descriptive essays test your ability to use language creatively, making striking word choices to convey a memorable picture of what you’re describing.

A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should usually begin by introducing the object of your description and end by drawing an overall picture of it. The important thing is to use careful word choices and figurative language to create an original description of your object.

Mouse over the example below, a response to the prompt “Describe a place you love to spend time in,” to learn more about descriptive essays.

On Sunday afternoons I like to spend my time in the garden behind my house. The garden is narrow but long, a corridor of green extending from the back of the house, and I sit on a lawn chair at the far end to read and relax. I am in my small peaceful paradise: the shade of the tree, the feel of the grass on my feet, the gentle activity of the fish in the pond beside me.

My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above. From his perch he can watch over his little kingdom and keep an eye on the neighbours. He does this until the barking of next door’s dog scares him from his post and he bolts for the cat flap to govern from the safety of the kitchen.

With that, I am left alone with the fish, whose whole world is the pond by my feet. The fish explore the pond every day as if for the first time, prodding and inspecting every stone. I sometimes feel the same about sitting here in the garden; I know the place better than anyone, but whenever I return I still feel compelled to pay attention to all its details and novelties—a new bird perched in the tree, the growth of the grass, and the movement of the insects it shelters…

Sitting out in the garden, I feel serene. I feel at home. And yet I always feel there is more to discover. The bounds of my garden may be small, but there is a whole world contained within it, and it is one I will never get tired of inhabiting.

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Though every essay type tests your writing skills, some essays also test your ability to read carefully and critically. In a textual analysis essay, you don’t just present information on a topic, but closely analyze a text to explain how it achieves certain effects.

Rhetorical analysis

A rhetorical analysis looks at a persuasive text (e.g. a speech, an essay, a political cartoon) in terms of the rhetorical devices it uses, and evaluates their effectiveness.

The goal is not to state whether you agree with the author’s argument but to look at how they have constructed it.

The introduction of a rhetorical analysis presents the text, some background information, and your thesis statement; the body comprises the analysis itself; and the conclusion wraps up your analysis of the text, emphasizing its relevance to broader concerns.

The example below is from a rhetorical analysis of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech . Mouse over it to learn more.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

Literary analysis

A literary analysis essay presents a close reading of a work of literature—e.g. a poem or novel—to explore the choices made by the author and how they help to convey the text’s theme. It is not simply a book report or a review, but an in-depth interpretation of the text.

Literary analysis looks at things like setting, characters, themes, and figurative language. The goal is to closely analyze what the author conveys and how.

The introduction of a literary analysis essay presents the text and background, and provides your thesis statement; the body consists of close readings of the text with quotations and analysis in support of your argument; and the conclusion emphasizes what your approach tells us about the text.

Mouse over the example below, the introduction to a literary analysis essay on Frankenstein , to learn more.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

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How to Do a Narrative Research Essay

Another name for narrative research is “narrative inquiry” because the process requires authors to ask questions and piece together clues. In a narrative research paper, a researcher gathers information to later share in a storytelling format, according to researchers in the Colorado State University writing department. The researcher interviews people, takes field notes, reads journals, finds letters, listens to oral histories and searches autobiographies and biographies to understand a group of people, a culture, a beliefs or a concept of self in the world. Narrative researchers work in fields such as literary theory, history, anthropology, drama, art, film, theology, philosophy, and aspects of evolutionary biological science.

Pick a theme to research. Choose a theme that is wide enough that you can find people to interview and documents to record, but narrow enough that you do not feel lost in your work. Choosing your community’s reactions to the cinema over the past 10 years may make a good project. Researching the life of an author who lived in your town for many years may also make an ideal subject.

Start researching. Before you interview anyone, sneak through letter or sift through newspaper clippings, research the time period and people involved. For example, if you writing a narrative research essay on a community affected by water waste from a nearby factory, research the town, the factory and everything you can find about the water safety in the area. Do not go blindly talking with people if you do not have the facts straight.

Interview. Set up interviews with individuals who can give you relevant testimonies. Using the community water crisis as an example, choose families to work with who are suffering the lack of water first hand. Choose to speak with the young and old. For instance, you can interview an entire family—a mother and father, 3 children, and maybe the grandmother or grandfather living with them. This way you will get a range of reactions and solutions on how to get the factory kicked out of town. Also interview people outside of the community, to gauge public awareness of the crisis.

Gather second source materials. Inquire whether any of the families have written letters to government officials, the mayor, the president of the factory or human rights organizations. Ask to copy these letters and keep them on file. These testaments will make an ideal mosaic of requests and pleading from the community. If anyone received a letter back, ask for a copy of it to add to your files, too.

Borrow journals. If you are working on researching a scientist, writer, dancer, musician or biologist who lived in your area, or abroad, try to get a hold of his or her old journals. Artists in particular take notes on ideas they want to sculpt into a larger project, or keep drawings of what they will work on in the future. Journals are goldmines for narrative research—the person’s story tells itself through the patchwork of writing, drawing and expressing ideas.

Organize. Bring all the information together in all the forms. Lay out photographs, letters, journal pages, newspaper clippings, audio recordings and all on a desk or large working space. Piece together the story as you believe it was told to you. Validity becomes an issue in narrative research essays and works, but it is, ultimately, how you interpret the story you were told through all of the mediums and individuals with whom you spoke.

Write the essay. Synthesize all your research into a narrative, storytelling form. Construct your own narrative of the study you have conducted using story convention, such as scene and plot. ‘Research is a collaborative document, a mutually constructed story out of the lives of both researcher and participant," note Connelly and Clandinin, two narrative researchers. In other words, combine the research you have gathered into a compelling story that both accurately gives a knowledgeable account, and is compelling for its story telling nature.

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Colorado State University Writing Department: Narrative Inquiry; 2011

Noelle Carver has been a freelance writer since 2009, with work published in "SSYK" and "The Wolf," two U.K. literary journals. Carver holds a Bachelor of Arts in literature from American University and a Master of Fine Arts in writing from The New School. She lives in New York City.

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The narrative essay is a unique and creative form of academic writing. It tests your ability to narrate personal anecdotes in a structured, meaningful, and engaging manner. This type of writing vastly differs from other academic writing types, which rely more on facts and statistics.

In this article, we’re going to understand what is a narrative essay, how to write one, and its various types with the help of plenty of examples. We have also provided a narrative essay outline to help you craft a foolproof essay. But before we get into all of that, let’s start with something simple: what’s a narrative essay in the first place?

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What is a narrative essay?

A narrative essay is a highly creative form of academic writing which involves recounting personal anecdotes in an organized and climactic format. Although not as frequently used as expository essays or argumentative essays , this type of essay is a common requirement in high schools and creative writing courses in colleges. A personal statement is also a common requirement for many college admissions.

A narrative essay uses literary devices such as similes, metaphors, and alliteration that add depth and character to your essay. The objective is to express yourself in a creative and compelling way, and not just convey information.

Now that you understand the narrative essay definition, it’s time to look at some common topics you may have to write on.

Topics for a narrative essay

Narrative essay topics can range from a personal narrative and specific essay topics to loose open-ended prompts. Let’s better understand this with the help of a few good narrative essay topics.

Here are a few topics.

1. Write about your last day of school.

2. Write about your favorite book and your interpretation of its message.

3. An awkward encounter that led to a long-lasting friendship.

4. Your favorite vacation.

5. The moment you realized, you’re finally an adult.

Here are a few narrative essay examples of open-ended prompts.

1. Describe a life changing event and how it impacted you.

2. What is your favorite childhood memory?

3. A personal accomplishment that you are proud of and how it has shaped you as a person.

4. The time when you overcame a fear or obstacle and how it helped you grow as a person.

5. A moment of personal growth and reflection that helped you realize something important about yourself.

Here are a few personal narrative essay topics.

1. The moment you realized what you wanted to do with your life.

2. A time when you felt like an outsider and how you dealt with it.

3. A moment when you had to make a difficult moral decision.

4. An experience that changed your perspective on a particular issue.

5. A personal passion or interest and how it has impacted your life.

Narrative essay structure

Although less formulaic than an expository or argumentative essay, your narrative essay format still needs to be well-structured and cohesive for it to be impactful. Like all essay types, the narrative format essay consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. However, this structure is less rigid than most essay types and mainly serves as a guideline.

Let’s look at the main components of the structure of a narrative essay.

1. Introduction

In order to write a well-structured narrative essay, you need to know how to start it. The introduction of a narrative essay plays a crucial role in capturing the reader’s attention and setting the stage for the story that follows.

A good introduction should include three key elements. First, an attractive, eye-catching opening statement that intrigues the reader and creates suspense. Second, background information that provides context for the story. Finally, a central idea or narrative that serves as a foundation of the story.

Here are examples of a narrative essay introduction:

Background information
Central idea

As I stepped off the plane and took my first breath of the humid air, I knew my life was about to change forever. The next few weeks would be filled with new experiences, new people, and a new perspective that would stay with me for a long time. My study trip to Costa Rica was an unforgettable experience that had a significant impact on me.

2. Body paragraph

You can showcase most of your creative writing skills in the body paragraphs of your narrative essay. Use a topic sentence to introduce each experience, provide detailed elaboration, and conclude with a key takeaway or moral.

The body paragraphs of a narrative essay are also used to showcase numerous artistic elements. These elements may include the introduction of fresh characters, vivid descriptions of settings, subtle hints toward the conclusion, and the build-up of a pivotal event or a climactic situation. You can use these elements to transform a boring piece of writing into an impactful and captivating essay.

Here’s an example of a vivid and highly descriptive body paragraph:

Topic sentence with descriptions of setting
Sensory descriptors elaborating the topic sentences
Key takeaway

The moment I set foot on Central American soil, I was welcomed by the tropical rainforest, the vibrant colors of the flowers, and the sounds of exotic birds. The air was filled with the sweet scent of fresh fruits, and I could feel the warmth of the sun on my skin. This trip was not only a cultural and educational experience, but it was also an adventure of a lifetime.

3. Conclusion

When writing the conclusion of a narrative essay, it’s important to include three essential elements: an updated version of your thesis statement, reflections on all your experiences, and your final thoughts and key takeaways.

You can remind your readers of the central idea you explored throughout your essay, by revisiting your thesis statement. Reflecting on your experiences allows you to explore the personal impact of your narrative. Whereas, your final thoughts help in providing a cohesive and impactful summary of your message.

Here’s an example of a strong conclusion:

Updated thesis statement
Reflections on experiences
Final thought

My study trip to Costa Rica was certainly a transformative experience. This trip taught me how to approach the world with an open mind and strive in the face of difficulties. It also inspired me to live a more sustainable lifestyle. Experiencing the rich culture of Costa Rica is something I would highly recommend to all students. It’s an opportunity to break free from our comfort zones, challenge our perspectives, and immerse ourselves in a world of stunning natural beauty.

Now that we’ve looked at how to structure a narrative essay, let’s move on to writing a narrative essay.

How to write a narrative essay

Writing narrative essays is not just about telling a captivating story, but also about communicating a message to the reader. Although less formal than other types of essays, it still requires a coherent sequence of events, a clear central idea, a moral or message, and a structured outline.

Let’s understand how to write a narrative essay step by step.

1. Choose an appropriate topic.

While essay topics are often predetermined, certain classes may give you the freedom to select your own topic. When choosing a topic for your narrative essay, it is crucial to consider the message that you want to convey.

Simply recounting a one-dimensional, uneventful story can bore the reader. It is necessary to keep the reader in mind and choose an engaging story topic. This topic should encompass surprising plot twists, a recurring theme, and a significant takeaway or moral.

Here are a few examples of narrative essay topics for college:

Describe a moment in your life that challenged your beliefs or values and forced you to reconsider your perspective.

Describe a time in your life when you faced a difficult decision that required you to choose between two equally compelling options.

2. Form a central idea.

Your narrative essay should revolve around a central idea or theme, which is similar to a thesis statement. This idea should be unique and have a moral or message that sets the tone for your entire essay. Keep in mind that the central idea is crucial to your essay, so choose one carefully and make sure it’s unique and impactful.

Here are a few examples of central ideas:

Growing up as a first-generation immigrant, I faced several setbacks. But these setbacks motivated me to overcome language barriers and also taught me the value of hard work, and determination.

My journey of learning a new language in a foreign country challenged me in ways I never imagined. However, it also taught me the importance of persistence, adaptability, and embracing discomfort to achieve personal growth and success.

3. Construct an essay outline.

While a narrative essay allows for a great deal of creative expression, it still sticks to a loose structure that includes a clear beginning, middle, and end. A well-organized narrative allows readers to follow and understand your story. Before writing your essay it’s crucial to answer key questions in your narrative essay outline.

Here are a few questions you need to answer before starting your essay:

What central idea or message do I want to convey through my essay?
Which personal experiences and anecdotes will best support my central idea?
In what ways can I incorporate dialogues or other creative expressions to enhance my essay?
How can I effectively structure my essay to ensure it flows cohesively and logically?
What techniques can I use to build up to a climactic end that leaves a lasting impression on the reader?
What key takeaway do I want my audience to have after reading my essay?

4. Begin writing your essay.

The narrative essay differs from other forms of essay writing and typically follows a chronological order. Hence, it’s advisable to start by fleshing out your introduction and providing sufficient background information to give relevance to your central idea.

Written in the first-person point of view, the narrative essay shares several similarities with a short story. These include a clear plot structure with a beginning, middle, and end, vivid and detailed settings, a climactic point or peak, dialogues, and a key takeaway or moral. These elements can be incorporated to add depth and dimension to your essay.

Narrative essay outline

An outline for a narrative essay differs significantly from that of an evidence-based essay. The narrative essay outline provides structure and coherence to your essay, helping you map out a clear and logical flow of your ideas. This can guide your writing and help ensure that your story is well-organized, engaging, and effectively conveys your central message.

Here’s an example of a personal narrative essay outline that focuses on the challenges of low self-esteem and the ways to overcome them.

Journey to Self-Acceptance

I. Introduction

A. Hook: Start with an anecdote or a shocking statistic that highlights the rampantness of low self-esteem.

B. Background information: Explain what low self-esteem is, how it affects people, and how it can manifest in different ways.

C. Thesis statement: Describe your challenges with low self-esteem and how you overcame them.

II. Tackling Challenges

A. Describe the situation that challenged your self-esteem, such as a particular event or a persistent feeling.

B. Explain how it affected your life, such as your relationships, academic and professional performance, or your mental health.

C. Share your thoughts and feelings about the situation, and how they contributed to your low self-esteem.

III. Seeking Help

A. Describe how you recognized that you needed help, and what motivated you to seek it.

B. Discuss the steps you took, such as talking to a friend or therapist.

C. Explain the challenges you faced, such as stigma, fear of judgment, or financial barriers.

IV. Building Self-Esteem

A. Describe the strategies you used to build your self-esteem, such as positive self-talk, affirmations, or therapy.

B. Share your progress, and how you measured it, such as tracking your thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

C. Explain how these strategies helped you, and how they impacted your life, such as improved relationships, academic or professional success, or mental health.

V. Maintaining Self-Esteem

A. Describe how you maintain your self-esteem on a daily basis, and what routines or habits you have developed.

B. Share your challenges and setbacks, and how you cope with them.

C. Explain the importance of self-care in maintaining self-esteem, and what self-care practices you use.

VI. Conclusion

A. Summarize the key points of your essay, and what you have learned from them.

B. Restate your thesis, and how you successfully overcame the challenge of low self-esteem.

C. Discuss how the experience has impacted your life, and what advice you would give to someone who is struggling with low self-esteem.

Narrative essay examples

To guide you in writing a foolproof narrative essay, we’ve constructed an example of a narrative essay. The following is a personal narrative essay example that explores the challenges faced by a student who was bullied in school. This personal narrative essay example will guide you on how you write a personal narrative essay.

Beyond the Shadows

Starting high school as a timid and shy kid was a daunting experience for me. I craved new opportunities and friendships but was overcome by the fear of being judged. Unfortunately, my fears soon became a reality as I found myself being relentlessly bullied.

It began with verbal abuse but soon escalated to physical aggression. Consulting my teachers was of no help since they did not understand the gravity of the situation. The only option was to ignore the bullies and concentrate on my classes, but the constant harassment made it difficult.

The bullying soon took its toll on my mental health, and I spiraled into a pit of anxiety and depression. I lost faith in myself and I believed I was undeserving of happiness. I retreated from my loved ones and spent my days battling my inner demons.

Despite the pain and anguish, I still decided to hold onto hope. I realized that standing up for myself and others was the only way to combat the bullying. I began speaking out against the harassment and also spoke up for those who were scared to raise their voice.

In an attempt to break out of my shell, I made a conscious effort to socialize with my fellow students and offered support to those going through a tough time. As a result, I encountered several friends who had shared experiences with mine. We bonded over our shared struggles and formed a tight-knit community of support and solidarity. Together, we worked to raise awareness of the devastating impact of bullying.

With time and effort, I began to heal from the trauma of my experiences. I learned to embrace my unique qualities and appreciate myself for who I am. The challenges I faced made me stronger and more resilient. As a result, I became more outgoing and confident, which allowed me to forge genuine friendships with my peers.

The bullying I experienced during high school transformed me in ways I could never have imagined. It instilled in me the value of empathy and courage and compelled me to use my voice to create positive change in the world.

Once you’re done writing your narrative essay, the process of editing and proofreading still remains. You can either choose to do this on your own or consider working with an essay editing service .

Keep reading with more resources from your loyal editors and proofreaders:

What is an Expository Essay?
What are the Different Types of Essays
What is an Essay and What are the Parts of an Essay
How to Write an Essay Header
How to Write an Argumentative Essay

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How to Write a Narrative Essay

Published by Grace Graffin at August 17th, 2021 , Revised On July 26, 2023

What is a Narrative Essay?

“Narrative essays let the authors account for their personal experiences in the form of a story.”

Unlike most other essay types , you can let your creativity and ideas flow freely in a narrative essay, although it should still be factual. They are a common assignment in high schools, colleges, and universities.

While you are certainly free to rely upon your imagination to express personal experiences in a narrative essay, it is equally important to follow the suitable narrative essay structure and format. Here are some strategies to write a narrative essay that would surely hook your audience.

Why Should I Write a Narrative Essay?

When assigned a narrative essay, many students are unsure about why they have been asked to write a narrative essay and of the significance of storytelling in academic writing. While the topic of a narrative essay can range from the most important to the most insignificant, it is not the topic but how you tell a story that will be evaluated.

This is partly because much of the writing discipline will be in containing what could be a detailed or complex story within a tight word limit.

You will achieve a higher grade in your narrative essay assignment if you follow a logical structure and tell your story clearly and intriguingly. Decide where your story must start and end and how you can get your thoughts across to the readers smoothly without losing the plot.

This writing style is very different from other forms of academic writing. Narrative essay writing involves the use of suspense, conversation, metaphorical language, and the use of first-person (’I’). It is possible to write about what happened to someone else, in which case you would use the third-person point of view (using ‘he’, ‘she’, and ‘they’ ).

How to Choose a Topic for Your Narrative Essay

You could receive extensive, moderate, or even very little guidance about the topic for your narrative essay assignment. If you get very little, then you will be required to find a topic to work with.

The topic you are assigned will be either specific or open-ended.

Examples of a specific topic

Write a story about your most notable achievement at college.
Write about your interactive experiences on your final day at university.

Examples of an open-ended topic

Reflect upon an experience where you learned from your mistake.
Write about a professional achievement you are proud of. How did it help you excel in your career?

Think about the story you want to tell. It is best to use a story that encompasses a surprise, a lesson, or a particular theme, so you can keep the readers interested throughout the essay.

For example , if you talk about an achievement that encompasses a twist or a challenge that you had to overcome, it will be far more engaging than a story where everything went according to plan. Narrate an experience that would end in a lesson for the readers.

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Writing a Narrative Essay for a College Application

Most colleges require candidates to submit a narrative essay describing their achievements or ambitions , along with their admission application.

College Application Topic Example

Please submit a one-page, single-spaced essay that describes why you have chosen to apply to Oxford University.

For a narrative essay for college application, think about a story or an experience that would enable you to express the qualities and achievements desired by the college you are applying to. For example , you could talk about your proven ability to learn from your mistakes, your calculated approach, and your love for the subject you wish to study.

Narrative Essay Structure

A narrative essay should follow an appropriate academic structure, even though it will be based on an experience from your life. Like other essay types , a narrative essay comprises an introduction paragraph , the main body , and a conclusion paragraph.

Narrative Essay Introduction

The introduction paragraph should start with the background statement to explain why the topic is essential to you. The last sentence of the paragraph introduces the theme of the essay.

Narrative Essay Main Body

The main body is where you tell the story, develop the plot, and provide facts and details of the experience you are talking about. Make sure to include all the points in a clear and exciting way. When did it happen? Who was involved? What was at stake? Staying true to your feelings and using appropriate transition words is the key to telling an interesting story.

Four points you should consider following in the narrative main body:

Include lifelike and relevant detail : In the narrative essay, you present a scene and aim to share the experience with the reader. Include plenty of detail where necessary but do not waste your word count. Each sentence must advance or enhance the story.
Use dialogue: The use of direct speech, that which is in quotation marks, makes events more real. Use it where most effective; if you use it too much, or include long monologues, it will lose its effect.
Apply chronological order: Tell the story as it happened. This aids clarity and ease of understanding. It is better if your readers read it twice because they enjoyed it, not because they could not understand it.
Focus on the story only: Keep checking as you write that everything you say relates to the story. It is easy to deviate, and doing so also takes away the reader’s attention.

It is important to note what is not included in the narrative essay main body; you will not be making any arguments , criticising, or trying to persuade your readers in any way. It is also unlikely that you will be required to quote other works and cite them.

Narrative Essay Conclusion

The concluding paragraph should link back to the background statement and the main theme of your essay, you can also restate some important points mentioned in the body here. The conclusion should emphasise how your experience helped you or others involved to attain an improved overall understanding of the situation.

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Example of a Narrative Essay

Here is an example of a narrative essay that explains “why you have chosen to apply to Oxford University.”

Important: Our essay writing help get better results for the students who use ResearchProspect’s professional service; along with using writing service, you can also learn to write an impressive piece of your own.

What is the difference between a descriptive and a narrative essay?

A descriptive essay provides an extensive description of a particular place, object, topic, or idea. On the other hand, a narrative essay is used to tell a complete story of a personal experience. However, both narrative and descriptive essays allow the authors to use their creativity and personal reflections. Other types of essays do not permit this style of writing.

How long is a narrative essay?

Narrative essays are generally 800-1000 words long. The length of your narrative essay depends on who you are writing the essay for. For example, the high school narrative essay will be shorter than a college application narrative essay.

When should I write a narrative essay?

Narrative essays are assigned to students to evaluate their creative storytelling skills in high schools, colleges, and universities. They may also form part of a college application. When you are asked to reflect upon your personal experiences in the form of a story, a narrative essay is usually the right response.

How to choose a suitable topic for my narrative essay?

If you have not been given direction on what the topic of your narrative essay should be, think about the scope and background of the task. Choose to tell a story that is relevant to the audience. A story that includes a lesson, a surprise, or a particular theme is the best kind of story for a narrative essay. You can build your story around any experience that made you a better person or taught you a valuable lesson.

How to Write a Narrative Essay Outline - Tips & Examples

By: Nathan D.

Reviewed By: Melisa C.

Published on: Jun 2, 2020

A narrative essay is a type of academic essay in which the writer narrates a story. It is the most commonly assigned form of academic writing. Students have to face the narrative essay writing task quite often, so it is essential to know how to handle it.

A narrative essay is a story, so it's important to know how to write one. The best way to start your outline is by brainstorming ideas.

Who are the characters? What do they want? How does this conflict with their goals and who wins in the end?

There are many different types of essays you can write about, but all will have some sort of conflict. Once you've figured out the basics, be creative! You could explore an event that happened in your life or tell a fictional story.

In this blog, you’ll learn to write an outline for a narrative essay with examples. Start reading!

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Narrative Essay Outline Format

The narrative essay outline follows the standard structure. Like other types of essays, this essay normally follows a typical 5 paragraph essay format. The 5 paragraph outline includes one introduction paragraph, three body paragraphs, and one conclusion paragraph.

However, unlike other essays, the paragraphs of the narrative essay have specifically designated purposes:

1. Introduction Paragraph: Gives an insight into the story

2. First Body Paragraph: Discuss the rising action

3. Second Body Paragraph: Present the climax of the story

4. Third Body Paragraph: Provide the falling action

5. Conclusion Paragraph: Discussion of the lesson learned from the story

Paragraph Narrative Essay Outline Template

Let's look at the detailed 5 paragraph narrative essay outline for college students.

How to Write a Narrative Essay Outline?

A narrative essay is all about sharing the stories. Therefore, you need to organize your story into an essay format. As a writer, you are supposed to tell a story from your personal experience and why you are sharing that specific experience. Later, you need to discuss why this story or experience is important to share.

Let's look at how to craft an outline for a narrative essay. Follow the steps in the same sequence, and at the end, you’ll get a perfect outline. The writing process will become less stressful and daunting if you follow the steps given below.

1. Write the Introduction

The introduction paragraph is meant to engage the reader with the story. The first paragraph plays the most crucial role in making an impression on the reader’s mind. It allows you to share your perspective and how it relates to you. The following elements are involved in writing a strong narrative essay introduction.

Create a Hook Statement Draw the reader in with an intriguing and attention-grabbing hook statement. Create a strong hook that makes your reader want to read further. You can use a quote, rhetorical question, or fact to create a persuasive hook statement.
Set the Scene: Give your reader an idea of what is going to happen. Do not tell the whole story; just give a glimpse into it and keep your reader intrigued. Tell the reader how the points of the story relate to you.
Define the Thesis Statement: Finally, tell your reader what your story is all about with the help of a thesis statement. Give a sneak peek of what is about to come but avoid telling the lesson you have learned from the situation yet; just give a hint.

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2. Draft the Body Paragraphs

The main body of a narrative essay is the most important part because it tells the whole story. This is where you state the facts, provide examples, give details, and guide the reader through the plot. According to the five paragraphs essay structure, it has three body paragraphs, but it can depend on the length and word count.

Below elements must be kept in mind while writing the narrative essay body paragraphs:

Write Chronologically: The timelines of a story should be presented in chronological order. Otherwise, the reader will get confused, and it becomes hard for them to understand the story. To keep your paper organized, you should present things in sequential order.
Share the Relevant and Vivid Details: As a narrative essay is all about creating a mood and scene to follow, do that creatively. Set up the story with descriptive and concise language. Provide the reader with the most important details of your story. These details may include the characters, setting, plot, and the onset of the story.
Avoid Narration Deviation: The narrative essay is usually written in the first person unless you share someone else’s story. The third-person narrative only works best when you are telling a story you heard from someone else.

3. Write a Compelling Conclusion

The conclusion paragraph is the final section of the essay where you give some final comments about the story. Summarize your essay and connect your reader back to the story. Follow these steps to write an impressive conclusion.

Restate Some Key Details: Restate the thesis statement and some key details you have shared in the body. It will help you connect your reader with your story.
Share the Lesson: Stress the lesson you have learned from the story and leave the reader with something to think about.
Call to Action: In the end, provide a call to action that convinces the reader to think more about the topic.

Narrative Essay Outline Worksheet

Use the given worksheet below to write a narrative essay with ease.

Narrative Essay Outline Example

Here are some narrative essay examples and samples for your convenience. Use these templates and learn to write a good narrative essay easily.

Narrative Essay Outline for Middle School

College Narrative Essay Outline

Personal Narrative Essay Outline Template

Descriptive Narrative Essay Outline

Literacy Narrative Essay Outline

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Nathan completed his Ph.D. in journalism and has been writing articles for well-respected publications for many years now. His work is carefully researched and insightful, showing a true passion for the written word. Nathan's clients appreciate his expertise, deep understanding of the process, and ability to communicate difficult concepts clearly.

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WHAT IS A NARRATIVE ESSAY?

When writing a narrative essay, one might think of it as telling a story. These essays are often anecdotal, experiential, and personal—allowing students to express themselves in a creative and, quite often, moving ways.

Example of a narrative essay

This type of essay is focused on your life and experiences. This task gives you a certain advantage since you can speak from your point of view and tell about things that actually happened to you. On the other hand, it’s not an easy task, since you need to shorten all your emotions and claims into a brief essay form, which usually consists of only five paragraphs. You need to highlight the most important moments and don’t focus on unnecessary details. Even though it’s an essay about yourself, make sure that you don’t sound self-centered. Think about what would be interesting for your readers and what is really worth sharing with others.

First of all, your essay must highlight the following things:

Your challenges,
Your talents,
Your interests,
Your background,
Your important achievements,
Interesting things about who you are.

We decided to tell you the key features of writing an autobiographical essay, so you could understand what rules to follow. We suggest you adhere to the following sequence of actions:

Brainstorm and find the best ideas;
Introduce yourself to readers;
Write the body part;
Make conclusions;
Check and polish your essay.

Choose the Most Interesting and Important Information

If you have no ideas about what exactly to write about, we suggest you take the time and brainstorm. Write down all things you consider important about yourself: your achievements, experiences, skills, and everything that you like. Don’t forget that your essay should be remembered by readers, so it should be different from any other paper that they will read. This thing is of key significance, especially for those who write a narrative essay for an admission committee.

Try to impress your readers from the very first words. To help you with it, we collected some good topics.

Examples of the Best Topics

The most difficult choice in your life;
Your experience between life and death;
What you’d like to change about yourself;
The most important moment in your life;
Your biggest loss ever.

For this essay type, we suggest you stay away from controversial issues, such as:

Introduce Yourself

Try to avoid too obvious descriptions, such as “My name is Joe, I was born in the A and then moved to the B, and the most important moment in my life is…” Use your creativity; find a more interesting way to introduce yourself.

For example, write “I was born after my father came back from the army… There was an unexpected moment that changed my whole life…”

Writing in this manner, you’ll get readers’ attention and make them want to continue reading your essay.

The Body Part

Here you need to describe your experience, interests, or background in more detail. Try to not jump from one subject to another, because it makes your text hard to perceive, and you get a chance that readers will just stop reading your essay. Define your key points and write about them in a certain order. We suggest you pay special attention to transitions between paragraphs, to keep your text holistic and easy to read.

Summarize Your Essay

Every good essay includes a conclusion part. Define your key point, and what is most important about this story. Maybe you’ve learned something new or developed some new skills. Maybe this story pushed you to rethink your whole life. Explain how it happened and what you consider useful for others. One of the good approaches for you is a “so what?” method. Read your entire essay and ask yourself, “So what?” Usually, it’s easy to find the answer. Write your conclusions based on it.

Source: https://college-writers.com/narrative-essay-about-yourself/

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How to Write a Narrative Essay

Last Updated: April 18, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,906,036 times.

Narrative essays are commonly assigned pieces of writing at different stages through school. Like any story, they have a plot, conflict, and characters. Typically, assignments involve telling a story from your own life that connects with class themes. It can be a fun type of assignment to write, if you approach it properly. Learn how to choose a good topic, get a solid rough draft on paper, and revise your narrative essay.

Choosing a Good Topic

Step 1 Read narrative essays for inspiration.

Most of the time, narrative essays will involve no outside research or references. Instead, you'll be using your personal story to provide the evidence of some point that you're trying to make. [3] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source However, in some cases using research may enhance your story because it will allow you to provide additional detail.
Narrative essays are a common school assignment used to test your creative story-telling skills, as well as your ability to connect some element of your personal life to a topic you might be discussing in class.

Step 3 Make sure your story fits the prompt.

You experienced adversity and had to overcome
You failed and had to deal with the consequences of that failure
Your personality or character was transformed

Step 4 Choose a story with a manageable plot.

Bad narrative essays are generally too broad. "My senior year of high school" or "This summer" are examples of stories that would be far too big to tell in the amount of specific detail that a good narrative essay requires. Pick a single event from the summer, or a single week of your senior year, not something that takes months to unfold.
It's also good to limit the number of characters you introduce. Only include other characters who are absolutely essential. Every single friend from your fifth grade class will be too many names to keep track of. Pick one.

Step 5 Choose a story with vibrant details.

Let your imagination fill in the gaps. When you're describing your grandmother's house and a specific weekend you remember spending there, it's not important to remember exactly what was cooked for dinner on Friday night, unless that's an important part of the story. What did your grandmother typically cook? What did it usually smell like? Those are the details we need.
Typically, narrative essays are "non-fiction," which means that you can't just make up a story. It needs to have really happened. Force yourself to stay as true as possible to the straight story.

Writing a Draft

Step 1 Outline the plot before you begin.

It helps to limit things as much as possible. While it might seem like we need to know a bunch of specific details from your senior year, try to think of a particularly tumultuous day from that year and tell us that story. Where does that story start? Not the first day of school that year. Find a better starting point.
If you want to tell the story of your prom night, does it start when you get dressed? Maybe. Does it start when you spill spaghetti sauce all down your dress before the dance? While that might seem like the climax of a story you want to tell, it might make a better starting place. Go straight to the drama.
You don't need to write up a formal outline for a narrative essay unless it's part of the assignment or it really helps you write. Listing the major scenes that need to be a part of the story will help you get organized and find a good place to start.

Don't switch perspectives throughout the story. This is a difficult and advanced technique to try to pull off, and it usually has the effect of being too complicated. There should only be one "I" in the story.
In general, narrative essays (and short stories for that matter) should also be told in past tense. So, you would write "Johnny and I walked to the store every Thursday" not "Johnny and I are walking to the store, like we do every Thursday."
You may be instructed to write in the 3rd person (such as he, she, it, they, them, their). If so, be consistent with your pronouns throughout the story.

Step 3 Describe the important characters.

Particular details are specific and only particular to the character being described. While it may be specific to say that your friend has brown hair, green eyes, is 5 feet (1.5 m) tall with an athletic build, these things don't tell us much about the character. The fact that he only wears silk dragon shirts? Now that gives us something interesting.
Try writing up a brief sketch of each principal character in your narrative essay, along with the specific details you remember about them. Pick a few essentials.

Step 4 Find the antagonist and conflict.

Who or what is the antagonist in your story? To answer this question, you also need to find out what the protagonist wants. What is the goal? What's the best case scenario for the protagonist? What stands in the protagonist's way?
The antagonist isn't "the bad guy" of the story, necessarily, and not every story has a clear antagonist. Also keep in mind that for some good personal narratives, you might be the antagonist yourself.

Do a freewrite about the location that your story takes place. What do you know about the place? What can you remember? What can you find out?
If you do any research for your narrative essay, it will probably be here. Try to find out extra details about the setting of your story, or double-check your memory to make sure it's right.

A popular creative writing phrase tells writers to "show" not to "tell." What this means is that you should give us details whenever possible, rather than telling us facts. You might tell us something like, "My dad was always sad that year," but if you wrote "Dad never spoke when he got home from work. We heard his truck, then heard as he laid his battered hardhat on the kitchen table. Then we heard him sigh deeply and take off his work clothes, which were stained with grease."

Your words should have an impact. "Good writing does not succeed or fail on the strength of its ability to persuade. It succeeds or fails on the strength of its ability to engage you, to make you think, to give you a glimpse into someone else's head."

Revising Your Essay

Step 1 Make sure your theme is clearly illustrated in the story.

Get the theme into the very beginning of the essay. Just as a researched argument essay needs to have a thesis statement somewhere in the first few paragraphs of the essay, a narrative essay needs a topic statement or a thesis statement to explain the main idea of the story.
This isn't "ruining the surprise" of the story, this is foreshadowing the important themes and details to notice over the course of the story as you tell it. A good writer doesn't need suspense in a narrative essay. The ending should seem inevitable.

Scene: "On our walk to the store, Jared and I stopped at the empty grass lot to talk. 'What's your problem lately?' he asked, his eyes welling with tears. I didn't know what to tell him. I fidgeted, kicked an empty paint bucket that was rusted over at the edge of the lot. 'Remember when we used to play baseball here?' I asked him."
Analysis: "We finished walking to the store and bought all the stuff for the big holiday dinner. We got a turkey, cornbread, cranberries. The works. The store was crazy-packed with happy holiday shoppers, but we walked through them all, not saying a word to each other. It took forever to lug it all home."

Anything spoken by a character out loud needs to be included in quotation marks and attributed to the character speaking it: "I've never been to Paris," said James.
Each time a new character speaks, you need to make a new paragraph . If the same character speaks, multiple instances of dialog can exist in the same paragraph.

Revise for clarity first. Are your main points clear? If not, make them clear by including more details or narration in the writing. Hammer home your points.
Was the decision you made about the starting place of the story correct? Or, now that you've written, might it be better to start the story later? Ask the tough questions.
Proofreading is one part of revision, but it's a very minor part and it should be done last. Checking punctuation and spelling is the last thing you should be worried about in your narrative essay.

Sample Essay

Expert Q&A

Be sensible while writing. It is necessary to stay on the topic rather than moving away from it. Do not lose your focus. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
Divide your essay into paragraphs, according to your limit: an introduction, two body paragraph and one conclusion. Your introduction can be either a shocker one, or one just describing the setting; the conclusion can reveal a surprise, or end with just a hint of the climax, keeping the final question to be answered by the readers. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
Write only when you have a perfect story to tell. When a reader finishes reading the story, he\she should feel all those emotions seep right through his\her rib cage. Only then as a narrator, have you succeeded. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

↑ https://examples.yourdictionary.com/narrative-essay-examples.html
↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/essay_writing/narrative_essays.html
↑ https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/20/learning/lesson-plans/650-prompts-for-narrative-and-personal-writing.html
↑ https://miamioh.edu/hcwe/handouts/narrative-essays/index.html
↑ https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-narrative-essay
↑ https://crk.umn.edu/units/writing-center/how-revise-drafts

About This Article

To write a narrative essay, start by choosing an interesting personal story from your life to write about. Try to connect your story to a broader theme or topic so your essay has more substance. Then, write out your story in the past tense using the first person point of view. As you write your story, use vivid details to describe the setting and characters so readers are able to visualize what you're writing. Once you've written your essay, read it several times and make sure you've illustrated your theme or topic. To learn more from our Professor of English co-author, like how to write scenes and analyses, keep reading the article! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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The Ultimate Narrative Essay Guide for Beginners

A narrative essay tells a story in chronological order, with an introduction that introduces the characters and sets the scene. Then a series of events leads to a climax or turning point, and finally a resolution or reflection on the experience.

Speaking of which, are you in sixes and sevens about narrative essays? Don’t worry this ultimate expert guide will wipe out all your doubts. So let’s get started.

Table of Contents

Everything You Need to Know About Narrative Essay

What is a narrative essay.

When you go through a narrative essay definition, you would know that a narrative essay purpose is to tell a story. It’s all about sharing an experience or event and is different from other types of essays because it’s more focused on how the event made you feel or what you learned from it, rather than just presenting facts or an argument. Let’s explore more details on this interesting write-up and get to know how to write a narrative essay.

Elements of a Narrative Essay

Here’s a breakdown of the key elements of a narrative essay:

A narrative essay has a beginning, middle, and end. It builds up tension and excitement and then wraps things up in a neat package.

Real people, including the writer, often feature in personal narratives. Details of the characters and their thoughts, feelings, and actions can help readers to relate to the tale.

It’s really important to know when and where something happened so we can get a good idea of the context. Going into detail about what it looks like helps the reader to really feel like they’re part of the story.

Conflict or Challenge

A story in a narrative essay usually involves some kind of conflict or challenge that moves the plot along. It could be something inside the character, like a personal battle, or something from outside, like an issue they have to face in the world.

Theme or Message

A narrative essay isn’t just about recounting an event – it’s about showing the impact it had on you and what you took away from it. It’s an opportunity to share your thoughts and feelings about the experience, and how it changed your outlook.

Emotional Impact

The author is trying to make the story they’re telling relatable, engaging, and memorable by using language and storytelling to evoke feelings in whoever’s reading it.

Narrative essays let writers have a blast telling stories about their own lives. It’s an opportunity to share insights and impart wisdom, or just have some fun with the reader. Descriptive language, sensory details, dialogue, and a great narrative voice are all essentials for making the story come alive.

The Purpose of a Narrative Essay

A narrative essay is more than just a story – it’s a way to share a meaningful, engaging, and relatable experience with the reader. Includes:

Sharing Personal Experience

Narrative essays are a great way for writers to share their personal experiences, feelings, thoughts, and reflections. It’s an opportunity to connect with readers and make them feel something.

Entertainment and Engagement

The essay attempts to keep the reader interested by using descriptive language, storytelling elements, and a powerful voice. It attempts to pull them in and make them feel involved by creating suspense, mystery, or an emotional connection.

Conveying a Message or Insight

Narrative essays are more than just a story – they aim to teach you something. They usually have a moral lesson, a new understanding, or a realization about life that the author gained from the experience.

Building Empathy and Understanding

By telling their stories, people can give others insight into different perspectives, feelings, and situations. Sharing these tales can create compassion in the reader and help broaden their knowledge of different life experiences.

Inspiration and Motivation

Stories about personal struggles, successes, and transformations can be really encouraging to people who are going through similar situations. It can provide them with hope and guidance, and let them know that they’re not alone.

Reflecting on Life’s Significance

These essays usually make you think about the importance of certain moments in life or the impact of certain experiences. They make you look deep within yourself and ponder on the things you learned or how you changed because of those events.

Demonstrating Writing Skills

Coming up with a gripping narrative essay takes serious writing chops, like vivid descriptions, powerful language, timing, and organization. It’s an opportunity for writers to show off their story-telling abilities.

Preserving Personal History

Sometimes narrative essays are used to record experiences and special moments that have an emotional resonance. They can be used to preserve individual memories or for future generations to look back on.

Cultural and Societal Exploration

Personal stories can look at cultural or social aspects, giving us an insight into customs, opinions, or social interactions seen through someone’s own experience.

Format of a Narrative Essay

Narrative essays are quite flexible in terms of format, which allows the writer to tell a story in a creative and compelling way. Here’s a quick breakdown of the narrative essay format, along with some examples:

Introduction

Set the scene and introduce the story.

Engage the reader and establish the tone of the narrative.

Hook: Start with a captivating opening line to grab the reader’s attention. For instance:

Example: “The scorching sun beat down on us as we trekked through the desert, our water supply dwindling.”

Background Information: Provide necessary context or background without giving away the entire story.

Example: “It was the summer of 2015 when I embarked on a life-changing journey to…”

Thesis Statement or Narrative Purpose

Present the main idea or the central message of the essay.

Offer a glimpse of what the reader can expect from the narrative.

Thesis Statement: This isn’t as rigid as in other essays but can be a sentence summarizing the essence of the story.

Example: “Little did I know, that seemingly ordinary hike would teach me invaluable lessons about resilience and friendship.”

Body Paragraphs

Present the sequence of events in chronological order.

Develop characters, setting, conflict, and resolution.

Story Progression : Describe events in the order they occurred, focusing on details that evoke emotions and create vivid imagery.

Example : Detail the trek through the desert, the challenges faced, interactions with fellow hikers, and the pivotal moments.

Character Development : Introduce characters and their roles in the story. Show their emotions, thoughts, and actions.

Example : Describe how each character reacted to the dwindling water supply and supported each other through adversity.

Dialogue and Interactions : Use dialogue to bring the story to life and reveal character personalities.

Example : “Sarah handed me her last bottle of water, saying, ‘We’re in this together.'”

Reach the peak of the story, the moment of highest tension or significance.

Turning Point: Highlight the most crucial moment or realization in the narrative.

Example: “As the sun dipped below the horizon and hope seemed lost, a distant sound caught our attention—the rescue team’s helicopters.”

Provide closure to the story.

Reflect on the significance of the experience and its impact.

Reflection : Summarize the key lessons learned or insights gained from the experience.

Example : “That hike taught me the true meaning of resilience and the invaluable support of friendship in challenging times.”

Closing Thought : End with a memorable line that reinforces the narrative’s message or leaves a lasting impression.

Example : “As we boarded the helicopters, I knew this adventure would forever be etched in my heart.”

Example Summary:

Imagine a narrative about surviving a challenging hike through the desert, emphasizing the bonds formed and lessons learned. The narrative essay structure might look like starting with an engaging scene, narrating the hardships faced, showcasing the characters’ resilience, and culminating in a powerful realization about friendship and endurance.

Different Types of Narrative Essays

There are a bunch of different types of narrative essays – each one focuses on different elements of storytelling and has its own purpose. Here’s a breakdown of the narrative essay types and what they mean.

Personal Narrative

Description : Tells a personal story or experience from the writer’s life.

Purpose: Reflects on personal growth, lessons learned, or significant moments.

Example of Narrative Essay Types:

Topic : “The Day I Conquered My Fear of Public Speaking”

Focus: Details the experience, emotions, and eventual triumph over a fear of public speaking during a pivotal event.

Descriptive Narrative

Description : Emphasizes vivid details and sensory imagery.

Purpose : Creates a sensory experience, painting a vivid picture for the reader.

Topic : “A Walk Through the Enchanted Forest”

Focus : Paints a detailed picture of the sights, sounds, smells, and feelings experienced during a walk through a mystical forest.

Autobiographical Narrative

Description: Chronicles significant events or moments from the writer’s life.

Purpose: Provides insights into the writer’s life, experiences, and growth.

Topic: “Lessons from My Childhood: How My Grandmother Shaped Who I Am”

Focus: Explores pivotal moments and lessons learned from interactions with a significant family member.

Experiential Narrative

Description: Relays experiences beyond the writer’s personal life.

Purpose: Shares experiences, travels, or events from a broader perspective.

Topic: “Volunteering in a Remote Village: A Journey of Empathy”

Focus: Chronicles the writer’s volunteering experience, highlighting interactions with a community and personal growth.

Literary Narrative

Description: Incorporates literary elements like symbolism, allegory, or thematic explorations.

Purpose: Uses storytelling for deeper explorations of themes or concepts.

Topic: “The Symbolism of the Red Door: A Journey Through Change”

Focus: Uses a red door as a symbol, exploring its significance in the narrator’s life and the theme of transition.

Historical Narrative

Description: Recounts historical events or periods through a personal lens.

Purpose: Presents history through personal experiences or perspectives.

Topic: “A Grandfather’s Tales: Living Through the Great Depression”

Focus: Shares personal stories from a family member who lived through a historical era, offering insights into that period.

Digital or Multimedia Narrative

Description: Incorporates multimedia elements like images, videos, or audio to tell a story.

Purpose: Explores storytelling through various digital platforms or formats.

Topic: “A Travel Diary: Exploring Europe Through Vlogs”

Focus: Combines video clips, photos, and personal narration to document a travel experience.

How to Choose a Topic for Your Narrative Essay?

Selecting a compelling topic for your narrative essay is crucial as it sets the stage for your storytelling. Choosing a boring topic is one of the narrative essay mistakes to avoid . Here’s a detailed guide on how to choose the right topic:

Reflect on Personal Experiences

Significant Moments:

Moments that had a profound impact on your life or shaped your perspective.

Example: A moment of triumph, overcoming a fear, a life-changing decision, or an unforgettable experience.

Emotional Resonance:

Events that evoke strong emotions or feelings.

Example: Joy, fear, sadness, excitement, or moments of realization.

Lessons Learned:

Experiences that taught you valuable lessons or brought about personal growth.

Example: Challenges that led to personal development, shifts in mindset, or newfound insights.

Explore Unique Perspectives

Uncommon Experiences:

Unique or unconventional experiences that might captivate the reader’s interest.

Example: Unusual travels, interactions with different cultures, or uncommon hobbies.

Different Points of View:

Stories from others’ perspectives that impacted you deeply.

Example: A family member’s story, a friend’s experience, or a historical event from a personal lens.

Focus on Specific Themes or Concepts

Themes or Concepts of Interest:

Themes or ideas you want to explore through storytelling.

Example: Friendship, resilience, identity, cultural diversity, or personal transformation.

Symbolism or Metaphor:

Using symbols or metaphors as the core of your narrative.

Example: Exploring the symbolism of an object or a place in relation to a broader theme.

Consider Your Audience and Purpose

Relevance to Your Audience:

Topics that resonate with your audience’s interests or experiences.

Example: Choose a relatable theme or experience that your readers might connect with emotionally.

Impact or Message:

What message or insight do you want to convey through your story?

Example: Choose a topic that aligns with the message or lesson you aim to impart to your readers.

Brainstorm and Evaluate Ideas

Free Writing or Mind Mapping:

Process: Write down all potential ideas without filtering. Mind maps or free-writing exercises can help generate diverse ideas.

Evaluate Feasibility:

The depth of the story, the availability of vivid details, and your personal connection to the topic.

Imagine you’re considering topics for a narrative essay. You reflect on your experiences and decide to explore the topic of “Overcoming Stage Fright: How a School Play Changed My Perspective.” This topic resonates because it involves a significant challenge you faced and the personal growth it brought about.

Narrative Essay Topics

50 easy narrative essay topics.

Learning to Ride a Bike
My First Day of School
A Surprise Birthday Party
The Day I Got Lost
Visiting a Haunted House
An Encounter with a Wild Animal
My Favorite Childhood Toy
The Best Vacation I Ever Had
An Unforgettable Family Gathering
Conquering a Fear of Heights
A Special Gift I Received
Moving to a New City
The Most Memorable Meal
Getting Caught in a Rainstorm
An Act of Kindness I Witnessed
The First Time I Cooked a Meal
My Experience with a New Hobby
The Day I Met My Best Friend
A Hike in the Mountains
Learning a New Language
An Embarrassing Moment
Dealing with a Bully
My First Job Interview
A Sporting Event I Attended
The Scariest Dream I Had
Helping a Stranger
The Joy of Achieving a Goal
A Road Trip Adventure
Overcoming a Personal Challenge
The Significance of a Family Tradition
An Unusual Pet I Owned
A Misunderstanding with a Friend
Exploring an Abandoned Building
My Favorite Book and Why
The Impact of a Role Model
A Cultural Celebration I Participated In
A Valuable Lesson from a Teacher
A Trip to the Zoo
An Unplanned Adventure
Volunteering Experience
A Moment of Forgiveness
A Decision I Regretted
A Special Talent I Have
The Importance of Family Traditions
The Thrill of Performing on Stage
A Moment of Sudden Inspiration
The Meaning of Home
Learning to Play a Musical Instrument
A Childhood Memory at the Park
Witnessing a Beautiful Sunset

Narrative Essay Topics for College Students

Discovering a New Passion
Overcoming Academic Challenges
Navigating Cultural Differences
Embracing Independence: Moving Away from Home
Exploring Career Aspirations
Coping with Stress in College
The Impact of a Mentor in My Life
Balancing Work and Studies
Facing a Fear of Public Speaking
Exploring a Semester Abroad
The Evolution of My Study Habits
Volunteering Experience That Changed My Perspective
The Role of Technology in Education
Finding Balance: Social Life vs. Academics
Learning a New Skill Outside the Classroom
Reflecting on Freshman Year Challenges
The Joys and Struggles of Group Projects
My Experience with Internship or Work Placement
Challenges of Time Management in College
Redefining Success Beyond Grades
The Influence of Literature on My Thinking
The Impact of Social Media on College Life
Overcoming Procrastination
Lessons from a Leadership Role
Exploring Diversity on Campus
Exploring Passion for Environmental Conservation
An Eye-Opening Course That Changed My Perspective
Living with Roommates: Challenges and Lessons
The Significance of Extracurricular Activities
The Influence of a Professor on My Academic Journey
Discussing Mental Health in College
The Evolution of My Career Goals
Confronting Personal Biases Through Education
The Experience of Attending a Conference or Symposium
Challenges Faced by Non-Native English Speakers in College
The Impact of Traveling During Breaks
Exploring Identity: Cultural or Personal
The Impact of Music or Art on My Life
Addressing Diversity in the Classroom
Exploring Entrepreneurial Ambitions
My Experience with Research Projects
Overcoming Impostor Syndrome in College
The Importance of Networking in College
Finding Resilience During Tough Times
The Impact of Global Issues on Local Perspectives
The Influence of Family Expectations on Education
Lessons from a Part-Time Job
Exploring the College Sports Culture
The Role of Technology in Modern Education
The Journey of Self-Discovery Through Education

Narrative Essay Comparison

Narrative essay vs. descriptive essay.

Here’s our first narrative essay comparison! While both narrative and descriptive essays focus on vividly portraying a subject or an event, they differ in their primary objectives and approaches. Now, let’s delve into the nuances of comparison on narrative essays.

Narrative Essay:

Storytelling: Focuses on narrating a personal experience or event.

Chronological Order: Follows a structured timeline of events to tell a story.

Message or Lesson: Often includes a central message, moral, or lesson learned from the experience.

Engagement: Aims to captivate the reader through a compelling storyline and character development.

First-Person Perspective: Typically narrated from the writer’s point of view, using “I” and expressing personal emotions and thoughts.

Plot Development: Emphasizes a plot with a beginning, middle, climax, and resolution.

Character Development: Focuses on describing characters, their interactions, emotions, and growth.

Conflict or Challenge: Usually involves a central conflict or challenge that drives the narrative forward.

Dialogue: Incorporates conversations to bring characters and their interactions to life.

Reflection: Concludes with reflection or insight gained from the experience.

Descriptive Essay:

Vivid Description: Aims to vividly depict a person, place, object, or event.

Imagery and Details: Focuses on sensory details to create a vivid image in the reader’s mind.

Emotion through Description: Uses descriptive language to evoke emotions and engage the reader’s senses.

Painting a Picture: Creates a sensory-rich description allowing the reader to visualize the subject.

Imagery and Sensory Details: Focuses on providing rich sensory descriptions, using vivid language and adjectives.

Point of Focus: Concentrates on describing a specific subject or scene in detail.

Spatial Organization: Often employs spatial organization to describe from one area or aspect to another.

Objective Observations: Typically avoids the use of personal opinions or emotions; instead, the focus remains on providing a detailed and objective description.

Comparison:

Focus: Narrative essays emphasize storytelling, while descriptive essays focus on vividly describing a subject or scene.

Perspective: Narrative essays are often written from a first-person perspective, while descriptive essays may use a more objective viewpoint.

Purpose: Narrative essays aim to convey a message or lesson through a story, while descriptive essays aim to paint a detailed picture for the reader without necessarily conveying a specific message.

Narrative Essay vs. Argumentative Essay

The narrative essay and the argumentative essay serve distinct purposes and employ different approaches:

Engagement and Emotion: Aims to captivate the reader through a compelling story.

Reflective: Often includes reflection on the significance of the experience or lessons learned.

First-Person Perspective: Typically narrated from the writer’s point of view, sharing personal emotions and thoughts.

Plot Development: Emphasizes a storyline with a beginning, middle, climax, and resolution.

Message or Lesson: Conveys a central message, moral, or insight derived from the experience.

Argumentative Essay:

Persuasion and Argumentation: Aims to persuade the reader to adopt the writer’s viewpoint on a specific topic.

Logical Reasoning: Presents evidence, facts, and reasoning to support a particular argument or stance.

Debate and Counterarguments: Acknowledge opposing views and counter them with evidence and reasoning.

Thesis Statement: Includes a clear thesis statement that outlines the writer’s position on the topic.

Thesis and Evidence: Starts with a strong thesis statement and supports it with factual evidence, statistics, expert opinions, or logical reasoning.

Counterarguments: Addresses opposing viewpoints and provides rebuttals with evidence.

Logical Structure: Follows a logical structure with an introduction, body paragraphs presenting arguments and evidence, and a conclusion reaffirming the thesis.

Formal Language: Uses formal language and avoids personal anecdotes or emotional appeals.

Objective: Argumentative essays focus on presenting a logical argument supported by evidence, while narrative essays prioritize storytelling and personal reflection.

Purpose: Argumentative essays aim to persuade and convince the reader of a particular viewpoint, while narrative essays aim to engage, entertain, and share personal experiences.

Structure: Narrative essays follow a storytelling structure with character development and plot, while argumentative essays follow a more formal, structured approach with logical arguments and evidence.

In essence, while both essays involve writing and presenting information, the narrative essay focuses on sharing a personal experience, whereas the argumentative essay aims to persuade the audience by presenting a well-supported argument.

Narrative Essay vs. Personal Essay

While there can be an overlap between narrative and personal essays, they have distinctive characteristics:

Storytelling: Emphasizes recounting a specific experience or event in a structured narrative form.

Engagement through Story: Aims to engage the reader through a compelling story with characters, plot, and a central theme or message.

Reflective: Often includes reflection on the significance of the experience and the lessons learned.

First-Person Perspective: Typically narrated from the writer’s viewpoint, expressing personal emotions and thoughts.

Plot Development: Focuses on developing a storyline with a clear beginning, middle, climax, and resolution.

Character Development: Includes descriptions of characters, their interactions, emotions, and growth.

Central Message: Conveys a central message, moral, or insight derived from the experience.

Personal Essay:

Exploration of Ideas or Themes: Explores personal ideas, opinions, or reflections on a particular topic or subject.

Expression of Thoughts and Opinions: Expresses the writer’s thoughts, feelings, and perspectives on a specific subject matter.

Reflection and Introspection: Often involves self-reflection and introspection on personal experiences, beliefs, or values.

Varied Structure and Content: Can encompass various forms, including memoirs, personal anecdotes, or reflections on life experiences.

Flexibility in Structure: Allows for diverse structures and forms based on the writer’s intent, which could be narrative-like or more reflective.

Theme-Centric Writing: Focuses on exploring a central theme or idea, with personal anecdotes or experiences supporting and illustrating the theme.

Expressive Language: Utilizes descriptive and expressive language to convey personal perspectives, emotions, and opinions.

Focus: Narrative essays primarily focus on storytelling through a structured narrative, while personal essays encompass a broader range of personal expression, which can include storytelling but isn’t limited to it.

Structure: Narrative essays have a more structured plot development with characters and a clear sequence of events, while personal essays might adopt various structures, focusing more on personal reflection, ideas, or themes.

Intent: While both involve personal experiences, narrative essays emphasize telling a story with a message or lesson learned, while personal essays aim to explore personal thoughts, feelings, or opinions on a broader range of topics or themes.

5 Easy Steps for Writing a Narrative Essay

A narrative essay is more than just telling a story. It’s also meant to engage the reader, get them thinking, and leave a lasting impact. Whether it’s to amuse, motivate, teach, or reflect, these essays are a great way to communicate with your audience. This interesting narrative essay guide was all about letting you understand the narrative essay, its importance, and how can you write one.

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Narrative Analysis 101

Everything you need to know to get started

By: Ethar Al-Saraf (PhD)| Expert Reviewed By: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) | March 2023

If you’re new to research, the host of qualitative analysis methods available to you can be a little overwhelming. In this post, we’ll unpack the sometimes slippery topic of narrative analysis . We’ll explain what it is, consider its strengths and weaknesses , and look at when and when not to use this analysis method.

Overview: Narrative Analysis

What is narrative analysis (simple definition)
The two overarching approaches
The strengths & weaknesses of narrative analysis
When (and when not) to use it
Key takeaways

What Is Narrative Analysis?

Simply put, narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method focused on interpreting human experiences and motivations by looking closely at the stories (the narratives) people tell in a particular context.

In other words, a narrative analysis interprets long-form participant responses or written stories as data, to uncover themes and meanings . That data could be taken from interviews, monologues, written stories, or even recordings. In other words, narrative analysis can be used on both primary and secondary data to provide evidence from the experiences described.

That’s all quite conceptual, so let’s look at an example of how narrative analysis could be used.

Let’s say you’re interested in researching the beliefs of a particular author on popular culture. In that case, you might identify the characters , plotlines , symbols and motifs used in their stories. You could then use narrative analysis to analyse these in combination and against the backdrop of the relevant context.

This would allow you to interpret the underlying meanings and implications in their writing, and what they reveal about the beliefs of the author. In other words, you’d look to understand the views of the author by analysing the narratives that run through their work.

The Two Overarching Approaches

Generally speaking, there are two approaches that one can take to narrative analysis. Specifically, an inductive approach or a deductive approach. Each one will have a meaningful impact on how you interpret your data and the conclusions you can draw, so it’s important that you understand the difference.

First up is the inductive approach to narrative analysis.

The inductive approach takes a bottom-up view , allowing the data to speak for itself, without the influence of any preconceived notions . With this approach, you begin by looking at the data and deriving patterns and themes that can be used to explain the story, as opposed to viewing the data through the lens of pre-existing hypotheses, theories or frameworks. In other words, the analysis is led by the data.

For example, with an inductive approach, you might notice patterns or themes in the way an author presents their characters or develops their plot. You’d then observe these patterns, develop an interpretation of what they might reveal in the context of the story, and draw conclusions relative to the aims of your research.

Contrasted to this is the deductive approach.

With the deductive approach to narrative analysis, you begin by using existing theories that a narrative can be tested against . Here, the analysis adopts particular theoretical assumptions and/or provides hypotheses, and then looks for evidence in a story that will either verify or disprove them.

For example, your analysis might begin with a theory that wealthy authors only tell stories to get the sympathy of their readers. A deductive analysis might then look at the narratives of wealthy authors for evidence that will substantiate (or refute) the theory and then draw conclusions about its accuracy, and suggest explanations for why that might or might not be the case.

Which approach you should take depends on your research aims, objectives and research questions . If these are more exploratory in nature, you’ll likely take an inductive approach. Conversely, if they are more confirmatory in nature, you’ll likely opt for the deductive approach.

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Strengths & Weaknesses

Now that we have a clearer view of what narrative analysis is and the two approaches to it, it’s important to understand its strengths and weaknesses , so that you can make the right choices in your research project.

A primary strength of narrative analysis is the rich insight it can generate by uncovering the underlying meanings and interpretations of human experience. The focus on an individual narrative highlights the nuances and complexities of their experience, revealing details that might be missed or considered insignificant by other methods.

Another strength of narrative analysis is the range of topics it can be used for. The focus on human experience means that a narrative analysis can democratise your data analysis, by revealing the value of individuals’ own interpretation of their experience in contrast to broader social, cultural, and political factors.

All that said, just like all analysis methods, narrative analysis has its weaknesses. It’s important to understand these so that you can choose the most appropriate method for your particular research project.

The first drawback of narrative analysis is the problem of subjectivity and interpretation . In other words, a drawback of the focus on stories and their details is that they’re open to being understood differently depending on who’s reading them. This means that a strong understanding of the author’s cultural context is crucial to developing your interpretation of the data. At the same time, it’s important that you remain open-minded in how you interpret your chosen narrative and avoid making any assumptions .

A second weakness of narrative analysis is the issue of reliability and generalisation . Since narrative analysis depends almost entirely on a subjective narrative and your interpretation, the findings and conclusions can’t usually be generalised or empirically verified. Although some conclusions can be drawn about the cultural context, they’re still based on what will almost always be anecdotal data and not suitable for the basis of a theory, for example.

Last but not least, the focus on long-form data expressed as stories means that narrative analysis can be very time-consuming . In addition to the source data itself, you will have to be well informed on the author’s cultural context as well as other interpretations of the narrative, where possible, to ensure you have a holistic view. So, if you’re going to undertake narrative analysis, make sure that you allocate a generous amount of time to work through the data.

When To Use Narrative Analysis

As a qualitative method focused on analysing and interpreting narratives describing human experiences, narrative analysis is usually most appropriate for research topics focused on social, personal, cultural , or even ideological events or phenomena and how they’re understood at an individual level.

For example, if you were interested in understanding the experiences and beliefs of individuals suffering social marginalisation, you could use narrative analysis to look at the narratives and stories told by people in marginalised groups to identify patterns , symbols , or motifs that shed light on how they rationalise their experiences.

In this example, narrative analysis presents a good natural fit as it’s focused on analysing people’s stories to understand their views and beliefs at an individual level. Conversely, if your research was geared towards understanding broader themes and patterns regarding an event or phenomena, analysis methods such as content analysis or thematic analysis may be better suited, depending on your research aim .

Let’s recap

In this post, we’ve explored the basics of narrative analysis in qualitative research. The key takeaways are:

Narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method focused on interpreting human experience in the form of stories or narratives .
There are two overarching approaches to narrative analysis: the inductive (exploratory) approach and the deductive (confirmatory) approach.
Like all analysis methods, narrative analysis has a particular set of strengths and weaknesses .
Narrative analysis is generally most appropriate for research focused on interpreting individual, human experiences as expressed in detailed , long-form accounts.

If you’d like to learn more about narrative analysis and qualitative analysis methods in general, be sure to check out the rest of the Grad Coach blog here . Alternatively, if you’re looking for hands-on help with your project, take a look at our 1-on-1 private coaching service .

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This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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Research aims, research objectives and research questions

Thanks. I need examples of narrative analysis

Here are some examples of research topics that could utilise narrative analysis:

Personal Narratives of Trauma: Analysing personal stories of individuals who have experienced trauma to understand the impact, coping mechanisms, and healing processes.

Identity Formation in Immigrant Communities: Examining the narratives of immigrants to explore how they construct and negotiate their identities in a new cultural context.

Media Representations of Gender: Analysing narratives in media texts (such as films, television shows, or advertisements) to investigate the portrayal of gender roles, stereotypes, and power dynamics.

Where can I find an example of a narrative analysis table ?

Please i need help with my project,

how can I cite this article in APA 7th style?

please mention the sources as well.

My research is mixed approach. I use interview,key_inforamt interview,FGD and document.so,which qualitative analysis is appropriate to analyze these data.Thanks

Which qualitative analysis methode is appropriate to analyze data obtain from intetview,key informant intetview,Focus group discussion and document.

I’ve finished my PhD. Now I need a “platform” that will help me objectively ascertain the tacit assumptions that are buried within a narrative. Can you help?

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 3 great narrative essay examples + tips for writing.

General Education

A narrative essay is one of the most intimidating assignments you can be handed at any level of your education. Where you've previously written argumentative essays that make a point or analytic essays that dissect meaning, a narrative essay asks you to write what is effectively a story .

But unlike a simple work of creative fiction, your narrative essay must have a clear and concrete motif —a recurring theme or idea that you’ll explore throughout. Narrative essays are less rigid, more creative in expression, and therefore pretty different from most other essays you’ll be writing.

But not to fear—in this article, we’ll be covering what a narrative essay is, how to write a good one, and also analyzing some personal narrative essay examples to show you what a great one looks like.

What Is a Narrative Essay?

At first glance, a narrative essay might sound like you’re just writing a story. Like the stories you're used to reading, a narrative essay is generally (but not always) chronological, following a clear throughline from beginning to end. Even if the story jumps around in time, all the details will come back to one specific theme, demonstrated through your choice in motifs.

Unlike many creative stories, however, your narrative essay should be based in fact. That doesn’t mean that every detail needs to be pure and untainted by imagination, but rather that you shouldn’t wholly invent the events of your narrative essay. There’s nothing wrong with inventing a person’s words if you can’t remember them exactly, but you shouldn’t say they said something they weren’t even close to saying.

Another big difference between narrative essays and creative fiction—as well as other kinds of essays—is that narrative essays are based on motifs. A motif is a dominant idea or theme, one that you establish before writing the essay. As you’re crafting the narrative, it’ll feed back into your motif to create a comprehensive picture of whatever that motif is.

For example, say you want to write a narrative essay about how your first day in high school helped you establish your identity. You might discuss events like trying to figure out where to sit in the cafeteria, having to describe yourself in five words as an icebreaker in your math class, or being unsure what to do during your lunch break because it’s no longer acceptable to go outside and play during lunch. All of those ideas feed back into the central motif of establishing your identity.

The important thing to remember is that while a narrative essay is typically told chronologically and intended to read like a story, it is not purely for entertainment value. A narrative essay delivers its theme by deliberately weaving the motifs through the events, scenes, and details. While a narrative essay may be entertaining, its primary purpose is to tell a complete story based on a central meaning.

Unlike other essay forms, it is totally okay—even expected—to use first-person narration in narrative essays. If you’re writing a story about yourself, it’s natural to refer to yourself within the essay. It’s also okay to use other perspectives, such as third- or even second-person, but that should only be done if it better serves your motif. Generally speaking, your narrative essay should be in first-person perspective.

Though your motif choices may feel at times like you’re making a point the way you would in an argumentative essay, a narrative essay’s goal is to tell a story, not convince the reader of anything. Your reader should be able to tell what your motif is from reading, but you don’t have to change their mind about anything. If they don’t understand the point you are making, you should consider strengthening the delivery of the events and descriptions that support your motif.

Narrative essays also share some features with analytical essays, in which you derive meaning from a book, film, or other media. But narrative essays work differently—you’re not trying to draw meaning from an existing text, but rather using an event you’ve experienced to convey meaning. In an analytical essay, you examine narrative, whereas in a narrative essay you create narrative.

The structure of a narrative essay is also a bit different than other essays. You’ll generally be getting your point across chronologically as opposed to grouping together specific arguments in paragraphs or sections. To return to the example of an essay discussing your first day of high school and how it impacted the shaping of your identity, it would be weird to put the events out of order, even if not knowing what to do after lunch feels like a stronger idea than choosing where to sit. Instead of organizing to deliver your information based on maximum impact, you’ll be telling your story as it happened, using concrete details to reinforce your theme.

3 Great Narrative Essay Examples

One of the best ways to learn how to write a narrative essay is to look at a great narrative essay sample. Let’s take a look at some truly stellar narrative essay examples and dive into what exactly makes them work so well.

A Ticket to the Fair by David Foster Wallace

Today is Press Day at the Illinois State Fair in Springfield, and I’m supposed to be at the fairgrounds by 9:00 A.M. to get my credentials. I imagine credentials to be a small white card in the band of a fedora. I’ve never been considered press before. My real interest in credentials is getting into rides and shows for free. I’m fresh in from the East Coast, for an East Coast magazine. Why exactly they’re interested in the Illinois State Fair remains unclear to me. I suspect that every so often editors at East Coast magazines slap their foreheads and remember that about 90 percent of the United States lies between the coasts, and figure they’ll engage somebody to do pith-helmeted anthropological reporting on something rural and heartlandish. I think they asked me to do this because I grew up here, just a couple hours’ drive from downstate Springfield. I never did go to the state fair, though—I pretty much topped out at the county fair level. Actually, I haven’t been back to Illinois for a long time, and I can’t say I’ve missed it.

Throughout this essay, David Foster Wallace recounts his experience as press at the Illinois State Fair. But it’s clear from this opening that he’s not just reporting on the events exactly as they happened—though that’s also true— but rather making a point about how the East Coast, where he lives and works, thinks about the Midwest.

In his opening paragraph, Wallace states that outright: “Why exactly they’re interested in the Illinois State Fair remains unclear to me. I suspect that every so often editors at East Coast magazines slap their foreheads and remember that about 90 percent of the United States lies between the coasts, and figure they’ll engage somebody to do pith-helmeted anthropological reporting on something rural and heartlandish.”

Not every motif needs to be stated this clearly , but in an essay as long as Wallace’s, particularly since the audience for such a piece may feel similarly and forget that such a large portion of the country exists, it’s important to make that point clear.

But Wallace doesn’t just rest on introducing his motif and telling the events exactly as they occurred from there. It’s clear that he selects events that remind us of that idea of East Coast cynicism , such as when he realizes that the Help Me Grow tent is standing on top of fake grass that is killing the real grass beneath, when he realizes the hypocrisy of craving a corn dog when faced with a real, suffering pig, when he’s upset for his friend even though he’s not the one being sexually harassed, and when he witnesses another East Coast person doing something he wouldn’t dare to do.

Wallace is literally telling the audience exactly what happened, complete with dates and timestamps for when each event occurred. But he’s also choosing those events with a purpose—he doesn’t focus on details that don’t serve his motif. That’s why he discusses the experiences of people, how the smells are unappealing to him, and how all the people he meets, in cowboy hats, overalls, or “black spandex that looks like cheesecake leotards,” feel almost alien to him.

All of these details feed back into the throughline of East Coast thinking that Wallace introduces in the first paragraph. He also refers back to it in the essay’s final paragraph, stating:

At last, an overarching theory blooms inside my head: megalopolitan East Coasters’ summer treats and breaks and literally ‘getaways,’ flights-from—from crowds, noise, heat, dirt, the stress of too many sensory choices….The East Coast existential treat is escape from confines and stimuli—quiet, rustic vistas that hold still, turn inward, turn away. Not so in the rural Midwest. Here you’re pretty much away all the time….Something in a Midwesterner sort of actuates , deep down, at a public event….The real spectacle that draws us here is us.

Throughout this journey, Wallace has tried to demonstrate how the East Coast thinks about the Midwest, ultimately concluding that they are captivated by the Midwest’s less stimuli-filled life, but that the real reason they are interested in events like the Illinois State Fair is that they are, in some ways, a means of looking at the East Coast in a new, estranging way.

The reason this works so well is that Wallace has carefully chosen his examples, outlined his motif and themes in the first paragraph, and eventually circled back to the original motif with a clearer understanding of his original point.

When outlining your own narrative essay, try to do the same. Start with a theme, build upon it with examples, and return to it in the end with an even deeper understanding of the original issue. You don’t need this much space to explore a theme, either—as we’ll see in the next example, a strong narrative essay can also be very short.

Death of a Moth by Virginia Woolf

After a time, tired by his dancing apparently, he settled on the window ledge in the sun, and, the queer spectacle being at an end, I forgot about him. Then, looking up, my eye was caught by him. He was trying to resume his dancing, but seemed either so stiff or so awkward that he could only flutter to the bottom of the window-pane; and when he tried to fly across it he failed. Being intent on other matters I watched these futile attempts for a time without thinking, unconsciously waiting for him to resume his flight, as one waits for a machine, that has stopped momentarily, to start again without considering the reason of its failure. After perhaps a seventh attempt he slipped from the wooden ledge and fell, fluttering his wings, on to his back on the window sill. The helplessness of his attitude roused me. It flashed upon me that he was in difficulties; he could no longer raise himself; his legs struggled vainly. But, as I stretched out a pencil, meaning to help him to right himself, it came over me that the failure and awkwardness were the approach of death. I laid the pencil down again.

In this essay, Virginia Woolf explains her encounter with a dying moth. On surface level, this essay is just a recounting of an afternoon in which she watched a moth die—it’s even established in the title. But there’s more to it than that. Though Woolf does not begin her essay with as clear a motif as Wallace, it’s not hard to pick out the evidence she uses to support her point, which is that the experience of this moth is also the human experience.

In the title, Woolf tells us this essay is about death. But in the first paragraph, she seems to mostly be discussing life—the moth is “content with life,” people are working in the fields, and birds are flying. However, she mentions that it is mid-September and that the fields were being plowed. It’s autumn and it’s time for the harvest; the time of year in which many things die.

In this short essay, she chronicles the experience of watching a moth seemingly embody life, then die. Though this essay is literally about a moth, it’s also about a whole lot more than that. After all, moths aren’t the only things that die—Woolf is also reflecting on her own mortality, as well as the mortality of everything around her.

At its core, the essay discusses the push and pull of life and death, not in a way that’s necessarily sad, but in a way that is accepting of both. Woolf begins by setting up the transitional fall season, often associated with things coming to an end, and raises the ideas of pleasure, vitality, and pity.

At one point, Woolf tries to help the dying moth, but reconsiders, as it would interfere with the natural order of the world. The moth’s death is part of the natural order of the world, just like fall, just like her own eventual death.

All these themes are set up in the beginning and explored throughout the essay’s narrative. Though Woolf doesn’t directly state her theme, she reinforces it by choosing a small, isolated event—watching a moth die—and illustrating her point through details.

With this essay, we can see that you don’t need a big, weird, exciting event to discuss an important meaning. Woolf is able to explore complicated ideas in a short essay by being deliberate about what details she includes, just as you can be in your own essays.

Notes of a Native Son by James Baldwin

On the twenty-ninth of July, in 1943, my father died. On the same day, a few hours later, his last child was born. Over a month before this, while all our energies were concentrated in waiting for these events, there had been, in Detroit, one of the bloodiest race riots of the century. A few hours after my father’s funeral, while he lay in state in the undertaker’s chapel, a race riot broke out in Harlem. On the morning of the third of August, we drove my father to the graveyard through a wilderness of smashed plate glass.

Like Woolf, Baldwin does not lay out his themes in concrete terms—unlike Wallace, there’s no clear sentence that explains what he’ll be talking about. However, you can see the motifs quite clearly: death, fatherhood, struggle, and race.

Throughout the narrative essay, Baldwin discusses the circumstances of his father’s death, including his complicated relationship with his father. By introducing those motifs in the first paragraph, the reader understands that everything discussed in the essay will come back to those core ideas. When Baldwin talks about his experience with a white teacher taking an interest in him and his father’s resistance to that, he is also talking about race and his father’s death. When he talks about his father’s death, he is also talking about his views on race. When he talks about his encounters with segregation and racism, he is talking, in part, about his father.

Because his father was a hard, uncompromising man, Baldwin struggles to reconcile the knowledge that his father was right about many things with his desire to not let that hardness consume him, as well.

Baldwin doesn’t explicitly state any of this, but his writing so often touches on the same motifs that it becomes clear he wants us to think about all these ideas in conversation with one another.

At the end of the essay, Baldwin makes it more clear:

This fight begins, however, in the heart and it had now been laid to my charge to keep my own heart free of hatred and despair. This intimation made my heart heavy and, now that my father was irrecoverable, I wished that he had been beside me so that I could have searched his face for the answers which only the future would give me now.

Here, Baldwin ties together the themes and motifs into one clear statement: that he must continue to fight and recognize injustice, especially racial injustice, just as his father did. But unlike his father, he must do it beginning with himself—he must not let himself be closed off to the world as his father was. And yet, he still wishes he had his father for guidance, even as he establishes that he hopes to be a different man than his father.

In this essay, Baldwin loads the front of the essay with his motifs, and, through his narrative, weaves them together into a theme. In the end, he comes to a conclusion that connects all of those things together and leaves the reader with a lasting impression of completion—though the elements may have been initially disparate, in the end everything makes sense.

You can replicate this tactic of introducing seemingly unattached ideas and weaving them together in your own essays. By introducing those motifs, developing them throughout, and bringing them together in the end, you can demonstrate to your reader how all of them are related. However, it’s especially important to be sure that your motifs and clear and consistent throughout your essay so that the conclusion feels earned and consistent—if not, readers may feel mislead.

5 Key Tips for Writing Narrative Essays

Narrative essays can be a lot of fun to write since they’re so heavily based on creativity. But that can also feel intimidating—sometimes it’s easier to have strict guidelines than to have to make it all up yourself. Here are a few tips to keep your narrative essay feeling strong and fresh.

Develop Strong Motifs

Motifs are the foundation of a narrative essay . What are you trying to say? How can you say that using specific symbols or events? Those are your motifs.

In the same way that an argumentative essay’s body should support its thesis, the body of your narrative essay should include motifs that support your theme.

Try to avoid cliches, as these will feel tired to your readers. Instead of roses to symbolize love, try succulents. Instead of the ocean representing some vast, unknowable truth, try the depths of your brother’s bedroom. Keep your language and motifs fresh and your essay will be even stronger!

Use First-Person Perspective

In many essays, you’re expected to remove yourself so that your points stand on their own. Not so in a narrative essay—in this case, you want to make use of your own perspective.

Sometimes a different perspective can make your point even stronger. If you want someone to identify with your point of view, it may be tempting to choose a second-person perspective. However, be sure you really understand the function of second-person; it’s very easy to put a reader off if the narration isn’t expertly deployed.

If you want a little bit of distance, third-person perspective may be okay. But be careful—too much distance and your reader may feel like the narrative lacks truth.

That’s why first-person perspective is the standard. It keeps you, the writer, close to the narrative, reminding the reader that it really happened. And because you really know what happened and how, you’re free to inject your own opinion into the story without it detracting from your point, as it would in a different type of essay.

Stick to the Truth

Your essay should be true. However, this is a creative essay, and it’s okay to embellish a little. Rarely in life do we experience anything with a clear, concrete meaning the way somebody in a book might. If you flub the details a little, it’s okay—just don’t make them up entirely.

Also, nobody expects you to perfectly recall details that may have happened years ago. You may have to reconstruct dialog from your memory and your imagination. That’s okay, again, as long as you aren’t making it up entirely and assigning made-up statements to somebody.

Dialog is a powerful tool. A good conversation can add flavor and interest to a story, as we saw demonstrated in David Foster Wallace’s essay. As previously mentioned, it’s okay to flub it a little, especially because you’re likely writing about an experience you had without knowing that you’d be writing about it later.

However, don’t rely too much on it. Your narrative essay shouldn’t be told through people explaining things to one another; the motif comes through in the details. Dialog can be one of those details, but it shouldn’t be the only one.

Use Sensory Descriptions

Because a narrative essay is a story, you can use sensory details to make your writing more interesting. If you’re describing a particular experience, you can go into detail about things like taste, smell, and hearing in a way that you probably wouldn’t do in any other essay style.

These details can tie into your overall motifs and further your point. Woolf describes in great detail what she sees while watching the moth, giving us the sense that we, too, are watching the moth. In Wallace’s essay, he discusses the sights, sounds, and smells of the Illinois State Fair to help emphasize his point about its strangeness. And in Baldwin’s essay, he describes shattered glass as a “wilderness,” and uses the feelings of his body to describe his mental state.

All these descriptions anchor us not only in the story, but in the motifs and themes as well. One of the tools of a writer is making the reader feel as you felt, and sensory details help you achieve that.

What’s Next?

Looking to brush up on your essay-writing capabilities before the ACT? This guide to ACT English will walk you through some of the best strategies and practice questions to get you prepared!

Part of practicing for the ACT is ensuring your word choice and diction are on point. Check out this guide to some of the most common errors on the ACT English section to be sure that you're not making these common mistakes!

A solid understanding of English principles will help you make an effective point in a narrative essay, and you can get that understanding through taking a rigorous assortment of high school English classes !

Melissa Brinks graduated from the University of Washington in 2014 with a Bachelor's in English with a creative writing emphasis. She has spent several years tutoring K-12 students in many subjects, including in SAT prep, to help them prepare for their college education.

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Home » Narrative Analysis – Types, Methods and Examples

Narrative Analysis – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Narrative Analysis

Definition:

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research methodology that involves examining and interpreting the stories or narratives people tell in order to gain insights into the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie them. Narrative analysis can be applied to various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

In narrative analysis, researchers typically examine the structure, content, and context of the narratives they are studying, paying close attention to the language, themes, and symbols used by the storytellers. They may also look for patterns or recurring motifs within the narratives, and consider the cultural and social contexts in which they are situated.

Types of Narrative Analysis

Types of Narrative Analysis are as follows:

Content Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the content of a narrative in order to identify themes, motifs, and other patterns. Researchers may use coding schemes to identify specific themes or categories within the text, and then analyze how they are related to each other and to the overall narrative. Content analysis can be used to study various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

Structural Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the formal structure of a narrative, including its plot, character development, and use of literary devices. Researchers may analyze the narrative arc, the relationship between the protagonist and antagonist, or the use of symbolism and metaphor. Structural analysis can be useful for understanding how a narrative is constructed and how it affects the reader or audience.

Discourse Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the language and discourse used in a narrative, including the social and cultural context in which it is situated. Researchers may analyze the use of specific words or phrases, the tone and style of the narrative, or the ways in which social and cultural norms are reflected in the narrative. Discourse analysis can be useful for understanding how narratives are influenced by larger social and cultural structures.

Phenomenological Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the subjective experience of the narrator, and how they interpret and make sense of their experiences. Researchers may analyze the language used to describe experiences, the emotions expressed in the narrative, or the ways in which the narrator constructs meaning from their experiences. Phenomenological analysis can be useful for understanding how people make sense of their own lives and experiences.

Critical Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the political, social, and ideological implications of a narrative, and questioning its underlying assumptions and values. Researchers may analyze the ways in which a narrative reflects or reinforces dominant power structures, or how it challenges or subverts those structures. Critical analysis can be useful for understanding the role that narratives play in shaping social and cultural norms.

Autoethnography

This type of narrative analysis involves using personal narratives to explore cultural experiences and identity formation. Researchers may use their own personal narratives to explore issues such as race, gender, or sexuality, and to understand how larger social and cultural structures shape individual experiences. Autoethnography can be useful for understanding how individuals negotiate and navigate complex cultural identities.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying themes or patterns that emerge from the data, and then interpreting these themes in relation to the research question. Researchers may use a deductive approach, where they start with a pre-existing theoretical framework, or an inductive approach, where themes are generated from the data itself.

Narrative Analysis Conducting Guide

Here are some steps for conducting narrative analysis:

Identify the research question: Narrative analysis begins with identifying the research question or topic of interest. Researchers may want to explore a particular social or cultural phenomenon, or gain a deeper understanding of a particular individual’s experience.
Collect the narratives: Researchers then collect the narratives or stories that they will analyze. This can involve collecting written texts, conducting interviews, or analyzing visual media.
Transcribe and code the narratives: Once the narratives have been collected, they are transcribed into a written format, and then coded in order to identify themes, motifs, or other patterns. Researchers may use a coding scheme that has been developed specifically for the study, or they may use an existing coding scheme.
Analyze the narratives: Researchers then analyze the narratives, focusing on the themes, motifs, and other patterns that have emerged from the coding process. They may also analyze the formal structure of the narratives, the language used, and the social and cultural context in which they are situated.
Interpret the findings: Finally, researchers interpret the findings of the narrative analysis, and draw conclusions about the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie the narratives. They may use the findings to develop theories, make recommendations, or inform further research.

Applications of Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is a versatile qualitative research method that has applications across a wide range of fields, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, literature, and history. Here are some examples of how narrative analysis can be used:

Understanding individuals’ experiences: Narrative analysis can be used to gain a deeper understanding of individuals’ experiences, including their thoughts, feelings, and perspectives. For example, psychologists might use narrative analysis to explore the stories that individuals tell about their experiences with mental illness.
Exploring cultural and social phenomena: Narrative analysis can also be used to explore cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity. Sociologists might use narrative analysis to examine how individuals understand and experience their gender identity.
Analyzing historical events: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze historical events, including those that have been recorded in literary texts or personal accounts. Historians might use narrative analysis to explore the stories of survivors of historical traumas, such as war or genocide.
Examining media representations: Narrative analysis can be used to examine media representations of social and cultural phenomena, such as news stories, films, or television shows. Communication scholars might use narrative analysis to examine how news media represent different social groups.
Developing interventions: Narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions to address social and cultural problems. For example, social workers might use narrative analysis to understand the experiences of individuals who have experienced domestic violence, and then use that knowledge to develop more effective interventions.

Examples of Narrative Analysis

Here are some examples of how narrative analysis has been used in research:

Personal narratives of illness: Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine the personal narratives of individuals living with chronic illness, to understand how they make sense of their experiences and construct their identities.
Oral histories: Historians have used narrative analysis to analyze oral histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of historical events and social movements.
Children’s stories: Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze children’s stories to understand how they understand and make sense of the world around them.
Personal diaries : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine personal diaries to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of significant life events, such as the loss of a loved one or the transition to adulthood.
Memoirs : Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze memoirs to understand how individuals construct their life stories and make sense of their experiences.
Life histories : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine life histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of migration, displacement, or social exclusion.

Purpose of Narrative Analysis

The purpose of narrative analysis is to gain a deeper understanding of the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, identities, and beliefs. By analyzing the structure, content, and context of these stories, researchers can uncover patterns and themes that shed light on the ways in which individuals make sense of their lives and the world around them.

The primary purpose of narrative analysis is to explore the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences. This involves examining the different elements of a story, such as the plot, characters, setting, and themes, to identify the underlying values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape the story. By analyzing these elements, researchers can gain insights into the ways in which individuals construct their identities, understand their relationships with others, and make sense of the world.

Narrative analysis can also be used to identify patterns and themes across multiple stories. This involves comparing and contrasting the stories of different individuals or groups to identify commonalities and differences. By analyzing these patterns and themes, researchers can gain insights into broader cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity.

In addition, narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions that address social and cultural problems. By understanding the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, researchers can develop interventions that are tailored to the unique needs of different individuals and groups.

Overall, the purpose of narrative analysis is to provide a rich, nuanced understanding of the ways in which individuals construct meaning and make sense of their lives. By analyzing the stories that individuals tell, researchers can gain insights into the complex and multifaceted nature of human experience.

When to use Narrative Analysis

Here are some situations where narrative analysis may be appropriate:

Studying life stories: Narrative analysis can be useful in understanding how individuals construct their life stories, including the events, characters, and themes that are important to them.
Analyzing cultural narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze cultural narratives, such as myths, legends, and folktales, to understand their meanings and functions.
Exploring organizational narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining the stories that organizations tell about themselves, their histories, and their values, to understand how they shape the culture and practices of the organization.
Investigating media narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze media narratives, such as news stories, films, and TV shows, to understand how they construct meaning and influence public perceptions.
Examining policy narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining policy narratives, such as political speeches and policy documents, to understand how they construct ideas and justify policy decisions.

Characteristics of Narrative Analysis

Here are some key characteristics of narrative analysis:

Focus on stories and narratives: Narrative analysis is concerned with analyzing the stories and narratives that people tell, whether they are oral or written, to understand how they shape and reflect individuals’ experiences and identities.
Emphasis on context: Narrative analysis seeks to understand the context in which the narratives are produced and the social and cultural factors that shape them.
Interpretive approach: Narrative analysis is an interpretive approach that seeks to identify patterns and themes in the stories and narratives and to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
Iterative process: Narrative analysis involves an iterative process of analysis, in which the researcher continually refines their understanding of the narratives as they examine more data.
Attention to language and form : Narrative analysis pays close attention to the language and form of the narratives, including the use of metaphor, imagery, and narrative structure, to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
Reflexivity : Narrative analysis requires the researcher to reflect on their own assumptions and biases and to consider how their own positionality may shape their interpretation of the narratives.
Qualitative approach: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases rather than large-scale quantitative studies.

Advantages of Narrative Analysis

Here are some advantages of narrative analysis:

Rich and detailed data : Narrative analysis provides rich and detailed data that allows for a deep understanding of individuals’ experiences, emotions, and identities.
Humanizing approach: Narrative analysis allows individuals to tell their own stories and express their own perspectives, which can help to humanize research and give voice to marginalized communities.
Holistic understanding: Narrative analysis allows researchers to understand individuals’ experiences in their entirety, including the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which they occur.
Flexibility : Narrative analysis is a flexible research method that can be applied to a wide range of contexts and research questions.
Interpretive insights: Narrative analysis provides interpretive insights into the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences and the ways in which they construct their identities.
Appropriate for sensitive topics: Narrative analysis can be particularly useful in researching sensitive topics, such as trauma or mental health, as it allows individuals to express their experiences in their own words and on their own terms.
Can lead to policy implications: Narrative analysis can provide insights that can inform policy decisions and interventions, particularly in areas such as health, education, and social policy.

Limitations of Narrative Analysis

Here are some of the limitations of narrative analysis:

Subjectivity : Narrative analysis relies on the interpretation of researchers, which can be influenced by their own biases and assumptions.
Limited generalizability: Narrative analysis typically involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases, which limits its generalizability to broader populations.
Ethical considerations: The process of eliciting and analyzing narratives can raise ethical concerns, particularly when sensitive topics such as trauma or abuse are involved.
Limited control over data collection: Narrative analysis often relies on data that is already available, such as interviews, oral histories, or written texts, which can limit the control that researchers have over the quality and completeness of the data.
Time-consuming: Narrative analysis can be a time-consuming research method, particularly when analyzing large amounts of data.
Interpretation challenges: Narrative analysis requires researchers to make complex interpretations of data, which can be challenging and time-consuming.
Limited statistical analysis: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that does not lend itself well to statistical analysis.

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Narrative Essay

Narrative Essay Examples

10+ Interesting Narrative Essay Examples Plus Writing Tips!

Narrative Essay Definition

Writing a narrative essay is a unique form of storytelling that revolves around personal experiences, aiming to immerse the reader in the author's world. It's a piece of writing that delves into the depths of thoughts and feelings.

In a narrative essay, life experiences take center stage, serving as the main substance of the story. It's a powerful tool for writers to convey a personal journey, turning experiences into a captivating tale. This form of storytelling is an artful display of emotions intended to engage readers, leaving the reader feeling like they are a part of the story.

By focusing on a specific theme, event, emotions, and reflections, a narrative essay weaves a storyline that leads the reader through the author's experiences.

The Essentials of Narrative Essays

Let's start with the basics. The four types of essays are argumentative essays , descriptive essays , expository essays , and narrative essays.

The goal of a narrative essay is to tell a compelling tale from one person's perspective. A narrative essay uses all components you’d find in a typical story, such as a beginning, middle, and conclusion, as well as plot, characters, setting, and climax.

The narrative essay's goal is the plot, which should be detailed enough to reach a climax. Here's how it works:

It's usually presented in chronological order.
It has a function. This is typically evident in the thesis statement's opening paragraph.
It may include speech.
It's told with sensory details and vivid language, drawing the reader in. All of these elements are connected to the writer's major argument in some way.

Before writing your essay, make sure you go through a sufficient number of narrative essay examples. These examples will help you in knowing the dos and don’ts of a good narrative essay.

It is always a better option to have some sense of direction before you start anything. Below, you can find important details and a bunch of narrative essay examples. These examples will also help you build your content according to the format.

Here is a how to start a narrative essay example:

Sample Narrative Essay

The examples inform the readers about the writing style and structure of the narration. The essay below will help you understand how to create a story and build this type of essay in no time.

Here is another narrative essay examples 500 words:

Narrative Essay Examples for Students

Narrative essays offer students a platform to express their experiences and creativity. These examples show how to effectively structure and present personal stories for education.

Here are some helpful narrative essay examples:

Narrative Essay Examples Middle School

Narrative Essay Examples for Grade 7

Narrative Essay Examples for Grade 8

Grade 11 Narrative Essay Examples

Narrative Essay Example For High School

Narrative Essay Example For College

Personal Narrative Essay Example

Descriptive Narrative Essay Example

3rd Person Narrative Essay Example

Narrative Essay Topics

Here are some narrative essay topics to help you get started with your narrative essay writing.

When I got my first bunny
When I moved to Canada
I haven’t experienced this freezing temperature ever before
The moment I won the basketball finale
A memorable day at the museum
How I talk to my parrot
The day I saw the death
When I finally rebelled against my professor

Need more topics? Check out these extensive narrative essay topics to get creative ideas!

Narrative Essay Writing Tips

Narrative essays give you the freedom to be creative, but it can be tough to make yours special. Use these tips to make your story interesting:

Share your story from a personal viewpoint, engaging the reader with your experiences.
Use vivid descriptions to paint a clear picture of the setting, characters, and emotions involved.
Organize events in chronological order for a smooth and understandable narrative.
Bring characters to life through their actions, dialogue, and personalities.
Employ dialogue sparingly to add realism and progression to the narrative.
Engage readers by evoking emotions through your storytelling.
End with reflection or a lesson learned from the experience, providing insight.

Now you have essay examples and tips to help you get started, you have a solid starting point for crafting compelling narrative essays.

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Narrative Essay Topics: TOP 200 Choices for Students

Imagine yourself facing a blank page, ready to fill it with your memories and imagination. What story will you tell today?

As students, you often have to write narratives that capture people's attention. But with so many stories to choose from, where do you start? How do you find the perfect topic that will grab our readers' interest and make them think?

Join our essay service experts as we explore 200 topics for college where stories are waiting to be told, and experiences are ready to be shared. From everyday events to unforgettable moments, each topic is a chance to connect with your readers and make them feel something.

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Ideas for Narrative Essay Topics

After exploring how students write narrative paragraphs, we've put together a list of narrative essay topics designed specifically for college and school students. This list covers a wide range of subjects, so pick one that speaks to you!

Literacy Narrative Essay Topics for College Students

How about delving into captivating literacy narrative essay topics designed specifically for college-level writing? Exciting, isn't it?

How did a childhood book shape your view of the world?
What challenges did you face when learning to read in a second language?
How has storytelling within your family influenced your literacy journey?
Can you recall a pivotal moment that ignited your love for reading?
How did a specific teacher inspire your passion for literature?
Have you ever encountered a character in a book who profoundly impacted your perspective on life?
What role did writing play in helping you navigate a difficult period in your life?
How has your relationship with technology affected your reading habits?
What cultural or historical event sparked your interest in a particular genre of literature?
How has poetry shaped your understanding of language and emotion?
Have you ever experienced a breakthrough moment in your writing process?
How has reading aloud impacted your comprehension and enjoyment of literature?
Can you recall a time when a book challenged your beliefs or worldview?
How has participating in a book club enriched your reading experience?
What strategies have you developed to overcome reading difficulties or distractions?

Personal Narrative Essay Topics on Relationships

Take a moment to reflect on your past experiences and craft compelling personal narratives with these essay ideas.

How did a specific friendship shape who you are today?
Can you recount a moment that strengthened your bond with a family member?
What challenges have you faced in maintaining a long-distance relationship?
How has a mentor influenced your personal and professional development?
Have you experienced a betrayal in a relationship? How did it impact you?
Can you describe a memorable conflict resolution process within a relationship?
How has your relationship with a pet affected your emotional well-being?
What lessons have you learned from navigating a romantic relationship?
How has your relationship with a sibling evolved over time?
Can you recall a time when you had to set boundaries in a friendship?
How has volunteering or community involvement enriched your relationships?
What cultural differences have influenced your relationships with others?
Can you share a moment when you felt truly understood by someone?
How has technology affected the dynamics of your relationships?
Have you ever experienced a reconciliation that transformed a strained relationship?

Best Narrative Essay Topics on Education and Learning

Consider the beauty of sharing your personal experiences and emotions in a captivating manner through these ideas for personal narrative essays.

What was the most valuable lesson you learned outside of the classroom?
Can you recount a moment when a teacher's unconventional method transformed your understanding of a subject?
How has a field trip or experiential learning opportunity impacted your education?
What challenges have you faced in balancing extracurricular activities with academics?
Have you ever had a "Eureka!" moment while studying? Describe it.
How has learning a new skill outside of school influenced your academic performance?
Can you recall a time when a peer's perspective challenged your own understanding of a topic?
How has technology enhanced or hindered your learning experience?
What role does creativity play in your approach to learning?
Have you ever experienced a setback that ultimately propelled you forward academically?
How has your cultural background influenced your learning style?
Can you describe a time when you had to advocate for yourself within an educational setting?
How has mentorship shaped your educational journey?
What strategies have you employed to overcome academic challenges or obstacles?
Can you reflect on a time when failure taught you a valuable lesson about learning?

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Personal Narrative Essay Ideas on Reflection on Life

Why not ignite your creativity with a range of narrative essay topics, from extraordinary moments to everyday experiences?

How has a moment of failure ultimately led to personal growth and resilience?
Can you recount a pivotal decision that significantly altered the course of your life?
What lessons have you learned from navigating a crossroads or major life transition?
How has your perspective on success evolved over time?
Can you reflect on a time when you had to confront and overcome a deeply held fear?
What role has gratitude played in shaping your outlook on life?
How have your values and beliefs been influenced by significant life experiences?
Can you describe a moment when you found clarity and purpose amidst chaos or uncertainty?
What impact has traveling to a new place had on your understanding of the world and yourself?
How has adversity strengthened your character and determination?
Can you recall a time when a random act of kindness profoundly impacted your life?
What lessons have you learned from embracing vulnerability and authenticity in relationships?
How has practicing mindfulness or self-reflection enhanced your well-being and happiness?
Can you reflect on a period of personal transformation or self-discovery?
How have you found meaning and fulfillment in pursuing your passions and interests?

Ideas for a Narrative Essay on Culture and Society

Engaging your readers with narrative essays on culture and society is a great way to spark interest, offering captivating ideas for exploration.

How has your family's unique culinary heritage influenced your cultural identity?
Can you reflect on a specific cultural artifact or heirloom that holds deep significance for your family?
What challenges have you faced in preserving traditional customs while adapting to modern societal expectations?
How has a local festival or celebration revealed the intricacies of your community's cultural tapestry?
Can you recount a moment when you navigated a cultural clash between your upbringing and the dominant culture?
How has your experience as a first-generation immigrant shaped your understanding of cultural assimilation?
What lessons have you learned from participating in intercultural exchange programs or initiatives?
Can you describe a unique cultural practice or tradition within your community that outsiders might find intriguing or misunderstood?
How has the revitalization of indigenous languages contributed to the preservation of cultural heritage in your region?
Can you reflect on a personal journey of reconnecting with your cultural roots after a period of assimilation or disconnection?
What role does storytelling play in passing down cultural wisdom and values within your family or community?
How has the portrayal of your culture in mainstream media affected your sense of belonging and self-perception?
Can you recount a moment when you challenged cultural stereotypes through creative expression or advocacy?
How has the migration of a specific cultural group enriched the social fabric and economic landscape of your community?
What initiatives or grassroots movements are currently underway to promote cross-cultural understanding and cooperation in your society?

Since you're working on essays, we think it's suitable to suggest you learn more about the case study format , which is another common college assignment.

Narrative Writing Topics on Hobbies and Interests

Wow your readers by turning your passions and hobbies into compelling narrative essay topics that will get them thinking.

How has your passion for urban gardening transformed neglected spaces in your community?
Can you recount a thrilling adventure from your hobby of urban exploration?
What lessons have you learned from restoring vintage motorcycles in your spare time?
How has your fascination with birdwatching deepened your connection to nature and conservation efforts?
Can you describe a memorable moment from your hobby of foraging wild edibles in the wilderness?
What unique skills have you developed through your hobby of beekeeping, and how have they impacted your daily life?
How has your interest in historical reenactment brought the past to life in unexpected ways?
Can you reflect on a transformative experience from your hobby of landscape photography?
What insights have you gained from practicing the art of bonsai cultivation and nurturing miniature ecosystems?
How has your passion for stargazing inspired awe and wonder in the vastness of the universe?
Can you recount a challenging project from your hobby of woodworking and the satisfaction it brought upon completion?
What cultural connections have you discovered through your hobby of traditional folk dancing?
How has your interest in sustainable fashion influenced your consumer habits and environmental awareness?
Can you describe a moment of serenity and mindfulness experienced while practicing the art of tea ceremony?
How has your hobby of letterpress printing preserved the tactile beauty of handmade craftsmanship in a digital age?

Narrative Essay Titles on Life-Changing Moments

Life is full of unexpected twists that can lead to life-changing moments. Take a look at these narrative essay titles for stories that have had a lasting impact on your life.

How did surviving a natural disaster reshape your perspective on life?
Can you recall a single conversation that drastically altered the course of your life?
What was the pivotal moment that inspired you to pursue your dreams against all odds?
How did a chance encounter lead to a life-changing friendship or partnership?
Can you reflect on the decision that transformed your career trajectory?
What profound lesson did you learn from facing a life-threatening illness or injury?
How did traveling to a new country open your eyes to new possibilities and opportunities?
Can you recount the moment when you discovered your true passion or calling in life?
What was the turning point that allowed you to break free from a toxic relationship or environment?
How did experiencing failure or rejection ultimately lead to personal growth and resilience?
Can you describe the moment when you found the strength to overcome a deep-seated fear or insecurity?
What life-changing realization did you have while experiencing a period of solitude or introspection?
How did a profound act of kindness from a stranger restore your faith in humanity?
Can you reflect on the moment when you forgave someone who had deeply hurt you, and how it changed your perspective on forgiveness?
What pivotal decision did you make that allowed you to reclaim control over your own happiness and destiny?

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Good Narrative Topics on Travel and Adventure

Consider creating intriguing titles for your narrative essay ideas by exploring thrilling travel adventures.

Can you recount a memorable encounter with wildlife during your solo hiking adventure?
How did a spontaneous decision to explore an unfamiliar city lead to unexpected discoveries?
What lessons did you learn from navigating a foreign country with only a map and your instincts?
Can you describe the exhilaration of conquering a challenging mountain peak for the first time?
How did immersing yourself in a local culture during your travels broaden your perspective on the world?
What unexpected obstacles did you encounter while embarking on a backpacking journey through rugged terrain?
Can you reflect on the transformative experience of volunteering abroad in a community-driven project?
How did getting lost in a labyrinthine city alleyway lead to serendipitous encounters and newfound friendships?
What was the most memorable meal you had while sampling street food in a bustling market abroad?
Can you recount the adrenaline rush of participating in an extreme sports activity in a foreign land?
How did witnessing a breathtaking natural phenomenon during your travels leave a lasting impression on you?
What cultural traditions or rituals did you participate in during a homestay experience with a local family?
Can you describe the sense of wonder and awe you felt while exploring ancient ruins or historical sites?
How did navigating a language barrier challenge and ultimately enrich your travel experience?
What valuable life lessons did you learn from the mishaps and misadventures encountered during your journey off the beaten path?

Narrative Essay Topic Ideas on Career and Work Experience

College students can uncover captivating narrative essay ideas by exploring potential career paths or reminiscing about past job experiences.

How did a challenging project at work showcase your problem-solving skills and resilience?
Can you reflect on a pivotal mentorship experience that guided your career trajectory?
What valuable lessons did you learn from a career setback or failure, and how did it shape your future success?
How did a workplace conflict lead to personal growth and improved communication skills?
Can you recount a moment when taking a professional risk paid off in unexpected ways?
What insights did you gain from transitioning to a new industry or career path?
How did participating in a cross-functional team project enhance your collaboration and leadership abilities?
Can you describe the satisfaction of achieving a long-term career goal after years of hard work and perseverance?
What impact did a meaningful recognition or award have on your motivation and sense of accomplishment?
How did volunteering or pro bono work contribute to your professional development and sense of purpose?
Can you reflect on the decision to leave a stable job in pursuit of passion or fulfillment?
What strategies did you employ to navigate a toxic work environment and maintain your well-being?
How did a career setback lead to unexpected opportunities for personal and professional growth?
Can you describe a moment when mentorship or sponsorship played a crucial role in advancing your career?
What lessons did you learn from a challenging client or customer interaction, and how did it shape your approach to customer service and relationship-building?

Interesting Narrative Essay Topics about Challenges and Obstacles

If you're not sure what to write about for your narrative essay, think back to the tough times you've had and how you managed to get through them.

How did you conquer a once-paralyzing fear to chase your dreams?
What new strengths did you discover while adapting to a physical challenge?
Can you recall a creative solution you used during a tough financial period?
When did you bravely stand against injustice, despite opposition?
How did overcoming a language barrier broaden your horizons?
What key lessons did you learn from a major setback in your life?
How did you manage overwhelming stress and responsibilities?
What inner reserves of resilience did you draw upon after personal loss?
Describe a time when you defied societal norms to pursue your goals.
Reflect on a moment when failure fueled your determination for success.
When did you find the courage to leave your comfort zone behind?
How did community support bolster you through a challenging time?
Share a time when self-doubt led to newfound confidence.
Can you recount a tragedy that spurred your personal growth?
What insights did overcoming a monumental obstacle reveal about life?

Best Narrative Essay Topics: How to Choose the One That Resonates

A narrative essay is a type of writing that tells a personal story, including characters, plot, setting, and the order of events. Its main goal is to connect with readers emotionally and share a specific message or insight through the retelling of a meaningful experience.

Students write narrative essays as part of their studies for several reasons. Firstly, it allows them to express themselves creatively by sharing their unique experiences, thoughts, and feelings. Secondly, it helps them develop important writing skills like organizing ideas and thoughts effectively.

Choosing good narrative essay ideas involves looking at personal experiences, interests, and the potential for engaging storytelling. Here's a simple guide to help you pick the right topic:

Think about significant moments in your life that had a lasting impact, such as personal growth or overcoming challenges.
Choose topics related to your hobbies, interests, or areas of expertise to make your story more engaging.
Consider what your audience would be interested in and choose topics that resonate with them.
Focus on a specific event or detail to make your narrative more focused and impactful.
Look for universal themes like love or personal transformation that connect with readers on a deeper level.
Brainstorm ideas and write freely to uncover compelling topics.
Decide on storytelling techniques like flashbacks or foreshadowing and choose a topic that fits.
Get feedback from friends, peers, or instructors to see if your topics are interesting and impactful.
Choose topics that evoke strong emotions for a more compelling narrative.
Select a topic that you personally connect with to make your story authentic.

Once you've chosen a topic, brainstorm ideas and create an outline for your essay. Follow your professor's instructions carefully and consider seeking help from our narrative essay writing service if needed.

Bring your stories to life with EssayPro. Select from a vast array of narrative essay topics and let our professionals help you weave your tales into captivating essays. Whether it's adventure, reflection, or imagination, we're here to assist.

Final Remarks

As we wrap up, our list of 200 narrative essay topics is here to fuel your creativity for your next writing project! Whether you're sharing a memorable event, reliving a childhood memory, or expressing a profound insight, crafting a narrative essay can be an uplifting experience that resonates deeply with readers.

And if you're gearing up for college admissions, why not check out our admission essay writing service ? We've already assisted countless students in securing their spots at their dream colleges, and we'd love to help you, too!

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Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

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Best Persuasive Speech Topics: 210 Engaging Ideas

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Methods for Conducting and Publishing Narrative Research With Undergraduates

Azriel grysman.

1 Psychology Department, Hamilton College, Clinton, NY, United States

Jennifer Lodi-Smith

2 Department of Psychological Sciences and Institute for Autism Research, Canisius College, Buffalo, NY, United States

Introduction

Narrative research systematically codes individual differences in the ways in which participants story crucial events in their lives to understand the extent to which they create meaning and purpose (McAdams, 2008 ). These narrative descriptions of life events address a diverse array of topics, such as personality (McAdams and Guo, 2015 ), development (Fivush et al., 2006 ), clinical applications (Banks and Salmon, 2013 ), well-being (Adler et al., 2016 ), gender (Grysman et al., 2016 ), and older adult memory decline (Levine et al., 2002 ).

Narrative research is an ideal way to involve undergraduate students as contributors to broader projects and often as co-authors. In narrative or mixed method research, undergraduates have the opportunity to think critically about methodology during study construction and implementation, and then by engaging with questions of construct validity when exploring how different methods yield complementary data on one topic. In narrative research in psychology, students collect data, as in many traditional psychology laboratories, but they collect either typed or spoken narratives and then extensively code narratives before quantitative data analysis can occur. Narrative research thus provides a unique opportunity to blend the psychological realities captured by qualitative data with the rigors of quantitative methods.

Narrative researchers start by establishing the construct of interest, deciding when coding narratives for this construct is the most effective form of measurement, rather than a questionnaire or some other form of assessment. A coding manual is developed or adopted, and all coders study the manual, practice implementing it, and discuss the process and any disagreements until the team is confident that all coders are implementing the rules in a similar way. A reliability set is then initiated, such that coders assess a group of narratives from the data of interest independently, compare their codes, and conduct reliability statistics (e.g., Intraclass coefficient, Cohen's kappa). When a predetermined threshold of agreement has been reached and a sufficient percentage of the narrative data has been coded, the two raters are deemed sufficiently similar, disagreements are resolved (by conversation or vote), and one coder completes the remainder of the narrative data. Readers are directed to Syed and Nelson ( 2015 ) and to Adler et al. ( 2017 ) for further details regarding this process, as these papers provide greater depth regarding best practices coding.

Narrative Coding in an Undergraduate Laboratory: Common Challenges and Best Practices

When are students co-authors.

Narrative coding requires heavy investment of time and energy from the student, but time and energy are not the only qualities that matter when deciding on authorship. Because students are often shielded from hypotheses for the duration of coding in order to maintain objectivity and to not bias them in their coding decisions, researchers may be in a bind when data finally arrive; they want to move toward writing but students are not yet sufficiently knowledgeable to act as co-authors. Kosslyn ( 2002 ) outlines six criteria for establishing authorship (see also Fine and Kurdek, 1993 ), and includes a scoring system for the idea, design, implementation (i.e., creation of materials), conducting the experiment, data analysis, and writing. A student who puts countless hours into narrative coding has still only contributed to conducting the experiment or data analysis. If the goal is including students as authors, researchers should consider these many stages as entry points into the research process. After coding has completed, students should read background literature while data are analyzed and be included in the writing process, as detailed below (see “the route to publishing”). In addition, explicit conversations with students about their roles and expectations in a project are always advised.

Roadblocks to Student Education

One concern of a researcher managing a narrative lab is communicating the goals and methods of the interrater process to student research assistants, who have likely never encountered a process like this before. Adding to this challenge is the fact that often researchers shield undergraduates from the study's hypotheses to reduce bias and maintain their objectivity, which can serve as a roadblock both for students' education and involvement in the project and for their ability to make decisions in borderline cases. Clearly communicating the goals and methods involved in a coding project are essential, as is planning for the time needed to orient students to the hypotheses after coding if they are to be included in the later steps of data analysis and writing. In the following two sections, we expand on challenges that arise in this vein and how we have addressed them.

Interpersonal Dynamics

A critical challenge in the interrater process addresses students' experience of power relationships, self-esteem, and internalization of the coding process. In the early stages, students often disagree on how to code a given narrative. Especially when the professor mediates these early disagreements, students might feel intimidated by a professor who sides with one student more consistently than another. Furthermore, disagreeing with a fellow student may be perceived as putting them down; students often hedge explanations with statements like “I was on the fence between those two,” and “you're probably right.” These interpersonal concerns must be addressed early in the coding process, with the goal of translating a theoretical construct into guidelines for making difficult decisions with idiosyncratic data. In the course of this process, students make the most progress by explaining their assumptions and decision process, to help identify points of divergence. Rules-of-thumb that are established in this process will be essential for future cases, increasing agreement but also creating a shared sense of coding goals so that it can be implemented consistently in new circumstances. Thus, interpersonal concerns and intimidation undermine the interrater process by introducing motivations for picking a particular code, ultimately creating a bias in the name of saving face and achieving agreement rather than leading toward agreement because of a shared representation of micro-level decisions that support the coding system.

Clearly communicating the goal of the interrater process is key to establishing a productive coding environment, mitigating the pitfalls described above. One of us (AG) begins coding meetings by discussing the goals of the interrater process, emphasizing that disagreeing ultimately helps us clarify assumptions and prevents future disagreements. If the professor agrees with one person more than another, it is not a sign of favoritism or greater intelligence. Given the novelty of the coding task and undergraduate students' developmental stage, students sometimes need reassurance emphasizing that some people are better at some coding systems than others, or even that some are better coders, and that these skills should not be connected to overall worth.

The next set of challenges pertains to students' own life settings. Depending on the structure of research opportunities in a given department, students work limited hours per week on a project, are commonly only available during the academic semester, and are often pulled by competing commitments. Researchers should establish a framework to help students stay focused on the coding project and complete a meaningful unit of coding before various vacations, semesters abroad, or leaving the laboratory to pursue other interests. This paper discusses best practices that help circumvent these pitfalls, but we recommend designing projects with them in mind. Some coding systems are better suited to semester-long commitments of 3 h per week whereas others need larger time commitments, such as from students completing summer research. It is helpful to identify RAs' long-term plans across semesters, knowing who is going abroad, who expects to stay in the lab, and assigning projects accordingly.

Building a robust collaborative environment can shape an invested team who will be engaged in the sustained efforts needed for successful narrative research. In one of our labs (JLS), general lab meetings are conducted to discuss coding protocols and do collaborative practice. Then an experienced coder is paired with a new lab member. The experienced coder codes while walking the new coder through the decision process for a week's worth of assigned coding. The new coder practices on a standard set of practice narratives under the supervision of the experienced coder, discussing the process throughout. The new coder's work is checked for agreement with published codes and years of other practice coders. The new coder then codes new narratives under the supervision of the experienced coder for 2 weeks or until comfortable coding independently. The most experienced and conscientious junior applies for an internal grant each year to be the lab manager during senior year. This lab manager assigns weekly coding and assists with practical concerns. Coding challenges are discussed at weekly lab meetings. More experienced coders also lead weekly “discrepancy meetings” where two or three trained coders review discrepancies in a coded data set and come to a consensus rating. Such meetings give the students further learning and leadership opportunities. These meetings are done in small teams to accommodate the students' differing schedules and help build understanding of the constructs and a good dynamic in the team.

The Route to Publishing With Undergraduates in Narrative Psychology

When coding has successfully been completed, researchers then have the opportunity to publish their work with undergraduates. When talented students are involved on projects, the transition to writing completes their research experience. A timeline should be established and a process clearly identified: who is the lead author? Is that person writing the whole manuscript and the second author editing or are different sections being written? We have considered all these approaches depending on the abilities and circumstances of the undergraduate. In one example Grysman and Denney ( 2017 ), AG sent successive sections to the student for editing throughout the writing process. In another, because of the student's ability in quantitative analysis and figure creation (Grysman and Dimakis, 2018 ), the undergraduate took the lead on results, and edited the researcher's writing for the introduction and discussion. In a third (Meisels and Grysman, submitted), the undergraduate more centrally designed the study as an honors thesis, and is writing up the manuscript while the researcher edits and writes the heavier statistics and methodological pieces. In another example, Lodi-Smith et al. ( 2009 ) archival open-ended responses were available to code for new constructs, allowing for a shorter project time frame than collecting new narrative data. The undergraduate student's three-semester honors thesis provided the time, scope, and opportunity to code and analyze archival narratives of personality change during college. As narrative labs often have a rich pool of archival data from which new studies can emerge, they can be a rich source of novel data for undergraduate projects.

In sum, there isn't one model of how to yield publishable work, but once the core of a narrative lab has been established, the researcher can flexibly include undergraduates in the writing process to differing degrees. As in other programs of research, students have the opportunity to learn best practices in data collection and analysis in projects they are not actively coding. Because of the need to keep coders blind to study hypotheses it is often helpful to maintain multiple projects in different points of development. Students can gain experience across the research process helping collect new data, coding existing narratives, and analyzing and writing up the coding of previous cohorts of students.

Most importantly, narrative research gives students an opportunity to learn about individuals beyond what they learn in the systematic research process and outcomes of their research. The majority of undergraduate research assistants are not going on to careers as psychologists conducting academic research on narrative identity. Many undergraduate psychology students will work in clinical/counseling settings, in social work, or in related mental health fields. The skills learned in a narrative research lab can generalize far beyond the specific goals of the research team. By reading individual narratives, students and faculty have the opportunity to learn about the lived life, hearing the reality in how people story trauma, success, challenges, and change. They can begin to see subtlety and nuance beyond their own experience and come to appreciate the importance of asking questions and learning from the answers.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding. Funding for this article is supported by an internal grant from Hamilton College.

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The Power of a Story Arc in Scholarly Writing

Transforming research into riveting narratives.

By Steven Mintz

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I recently sat outside to watch the Hudson Classical Theater’s production of The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (abridged) —a 90-minute romp through 38 plays and 154 sonnets. Part farce, but mainly playful, the performance combined comedy, spectacle and violence, with more than a few profound insights into Shakespeare’s contemporary relevance.

Sitting on the steps of the Soldiers and Sailors Monument in Manhattan’s Riverside Park, just 10 feet from the actors, you could see why the groundlings and stinkards loved the Bard’s works. How could one not be moved by the bawdy, gender-bending humor, the word play, the poetry, the histrionic overacting, the sword play and, of course, the plots about love, revenge, ambition, betrayal and power?

The crowd, though fewer than a hundred, consisting mainly of seniors and parents and their children, plus a surprising number of college students, roared, laughed and cried out as the instantly recognizable soliloquies passed by in rapid fire succession.

Not a high school English class version of Shakespeare, this was something quite different: a fun-filled frolic that celebrates the poetry of the Bard’s language, the complexities of his plots, and the drama, humor and tragedy that infuse his works.

There’s no doubt in my mind that this highly compressed approach to Shakespeare’s works can be as meaningful, in its own way, as a more traditional academic or theatrical approach.

A lively, abridged performance makes Shakespeare more approachable to a broader audience, including those who might find the original texts intimidating or difficult to understand. Through humor and highly dynamic acting, this approach captures the audience’s attention and makes the material especially engaging. This performance also encourages active audience participation, helping viewers connect emotionally with the characters and stories.

Even in an abbreviated form, the beauty of Shakespeare’s language and the power of his poetry are obvious, allowing audiences to appreciate his linguistic artistry. By succinctly conveying the complexities of Shakespeare’s plots, this mishmash of his works makes it easier for viewers to grasp the intricacies of the Bard’s storytelling. Without a doubt, this approach helps ensure his works remain a vital part of our collective heritage.

In a recent essay entitled "Can You Read a Book in a Quarter of an Hour?”, The New Yorker ’s Anthony Lane reviews a number of phone apps, like Blinkist, that allow users to boil down books into micro-synopses.

Not surprisingly, Lane focuses on what is lost when a work is condensed: The original work’s poetic language, rhythm and stylistic nuances. The author’s distinctive voice and tone. The text’s subtle layers of meaning, complex themes, cultural references and moral ambiguities. The work’s literary devices, including its use of metaphors, symbols, wit, irony and wordplay. The depth of characters, the plot’s intricacies, and the subtle dynamics of relationships. The work’s pacing and build-up of tension or suspense. And, perhaps most important of all, readers’ experience of the text—how readers’ imagination fills in gaps and interprets the work in light of their own emotions, interests and concerns.

Yet, I must confess, that with many works of nonfiction, including many histories, I try to abstract the arguments to a nutshell and extract the themes to their most succinct form. The goal: to construct a mental model, simplified in some respects, but also streamlined and made more straightforward. After all, if we were to try to grasp scholarship in its full complexity, we’d be overwhelmed by detail.

In fact, all too often, I’m afraid, one can summarize a nonfiction book’s claims in a few sentences without losing its essence. Indeed, one of my goals as an instructor is to try to help my student learn how to digest, distill, outline or summarize a book or essay’s thesis. The rest, to misquote Shakespeare, is evidence.

Let me be clear: The greatest works of nonfiction, like Plato’s Republic or Darwin’s On the Origin of Species , are as much works of literary craftsmanship as they are of philosophic or scientific argument, and need to be read with the same critical sensitivities as a novel. They demonstrate that rigorous works of humanistic or scientific inquiry and beautiful prose can coexist and complement one another.

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Thus, in The Republic , Plato uses dialogue, dialectics, storytelling, rich imagery and rhetoric, symbolic language, and allegories and myths, such as the Allegory of the Cave, the Myth of Er, and the story of the Ring of Gyges, to illustrate his philosophical points about justice, the ideal state, the nature of the soul and the theory of forms.

Somewhat similarly, Darwin’s classic is both a scientific argument and a work of literature thanks to its eloquent, even poetic, prose, use of metaphor, vivid descriptions and analogies, and engaging narrative with a clear beginning, middle and end. He not only supports his arguments with extensive empirical evidence drawn from his observations and research, he employs literary techniques to make his arguments more accessible to nonspecialists. His richly depicted observations of the natural world and his inclusion of sensory details, such as colors, shapes, and movements of animals and plants add a literary quality to his scientific narrative.

When I was at Columbia, my dean expressed deep concerns about the quality of doctoral students’ writing. Not that the grad students didn’t write clearly—of course, they did. But most didn’t write stylishly and elegantly. To address that challenge, I offered an intensive summer seminar on nonfiction writing and brought in editors from major academic presses to evaluate and comment on the students’ essays and dissertation chapters.

That seminar underscored the vital importance of narrative and synthesis in scholarly writing.

Works like Plato’s or Darwin’s craft arguments into narratives—transforming evidence and arguments into a coherent, engaging and meaningful stories. By weaving evidence into a compelling narrative, writers make complex ideas accessible, create coherence and continuity, provide context and meaning, and make arguments more persuasive.

In nonfiction, as in fiction, narratives need not be linear or chronological. Nonlinear narratives, using flashbacks and flash-forwards, can provide context and highlight connections between past and present. Starting in the middle of a narrative— In Media Res —and then filling in background and contextual information, can work as well in nonfiction as in fiction by hooking readers’ attention, prompting questions, creating mystery and suspense, encapsulating an argument’s essence, and developing themes and arguments in a dynamic and compelling way.

While I certainly wouldn’t recommend stream of consciousness or epistolary approaches, scholarly authors might consider other narrative strategies used by writers of fiction, like the “framed” narrative that includes multiple case studies within a broader narrative; the “quest” narrative, that begins with an objective and a progressive journey; and “parallel” narratives, where two or more narratives are told simultaneously, often intersecting or converging at key points, exposing contrasts or similarities between different storylines.

Reflective narratives, where the author reflects on the research process, providing insights and commentary, offer yet another strategy for creating a deeper understanding of one’s themes and conclusions.

A big challenge, especially for novice humanities scholars, is to transform one’s research into a compelling story with a narrative arc that takes into account alternative stories and interpretations.

A second lesson that I took away from the seminar was that serious scholarship, certainly in the humanities, is as much a matter of synthesis as of original research. It takes disparate pieces of evidence and existing arguments and theories, and constructs something new from them. Synthesis involves constructing coherent arguments that draw on a wide range of evidence and perspectives. It builds on previous scholarship by integrating past research with new findings.

Synthesis, in other words, connects the dots of knowledge. By erecting bridges between ideas and interlacing threads of thought, works of synthesis bring coherence to complexity and create clearer, more intelligible narratives. That’s the power of scholarly synthesis.

And yet, often, works of synthesis are dismissed as “textbookish”—as lacking in depth, richness and originality.

At its best, synthesis is essential to the practice of scholarship. By drawing on previous work, combining different pieces of evidence, theories and perspectives from multiple disciplines, and engaging with big questions, synthesis is what contributes to the construction of new understandings of a particular topic or field. It’s no accident that Bloom’s Taxonomy of levels of cognition places synthesis at the top of his hierarchy.

Synthesis is as important in humanities and social science classrooms as in scholarship. It encourages students to construct their own frameworks of analysis and understanding, and to see connections between different pieces of information and disparate theories and approaches.

Effective syntheses also connect academic research to real-world issues, making scholarship more relevant and applicable to everyday problems and societal challenges.

For most scholars, certainly for me, the most profound and shattering moment in writing comes when you suddenly happen upon the story line that gives an article or book coherence and conceptual unity—a narrative that one can latch on to and develop.

I first felt the pang of revelation when I unexpectedly realized that the history of the American family was not a linear story of “progress” or “adaptation” but instead a story of radically shifting paradigms, structures and power dynamics—a series of “domestic revolutions” when a patriarchal yet permeable conception of family gradually gave way to the emotionally intense, bounded, inward-turning nuclear family, and then to the extremely fragile units that dominate today, with their unachievably high expectations about affective and sexual fulfillment.

I felt this same spasm of surprise again when I abruptly understood that the history of American childhood involved two very different stories. There was the history of children—peer relations, kid cultures, play activities and their everyday experiences, which are shaped by highly specific chronological, class, ethnic, familial, gender, racial, religious and school contexts, and the history of childhood, an imaginary world constructed, in part, by adults, who want to protect, insulate, shelter or prepare children, and by kids themselves, who, as they age, seek more and more autonomy and who regard their own childhood as an odyssey of self-discovery and self-formation.

I underwent such an eye-opening experience yet again when I recognized that the history of modern adulthood might be understood in terms of the gradual construction, beginning in the late 19th century, of a conception of this life stage defined in opposition to childhood and youth—as mature and well-adjusted as opposed to youthful dependence and impulsiveness—into a postmodern conception of adulthood that lacks clear rules or markers.

If we want to raise students’ writing to the next level, we must show them how to transform their research into analytical narratives that combine storytelling techniques with thoughtful analysis. That requires instructors to teach the importance of a synthetic narrative structured around a story arc. Here’s how.

Begin with a hook—a striking anecdote or anniversary or statistic that grabs the readers’ attention.
Craft an overarching argument that speaks to a larger debate or controversy.
Explain how this piece of writing will fill a gap in our understanding or refute, revise, modify, refine, test or confirm a widely shared opinion, myth, perspective or assumption.
Interweave evidence, argument and theory as seamlessly as possible.
Confront potential objections to the interpretation; assess counterarguments; and describe the evidences’ limitations.
Reflect on the research findings’ implications.
End with a kicker—a powerful concluding remark to leave a lasting impression.

Effective scholarly writing requires a narrative arc. This is what elevates academic research into a work that is coherent, compelling and engaging. So, help your students understand the power in storytelling, in crafting narratives that transform data to drama, that turn research into a compelling tale.

Steven Mintz is professor of history at the University of Texas at Austin and the author, most recently, of The Learning-Centered University: Making College a More Developmental, Transformational, and Equitable Experience.

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Examples of Clinical Narrative in Nursing

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The Ultimate Guide To Structuring Your Creative Nonfiction Essay

14 Jun 2024
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What is "creative nonfiction essay structure"?

Creative nonfiction essay structure is a framework for organizing and presenting true stories in a compelling and engaging way. Unlike traditional academic essays, creative nonfiction essays employ literary techniques and storytelling elements to captivate readers and convey insights into real-life experiences.

The structure of a creative nonfiction essay often follows a narrative arc, with an introduction that hooks the reader, a body that develops the story chronologically or thematically, and a conclusion that provides closure and reflection. The essayist's personal voice and perspective are central to the narrative, allowing readers to connect with the story on an emotional and intellectual level.

Understanding creative nonfiction essay structure empowers writers to craft powerful narratives that resonate with audiences. By embracing this structure, writers can effectively convey their messages, explore complex themes, and create a lasting impact through the art of storytelling.

In this article, we will delve deeper into the elements of creative nonfiction essay structure, exploring its importance, benefits, and historical context. We will also provide guidance on how to write a creative nonfiction essay, offering tips and techniques to help writers craft compelling and impactful stories.

Creative Nonfiction Essay Structure

The structure of a creative nonfiction essay is crucial for effectively conveying a true story in a compelling and engaging way. Here are five key aspects of creative nonfiction essay structure:

Narrative Arc: Presents the story chronologically or thematically, with a clear beginning, middle, and end.
Personal Voice: The essayist's unique perspective and experiences drive the narrative, allowing for emotional connection.
Literary Techniques: Employs literary devices like vivid imagery, sensory details, and figurative language to enhance storytelling.
Research and Accuracy: While the story is based on real events, thorough research ensures factual accuracy and credibility.
Reflection and Insight: Offers a deeper exploration of the story's themes and the author's personal growth or understanding.

These aspects work together to create a powerful and impactful creative nonfiction essay. The narrative arc draws readers into the story, while the personal voice and literary techniques make it relatable and engaging. Research and accuracy lend credibility to the narrative, and reflection and insight provide a deeper understanding of the story's significance. By mastering these aspects, writers can craft compelling and memorable creative nonfiction essays that resonate with audiences.

Narrative Arc

In creative nonfiction essay structure, the narrative arc is the backbone that holds the story together and guides the reader through a logical progression of events. A well-crafted narrative arc creates a sense of unity and coherence, ensuring that the essay flows smoothly and leaves a lasting impression.

The chronological or thematic arrangement of events in the narrative arc allows the writer to control the pace and rhythm of the story. By carefully selecting which events to include and in what order, the writer can build tension, create suspense, and reveal information gradually, keeping the reader engaged throughout the essay.

Furthermore, a clear beginning, middle, and end provide structure and shape to the essay. The beginning introduces the main characters, setting, and conflict, drawing the reader into the story. The middle develops the conflict, explores the characters' motivations and actions, and raises the stakes. The end provides a resolution to the conflict, offering closure and a sense of completion.

Understanding the importance of narrative arc in creative nonfiction essay structure empowers writers to craft compelling and cohesive stories. By carefully structuring the sequence of events and employing techniques such as foreshadowing and pacing, writers can captivate readers, convey their messages effectively, and leave a lasting impact.

Personal Voice

In creative nonfiction essay structure, personal voice is a powerful tool that allows the writer to connect with readers on an emotional level. The essayist's unique perspective and experiences shape the narrative, infusing it with authenticity and depth. This personal touch creates a sense of intimacy between the writer and the reader, drawing them into the story and making them invested in its outcome.

The personal voice in a creative nonfiction essay manifests in various ways. The writer may share their own thoughts and feelings about the events being described, or they may use anecdotes and personal experiences to illustrate a point. By doing so, the writer establishes a connection with the reader that goes beyond the mere recounting of facts. The reader gains insight into the writer's inner world, fostering a sense of empathy and understanding.

The importance of personal voice in creative nonfiction essay structure cannot be overstated. It allows the writer to convey complex emotions, explore nuanced themes, and provide a unique perspective on the subject matter. By embracing their own voice and experiences, writers can create essays that are not only informative but also deeply moving and impactful.

Understanding the significance of personal voice in creative nonfiction essay structure empowers writers to craft essays that resonate with readers. By incorporating their own perspectives and experiences, writers can create authentic and emotionally engaging narratives that leave a lasting impression on their audience.

Literary Techniques

In creative nonfiction essay structure, literary techniques play a crucial role in enhancing the storytelling and creating a compelling narrative. These techniques allow writers to transcend the mere recounting of facts and delve into the realm of vivid imagery, sensory experiences, and figurative language, drawing readers into the heart of the story and evoking powerful emotions.

Vivid imagery, for instance, transports readers directly into the scene, allowing them to visualize the events and characters as if they were present. Sensory details engage multiple senses, creating a multi-dimensional experience that immerses the reader in the narrative. Figurative language, such as metaphors and similes, adds depth and nuance to the storytelling, allowing writers to convey complex emotions and ideas in a concise and impactful manner.

The significance of literary techniques in creative nonfiction essay structure cannot be overstated. These techniques elevate the narrative beyond a mere report of events, transforming it into a literary work that resonates with readers on a profound level. By employing literary devices, writers can bring their stories to life, create lasting impressions, and convey their messages with greater impact.

Understanding the connection between literary techniques and creative nonfiction essay structure empowers writers to craft essays that are not only informative but also emotionally engaging and artistically rich. By incorporating these techniques into their storytelling, writers can transcend the boundaries of traditional narrative and create essays that leave a lasting mark on their readers.

Research and Accuracy

In creative nonfiction essay structure, research and accuracy are indispensable qualities that lend credibility and authenticity to the narrative. Unlike fictional stories, creative nonfiction essays are grounded in real-life events and experiences, demanding rigorous research to ensure factual accuracy.

Thorough research involves consulting a wide range of sources, including books, articles, interviews, and archival documents. The writer must meticulously verify facts, dates, and names to maintain the integrity of the narrative. Accuracy is not only about avoiding factual errors but also about presenting a balanced and unbiased account of events.

The significance of research and accuracy in creative nonfiction essay structure cannot be overstated. Factual accuracy establishes trust between the writer and the reader, allowing the reader to immerse themselves in the story without questioning its authenticity. It also lends weight to the writer's arguments and insights, ensuring that the essay is taken seriously as a work of nonfiction.

Understanding the connection between research and accuracy and creative nonfiction essay structure empowers writers to craft essays that are both compelling and credible. By conducting thorough research and maintaining factual accuracy, writers can produce essays that inform, educate, and resonate with readers on a deeper level.

Reflection and Insight

In creative nonfiction essay structure, reflection and insight elevate the narrative beyond a mere recounting of events. Through introspection and analysis, the writer delves into the deeper meanings and significance of the story, offering readers a nuanced understanding of the themes and the author's personal growth or transformation.

Exploration of Themes: Reflection allows the writer to uncover and explore the underlying themes of the story, providing a deeper understanding of the human condition, societal issues, or universal truths.
Personal Growth and Transformation: Creative nonfiction essays often serve as a vehicle for the author's personal growth and transformation. Through reflection, the writer shares their journey of self-discovery, vulnerability, and lessons learned.
Connection with Readers: Reflection and insight create a bridge between the writer and the reader, allowing readers to connect with the story on a deeper emotional and intellectual level.
Enhanced Credibility and Authority: By sharing their personal insights and experiences, the writer establishes themselves as a credible and authoritative voice, enhancing the essay's impact and resonance.

In conclusion, reflection and insight are essential elements of creative nonfiction essay structure, enabling writers to transcend the surface level of storytelling and deliver essays that are both thought-provoking and emotionally resonant. Through introspection, analysis, and the exploration of deeper meanings, writers craft essays that not only inform but also inspire, challenge, and connect with readers on a profound level.

FAQs on Creative Nonfiction Essay Structure

Creative nonfiction essay structure is a crucial aspect of crafting compelling and impactful essays based on true events. Here are some frequently asked questions to clarify common concerns and misconceptions:

Question 1: What are the key elements of creative nonfiction essay structure?

Answer: Creative nonfiction essay structure typically includes a narrative arc, personal voice, literary techniques, research and accuracy, and reflection and insight.

Question 2: How does personal voice contribute to creative nonfiction essays?

Answer: Personal voice allows writers to share their unique perspectives and experiences, creating emotional connections with readers and enhancing the authenticity and depth of the narrative.

Question 3: Why is research and accuracy important in creative nonfiction essays?

Answer: Research and accuracy ensure the credibility and integrity of creative nonfiction essays, as they are based on real-life events and experiences. Factual accuracy strengthens the writer's arguments and insights.

Question 4: How does reflection enhance creative nonfiction essays?

Answer: Reflection allows writers to explore deeper meanings, themes, and personal growth connected to the events described in the essay, providing readers with a nuanced understanding and emotional connection.

Question 5: What is the purpose of literary techniques in creative nonfiction essays?

Answer: Literary techniques such as vivid imagery, sensory details, and figurative language enhance the storytelling, engage multiple senses, and convey complex emotions and ideas in a concise and impactful manner.

Question 6: How can writers effectively structure their essays?

Answer: Effective essay structure involves organizing events chronologically or thematically, employing literary techniques to enhance the narrative, and incorporating reflection and insight to explore deeper meanings and personal growth.

Understanding these key elements and their significance empowers writers to craft compelling creative nonfiction essays that resonate with readers, convey important messages, and contribute to meaningful discussions.

Creative nonfiction essay structure provides a framework for crafting compelling narratives that effectively convey true stories. This structure encompasses elements such as narrative arc, personal voice, literary techniques, research and accuracy, and reflection and insight. By skillfully combining these elements, writers can engage readers, explore complex themes, and deliver impactful messages.

Understanding and applying creative nonfiction essay structure empowers writers to transcend the boundaries of traditional storytelling. It enables them to craft essays that are not only informative but also emotionally resonant, thought-provoking, and transformative. As the landscape of nonfiction writing continues to evolve, creative nonfiction essay structure remains a cornerstone technique for writers seeking to captivate, inform, and inspire their readers.

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US Surgeon General calls for warning labels on social media amid mental health 'emergency'

The U.S. Surgeon General called for social media companies to be required to use safety warning labels in a New York Times opinion essay published Monday.

Citing research that shows social media could be negatively impacting youth mental health , Dr. Vivek H. Murthy said a surgeon general's warning on social media platforms, similar to those on tobacco and alcohol products, could raise awareness for parents about the potential harm of the platforms.

"One of the worst things for a parent is to know your children are in danger yet be unable to do anything about it," Murthy wrote. "That is how parents tell me they feel when it comes to social media — helpless and alone in the face of toxic content and hidden harms."

NetChoice , a trade organization representing some social media companies, said in a statement shared with USA TODAY that the responsibility should be on the parents to protect their children's mental health, not the government or tech companies.

Research shows social media could come with benefit and harm

Murthy said social media is a major factor in the mental health crisis among young people, which he called "an emergency."

Social media has become nearly ubiquitous among youth. The 2023 U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory on Social Media and Youth Mental Health found that nearly 95% of youth aged 13 to 17 use a social media platform , with more than a third saying they use it "almost constantly."

The advisory concluded that more research is needed to fully understand the impacts of social media. But it showed there are some benefits and "ample indicators that social media can also have a profound risk of harm to the mental health and well-being of children and adolescents."

Potential benefits identified in the advisory were community, connection and self expression. It also stated that social media can support mental health of LGBTQ youth to help develop their identities. Additionally, seven out of 10 girls of color reported encountering identity-affirming content related to race on social media, the advisory stated.

Potential harms of using social media included greater risk of suffering from depression and anxiety. Some studies also showed greater risk of negative health outcomes for adolescents girls including disordered eating and poor sleep.

Murthy praises dairy recall, Boeing response as examples of swift action

In the NYT letter, Murthy pointed to the F.A.A.'s swift grounding of Boeing 737 MAX 9 planes after a door plug came off mid-flight earlier this year and widespread recalls of cheese products due to risk of listeria contamination .

"Why is it that we have failed to respond to the harms of social media when they are no less urgent or widespread than those posed by unsafe cars, planes or food?," Murthy wrote. "These harms are not a failure of willpower and parenting; they are the consequence of unleashing powerful technology without adequate safety measures, transparency or accountability."

Several state bills seeking to limit youth access to social media have been passed by legislatures but blocked in court. Those lawsuits were often brought by NetChoice.

NetChoice vice president and general counsel Carl Szabo said in a statement that the onus is on parents to protect their children from harm online.

"A warning label oversimplifies this issue, and it is a simplistic way to approach this that assumes that every child is the exact same. In reality, every child is different and struggles with their own challenges," Szabo said. "Parents and guardians are the most appropriately situated to handle these unique needs of their children—not the government or tech companies."

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 18.6.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Identification of Ethical Issues and Practice Recommendations Regarding the Use of Robotic Coaching Solutions for Older Adults: Narrative Review

Authors of this article:

Cécilia Palmier 1, 2 * , MSc ;
Anne-Sophie Rigaud 1, 2 * , Prof Dr Med ;
Toshimi Ogawa 3 , PhD ;
Rainer Wieching 4 , Prof Dr ;
Sébastien Dacunha 1, 2 * , MSc ;
Federico Barbarossa 5 , MEng ;
Vera Stara 5 , PhD ;
Roberta Bevilacqua 5 , MSc ;
Maribel Pino 1, 2 * , PhD

1 Maladie d’Alzheimer, Université de Paris, Paris, France

2 Service de Gériatrie 1 & 2, Hôpital Broca, Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France

3 Smart-Aging Research Center, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

4 Institute for New Media & Information Systems, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany

5 Scientific Direction, Istituto Nazionale di Ricovero e Cura per Anziani, Ancona, Italy

*these authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Anne-Sophie Rigaud, Prof Dr Med

Service de Gériatrie 1 & 2

Hôpital Broca

Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris

54 rue Pascal

Paris, 75013

Phone: 33 144083503

Fax:33 144083510

Email: [email protected]

Background: Technological advances in robotics, artificial intelligence, cognitive algorithms, and internet-based coaches have contributed to the development of devices capable of responding to some of the challenges resulting from demographic aging. Numerous studies have explored the use of robotic coaching solutions (RCSs) for supporting healthy behaviors in older adults and have shown their benefits regarding the quality of life and functional independence of older adults at home. However, the use of RCSs by individuals who are potentially vulnerable raises many ethical questions. Establishing an ethical framework to guide the development, use, and evaluation practices regarding RCSs for older adults seems highly pertinent.

Objective: The objective of this paper was to highlight the ethical issues related to the use of RCSs for health care purposes among older adults and draft recommendations for researchers and health care professionals interested in using RCSs for older adults.

Methods: We conducted a narrative review of the literature to identify publications including an analysis of the ethical dimension and recommendations regarding the use of RCSs for older adults. We used a qualitative analysis methodology inspired by a Health Technology Assessment model. We included all article types such as theoretical papers, research studies, and reviews dealing with ethical issues or recommendations for the implementation of these RCSs in a general population, particularly among older adults, in the health care sector and published after 2011 in either English or French. The review was performed between August and December 2021 using the PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Explore, SpringerLink, and PsycINFO databases. Selected publications were analyzed using the European Network of Health Technology Assessment Core Model (version 3.0) around 5 ethical topics: benefit-harm balance, autonomy, privacy, justice and equity, and legislation.

Results: In the 25 publications analyzed, the most cited ethical concerns were the risk of accidents, lack of reliability, loss of control, risk of deception, risk of social isolation, data confidentiality, and liability in case of safety problems. Recommendations included collecting the opinion of target users, collecting their consent, and training professionals in the use of RCSs. Proper data management, anonymization, and encryption appeared to be essential to protect RCS users’ personal data.

Conclusions: Our analysis supports the interest in using RCSs for older adults because of their potential contribution to individuals’ quality of life and well-being. This analysis highlights many ethical issues linked to the use of RCSs for health-related goals. Future studies should consider the organizational consequences of the implementation of RCSs and the influence of cultural and socioeconomic specificities of the context of experimentation. We suggest implementing a scalable ethical and regulatory framework to accompany the development and implementation of RCSs for various aspects related to the technology, individual, or legal aspects.

Introduction

Challenges associated to population aging.

Technological and medical advances have led to a demographic shift in the population, with the number of older adults constantly increasing. According to the United Nations [ 1 ], older adults (aged 60-65 years) will represent 16% of the world’s population in 2050. In addition, life expectancy is increasing, from 64.2 years in 1990 to 72.6 years in 2019, and is expected to reach 77.1 years in 2050 [ 1 ]. However, there is a wide diversity of health conditions among older adults. The health status of older adults is dependent on multiple factors, including nonmodifiable genetic factors and environmental factors, such as lifestyle [ 2 ]. Thus, older adults represent a very heterogeneous population with multiple and diverse needs and desires. With advancing age, the loss of functional independence; frailty; and other health diseases such as cardiovascular problems, cancers, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, or major neurocognitive disorders may appear [ 3 - 5 ]. Among age-related conditions, major neurocognitive disorders (eg, Alzheimer disease) receive particular attention due to the increasing prevalence of these diseases [ 6 ].

The aging population is not only a public health issue but also a socioeconomic one. To face this challenge, it is important to develop preventive measures to support active and healthy aging and to preserve the independent functioning and quality of life of older adults. The adoption of healthy behaviors can help prevent or delay the onset of pathologies or treat them if detected early [ 7 ].

The Use of Technologies for Older Adults

Preventive health measures can be supported through new technologies, such as robotic coaching solutions (RCSs) that promote healthy aging among older adults [ 8 , 9 ]. RCSs have been defined as personalized systems that continuously monitor the activities and environment of the user and provide them with timely health-related advice and interventions [ 10 - 12 ]. These systems can help users define and achieve different health-oriented goals [ 12 ].

RCSs may encompass artificial intelligence (AI) technologies that can analyze user data, personalize coaching programs, and adapt recommendations based on each individual’s needs [ 1 , 13 - 19 ]. RCSs can involve robots equipped with sensors such as cameras, microphones, or motion sensors to collect real-time data about the user, AI, and programming that enables their interaction with users [ 20 , 21 ]. These technologies are often equipped with voice and visual recognition and learning capabilities [ 20 , 21 ]. They can benefit from advanced natural language processing techniques, which allow for understanding of the user’s input, facilitating natural and effective communication [ 22 ]. RCSs can offer guidance, support, and feedback based on preprogrammed information or real-time data analysis. These data can inform coaching strategies and allow RCSs to provide users with relevant feedback [ 8 ].

RCSs can also encompass a virtual agent, which refers to a computer program or an AI system that interacts with users in a manner that simulates human conversation [ 14 , 18 , 23 ]. A virtual agent is an animated character capable of adopting a social behavior mimicking that of humans to encourage the users to make changes in their habits [ 14 ]. Virtual agents might take the form of a chatbot, voice assistant, or other AI-driven communication system [ 14 ]. Biometric monitoring devices to track physiological data such as heart rate, sleep patterns, or stress levels can also be included in RCSs [ 8 , 20 , 21 ]. These data can contribute to the configuration of personalized coaching plans. RCSs can also encompass advanced data analytics that can process large data sets generated by users’ interactions and behaviors. This functionality helps in identifying patterns, trends, and areas for improvement in coaching strategies [ 24 ]. Integrating Internet-of-Things devices in RCSs can provide additional data points about a user’s environment, lifestyle, or habits, thus contributing to a personalized coaching approach [ 25 ].

Health-oriented RCSs could enable users to lead a healthy lifestyle, by identifying needs and goals and providing appropriate risk predictions and individualized recommendations [ 12 , 26 - 28 ]. There are RCSs dedicated to a particular domain, such as physical activity or motor rehabilitation [ 9 , 16 ]. Others may have the objective of promoting independent and healthy aging [ 29 ].

Promoting active and healthy aging can allow older adults to maintain their independence and continue to live at home [ 4 , 30 ], which is a wish of many [ 3 ]. This intervention could also help to reduce the need for assistance, usually provided by informal caregivers and health professionals [ 4 , 19 , 30 - 33 ]. Furthermore, RCSs could lead to a reduction in individual and collective health care expenses [ 4 , 32 , 34 ] by easing access to health and social care interventions to a wide population, including hard-to-reach (eg, geographically isolated) individuals. However, although the use of health-related RCSs could have many benefits, several ethical issues arise with their development and implementation in human environments [ 3 , 35 - 38 ].

An Ethical Framework for the Use of Technologies for Older Adults

For RCSs to contribute to active and healthy aging, it is important that all the stakeholders (engineers, geriatricians, psychologists, etc) involved in their design and implementation refer to an ethical framework [ 3 , 38 ]. It is also important to inform society (politicians and legal experts) about such an extension of technology in people’s lives (private, professional, medicosocial, and commercial context), so that we can create a legal framework for the use of these technologies. An analysis of the way in which ethical and legal dimensions have been addressed by studies, in the field of RCSs for health care, seems useful to support the key actors in their development and implementation. The growing interest in the ethical questions associated with the use of social and assistive robots is evidenced by the volume of literature reviews [ 3 , 12 , 18 , 31 , 32 , 37 , 39 - 51 ] on the topic.

Now, it appears appropriate to systematically examine this body of work, focusing on the ethical analysis, and provide an overview of the literature. Therefore, we performed a review of the literature on RCSs for older adults using the European Network of Health Technology Assessment (EUnetHTA Core Model; version 3.0) model [ 52 ] for analysis. This Health Technology Assessment (HTA) model makes it possible to assess the intended and unintended consequences of the use of a specific technology regarding multiple domains (eg, technological, ethical, clinical, and organizational), providing methods and concepts for this analysis [ 53 ]. Therefore, HTA is a process that informs decision-making about the introduction of new technologies such as RCSs in health care. It also seems necessary to issue guidelines for the development and implementation of health-oriented RCSs [ 54 ].

The objective of this study was to highlight the main ethical questions and corresponding recommendations linked to the use of RCSs for older adults for engineers, researchers, and health professionals in this field. For this purpose, we conducted a narrative literature review using the ethical dimension of the EUnetHTA Core Model to guide the analysis. To the best of our knowledge, such a study has not been conducted so far.

A thematic analysis of the literature was performed to identify publications that describe RCSs for supporting older adults in health care and prevention and those that address ethical issues and recommendations regarding their development and implementation. The methodology used for the narrative review was inspired by the study by Green et al [ 55 ].

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The review encompassed papers focusing on all populations, with particular attention to older adults. It focused on the concept of RCSs for health, while also incorporating publications discussing other health technologies for older adults if the authors have delved into relevant ethical considerations for their development or implementation.

The context of the review revolved around the use of RCSs (or related technologies), especially for older adults, across diverse living environments such as homes, hospitals, and nursing homes. Publications addressing RCSs and related ethical issues within the health care domain were considered, whereas those focusing solely on technical aspects (eg, AI and deep learning) or those outside the health care domain were excluded.

Various types of publications, including theoretical papers, research studies, and reviews, were included if they offered ethical reflections or recommendations for RCS use in health care. These reflections and recommendations were expected to align with the topics and issues of the ethical dimension of the EUnetHTA Core Model.

All publications, regardless of language (English or French), were eligible if published after 2011. This time frame was chosen considering the technological advancements over the past decade, which may have influenced the evolution of ethical issues and recommendations in the field of remote care systems and related technologies. Textbox 1 summarizes the inclusion and exclusion criteria adopted for the selection of papers in this review.

Inclusion criteria

Types of participants: all populations
Interventions or phenomena of interest: RCSs or other technologies used in health care, if ethical issues are discussed
Context: the use of RCSs in the health care sector
Paper type: all paper types (theoretical papers, research studies, and reviews) that discuss ethical issues
Language: English or French
Date of publication: after 2011

Exclusion criteria

Types of participants: not applicable
Interventions or phenomena of interest: RCSs or all other types of technology outside the health care sector
Context: the use of RCSs in non–health care sectors
Paper type: papers about RCSs and other technologies that are not dealing with ethical issues
Language: all other languages
Date of publication: before 2011

Search Strategy and Study Selection

The review was conducted using the following keywords: “seniors,” “older adults,” “social robots,” “assistive robots,” “assistive technology,” “robots,” “virtual coach,” “e-coaching,” “coaching system,” “coaching device,” “ethics,” and “recommendations.”

The review was performed between August 2021 and December 2021 using the PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Explore, SpringerLink, and PsycINFO databases.

This search allowed us to find 4928 initial publications. Then, secondary research using references from other articles and the same inclusion criteria was conducted. This search allowed us to find 13 additional papers.

In total, 4943 papers were analyzed. The selection of the final publications was performed after reading the title and abstract first and, then, the full article. This selection process helped us to exclude irrelevant papers and duplicates ( Figure 1 ). In total, 0.51% (25/4943) of the papers were included in our review.

Data Analysis Criteria

The selected papers were analyzed using the ethical domain of the EUnetHTA Core Model [ 52 ]. Proper registration of the use of EUnetHTA Core Model for the purpose of this review was made on the HTA Core Model website [ 52 ].

The model was developed for the production and sharing of HTA information, allowing for the support of evidence-based decision-making in health care, but it can also be customized to other research needs. The EUnetHTA Core Model is composed of 9 domains, each including several topics. Each topic also includes different issues (ie, questions that should be considered for the evaluation of health technologies). Thus, the model is structured into 3 levels: domain (level 1), topic (level 2), and issue (level 3). The combination of a domain, topic, and issue is linked to an assessment element ID, which can be identiﬁed using a speciﬁc code for standardization purposes (B0001, B0002, etc).

The main EUnetHTA model domains include the following: (1) health and current use of the technology, (2) description and technical characteristics of the technology, (3) safety, (4) clinical effectiveness, (5) costs and economic evaluation, (6) ethical aspects, (7) organizational aspects, (8) patient and social aspects, and (9) legal aspects.

The ethical domain (level 1) in the EUnetHTA Core Model [ 52 ] includes 5 topics (level 2): “benefit-harm balance,” “autonomy,” “respect for people,” “justice and equity,” and “legislation.” Each of these topics includes several issues (level 3) [ 52 ].

In this study, 2 authors (CP and ASR) independently analyzed the 25 selected articles. First, they read the articles several times to improve familiarity with the ideas addressing the ethical aspects of RCSs. Then, in each publication (methods, results, and discussion sections), they identified segments of data that were relevant or captured an idea linked to the “ethical” domain of the model. A subsequent exploration of the coded data (sentences or set of statements) was performed to get a more precise classification at the topic level (level 2) and at the issue level (level 3). Then, the coding was performed using the HTA nomenclature. The 2 experts (CP and ASR) compared their results. In a few cases, the coding results showed a lack of consensus between the 2 coding authors, which was resolved through a subsequent discussion between them. Interrater correlation was not calculated.

A thematic analysis using the EUnetHTA framework for conducting a literature review has been described in other studies [ 56 , 57 ]. Furthermore, the use of EUnetHTA to perform an ethical analysis of health technologies has already been proposed [ 58 ]. The 25 selected articles were all coded using this methodology. Some authors have previously emphasized the possibility of overlapping issues between topics in the HTA analysis. They have suggested to assess the overlapping issues in the most relevant topic section [ 59 ].

This review was not registered, and a protocol for the review was not prepared.

Selected articles are presented in Multimedia Appendix 1 [ 3 , 12 , 18 , 31 , 32 , 37 - 51 , 60 - 64 ]. For each topic, we have presented our findings in terms of questions and recommendations according to the EUnetHTA Core Model, wherever possible.

Ethical Issues and Recommendations for the Use of New Technologies

This section aims to summarize the ethical analysis performed regarding the use of RCSs with older adults and to provide recommendations for ethical use of these devices. Table 1 presents a synthetic summary of the elements presented in this section.

Topic and ethical issues (European Network of Health Technology Assessment Core Model)		Ethical concerns	Recommendations

	What are the known and estimated benefits and harms for patients when implementing or not implementing the technology?
	What are the benefits and harms of the technology for relatives, other patients, organizations, commercial entities, society, etc?
	Are there any unintended consequences of the technology and its application for patients?

	Is the technology used for individuals who are especially vulnerable?
	Does the implementation or use of the technology affect the patient’s capability and possibility to exercise autonomy?

	Does the implementation or use of the technology affect human dignity?
	Does the technology invade the sphere of privacy of the patient or user?

	How does implementation or withdrawal of the technology affect the distribution of health care resources?
	How are technologies with similar ethical issues treated in the health care system?

	Can the use of the technology pose ethical challenges that have not been considered in the existing legislations and regulations?

Topic 1: Benefit-Harm Balance

RCSs should be developed according to the principles of beneficence (ie, to promote the interest of users) and nonmaleficence (ie, to avoid inflicting harm) [ 39 , 60 , 64 ].

What Are the Known and Estimated Benefits and Harms for Patients When Implementing or Not Implementing the Technology?

Risk of social isolation.

According to Sharkey and Sharkey [ 50 ], technological devices, when used appropriately, could benefit older adults by promoting social interaction and connection with their loved ones [ 4 , 31 , 40 ]. Broadbent et al [ 19 ] have discussed the potential of robots to reduce older adults’ social isolation. However, other authors reported the negative influence of the use of robotic devices on human contact [ 31 , 32 , 65 ]. The use of robots (eg, telepresence robots) to make some cost savings (eg, reducing travel costs and time spent on trips for family and professionals to visit older adults) would reduce face-to-face interactions [ 3 , 36 , 39 , 40 ]. Moreover, according to Körtner [ 47 ], the more people become accustomed to communicating with robots, the less they will be used to communicating with humans. The use of social robots could lead to a reduction of interactions with humans and thus to social isolation and emotional dependence [ 39 ]. However, the influence of technological devices, such as RCSs, on social isolation is still under debate, and the impact of technology would depend on the manner in which it is used.

To avoid exacerbating the users’ social isolation, Portacolone et al [ 38 ] advocate that social robots and similar technologies should be designed with the objective of fostering interactions with other humans, for instance, keeping users informed about the entertainment and socializing activities near their home, connecting them with their loved ones, and so on.

Risk of Deception

Another major risk for users is deception [ 39 , 64 , 66 ]. Portacolone et al [ 38 ] described 3 types of deception that people with neurocognitive disorders may face when interacting with social robotic systems but which may also apply to all users. The first type involves the user’s misconception of what is driving the technological device [ 51 ]. Users may be misled if they think that behind a medical chatbot, there is a real physician who communicates and reads their messages [ 44 ] or, alternatively, if they are not aware that, at some point, there are real humans guiding the technological device [ 38 ]. The second type refers to robotic devices programmed to express feelings or other types of affective communication, which may lead the user to believe that the system’s emotions are authentic. Related to this issue, Körtner [ 47 ] discussed how some older adults may fear that their social robot will forget them during their absence from home. The resemblance with the living in terms of affective behavior (eg, crying, laughing, or expressing concern) can make the user believe that there is a reciprocity between human and robot feelings [ 43 ]. The last type of deception is related to the inadequate interpretations that older adults may have regarding the nature of the robot, for example, thinking that an animal-shaped robot is a real animal or a pet [ 38 ]. Some current developments of social robots tend to make them resemble a living being, in terms of their verbal and nonverbal behaviors [ 34 , 60 ] or by highly anthropomorphizing their design [ 47 ], which may blur the boundary between the real and the artificial [ 45 , 60 ]. These design choices can also impact users’ dignity by infantilizing them as they are led to believe in something that is false [ 50 ].

However, according to some researchers [ 51 , 63 , 64 ], the notion of deception should be considered in terms of the gradation between what is morally acceptable and what is not. Deception would be morally acceptable when it aims to improve a person’s health or quality of life, for example, the use companion robots to calm a person experiencing behavioral disorders linked to dementia [ 51 ].

According to Danaher [ 43 ] and Vandemeulebroucke et al [ 40 ], to avoid deception, it is essential to be transparent to users about the design and operation of devices. As the information given to the participants is the basis for obtaining consent to use the technology, it is essential to offer them documents explaining how the device is built and its advantages and limitations in a clear manner adapted to the user’s knowledge and experience. It is also important to inform users on how to behave with technology [ 12 ]. Researchers should also answer users’ questions, pay attention to their feedback, and use it to improve the device and its documentation [ 60 ]. During experiments with RCSs, it is also important that researchers regularly remind participants of the nature of the technological device to reduce the risk of misinterpretation and to ensure that they still consent to participate in the study [ 38 ].

Biases of Algorithms

An autonomous device does not work without AI or algorithms that allow it to make decisions. However, these technologies are created by humans, and programming biases can be incorporated into them and lead to failures [ 44 ]. A technological device can, for instance, misread a situation and react accordingly, leading to a safety risk for the user [ 18 ]. Thus, it is essential that the researcher scrutinizes the algorithms used in RCSs before their implementation [ 44 ]. Fiske et al [ 44 ] also suggest providing the users with detailed explanations about the algorithms present in the technological device they are using.

What Are the Benefits and Harms of the Technology for Relatives, Other Patients, Organizations, Commercial Entities, Society, Etc?

At the society level, Boada et al [ 39 ] mentioned an ethical consideration related to the ecological impact of robotic devices in the current context of climate crisis and the lack of natural resources. The construction of RCSs requires raw materials, high energy consumption, and the management of their waste. Therefore, it is important for developers to design technologies that consume less energy and can be recycled.

Are There Any Unintended Consequences of the Technology and Its Application for Patients?

Technologies evolving very quickly.

For some older adults, technologies evolve very quickly, which makes it difficult for them to keep up with [ 62 ]. Denning et al [ 67 ] encourage designers to develop products that are intuitive to use or to offer users a simplified training. However, although some technologies are progressing quickly, technological limitations are still present, especially regarding social robotic systems, impacting their performance [ 68 ] and generating frustration among some users [ 69 ].

Unsuitability of Technology

The lack of experience with the technologies and the fact that the systems are not suitable to everyone can reduce the usability and acceptability of RCSs among older adults [ 3 , 60 , 62 ]. Frennert and Östlund [ 62 ] highlighted that some older adults were not confident in their ability to handle a robot because of previous complicated experience with technology. Peek et al [ 70 ] also reported that users had doubts about their ability to use the technology and feared that they would easily forget how to use it. They may also fear false alarms generated by monitoring technologies. For example, a person may decide to sit on the floor, but this behavior can be considered as a fall by the technology, and it could call for an ambulance to be sent to the person’s home in vain [ 70 ].

To promote acceptability and usability of RCSs, it is essential to develop them considering the capabilities, needs, and wishes of various users [ 31 , 47 ]. “User-centered design” approaches should be used for this purpose [ 71 ]. This methodology must be performed in a continuous manner to consider the development, new preferences, and experiences of the users. Technology assessment should also be conducted before deployment in ecological environments to improve the predictability of RCSs and decrease the risk of confusion and accidents [ 40 , 47 ].

Topic 2: Autonomy

According to Anderson and Kamphorst [ 42 ], the notion of autonomy implies the recognition of people, for instance, users of RCSs, as thinking individuals who have their own perspective on matters and are able to judge what is best for them.

Is the Technology Used for Individuals Who Are Especially Vulnerable?

Free and informed consent is a prerequisite for the involvement of an individual in research, regardless of the domain. This aspect is mentioned in numerous codes and declarations such as the Declaration of Helsinki (1964-2008) [ 72 ]. In the context of studies of the use of RCSs, this principle ensures that the person has freely chosen to use a device. However, some older adults, particularly those with cognitive disorders, may have difficulties in understanding and evaluating information related to RCSs and therefore in making appropriate choices [ 3 ]. Moreover, the person may not remember that the RCS is in their environment or how it works [ 38 , 44 ]. The question of how to ensure that the older adult has understood the purpose of RCS and that their choice of using the technology is based solely on their own decision and not that of a relative, caregiver, or institution has also been discussed [ 46 ].

Researchers in the field of RCS should adapt to the cognitive abilities of the populations they work with to facilitate communication and decision-making [ 46 ]. Thus, the observation of the person’s behavior is necessary to identify potential reservations regarding the use of RCSs. When the person is very vulnerable to respond, informed consent could be sought by proxy such as from children, spouse, or partner [ 46 , 64 ]. However, according to Diaz-Orueta et al [ 37 ], the final decision of using RCSs lies with the user. To prevent loss of capacity and to guard against any risk of inducement to participate, advance directives [ 46 , 64 ] or implementation of an advance power of attorney [ 46 ] can be proposed.

Does the Implementation or Use of the Technology Affect the Patient’s Capability and Possibility to Exercise Autonomy?

Dependence on the technology.

Although the main interest of RCSs for older adults is the maintenance of functional independence, it has been claimed that these devices could make people dependent on them. By replacing users in tasks that they can still perform, the use of RCSs could create new forms of vulnerability [ 3 , 31 , 39 , 41 , 51 ].

People could rely entirely on autonomous technological devices, such as RCSs, to guide their behaviors, goals, and actions [ 12 , 73 ]. A questioning of the authenticity of users’ actions has been mentioned by Anderson and Kamphorst [ 42 ]. Users might not feel responsible for the success of their actions if they feel they are completely driven by the guidance of the RCS. People could also develop emotional and psychological feelings toward the technology. This may have negative consequences for the individuals [ 38 , 49 ] and lead to new vulnerabilities [ 39 ].

Loss of Freedom

Another ethical issue relates to the conflict between the user’s safety, encouraged by the technology guidance, and a loss of freedom. The RCS could impose constraints on the user under the pretext that the user’s actions are not good for them [ 39 , 40 , 74 ]. Sharkey and Sharkey [ 50 ] explained that to promote home care, RCS could act as a supervisor (ie, programmed to ensure that no danger is present and, if there is a danger, to implement procedures to stop it and avoid it in the future). For instance, the RCS could prevent the person from eating fatty and high-caloric food because it is harmful to them. To protect users and ensure that they live in good health, individuals using RCSs could end up being deprived of certain actions or being under some type of “house arrest” [ 50 ].

One of the goals of using such RCSs is to support older adults’ independence; therefore, it is essential that developers and researchers in the field take measures to preserve the person’s autonomy [ 75 ]. Furthermore, RCS users must have the opportunity to evaluate and re-evaluate the role given to the device, to assess whether the system is reliable and whether it is serving their interests [ 12 , 42 ].

Creating a New Source of Authority

The use of RCSs could alter human relationships, for example, by creating tensions between older adults and their informal caregivers. Their use could also create some tensions with health care professionals by creating a new source of authority [ 12 ]. Monitoring older adults through RCSs can generate anger in the user, for example, when the device insists that the older adult should take a medication that they do not want to take [ 41 , 75 ].

Topic 3: Respect for Persons

Does the implementation or use of the technology affect human dignity.

Human dignity may be affected by the use of RCSs as these technologies may be perceived as “problem evocators” [ 41 ]. Some RCSs are used to compensate for impaired capacities. However, according to Körtner [ 47 ], their use can make older adults aware of their limitations and lead to negative feelings, anxiety, or exhaustion. RCS use can also lead to a form of stigmatization by making one’s own inabilities visible to others [ 3 , 70 ]. It is important to have positive communication regarding RCSs, to provide a less stigmatizing view of their use.

Does the Technology Invade the Sphere of Privacy of the Patient or User?

To continue living at home, users are increasingly willing to tolerate intrusion in their privacy [ 70 ], but they are not always aware of when and how they are being monitored by RCSs [ 61 ]. Portacolone et al [ 38 ] provided the example of an animal-shaped companion robot, for which the older adults can signal that they no longer wish to interact with it by putting the robot to sleep. However, the animal-shaped robot can record data even when it is sleeping, but users are not always aware of this information. Forgetfulness and the lack of understanding of the device can lead to the risk of manipulation and coercion [ 44 ]. The person who is vulnerable may forget that they are being monitored and reveal personal information [ 50 ].

Technological devices, such as RCSs, must remain under the control of the users [ 47 ]. Users should have the ability to define when and where the device is used—when it collects data—to maintain their privacy, especially in intimate or private care settings.

Security of Data

According to Portacolone et al [ 38 ], remote monitoring technologies are usually controlled by third parties, sometimes even operating in another country, which can lead to cultural biases during the interaction between the older adult and the RCS. This context involves the risk that the person controlling the device (third party) takes advantage of the older adult’s vulnerability to steal their personal information or exposes the user to financial abuse [ 38 ]. Older adults are not always aware or vigilant about the sharing and use of data, which may be personal and sensitive [ 73 ]. Furthermore, RCSs can be connected to internet services that collect, store, and transfer these sensitive data [ 47 ] for commercial use [ 49 , 61 ].

In addition, the use of technologies connected to digital networks involves the risk of hacking and unauthorized surveillance [ 34 , 51 ], which can make people vulnerable [ 62 ]. Denning et al [ 67 ] found that home robots could not only be remotely located and identified but also hacked and controlled. First, users may have either preconceived and erroneous ideas about the capabilities of the device or a lack of knowledge to evaluate the safety, especially regarding data protection [ 3 ]. Second, users do not always configure their technological device correctly or update them [ 67 ].

Encryption or security systems must be put in place to protect users’ personal data captured by the devices at every stage: during collection, storage, transmission, and processing [ 3 ]. Researchers must also give particular attention to data security. In Europe, for instance, researchers and technology providers are required to comply with the General Data Protection Regulation [ 40 , 76 ]. Data collection must be performed legally or approved by the local relevant ethical committees.

To address data security challenges, 3 principles are recommended by Ienca et al [ 46 ] when developing technological devices: transparency, legitimate purpose, and proportionality. Transparency refers to the fact that the user knows that the system is collecting data and has consented to it. The user must also have precise information about when and what type of data are recorded and who has access to them [ 47 ]. Legitimate purpose refers to the notion that the monitoring and collection of data is performed for a specific purpose, (ie, in the best interest of the user or, if applicable, a relative who has consented to it). Finally, the principle of proportionality refers to the fact that the data collected are not disproportionate to the user’s needs.

Topic 4: Justice and Equity

The consequences of the technology implementation on the distribution of health care resources was discussed in the literature.

How Does Implementation or Withdrawal of the Technology Affect the Distribution of Health Care Resources?

Societal pressure.

Socioeconomic issues are also linked to the development and use of RCSs can also be raised. Individual freedom may be hindered by the “incentive” of certain stakeholders or authorities to enforce the use of RCSs [ 37 ]. The use of RCSs and similar systems may also lead to a lesser involvement of relatives, caregivers, and institutions that provide care to older adults and to the reduction of care costs; these perceived economic benefits may pressurize older adults to consent to use these devices [ 40 , 46 ]. It is also possible that older adults may have to agree to use the technological device to receive other health care benefits (eg, aids and subsidies) [ 42 ].

Digital Divide

Different opportunities to access RCSs can result in digital divide, defined by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [ 77 ] as a gap between those who have access to information and communication technologies and those who do not. This difference can create educational, economic, social, and even health-related disparities among citizens. Some citizens would be able to use these devices and, therefore, could benefit from their advantages, whereas others will not be able to use them and will not enjoy their benefits. The use of technologies in the health care context, through public or private institutions, should be subject to previous authorization by independent ethical committees to ensure that the use of these devices will not harm users in any way.

Inequalities in Resources

Questions about justice, equity, and equality among all citizens also arise [ 12 , 40 , 46 ]. RCSs have relatively high costs [ 64 ] and can generate additional expenses such as an internet subscription [ 3 ] that only a part of the population can afford, and this may be owing to the lack of research allowing to measure the cost-to-benefit ratio of these technologies on health [ 32 ]. It is important to ensure the access to RCSs among different living areas (ie, urban and rural). Therefore, involving municipalities and neighborhood associations seems an interesting way of raising awareness about the opportunities offered by RCSs for older adults and reaching a wider range of people.

To promote justice, equity, and fair distribution, Ienca et al [ 46 ] and Wangmo et al [ 64 ] recommend reducing the development costs of RCSs by promoting an open dissemination of source codes. In addition, RCSs should be distributed in priority to those in greatest need; therefore, measures to ensure access to RCSs under fair conditions should be established [ 51 ]. Joachim [ 78 ] also suggests to cover some of the costs of these health care–oriented technologies through health insurance.

Recommendations have been published by researchers to improve equality of access to technologies, such as using open-source software, providing priority access for individuals with low income, or relying on certain collective financing systems such as retirement or health insurance [ 46 , 51 , 78 ]. Discussions must be conducted among developers, legislators, and private and public organizations to identify viable financing solutions that allow for fair distribution of RCSs.

Replacement of Professionals

Researchers have also reported fears expressed by older adults and caregivers about how the use of technological devices could eliminate care-related jobs or replace humans [ 17 , 34 , 48 , 61 ]. There are also concerns about the use of these technological tools to reduce health care costs by decreasing the number of available health care resources and services, thereby exacerbating social inequalities [ 44 ]. The introduction of health-oriented RCSs requires adapting the contexts of care practices, which may threaten their quality [ 39 ]. Their incorporation into the care work environment can be difficult because the devices are automated and some care situations are unpredictable [ 17 , 62 ]. Furthermore, the gestion of certain tasks by technological devices requires a restructuring of the roles and responsibilities of caregivers [ 39 ]. Fiske et al [ 44 ] highlight that there are currently no recommendations or training to enable health care professionals to adopt RCSs, even though these professionals are increasingly confronted with technological devices in their practice.

The incorporation of RCSs must always be accompanied by a discussion with concerned care professionals regarding the advantages and limits of the technology. Professionals must also be supported in the use of these devices through effective training. Structured training and supervision will contribute to the development of a controlled framework of practice around the use of RCSs and thus avoid potential abuse [ 44 ]. Moreover, to encourage their use among professionals, it is essential to clearly define the role of RCSs as an additional resource for professionals and not a replacement of human care services [ 44 ].

Topic 5: Legislation

The ethical challenges linked to the lack of existing legislations and regulations dedicated to the use of the technology were discussed in the literature.

Can the Use of the Technology Pose Ethical Challenges That Have Not Been Considered in the Existing Legislations and Regulations?

Safety of devices.

The use of RCSs by older adults can result in damage and harm to their environment [ 79 ], especially when the device is still at the prototype stage [ 47 ]. Safety risks linked to the use of RCSs (eg, malfunctioning of the technology and incorrect decisions made by the coaching system) arise when they share a common space with humans and interact with them [ 39 ]. The following questions must be considered: Who is responsible in case of an accident, and who pays for the damages [ 39 , 40 , 48 , 62 , 80 ]? Is it the designer, the device, or the user himself? Currently, the civil code favors the cascade system (ie, first, the liability falls on the designer of the product; then, on the developer; and finally, on the user who has not followed the rules of use) [ 74 ]. However, the more the machine becomes autonomous, the less the existing legal frameworks can answer these questions [ 80 ]. This is a key legal issue regarding the implementation of RCSs in real settings because the person responsible for damage to the user or the environment may incur legal or even penal proceedings.

Damage and prejudice can also be caused by a failure to share authority [ 45 , 49 , 60 ]. Who between the human and the technological device holds the power to make decisions and control a functionality [ 81 ]? According to Grinbaum et al [ 45 ], it is important to specify the circumstances in which the human must take control over the technological device (RCS) and those in which the device should decide autonomously. According to Riek and Howard [ 49 ], it is preferable that in certain cases, the technological device, although autonomous, requires a human validation of its actions to keep the user in control of the device. In addition, Bensoussan and Puigmal [ 80 ] suggested the idea that technological devices must have an emergency stop button, so that the human can switch off the technology at any time.

Regulation of Technology

Currently, there is a gray area between the capabilities of RCSs, the reality of the field, and the regulations in force [ 38 ]. To accompany the researcher during the whole process of development and diffusion of RCSs, an ethical framework should be established [ 18 , 60 ]. Specifically, this can be in the form of an ethical code of conduct illustrating the expectations to all the employees of a company [ 18 ]. The researcher must regularly inform themselves about the ethics to be consistent with the evolution of the regulatory framework [ 60 ]. However, according to Nevejans [ 82 ], these ethical recommendations have no legal value and cannot protect humans from the damage caused by new technologies. Thus, it is necessary to think about a new legal framework to protect the users of RCSs [ 37 ].

The use of technologies, such as RCSs, in the health care field has grown significantly in recent years [ 17 , 18 ]. RCSs are increasingly being used for older adults with the aim of promoting healthy behaviors, quality of life, and well-being. However, the use of RCSs also raises several ethical challenges regarding the cost-to-benefit balance of these new care practices, respect for the autonomy of users, respect for privacy, justice and equity linked to their access, or need for a suitable legal framework. Such challenges could be addressed by establishing relevant recommendations for the development and use of RCSs. Some guidelines regarding the use of robotic systems have been published [ 49 , 83 ]. Moreover, in April 2021, the European Commission unveiled the first legal framework about AI [ 84 ]. However, to the best of our knowledge, no recommendations have been proposed in this field directly linked to an analysis of the literature dealing specifically with these ethical issues and potential solutions to address them.

This narrative review identified 25 articles in which authors highlighted ethical issues and recommendations related to the use of RCSs and similar technologies. The use of the EUnetHTA Core Model for the analysis of these articles made it possible to classify the information retrieved in the publications according to 5 main ethical topics—“benefit-harm balance,” “autonomy,” “respect for persons,” “justice and equity,” and “legislation”—and to provide a detailed analysis of RCS-related ethical issues. Our review also aimed to identify recommendations for better development, diffusion, and use of RCSs by a population of older adults.

Technology devices, such as RCSs, are used with older adults to enable them to live independently; to enhance their quality of life and well-being; and, therefore, to cope with the increasing care demands for older populations. RCSs may be used to encourage a range of health-related goals: physical, cognitive, nutritional, social, and emotional domains. To be effective, RCSs must be able to motivate the user by providing highly personalized care programs [ 85 , 86 ]. However, studies have shown that not all potential target users are included in the development of these devices [ 37 , 87 , 88 ]. Therefore, RCSs design might fail to meet a wide range of users’ needs, capabilities, and wishes. Thus, it is essential to apply “user-centered design” approaches and involve target users with various sociodemographic characteristics and technology experience throughout the development process. A strong involvement of the intended users of these systems in their design process would also improve the quality of the information provided to potential users of RCSs regarding their operation, type of data collected, and potential benefits of the technology. In this way, the involvement of the users would improve the quality of the process of obtaining the consent required from older adults to use the technology.

Another ethical challenge related to the use of RCSs is the fact that their wide implementation for older adults’ care may affect the distribution of health care resources. For instance, it has been found that for some older adults and informal and formal caregivers, the use of RCSs could replace humans in many caregiving tasks, eventually leading to a suppression of jobs or to a degradation of the quality of health care services [ 17 , 34 , 48 , 61 ]. In this regard, the participation of a third person (professional, volunteer, or family member) as a “human coach” could be considered when implementing RCSs in the older adults’ environment. This “human coach” could help build a “chain of trust” by being an intermediary between the RCS and the user. On the one hand, the involvement of a real person in the use of the RCS could reduce the risk of replacement of human assistance by technological assistance. On the other hand, the “human coach” could help enhance the acceptability and usability of the device, while at the same time, reassuring the user and providing recommendations to the developers, so that the RCS is consistent with users’ needs and desires. However, the benefits of involving a “human coach” in the RCS service provision has yet to be evaluated by scientific studies.

According to some studies [ 3 , 39 , 41 , 51 , 65 ], the use of RCSs can have an impact on social relationships, reducing human contact and even altering social relationships by creating tension between older adults and their caregivers. Thus, it would be interesting to identify the repercussions and implications of these devices in older adults’ daily life and in the life of the members of their social environment through new studies. It also seems necessary to evaluate the organizational impact of the implementation of RCSs and to identify potential obstacles to their use in the care professionals’ work context.

Our analysis also confirmed that for RCSs to provide personalized health-related recommendations, the collection of sensitive data is necessary. Data collection in this context also raises several ethical issues. For instance, personal data can be exposed to hacking and misuse. Proper data management, anonymization, and encryption are essential to protect the personal data of RCS users [ 86 ]. In addition, researchers and developers in this field must evaluate RCSs before implementation to ensure that they do not cause physical or moral harm to users. Thus, it has been suggested that stakeholders refer to local and regional regulatory and safety standards to guide their development and use.

Finally, our analysis also discussed how legal and ethical frameworks regarding the use of RCSs need to be adapted to cope with the constant development of new technologies. So far, existing legal frameworks are not yet adequate to respond effectively to the question of liability in case of damage caused by RCSs, particularly because these devices are becoming increasingly autonomous [ 80 ]. The establishment of “operational ethics committees in digital sciences and technologies” could help in the development and conduct of projects in this area [ 60 ]. Guidelines should be established to identify the types of applications and technological devices that require regulatory review and approval [ 44 ]. Research projects and working groups involving users, researchers, and lawyers should be set up to further investigate the legal and ethical issues related to the use of RCSs.

Some countries and regions, such as Europe and Japan have initiated the work of structuring relevant legal and ethical frameworks; however, their orientations and measures may differ culturally [ 78 ]. Future studies in the area of RCSs could consider the influence of cultural and socioeconomic specificities of the contexts of experimentation (countries and regions) regarding the acceptance and use of RCSs by older adults and formal and informal caregivers and regarding the definition of ethical and legal frameworks governing their uses. Therefore, the use of validated and widely applied analysis frameworks, for example, the Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic framework [ 89 ], formulated to measure countries’ commonalities in their approaches to the interpretation of behavioral research findings (eg, regarding technology adoption) could be interesting. The Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic framework [ 89 ] could help not only to explore the differences among countries regarding the validation and adoption of new technologies for older adult care but also to seek greater cultural and demographic diversity in technology research.

This dimension of cross-cultural comparison has received particular attention in the framework of a current international research partnership between Europe and Japan, such as the EU-Japan Virtual Coach for Smart Ageing (e-VITA) project. This project aims to develop a cross-cultural RCS that can be tailored to the needs of healthy older adults to promote aging well. The e-VITA RCS will be made available to older adults in their homes, which raises many of the ethical questions discussed in this paper. Therefore, the study will require the researchers to set up procedures adapted not only to the users but also to the 2 cultures (European and Japanese), respecting the corresponding ethical and legal regulations. Thus, it would be interesting to perform an analysis of the ethical issues raised by users from different countries and cultures within the framework of the e-VITA project.

Limitations

A narrative review of the literature was conducted to provide a nonexhaustive synthesis of the various ethical concerns and recommendations when using RCSs for older adults. This review has some limitations. Only articles in French and English were included. Some articles indicating ethical concerns or recommendations may not have been included when this information was not mentioned in the keywords or abstract.

Conclusions

The use of RCSs in the context of health care, particularly with an older adult population, tends to show many benefits. RCSs have the potential to improve the quality of life of older adults and their independence. When used in an ethical and appropriate manner, RCSs can help improve older adults’ emotions and cognitive and physical abilities and promote social relationships. By helping older adults to continue living at home for as long as possible, the use of health-oriented RCSs could help to address some of the challenges resulting from demographic aging. However, the use of these new health care technologies involves some ethical concerns, with the most cited issues being not only the risk of accidents, lack of reliability, loss of control, risk of deception, and risk of social isolation but also the confidentiality of data and liability in case of safety problems.

Some recommendations have been made in the past regarding the use of social and assistive robotic technologies for older adults, such as considering the opinion of target users; collecting their consent; training the care professionals to use them; and ensuring proper data management, anonymization, and encryption. However, the integration of RCSs in current health practices and, particularly, in the private homes of older adults can be disruptive. It requires the establishment of scalable and adapted ethical and regulatory frameworks that follow the technology progress and the social and digital change of society Thus, studies are needed to identify new ethical concerns arising from the organizational impact of the implementation of RCSs in different contexts, especially in the homes of older adults. The influence of cultural and socioeconomic specificities of the contexts of experimentation (countries and regions) regarding the acceptance and use of RCSs by older adults and formal and informal caregivers is also an area of interest for future studies.

Acknowledgments

This paper is a part of the EU-Japan Virtual Coach for Smart Ageing (e-VITA) project, which aims to develop a robotic coaching system for older adults [ 90 ]. The authors thank the collaborators who made this project possible: European Commission and Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (Délégation à la Recherche Clinique et à l’Innovation). This review was based on data collected within the e-Vita project, funded by the European Union H2020 Program (grant 101016453) and the Japanese Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication; grant JPJ000595).

Data Availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this paper as no data sets were generated or analyzed during this review.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

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Abbreviations

artificial intelligence

European Network of Health Technology Assessment

EU-Japan Virtual Coach for Smart Ageing

Health Technology Assessment

robotic coaching solution

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 12.04.23; peer-reviewed by J Sedlakova, S Liu; comments to author 20.08.23; revised version received 22.12.23; accepted 12.03.24; published 18.06.24.

©Cécilia Palmier, Anne-Sophie Rigaud, Toshimi Ogawa, Rainer Wieching, Sébastien Dacunha, Federico Barbarossa, Vera Stara, Roberta Bevilacqua, Maribel Pino. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 18.06.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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Build a Corporate Culture That Works

There’s a widespread understanding that managing corporate culture is key to business success. Yet few companies articulate their culture in such a way that the words become an organizational reality that molds employee behavior as intended.

All too often a culture is described as a set of anodyne norms, principles, or values, which do not offer decision-makers guidance on how to make difficult choices when faced with conflicting but equally defensible courses of action.

The trick to making a desired culture come alive is to debate and articulate it using dilemmas. If you identify the tough dilemmas your employees routinely face and clearly state how they should be resolved—“In this company, when we come across this dilemma, we turn left”—then your desired culture will take root and influence the behavior of the team.

To develop a culture that works, follow six rules: Ground your culture in the dilemmas you are likely to confront, dilemma-test your values, communicate your values in colorful terms, hire people who fit, let culture drive strategy, and know when to pull back from a value statement.

Start by thinking about the dilemmas your people will face.

Idea in Brief

The problem.

There’s a widespread understanding that managing corporate culture is key to business success. Yet few companies articulate their corporate culture in such a way that the words become an organizational reality that molds employee behavior as intended.

What Usually Happens

How to fix it.

Follow six rules: Ground your culture in the dilemmas you are likely to confront, dilemma-test your values, communicate your values in colorful terms, hire people who fit, let culture drive strategy, and know when to pull back from a value.

At the beginning of my career, I worked for the health-care-software specialist HBOC. One day, a woman from human resources came into the cafeteria with a roll of tape and began sticking posters on the walls. They proclaimed in royal blue the company’s values: “Transparency, Respect, Integrity, Honesty.” The next day we received wallet-sized plastic cards with the same words and were asked to memorize them so that we could incorporate them into our actions. The following year, when management was indicted on 17 counts of conspiracy and fraud, we learned what the company’s values really were.

EM Erin Meyer is a professor at INSEAD, where she directs the executive education program Leading Across Borders and Cultures. She is the author of The Culture Map: Breaking Through the Invisible Boundaries of Global Business (PublicAffairs, 2014) and coauthor (with Reed Hastings) of No Rules Rules: Netflix and the Culture of Reinvention (Penguin, 2020). ErinMeyerINSEAD

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Interactive example of a narrative essay. An example of a short narrative essay, responding to the prompt "Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself," is shown below. Hover over different parts of the text to see how the structure works. Narrative essay example.
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