world trade center thesis

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section World Trade Center

Introduction, general overviews: skyscrapers.

• General Overviews: World Trade Center
• Professional Journals
• Newspapers and Magazines
• Ada Louise Huxtable Criticism
• Key Individuals
• Rebuilding the World Trade Center

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World Trade Center by Dale Allen Gyure LAST REVIEWED: 24 April 2023 LAST MODIFIED: 24 April 2023 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780190922467-0086

The original World Trade Center was commissioned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey in 1962. The Port Authority envisioned the Trade Center as a new architectural symbol for New York. After soliciting ideas from many of the leading American architects of the time, the Port Authority selected Minoru Yamasaki and Associates over such notable architects as Philip Johnson, Walter Gropius and TAC, and Welton Becket and Associates. Yamasaki’s proposal included a “framed tube” construction technique that used closely spaced exterior vertical supports to carry the buildings’ loads; the system was first utilized by engineers Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson (later Skilling, Helle, Christiansen & Robertson) in Yamasaki’s IBM Building in Seattle—designed just months before the World Trade Center. When the Port Authority asked Yamasaki to design the world’s tallest building, he responded with a proposal for two 110-story towers looming 1,350 feet over a five-acre public plaza ringed by secondary structures, with an underground city of shops, restaurants, and train tracks beneath. The architect unveiled the first model in January 1964 to favorable reviews; however, after a slightly modified version was presented to the public in 1966, the critical attitude toward the project switched from positive to negative, as some prominent former admirers of the initial scheme like Ada Louise Huxtable and Wolf Von Eckardt now became vehemently opposed. By the time construction was completed and the buildings occupied in the early 1970s, a few publications celebrated the World Trade Center’s technical achievements, but it mostly disappeared from the architectural literature. Aside from an ill-fated 1993 bombing attempt, the Twin Towers drew little attention from the architectural or popular press until their tragic destruction by terrorists on 11 September 2001. The subsequent rebuilding campaign, fraught with political and economic conflicts, became one of the most celebrated architectural projects of the early twenty-first century. (Note: This annotated bibliography concerns the architecture of the World Trade Center and its replacement, One World Trade Center, and will not include material about the 9/11 attack, the Twin Towers’ collapse, emergency responders and the site cleanup, or the design and construction of the 9/11 memorial.)

Skyscrapers have fascinated the public since their invention in the late nineteenth century. They became a particularly popular topic in the 1970s and 1980s, as architects erected well-publicized marquee towers in cities throughout the world and competed with each other to design the tallest office building. The general lack of interest in the World Trade Center can be seen in publications devoted to skyscrapers and their history. Goldberger 1981 is typical; writing less than a decade after the Twin Towers opened, they held no interest for him, and almost thirty years later Goldberger 2009 explained his continuing disregard for the design. Flowers 2010 assessed the Twin Towers on ideological grounds. The project fared better in Stern, et al. 1997 , where the authors contextualized it as part of a broader history of the city. Smith 2006 took a different approach, analyzing the Trade Center as a symbol of contemporary architecture’s engagement with global politics in the late twentieth century. In an article comparing the plaza with three other outdoor spaces in New York, Allen 1974 withheld judgment but foresaw potential problems with its use.

Allen, Gerald. “ High-Rise Office Buildings—The Public Spaces They Make .” Architectural Record 155 (March 1974): 127–142.

Allen’s focus is on public plazas in New York, comparing the World Trade Center with the two Rockefeller Center projects and the Chubb Building plaza; he envisions a lack of public engagement due to design errors.

Flowers, Benjamin. Skyscraper: The Politics and Power of Building New York City in the Twentieth Century . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010.

DOI: 10.9783/9780812202601

Flowers focuses on the disjunction between the rhetoric and reality of the buildings, and argues that Yamasaki’s design successfully adopted the “banal corporatism (or General Motors-ness)” of his clients. On the World Trade Center, pp. 169–180.

Goldberger, Paul. The Skyscraper . New York: Knopf, 1981.

New York Times critic Goldberger presents a history of the skyscraper as a building type and its impact on urban development since the nineteenth century, including a critique of the World Trade Center’s appearance and lack of architectural innovation; does recognize the buildings’ technical achievements. On the World Trade Center, pp. 128–129.

Goldberger, Paul. Why Architecture Matters . New York: Yale University Press, 2009.

In a book intended to explain architecture to the general public, Goldberger explains the evolution of his views on the World Trade Center from resentment to grudging acceptance, although it remains “too big, too dumb, too indifferent to the needs of the urban context . . . .” On the World Trade Center, pp. 17–18, 174–177.

Smith, Terry. The Architecture of Aftermath . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.

Smith uses the September 11 terrorist attacks to launch an investigation of contemporary architecture, based on the idea that the “culture of aftermath” has changed the way we interpret the symbolic content of modernist landmarks. Critical of the World Trade Center. On the World Trade Center, pp. 97–123.

Stern, Robert A. M., Thomas Mellins, and David Fishman. New York 1960: Architecture and Urbanism Between the Second World War and the Bicentennial . New York: Monacelli Press, 1997.

The authors present the planning, design, and construction of the World Trade Center in context, as an example of Historicist Modernism in corporate architecture, and are critical of its size and composition. On the World Trade Center, pp. 54–56, 198–206, 1023.

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How 9/11 Changed the World

The World Trade Center buildings in New York City collapsed on September 11, 2001, after two airplanes slammed into the twin towers in a terrorist attack. Photo by Mario Tama/Getty Images

BU faculty reflect on how that day’s events have reshaped our lives over the last 20 years

Bu today staff.

Saturday, September 11, 2021, marks the 20th anniversary of 9/11, the largest terrorist attack in history. On that Tuesday morning, 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four American commercial flights destined for the West Coast and intentionally crashed them. Two planes—American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175—departed from Boston and Flight 11 struck New York City’s World Trade Center North Tower at 8:46 am and Flight 175 the South Tower at 9:03 am, resulting in the collapse of both towers. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, leaving from Dulles International Airport in Virginia, crashed into the Pentagon at 9:37 am, and the final plane, United Airlines Flight 93, departing from Newark, N.J., crashed in a field in Shanksville, Pa., at 10:03 am, after passengers stormed the cockpit and tried to subdue the hijackers.

In the space of less than 90 minutes on a late summer morning, the world changed. Nearly 3,000 people were killed that day and the United States soon found itself mired in what would become the longest war in its history, a war that cost an estimated $8 trillion . The events of 9/11 not only reshaped the global response to terrorism, but raised new and troubling questions about security, privacy, and treatment of prisoners. It reshaped US immigration policies and led to a surge in discrimination, racial profiling, and hate crimes.

In observance of the anniversary, BU Today reached out to faculty across Boston University—experts in international relations, international security,  immigration law, global health, terrorism, and ethics—and asked each to address this question: “How has the world changed as a result of 9/11?”

Find a list of all those with ties to the BU community killed on 9/11 here.

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• Immigration
• International Relations
• Pardee School of Global Studies
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Boston University moderates comments to facilitate an informed, substantive, civil conversation. Abusive, profane, self-promotional, misleading, incoherent or off-topic comments will be rejected. Moderators are staffed during regular business hours (EST) and can only accept comments written in English. Statistics or facts must include a citation or a link to the citation.

There are 43 comments on How 9/11 Changed the World

this is very scary to me.

Yes this is very scary

This was a very sad moment in time but we need to remember the people that sacrificed themselves to save us and the people that died during this event. It was sad but at least it brought us closer together. I wonder what the world would be like if 9/11 never happened?..

Yes that is a good thing to rember…

We will all remember 9/11, a very important moment in our life, and we honor the ones who sacrificed their lives to save others in there.

It changed the world forever, it is infact a painful memory to remember

I feel bad for all the families that had family and friends die.

i feel bad for all the people and their family and friends that died

9/11 is tragic and it will always be remembered though I have to say that saying 9/11 changed the word is quite an overstatement. More like how it changes America in certain ways and the ones responsible for it but saying something like what you said makes it sound like it was Armageddon or something.

Whether or not those of us in other countries like it, for the last several decades and certainly still in the current time, when something changes the USA in significant ways that impact policy, legislation, education, the economy, health care, etc. (not to mention the ways in which public opinion drives the American political machine), the US’s presence on the international stage means those changes ripple outward through their foreign policy, treatment of both residents/citizens of the USA and local people where the USA has a military, economic and/or other presence around the world.

The complex web of international agreements, alliances, organizational memberships, and financial interdependency means that events that happen locally often have both direct and indirect implications, short and long term, around the world, for individuals and for entire segments of society.

As for the direct results of 20 years of military response to 9/11 on civilians in Iraq and Afghanistan, it certainly changed their world.

The original BU 9/11 Memorial webpage is still up: https://www.bu.edu/remember/index.html

Reading through the remembrances from that day onward …

Omg scary .

I honor them all.

I wonder how much time people had to get out before the building collapsed

the south tower collapsed in 10 seconds.

Yes but it didnt colapse untill 56 minutes after it was hit

Shall all the people who risked their lives, never be forgotten.

am i blind or was there no mention of how it actually affected the world afterwards??

I know right?

My dad died in 9/11, He was a great pilot

Wow. I’m really sorry for your loss I hope you can still go far in life even without your dad. Sometimes you just have to go with your gut and let them go.

i dont really think you understood that comment

i just read the story and im so sade for the dad that died . If i was there i wouls of creiyed and i saw someone in the chare that someone dad died and i felt so bad when i saw the comment but i dont know if that is real but if it is i feal bad for you if my dad died or my mom i woulld been so sade i would never get over it but this story changed my life when i read it.Also 1 thing i hoop not to any dads diead because i feel bad fo thos kids.

yo all the dads and moms died all of them will never get forgoten every single one of them

Never forget, always remember

everyone is talking about the twin towers but what about the pentagon.

I know, right?

it is super scary

Sorry for all the people who Lost their family

Thanks for helping me with this report, and yes so sorry for all yall who lost family

So, so sorry to all y’all who lost family

I am deeply sorry for anyone who lost family, friends, co workers, or anybody you once knew. This really was a tragedy to so many.

my dad almost died from the tower

very scary but needs too be remembered!

I have to say this is most definitely a U.S. American write up. Saying the word is an overstatement in many ways. It would be more better if you were to specifically point out you mean the US and those others involved with the attacks. Overall if we are going to be completely factual “people/individuals” are the ones who change things depending on whatever. The world changes every day since the start of time.

While I agree with your first point, I would say that the attacks did in fact change the world. At the very least, they changed the way airline security is done everywhere.

great article,

I believe that the people, who sacrificed their lives in flight 93, the one that crashed in Pennsylvania, resonated the most with me, as it could have gone anywhere, and they sacrificed themselves to save more. I am deeply sorry for all losses, but I hope we remember this crucial moment in history to learn from our mistakes in global affairs, but also honor those who sacrificed themselves in all the attacks.

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Overview of the Structural Design of World Trade Center 1, 2, and 7

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SPEECH Proposes New Buildings at the World Trade Center in Moscow, Russia

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WASHINGTON AND MOSCOW HAVE THEIR OWN IDEAS ON TRADE

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By Clyde H. Farnsworth

• May 19, 1985

The United States and the Soviet Union will open trade talks tomorrow at the highest level since relations turned sour after the Russians invaded Afghanistan in 1979. Secretary of Commerce Malcolm Baldrige and Soviet Foreign Trade Minister Nikolai S. Patolichev will meet for two days in Moscow to try to iron out some of the many difficulties and discuss kinds of trade that might be expanded.

Trade has always been bound up with other East-West issues, notably human rights, and the Reagan Administration has served notice that without progress on rights, there can be no significant relaxation of trade barriers. With Mikhail S. Gorbachev now the Soviet leader, the atmosphere has warmed a bit. Arms control talks have been renewed and last week, Secretary of State George P. Shultz and Foreign Minister Andrei A. Gromyko discussed prospects for a Gorbachev-Reagan summit this year. The Russians have also dropped hints that they might permit more Soviet Jews to emigrate; only 896 Jews got exit visas last year, compared to more than 51,000 in 1979. The pace did quicken in April to 166, the highest monthly total in almost two years.

Prospects for breakthroughs are clouded, however, by policy struggles in the Reagan Administration and by Soviet unpredictability. President Reagan, chiefly at the urging of Mr. Shultz, agreed to let Mr. Baldrige try to strengthen trade links. Defense Secretary Caspar W. Weinberger tried to scuttle the trip. Mr. Weinberger opposes economic accommodation. He fears that the Russians will buy American technology - telecommunications, microelectronics, automation and computers -and adapt it for uses such as more accurate missiles or better antisubmarine sensors. He contends that American technology already obtained by Moscow has reduced costs of Soviet weapons and forced Washington to spend even more to stay ahead. In addition, Mr. Weinberger wanted to cancel the Baldrige trip to protest the death of Maj. Arthur D. Nicholson Jr., a member of the American liaison unit who was shot by a Soviet soldier in East Germany. And he opposes commitments that might let the Russians buy advanced oil exploration and drilling equipment to boost lagging production.

For Mr. Shultz and the President, however, the renewal of trade and arms control talks is part of a broad strategy to improve Soviet-American relations despite sharp disagreements on many important issues, including space-based defense programs and Nicaragua. In addition, American farmers are eager to gain a larger share of the vast Soviet grain market.

Whatever the Administration's wishes, its ability to move on trade is hobbled by Congressional constraints. Many barriers, such as a ban on fur imports dating from the Korean War, and denial of most-favored-nation trade privileges (which provide for a generalized lowering of tariffs), are embedded in legislation. Many analysts say dramatic Soviet gestures on human rights will be needed if Congress is to become receptive to relaxing the curbs. For example, Moscow might release the imprisoned computer scientist, Anatoly B. Shcharansky, or permit Yelena G. Bonner, the wife of Dr. Andrei D. Sakharov, the Nobel Peace Prize winner and dissident physicist, to go abroad for medical treatment.

Nevertheless, Mr. Baldrige, supported by Mr. Shultz and much of the American business community, believes that nonstrategic trade can be expanded. Earlier this year, the United States lifted restrictions on the sale of personal computers, while strengthening controls over more sophisticated equipment and software. Mr. Baldrige could be receptive to Soviet requests to relax controls over other nonmilitary items, including sales of some oil-drilling equipment. ''We support national security controls,'' said Frederick G. Drake, a General Electric Company executive who heads the European Council of American Chambers of Commerce. ''But we feel that much of the trade is hampered by regulations that are unnecessary.'' Soviet trade is a relatively small item in the American economy, but it means a lot to some companies. For example, prior to the embargo imposed in 1978, the Soviet Union was the biggest market for Caterpillar Tractor's huge pipeline-laying machines. Caterpillar lost its pre-eminence to a Japanese company.

When Contracts Are Broken

Although Mr. Weinberger failed to block the Baldrige trip, he imposed constraints. A principal Soviet demand, according to senior American trade officials, is for a guarantee against further American embargoes that would break existing contracts. After earlier embargoes, United States reliability as a supplier was questioned. The Russians have used this as an argument in refusing to let Americans bid for Soviet contracts or stage seminars and trade promotions in Moscow.

Mr. Baldrige's ''hands are tied on that one,'' a trade official said. The President last week accepted a Weinberger recommendation to put limits on the sanctity of contracts between the United States and Nicaragua. Contracts will be honored only when a United States exporter might otherwise be sued by the Nicaraguan importer, or when the United States supplier cannot find alternative customers. Mr. Baldrige, supported by Mr. Shultz and Treasury Secretary James A. Baker 3d, had pressed for more far-reaching protection for contracts, which could have been applied to the Soviet Union as well.

Following trade sanctions imposed to protest the imprisonment of Mr. Shcharansky, the invasion of Afghanistan and martial law in Poland, Soviet-American trade fell to $3.3 billion last year from $3.6 billion in 1979. American exports, mainly grain, far exceed imports. The principal Soviet export to the United States is light fuel oils.

Soviet officials probably have higher expectations than the Americans do. Deputy Foreign Trade Minister Alexei Mazhulo said last month that trade with the United States could eventually reach $10 billion.

China cuts exports to Russia amid fear of western sanctions

C hina fears getting too close economically to Russia. Data recently published by Chinese customs indicates that in March 2024, exports to Russia were 14 percent lower than a year ago. In April, they were 13 percent lower, writes Jan Strzelecki, the author of an article published by PIE.

Since Russia invaded Ukraine, China has been trying to balance between the parties involved in the conflict. A report by the Polish Economic Institute proves that Beijing is limiting its activities to avoid falling victim to Western sanctions.

China restricts exports to Russia. they fear sanctions

This does not mean, however, that relations between Beijing and Moscow have frozen. As reported in the latest issue of the PIE weekly, Vladimir Putin's visit to China on 16-17 May of this year was a demonstration of cooperation between Beijing and Moscow.

Trade data, however, shows that Chinese exports to Russia have recently decreased due to Western sanctions. Data recently published by Chinese customs indicates that in March 2024, exports to Russia were 14 percent lower than a year ago, and in April, they were 13 percent lower.

As explained, this is primarily due to China's fear of American sanctions on banks involved in selling goods to Russia that are subject to restrictions.

Simultaneously, Russian sales to China continue to grow. According to Chinese data—the only ones available since Russia stopped publishing statistics—in April, they were 17 percent higher than a year ago. Between 2021 and 2023, Russia's exports to China increased by 62 percent. This is primarily due to increased deliveries of Russian oil and gas.

However, recent declines in trade with Russia have not significantly reduced the scale of economic cooperation. In 2023, exports of products from China to Russia reached a value of £86 billion, the highest in history. This is a 47 percent increase compared to 2022 and a 65 percent increase compared to 2021.

Russia seeks other partners

According to estimates from the German Ifo Institute, China mainly delivers sanctioned goods from Europe and the USA. In the first half of 2023, their share in the import of sanctioned goods was 57 percent. The attempt to find more effective cooperation mechanisms in fear of American sanctions is evidenced by the fact that along with Vladimir Putin, the heads of the economy, defence, and central bank departments appeared in Beijing, writes the author of the study.

There are also many indications that pressure from the West is yielding results. "The war has led to the geographical reorientation of Russia's trade. Before the full-scale invasion, EU countries were the largest recipients of Russian exports, accounting for about 38 percent of supplies. About 16 percent of exports went to China at that time. The war has reversed these proportions," writes the study's author.

As reported, in 2023, EU countries accounted for about 14 percent of Russia's exports, while China accounted for 37 percent. Meanwhile, Russia's share in Chinese exports increased from 2 percent in 2021 to 3.3 percent in 2023. This also illustrates the strong asymmetry in economic relations between Moscow and Beijing.

More evidence supports this thesis. According to Mikhail Krutikhin, a Russian energy expert, the Power of Siberia 2 gas pipeline project, pushed by President Vladimir Putin, did not meet with enthusiasm from the Chinese side during the recent meeting of the leaders of both countries in Beijing, reports The Moscow Times.

Russia, Iran, and China: An alliance shaped by sanctions

Beijing's exports to Moscow tumble amid US sanction threats

Russia to conduct nuclear drills amid Western provocations

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Overview of the Structural Design of World Trade Center 1, 2, and 7 Buildings

• Published: 30 August 2012
• Volume 49 , pages 587–613, ( 2013 )

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• Therese P. McAllister 1 ,
• Fahim Sadek 1 ,
• John L. Gross 1 ,
• Jason D. Averill 1 &
• Richard G. Gann 1  

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This paper summarizes the primary structural systems that comprised World Trade Center (WTC) 1, 2, and 7, which were destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. There were four major structural subsystems in the towers: the exterior walls, the core, the floor system, and the hat truss. The major structural systems within WTC 7 were the foundation, exterior moment frames, floor system, interior columns, and column transfer trusses and girders. At the time of design and construction, the WTC towers were innovative in many ways, and resulted in a tremendous increase of open-plan commercial office space in downtown Manhattan. As the first of four papers, this paper summarizes the structural and passive fire protection features of each building, and focuses on the structural systems which played a critical role in the outcome of the attacks of September 11, 2001. Three companion papers address the effects of aircraft impact damage on the WTC towers and debris damage on WTC 7, the effects of fire on the three buildings, and how these events contributed to building collapse by describing the contribution of key structural systems to the overall building behavior and collapse, such as the floor systems and hat trusses in WTC 1 and WTC 2 and the floor connections around Column 79 in WTC 7.

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The Collapse of World Trade Center 7: Revisited

Innovative Retrofit of Existing Buildings Subjected to Blast Loading: A Case Study

Seismic collapse performance of Los Angeles soft, weak, and open-front wall line woodframe structures retrofitted using different procedures

Sources included The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and its contractors and consultants; Silverstein Properties and its contractors and consultants; the City of New York and its departments; the manufacturers and fabricators of the building components; the companies that insured the WTC towers; and building tenants.

W920 × 201 (W36 × 135) refers to a wide flange section that is nominally 920 mm (36 in) deep and weighs 201 kg/m (135 lb/ft).

Shear studs connect steel floor beams to the concrete slab so that they act compositely (together) to carry the floor loads.

Temperature reinforcement is designed to control cracking resulting from temperature differences through a concrete section due to heat of hydration and shrinkage of concrete as it cures.

Gann RG, ed. (2005) Federal building and fire safety investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster: Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers. NIST NCSTAR 1. Gaithersburg, MD

Gann RG, ed. (2008) Federal building and fire safety investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster: Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7. NIST NCSTAR 1A. Gaithersburg, MD

Lew HS, Bukowski RW, Carino NJ (2005) Federal building and fire safety investigation of the World Trade Center disaster: design, construction, and maintenance of structural and life safety systems. NIST NCSTAR 1–1. Gaithersburg, MD

McAllister TP, Gann RG, Averill JD, Gross JL, Grosshandler WL, Lawson JR, McGrattan KB, Nelson HE, Pitts WM, Prasad KR, Sadek FH (2008) Federal building and fire safety investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster: structural fire response and probable collapse sequence of World Trade Center building 7. NIST NCSTAR 1–9, Gaithersburg, MD

McAllister TP, Sadek F, Gross JL, Kirkpatrick S, MacNeill RA, Zarghamee MS, Erbay OO, Sarawit AT (2012) Structural analysis of impact damage to World Trade Center buildings 1, 2 and 7. Fire Technol (this issue)

Gann RG, Hamins A, McGrattan K., Nelson HE, Ohlemiller TJ, Prasad KR, Pitts WM (2012) Reconstruction of the fires and thermal environment in World Trade Center buildings 1, 2, and 7. Fire Technol (this issue)

McAllister TP, Gross JL, Sadek F, Kirkpatrick S, MacNeill RA, Zarghamee MS, Erbay OO, Sarawit AT (2012) Structural response of World Trade center buildings 1, 2, and 7 to impact and fire damage. Fire Technol (this issue)

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Therese P. McAllister, Fahim Sadek, John L. Gross, Jason D. Averill & Richard G. Gann

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McAllister, T.P., Sadek, F., Gross, J.L. et al. Overview of the Structural Design of World Trade Center 1, 2, and 7 Buildings. Fire Technol 49 , 587–613 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-012-0285-6

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Received : 01 December 2011

Accepted : 16 July 2012

Published : 30 August 2012

Issue Date : July 2013

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-012-0285-6

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