educational programs examples

How to Design an Educational Program

How to Write a Program Proposal

Program design offers opportunities for educators, students and the community to create educational experiences. An educational program designer stands as the hub to the wheel. The designer brings resources such as learning theories, research studies and program results. The stakeholders bring insight into the program goals, objectives and classroom activities. Design the educational program to reflect the ideas and ideals of the participants.

Compile Goals and Objectives

Brainstorm educational outcomes, goals and objectives. Consider the program goals, the general and often unmeasurable statements that guide the design. Some educational programs have the goal of enhancing literacy skills and strategies. The goal is supported by specific program objectives. The objectives for improving literacy skills may include learning to write expository essays and reading a selected book a week. Record the brainstorming of goals and objectives. Keep a notebook and pen handy and begin a word processing document. Spreadsheets, or worksheets, help to categorize goals and objectives, with spaces for dates, goals, objectives and sample activities to implement the design.

Add research elements to the educational program design process. The framework of theory, research and practice can link the program's educational assumptions, goals, objectives and activities to educational scholarship. Educational program pendulums historically swing between Plato's rationalism and Aristotle's empiricism. Like the Greek philosopher Plato, some educators emphasize the knowledge that students bring to the educational experience. Other educators consider Aristotle's belief that students learn primarily through sensory experience, such as watching the teacher demonstrate a process during class. Current educational research trends emphasize research-based course design informed by educational researchers. Strategy research shows writers and readers benefit from the process of previewing the material, monitoring progress while engaging in the material and a review upon completing the material. Prepare your design with references to educational research findings.

Implement the educational design through a pilot or initial program. Begin a log to note regular events and progress. Conduct surveys regarding the students previewing of the material, monitoring their progress while engaged with activities and reviewing their progress upon completing a section or unit. Record the students' progress through direct and frequent measurements appropriate to the goals and objectives. In the log, note modifications to the educational design. Which activities did you remove or postpone? Which activities did you add to the course design? Also note observations regarding the research-based instruction. Were any of the research studies validated in the classroom? Were any of the research studies challenged? Regularly record your observations and learner feedback on the documents and spreadsheets. Expect that not all the design will go as planned.

Create a report and reflection on the educational design process. Funding sources may require the designer to report on the educational program progress and effectiveness. Future funding may depend on clear, measurable data showing student progress. Prepare quantitative data on a spread sheet for measurable assessments, such as projects and tests. Prepare qualitative data in the form of student responses to the educational design and activities. Re-read your log for additional observations and reflections. While the information is fresh in your mind, finalize the report for informal or formal presentations. After some time has passed, revisit the report to note additional observations or information that will inform future educational program design projects.

Work with legal representatives to ensure that program design and activities comply with local, state and federal laws and guidelines.

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Teresa Dashwood began writing professionally in 1984. Ye Galleon Press published her book "Warrior of the Mist" in 1996 and 2003. Dashwood completed her Bachelor of Arts in literature and Master of Arts in teaching from Gonzaga University. She also holds a Master of Fine Arts in writing from Eastern Washington University.

Teacher-Powered Schools

• Designing a student-centered learning program

Teacher-powered governance is the most effective way to create student-centered learning programs and ultimately increase student success. By moving the decision-making to those closest to students, teachers are better able to meet the unique needs of their school community. As Krista Kaput writes in Evidence for Student-Centered Learning , “It’s time to design a system that not only sets all students up for success but that is also equitable and meets their unique needs.” Teacher-powered governance allows teams to do just this.

Your team might design an entirely new learning program and instructional approach, select from existing options, or mix new and existing elements. The Discussion Starter on instructional approaches as well as the following series of design questions will be useful:

• What is your overall philosophy about teaching and learning?
• How is that philosophy reflected in your learning program and instructional approach?
• How will these choices meet students’ needs?
• Are these choices different from options that students can access in other schools? If so, how and why?
• Is there research that backs up your choices?

Role of teachers

• What is the role of teachers in relation to student growth and learning?
• Is this role different than that of teachers in a conventionally managed school? How?
• Will teachers deliver instruction in traditional ways? Or will they act more as learning facilitators and guides? (Or a combination of both?)
• Will teachers use their time differently than teachers in conventional schools? How?
• Will teachers personalize students’ learning? How?
• How will the learning program impact teachers’ daily activities? (For example, some teachers create self-directed learning programs in which they occasionally deliver instruction in traditional ways but mostly move around the room to speak one-on-one with students who are making their own learning choices.)

Role of students

• Will students have a different role than in conventional schools? How?
• Will they be active learners, passive learners, or some of each? How?
• Will they be expected to learn non-academic as well as academic skills? What about non-cognitive and cognitive skills? How will students learn these skills?
• How will students use technology?
• Will they have access to blended learning (online learning with some control over time, place, path, and/or pace)?
• Will students make use of community and natural resources? How?
• Will they have homework?
• How will students use their time differently than in conventional schools?
• Will students have an extended day? If so, how will it be connected to the regular school day and core academics?
• Will student voice be incorporated into the learning program? How?
• Will students have any responsibility for co-creating and co-enforcing community norms? How will that relate to their learning? (See designing an approach to discipline and meeting social needs for ideas. Many teacher-powered schools consider their disciplinary approach to be part of their school’s learning program and approach to instruction.)

Revisit the Forming stage step finding inspiration and motivation for the work to learn more about teacher-powered schools’ learning programs.

EdVisions Schools: Self-directed, Project-based Learning Program

Video series. EdVisions Schools breaks down how a self-directed, project-based learning program works in practice.

A Toolkit for More and Better Learning Time

Website. If your state, district, or school has a More and Better Learning Time or Expanded Learning Time initiative, you might be able to use it as an entry point for transitioning to a teacher-powered school. This link contains tools for assessing current reality and resources for redesigning learning time that will be helpful for any teacher-powered initiative.

Seven Principles of Student-Centered Learning

Report. Learning must be designed with students at the center. That is, learning must be personalized to students' unique needs, interests, identities, and aspirations—and designed with their ideas and voices at the table. Education Evolving identified seven common principles of learning that are present when students are at the center of school design decisions.

Rethink: Planning and Designing for K-12 Next Generation Learning

Toolkit. Next Generation Learning Challenges (NGLC) and the International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL) created this resource for K-12 district, charter, and school leaders to use in the very early stages of conceptualizing and designing a next generation learning program, initiative, or whole school.

Instructional Approaches: Discussion Starters for Creating a Teacher-Powered School

Discussion Starters. Teams starting or improving a teacher-powered school should use this resource to explore how to collegially manage the teaching and learning program in a school and resist the pressure to conform to traditional school structures and instructional practices.

Innovative Schools Network: Wisconsin Teacher-Powered Schools Sample Resources for Curriculum

Website. This website contains links to a number of sample project-based learning documents from teacher-powered schools (High Marq, Valley New, and Wildlands), including project checklists, justification guides, reflection guides for students, and spreadsheets for reporting students' credits to district central offices. For teachers, there are advising guides.

Trusting Teachers with School Success: What Happens When Teachers Call the Shots, Chapter 6: on teachers’ roles (pp. 76-78)

Book. When teachers design and run schools, they tend to do so with an eye toward accommodating students’ needs and interests. This requires teachers to expand their own roles.

Trusting Teachers with School Success: What Happens When Teachers Call the Shots Chpt 6: students’ means of learning (pp. 78-79)

Book. Teacher-powered schools accommodate varying levels of readiness, aptitudes, interests, and rates of learning.

Trusting Teachers with School Success: What Happens When Teachers Call the Shots, Chapter 7

Book. Chapter 7 discusses the learning programs teachers designed and selected in 11 teacher-powered schools, all of which personalize student learning to some extent.

Finding Your Path: A Navigation Tool for Scaling Personalized, Competency-Based Learning

Toolkit. This resource is designed to help learning communities understand the conditions for sustainable systems change and to develop and advance a strategic plan for district-wide transformation to personalized, competency-based learning.

Making the Case: Compelling Data

Inventory. This growing library features data points that describe the impacts and outcomes of student-centered and competency-based approaches to teaching and learning. The data is sourced from research studies, evaluation reports and journal articles, as well as evidence collected directly by classroom, school, district and state leaders using student-centered and personalized learning approaches.

• Overview of the five stages
• Learning about teacher-powered schools
• Finding inspiration and motivation for the work
• Building a team
• Developing a 30,000-foot vision
• Developing a design team
• Determining a collaborative leadership model
• Designing the physical learning environment
• Designing assessment of student learning
• Designing a schedule
• Designing student engagement strategies
• Designing parent engagement strategies
• Designing an approach to discipline and social needs
• Creating a high-performance culture
• Developing a shared purpose
• Deciding whether to formally organize the teacher team
• Determining an approach to teacher evaluation and tenure
• Ensuring the teacher-powered team is a community of learners
• Defining budgeting processes and priorities
• Creating a strategy for attracting families
• Seeking external support
• Review sample school proposals and write your own
• Learn about securing collective teacher autonomy
• Connect with teachers in existing teacher-powered schools and get feedback on your proposal
• Developing personnel processes
• Improving how your team’s shared purpose is used in decision making
• Cultivating skills and dispositions for evaluating colleagues
• Refining skills for working in a collaborative leadership model
• Creating and refining a process for assessing school performance
• Learning skills for working unconventionally
• Bringing new team members into the existing culture
• Planning for changes in leadership
• Assessing whole school performance for continuous improvement
• Seeing your team as part of a larger community of teacher-powered schools
• Growing the teacher-powered school community
• Mobilizing the teacher-powered school community to transform teachers and teaching

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Quick Guide: Your College Degree Options

Find the right college for you.

There are generally four categories of college degrees: associate degree, bachelor’s degree, graduate degree, and doctorate or professional degree. Each category comes with its own particular subcategories, and there are some subtle differences between a doctorate and a professional degree.

If you ever find yourself lost in the sea of abbreviations for degrees, you're not alone. This quick guide is here to clear the air regarding the types of degrees available to you and what each one means.

Guide to College Degrees, Professional Studies & Certifications

Associate degree.

An associate degree is a two-year degree typically offered at community colleges, technical colleges, and career colleges. However, some four-year universities offer them as well. Examples of some associate degrees include Associate of Arts (AA) and Associate of Science (AS).

AS degrees are generally more narrowly focused and prepare students for science and math-related careers. AA degrees are broader and focus on fields outside of math and science such as liberal arts, business administration, criminal justice, and culinary arts.

Some students who earn an associate degree transfer to a four-year program to earn a bachelor’s degree. Others complete associate degrees and then go straight to work.

Bachelor's or Baccalaureate Degree

Bachelor’s degrees require students to complete four- or five-year programs in a specific academic discipline. The two most common types of bachelor’s degrees are bachelor of arts (BA) and bachelor of science (BS). Other types of bachelor’s degrees include the bachelor of fine arts (BFA), and bachelor of architecture (BArch).

Because bachelor’s degrees train students to enter a specific field, many professional careers require them. Earning a bachelor’s degree can open the door to many job opportunities and increase your potential income.

Some institutions offer a liberal arts and career combination program, also called a 3-2 program. This is a type of dual degree in which a student completes three years of liberal arts study followed by two years of professional or technical study. In the end, students earn two bachelor’s degrees, usually a BA and a BS.

An example of this is Columbia University’s 3-2 Combined Plan program in which students can earn a BA and a BS in five years.

Some colleges also let you earn a teacher certification by combining bachelor's degree study with state certification requirements. State requirements vary, but these programs usually feature professional education courses, including student teaching.

Graduate Degree

Graduate degrees are advanced degrees that some students pursue after earning a bachelor’s degree. The two most common are master of arts (MA) and master of science (MS). Other examples include master of fine arts (MFA) and master of business administration (MBA). A graduate degree is like an extension of a bachelor’s degree whereby a student further enriches their knowledge of their field and narrows their f ocus of study .

Graduate degrees usually take around two years to attain, but this can vary based on the degree. Many institutions allow students to enroll in a graduate program in a field unrelated to their bachelor’s degree. This may require some extra credit hours, though.

Professional Degree

Students earn professional degrees to become licensed to work in professions like medicine or law. The M.D. degree is an example. Professional programs generally require a college degree before you start them and then at least three years of study to complete.

Doctoral Degree and Professional Degree

The doctorate and professional degrees are the highest levels of education one can attain. They signify mastery of a subject and often come with the coveted title “doctor.” Although the two are similar, there are some important differences.

A doctorate or doctoral degree is a research-oriented degree focused on scholarly development. The most common doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). Despite the name, a PhD covers many disciplines, not just philosophy.

A professional degree is an application-oriented degree, meaning it prepares students for a specific working position. There are many types of professional degrees. Some examples are: doctor of medicine (MD), doctor of pharmacy (PharmD), and doctor of medicine in dentistry (DMD) in the field of medicine, and juris doctor (JD) and doctor of juridical science (SJD) in the field of law.

A graduate degree does not need to precede a doctorate or professional degree. Often, students will go straight into a doctorate or professional program following their bachelor’s, however some programs will require a master’s degree to gain entry. Completion can take anywhere from four to eight years, depending on the field of study.

Many doctoral students work either full-time or part-time while they study in the program. This, along with the field they are studying, will significantly affect the time it takes to complete their degree.

Joint Degrees

Some students may choose to pursue a joint degree, also known as a dual degree, which means they simultaneously study for a bachelor’s degree and a graduate degree. Joint degrees can be pursued in the same college or can be split between two different colleges. For example, Berklee College of Music and Harvard University offer a dual bachelor’s/master’s program in which a student receives a bachelor of arts (BA) at Harvard and a master of music (MM) or master of arts (MA) at Berklee.

Depending on the program, it may be possible to study at the same time for a master's degree and a doctorate. For example, the University of Southern California offers a program leading to doctor of pharmacy and master of public health degrees.

How do academic degrees go in order?

There are four types of degrees. In order of level of education, they rank as associate degree, bachelor’s degree, master’s or graduate degrees, and doctorate or professional degrees.

How many degrees are there in college?

Most community colleges offer only two-year associate degrees, while most four-year colleges offer bachelor’s, graduate, and doctorate or professional degrees. Some four-year colleges may also have associate degree programs.

How many years do you have to be in college to achieve certain degrees?

Though it will vary between academic disciplines, associate degrees usually take two years to achieve, bachelor’s degrees take four years, master’s degrees take two years, and doctorate or professional degrees can take anywhere from four to eight years.

What is an eight-year degree?

An “eight-year degree” typically refers to a doctorate degree or PhD. Although some doctorates can be completed in as little as three years, these degrees typically require more time studying highly specialized subjects. Students in these programs often must defend a dissertation while already working a professional job.

What are the four years of college called?

The first four years of college are the undergraduate years, and a student studying for a bachelor’s degree is called an undergraduate. The four years refer to the total accumulated credit hours; a student may take fewer or more than four years to attain their undergraduate degree.

What does a graduate degree mean?

A graduate degree or master’s degree is an advanced degree that some students pursue after earning a bachelor’s degree. Earning a graduate degree signifies mastery of a particular field of study and focuses more intensely on a subject than a bachelor’s degree does. Graduate degrees usually take two years to attain.

What do you call a master's student?

A master's student is called a graduate student or “grad student” for short. A student still studying for a bachelor’s degree is called an undergraduate student or “undergrad student.”

How many years is a master's degree?

Graduate degrees usually take around two years to attain, but this can vary based on the degree. Many institutions allow students to enroll in a graduate program in a field unrelated to their bachelor’s degree, although it may require some extra credit hours.

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Education programmes, discover unicef's work worldwide..

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UNICEF works day in and day out, in some of the world’s toughest places, to protect children’s rights and safeguard their futures. On the ground in over 190 countries and territories, we reach more children and young people than any other international organization. Explore our education programmes, initiatives and partnerships.

Inclusive education

Girls' education

Education in emergencies

Early childhood education

Primary education

Adolescent education and skills

Digital Education

Strengthening education systems and innovation

Global partnerships and initiatives, reimagine education.

In a world facing a learning crisis, digital learning should be an essential service. UNICEF aims to have every child and young person – some 3.5 billion by 2030 – connected to world-class digital solutions that offer personalized learning.

Learning Passport

A TIME Best Invention of 2021, the Learning Passport enables high-quality, flexible learning for children anywhere, to close the learning poverty gap.

Generation Unlimited

If the largest generation of young people in history is prepared for the transition to work, the potential for global progress is unlimited. We enable young people to become productive and engaged members of society.

The Giga Initiative was launched to connect every school to the internet and every young person to information, opportunity and choice.

Education Cannot Wait

Education Cannot Wait is the United Nations global fund for education in emergencies and protracted crises. We support and protect holistic learning outcomes so no one is left behind.

EdTech Hub is a global research partnership that empowers people by giving them the evidence they need to make decisions about technology in education.

Global Partnership for Education

GPE is the world’s only partnership and fund focused on providing quality education to children in lower-income countries.

Global Education Cluster

The Global Education Cluster works towards a predictable, equitable and well-coordinated response addressing education concerns of crisis-affected populations.

United Nations Girls' Education Initiative

Through evidence building, coordinated advocacy and collective action, the UNGEI partnership works to close the gender gap in education.

All in School

In collaboration with the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, this initiative provides governments with actionable data to identify barriers that lead to exclusion and develop policies and programmes that put more children on track to complete their education.

Children call for access to quality climate education

On Earth Day, UNICEF urges governments to empower every child with learning opportunities to be a champion for the planet

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Empowering teachers at the forefront of the learning crisis

Climate action for a climate-smart world

UNICEF and partners are monitoring, innovating and collaborating to tackle the climate crisis

The inspiring journey of Steward Francis

How education transformed the life of a South Sudanese child refugee

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There are many challenges to providing high-quality education to children around the world. Poverty, conflict, inequalities, and other impediments can mean millions of kids don’t get a fair shot at entering and succeeding in school.

Read More: 9 Facts to Know About Education Around the World

Thankfully, some of the most creative people around the world are putting their minds to the task of overcoming these problems.

All around the world, educators are finding innovative ways to ensure children have access to the education on which bright futures are built. Global Citizen campaigns on the United Nations’ Global Goals for Sustainable Development , and providing access to quality education is goal number four. You can take action on this issue here .

Take Action: 263 Million Children Need Help Getting in the Classroom

Check out six of the most creative approaches to education happening all over the planet below.

1/ Office of African-American Male Achievement - Oakland, CA

In the Oakland Unified School District, African-American males face a series of unique challenges to their education. They are at the highest risk of dropping out of high school, represent the highest number of chronic absences, and are disproportionately susceptible to violence, among other factors .

All of these facts led to the creation of the Office of African American Male Achievement ( OAAMA ) in 2010, an administrative body dedicated to improving academic and life outcomes for African-American youth in Oakland. This program was the first of its kind in the US, despite the fact that young black men face similar educational challenges around the country.

This revolutionary program was developed to meet the specific needs of African-American males by partnering with community leaders, parents, district staff, and educators. OAAMA works with youth during after school classes and programs aimed at empowering their academic achievement, while working at the institutional level to research and reform policies that benefit Oakland’s most vulnerable subgroup.

2/ eLearning - Sudan, Africa

“eLearning,” an innovative program developed by education NGO War Child Holland seeks to bring educational opportunities to children whose schooling has been disrupted by violent conflict. Piloted in Sudan, the program is being developed to scale up to other violence-stricken regions of the world, where it is estimated that over 30 million children are denied schooling due to conflict .

eLeaning Sudan is all about teaching children basic mathematics to students in their own villages. When conflict occurs, children may be denied the opportunity to travel outside their communities for schooling- this program allows kids to continue learning even when their are no teachers through the use of specially designed education programs to be learned via tablet devices.

Making education fun, and more importantly accessible, can make a huge difference when children live in areas lacking basic institutional structures due to conflict. In creating educational pathways that can be deployed without the need for these structures, eLearning could be an important first step in patching access to education for victims of conflict worldwide.

3/ Lively Minds’ Play Schemes - Ghana, Africa

Educational charity Lively Minds developed this creative program to help pre-school aged youth in Ghana develop early interest in education through the use of games called Play Schemes. Without even knowing that they are learning, young children play games that teach them fundamental skills necessary to entering into formal education systems.

Serving up to 160 children per week, Play Schemes works by dividing participants into cooperative groups as they rotate through a series of challenges designed to improve the intellectual, language, and socio-emotional skills necessary for school-readiness.

Play Schemes also incorporates lessons of health and hygiene into their curriculum for children, with special lessons delivered to mothers as well. Lively Mind’s is easy to set up, and relies on locally made resources to ensure their program can be replicated in almost any area.

4/ Literacy Education and Math Labs - Colombia, Panama, Dominican Republic

Team work, communication, critical thinking. Literacy beyond phonics. pic.twitter.com/5FjmIZ0lvR — Literacy4All (@L4AOrg) March 16, 2017

The ability to read and write is absolutely essential to securing high-quality education no matter where you live. The Literacy Education and Math Labs ( LEMA ) system, developed by non-profit Literacy4All , was designed to be a replicable program pushing children to develop reading, writing, and math skills all over the world.

Over one in four adults around the world cannot read, and in low-income countries, it is estimated that over 171 million people could be lifted out of poverty with only this basic skill, according to Literacy4All’s website . Learning these skills begins in childhood, and through programs like LEMA it is possible to break the global poverty cycle through education.

“Learning Coaches” are recruited and trained to run these fun programs where students learn by playing educational games. The system has a proven track record of improving reading, math, and writing schools through the use of their board-game learning approach.

5/ More Than Money - Nigeria, Africa

Created by Junior Achievement Nigeria back in 1999, this urban education program seeks to teach children in fourth, fifth, and sixth grade all about responsible money management. Focusing on issues like saving money, opening a bank account, and even some fundamentals of business management, this program seeks to bridge the gap between the classroom and the workplace.

Work-readiness is an important educational outcome in Nigeria, and as such this program is heavily focused on getting students to think about what it takes to operate a business. The program’s curriculum moves from basic financial literacy, to simple business economics, then eventually covers more nuanced topics like business ethics.

What’s really cool about this program is that its success led to the eventual development of an app, built to educate anyone who is interested in the same messages, regardless of where they are in the world.

6/ Sra Prou Vocational School - Sra Prou Village, Cambodia

This educational project is innovative in that the creation of an educational building became a part of the education itself. The school, developed by Finnish architectural firm Architects Rudanko + Kankkunen in 2011, was crafted using local techniques and materials by villagers. The idea was that in creating the building, many of these workers would develop the skills needed to engage in other construction projects down the line.

In helping to build the vocational center, which now doubles as a general meeting spot and place of democratic decision making for villagers, those engaged in the project equipped themselves with sharable knowledge that they could then teach to others in the new building.

The project cleverly brought together design, community building, and natural resource management to create a cycle of education that will provide job training for generations to come.

Defeat Poverty

These 6 Education Programs Are Changing How People Learn Around the World

Oct. 31, 2017

• Our Mission

Big Ideas for Better Schools: Ten Ways to Improve Education

Ideas for students, teachers, schools, and communities.

Fourteen years ago The George Lucas Educational Foundation was created to celebrate and encourage innovation in schools. Since then we have discovered many creative educators, business leaders, parents, and others who were making positive changes not only from the top down but also from the bottom up. Since that time we have been telling their stories through our Web site, our documentary films, and Edutopia magazine.

Along the way, we listened and learned. Nothing is simple when strengthening and invigorating such a vast and complex institution as our educational system, but common ideas for improvement emerged. We've distilled those into this ten-point credo.

In the coming year, we will publish a series of essays that further explores each aspect of this agenda, with the hope that those on the frontlines of education can make them a part of their schools.

1. Engage : Project-Based Learning Students go beyond the textbook to study complex topics based on real-world issues, such as the water quality in their communities or the history of their town, analyzing information from multiple sources, including the Internet and interviews with experts. Project-based classwork is more demanding than traditional book-based instruction, where students may just memorize facts from a single source. Instead, students utilize original documents and data, mastering principles covered in traditional courses but learning them in more meaningful ways. Projects can last weeks; multiple projects can cover entire courses. Student work is presented to audiences beyond the teacher, including parents and community groups.

Reality Check : At the Clear View Charter School, in Chula Vista, California, fourth- and fifth-grade students collected insect specimens, studied them under an electron microscope via a fiber-optic link to a nearby university, used Internet resources for their reports, and discussed their findings with university entomologists.

2. Connect : Integrated Studies Studies should enable students to reach across traditional disciplines and explore their relationships, like James Burke described in his book Connections. History, literature, and art can be interwoven and studied together. Integrated studies enable subjects to be investigated using many forms of knowledge and expression, as literacy skills are expanded beyond the traditional focus on words and numbers to include graphics, color, music, and motion.

Reality Check : Through a national project called Nature Mapping, fourth-grade students in rural Washington learn reading, writing, mathematics, science, and technology use while searching for rare lizards.

3. Share : Cooperative Learning Working together on project teams and guided by trained teachers, students learn the skills of collaborating, managing emotions, and resolving conflicts in groups. Each member of the team is responsible for learning the subject matter as well as helping teammates to learn. Cooperative learning develops social and emotional skills, providing a valuable foundation for their lives as workers, family members, and citizens.

Reality Check : In Eeva Reeder's tenth-grade geometry class at Mountlake Terrace High School, near Seattle, student teams design "schools of the future" while mentoring with local architects. They manage deadlines and resolve differences to produce models, budgets, and reports far beyond what an individual student could accomplish.

4. Expand : Comprehensive Assessment Assessment should be expanded beyond simple test scores to instead provide a detailed, continuous profile of student strengths and weaknesses. Teachers, parents, and individual students can closely monitor academic progress and use the assessment to focus on areas that need improvement. Tests should be an opportunity for students to learn from their mistakes, retake the test, and improve their scores.

Reality Check: At the Key Learning Community, in Indianapolis, teachers employ written rubrics to assess students' strengths and weaknesses using categories based on Howard Gardner's concept of multiple intelligences, including spatial, musical, and interpersonal skills.

5. Coach : Intellectual and Emotional Guide The most important role for teachers is to coach and guide students through the learning process, giving special attention to nurturing a student's interests and self-confidence. As technology provides more curricula, teachers can spend less time lecturing entire classes and more time mentoring students as individuals and tutoring them in areas in which they need help or seek additional challenges.

Reality Check : Brooklyn fifth-grade teacher Sarah Button uses exercises and simulations from the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program with her students, helping them learn empathy, cooperation, positive expression of feelings, and appreciation of diversity.

6. Learn : Teaching as Apprenticeship Preparation for a teaching career should follow the model of apprenticeships, in which novices learn from experienced masters. Student teachers should spend less time in lecture halls learning educational theory and more time in classrooms, working directly with students and master teachers. Teaching skills should be continually sharpened, with time to take courses, attend conferences, and share lessons and tips with other teachers, online and in person.

Reality Check : Online communities such as Middle Web, the Teacher Leaders Network, and the Teachers Network bring novice and expert educators together in a Web-based professional community. The online mentorship gives novice teachers access to accomplished practitioners eager to strengthen the profession at its roots.

7. Adopt : Technology The intelligent use of technology can transform and improve almost every aspect of school, modernizing the nature of curriculum, student assignments, parental connections, and administration. Online curricula now include lesson plans, simulations, and demonstrations for classroom use and review. With online connections, students can share their work and communicate more productively and creatively. Teachers can maintain records and assessments using software tools and stay in close touch with students and families via email and voicemail. Schools can reduce administrative costs by using technology tools, as other fields have done, and provide more funds for the classroom.

Reality Check : Students in Geoff Ruth's high school chemistry class at Leadership High School, in San Francisco, have abandoned their textbooks. Instead, they plan, research, and implement their experiments using material gathered online from reliable chemistry resources.

8. Reorganize : Resources Resources of time, money, and facilities must be restructured. The school day should allow for more in-depth project work beyond the 45-minute period, including block scheduling of classes two hours or longer. Schools should not close for a three-month summer vacation, but should remain open for student activities, teacher development, and community use. Through the practice of looping, elementary school teachers stay with a class for two or more years, deepening their relationships with students. More money in school districts should be directed to the classroom rather than the bureaucracy.

New school construction and renovation should emphasize school design that supports students and teachers collaborating in teams, with pervasive access to technology. Schools can be redesigned to also serve as community centers that provide health and social services for families, as well as counseling and parenting classes.

Reality Check : The school year at the Alice Carlson Applied Learning Center, in Fort Worth, Texas, consists of four blocks of about nine weeks each. Intersession workshops allow its K-5 students time for hands-on arts, science, and computer projects or sports in addition to language arts and math enrichment.

Communities

9. Involve : Parents When schoolwork involves parents, students learn more. Parents and other caregivers are a child's first teachers and can instill values that encourage school learning. Schools should build strong alliances with parents and welcome their active participation in the classroom. Educators should inform parents of the school's educational goals, the importance of high expectations for each child, and ways of assisting with homework and classroom lessons.

Reality Check : In the Sacramento Unified School District, teachers make home visits to students' families. Teachers gain a better understanding of their students' home environment, and parents see that teachers are committed to forging closer home-school bonds. If English is not spoken in the home, translators accompany the teachers.

10. Include : Community Partners Partnerships with a wide range of community organizations, including business, higher education, museums, and government agencies, provide critically needed materials, technology, and experiences for students and teachers. These groups expose students and teachers to the world of work through school-to-career programs and internships. Schools should enlist professionals to act as instructors and mentors for students.

Reality Check : At the Minnesota Business Academy, in St. Paul, businesses ranging from a newspaper to a stock brokerage to an engineering firm provide internships for three to four hours per day, twice each week. BestPrep, a philanthropic state business group, spearheaded an effort that renovated an old science building for school use.

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Home > Books > The Essence of Academic Performance

Developing and Evaluating Educational Programs

Submitted: 13 May 2019 Reviewed: 06 September 2019 Published: 13 November 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.89574

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The chapter describes a system for the development and evaluation of educational programs (e.g., individual courses or whole programs). The system describes steps that reflect best practices. The early stages in development (planning, design, development, implementation) are described briefly. The final stage (evaluation) is described in more detail. The evaluation step is a four-tiered process based on the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick model and a performance indexing measurement system of Tatum and Nebeker. The chapter should be a valuable guide for teachers, program directors, and department chairs in their efforts to create and maintain quality educational experiences and high levels of student learning.

• educational programs
• curriculum development
• course evaluation
• program evaluation
• student learning

Author Information

B. charles tatum *.

• Department of Psychology, College of Letters and Sciences, National University, La Jolla, CA, USA

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Most educational endeavors (e.g., producing curricula, programs, courses) follow a pretty standard set of activities for the purpose of educating students as shown in Figure 1 . The chapter will rely mostly on college and university curriculum examples, but this does not exclude primary and secondary schools. Think of this as a roadmap. Like any roadmap, it is not the only way to get from Point A to Point B, but it will show the landscape and road signs from which to navigate through the process of creating new and better educational experiences for students. This chapter will briefly describe the first four phases of the process, and then focus in more detail on the evaluation phase. The emphasis on the evaluation phase is in line with current trends in education that view student learning and success as essential to academic performance.

Sequence of activities in educational planning, designing, developing, implementing and evaluating programs and courses.

2. Phase I: planning

Planning is the first of five phases in creating an educational experience (e.g., an individual course, an academic program). Planning includes a set of data gathering and assessment activities aimed at helping to decide whether or not to proceed to the design, development, implementation, and evaluation phases. The output of the planning phase should be a written concept proposal that makes an academic case for proceeding to the subsequent phases. This planning document can then be submitted to the appropriate approval structures (e.g., principal, department chair, dean, academic committee).

A planning document needs to cover several areas, including but not limited to, a mission statement, a needs analysis, required resources, benchmark assessments, general target competencies and/or outcomes, and an evaluation plan. Before proceeding to the design phase, a few words should be said about the distinction between competencies and outcomes and the evaluation plan.

2.1 Competencies

Competencies refer to a general set of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal traits (e.g., attitudes, ethics, interests) that predict behavior in a wide variety of situations. Competencies provide the student with an integrated “mental model” of the current state and evolving standards of the field: [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Examples of competencies include problem solving ability, communication skills, personal and professional ethics, and values, to name just a few.

2.2 Outcomes

Outcomes come in two varieties: program learning outcomes (PLOs) and course learning outcomes (CLOs). Learning outcomes tend to be more specific than competencies, with PLOs representing broad program objectives and CLOs representing specific ways in which a particular course meets those objectives [ 9 ]. Learning outcomes should be expressed as observable, behavioral outcomes (i.e., what the student is expected to do), and typically include an action verb and a target content area. The action verb is often taken from Bloom’s taxonomy [ 10 , 11 ] that ranges from low level actions (e.g., remember, understand) to high level actions (produce, construct). For example, a PLO might be: A graduate of this program will be able to evaluate research designs and construct research projects. A CLO for a research course in the program might be: At the completion of this class, the student will be able to identify the major designs from Campbell and Stanley [ 12 ]. Another CLO for the same class might be: At the completion of this class, the student will be able to create a research project using one of the Campbell and Stanley designs.

2.3 Evaluation plan

An important element in any planning document is an answer to the question: What will be used as evidence that a program or course was successful? One highly researched and successful approach addressing this question comes from the model proposed by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick [ 13 ]. The model identifies four evaluation levels as shown in Table 1 . These levels are (a) reaction: participant satisfaction and self-assessment of learning, (b) learning: the learners’ knowledge and skill improvement, (c) behavior: transfer of learned skills to other areas (e.g., jobs or future classes), and (d) results: impact on the institutions success and improvement. Often, educators seem satisfied with only assessing the first two of these levels (reaction and learning). The last two (behavior and results), however, may be even more essential to academic performance. The last two levels go beyond just learning, and assess what students can do and how this contributes to a more general measure of educational success.

Sample outline of an evaluation plan with Kirkpatricks’ four levels.

3. Phase II: design

The design phase involves creating a general structure for later development (see [ 14 , 15 ]). Completing these steps will help guide the next phase (Development). Several actions should be taken such as (a) establish time frames for the future phases, (b) specify desired competencies or learning outcomes, (c) identify learning and performance activities that demonstrate successful achievement of the competencies/outcomes, (d) set prerequisites (e.g., students taking Algebra II must have completed Algebra I, students enrolled in a college program must have a high school diploma), (e) determine the major administrative concerns, and (f) decide what data can be collected that will reflect the four Kirkpatrick levels (see Table 1 for some suggestions).

Who is the primary point of contact (POC)?

To whom are the applications submitted?

How will candidates and participants be kept informed?

How will prerequisites be assessed?

Who will ensure the application materials are complete?

Who reviews and approves the applications?

When and where will training be conducted?

Where will the student records (e.g., attendance, course completion, start dates) be kept?

What budget will pay for the support personnel?

How will exams be administered?

How will exams be secured?

Who will write, proctor, and grade the exams?

Where, when, and how will skills training be conducted?

What corrective action steps will be used and who will monitor this process?

What awards and or recognitions will be issued?

Who will oversee ongoing program maintenance?

What sources of data are required to assess the Kirkpatrick four levels and how will they be obtained?

4. Phase III: development

The Development phase described below explains the steps required to produce an educational practice that is ready for implementation (Phase IV). The development phase can generally be carried out in two steps.

4.1 Select and develop learning and performance activities

This step builds on the work completed earlier under Design (identifying learning and performance activities). This is where the actual learning and training activities are generated and matched to the learning outcomes/competencies. There are two, not mutually exclusive, options for achieving this step: (a) find relevant learning and performance activities from external sources, and (b) select or develop these activities in-house.

Procuring the relevant activities from an external source is far less time consuming than developing them in-house. The principal disadvantage is that the learning opportunities offered by outside sources may not be entirely suitable for the curriculum (i.e., the activities may not address the outcomes and competencies in the most direct and relevant fashion).

Selecting and developing the learning and performance activities in-house allows for customized experiences that can target specific knowledge, skills, and abilities. Home-grown educational experiences have the advantage of being directly relevant to the outcomes and competencies identified for the curriculum. The disadvantage of this customized approach is that it can be very specialized and may require a high degree of instructional design expertise and technical skill to develop.

4.2 Establish tests and measures of outcomes/competencies

Participant satisfaction ratings

Participant self-assessment of learning

Course grades

Class quiz scores

Midterm and final exam scores

Instructor ratings of class assignments

Final project/thesis evaluation

Supervisor’s assessment ratings

Peer evaluations

Self-review of functional skills

Expert ratings of oral presentations

Simulation/game scores

Skill exercise observations

Panel review recommendations

Portfolio analyses

When an adequate set of existing assessment tools cannot be located from external sources, then customize tests and measures must be developed. When developing custom-assessment items, two important criteria must be met—reliability and validity [ 16 ]. A reliable assessment is one that is consistent. A valid assessment is one that is accurate. The first criterion (reliability) is generally established by showing that the test or measure is stable over time (e.g., repeated use of class quizzes yield consistent scores). The second criterion (validity) assures that the tests or measures accurately evaluate what they are intended to appraise. There are several techniques for ensuring the validity of tests and measures, but the most common validity check is to use Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) who closely examine the tests and measures and form a consensus that these tools in fact reflect the relevant outcomes or competencies.

5. Phase IV: implementation

After a course or program has been developed, it is ready to be implemented. There is no standardized process for implementation, but educational institutions have developed and implemented initiatives across a wide variety of disciplines and there is a large body of common practices to draw from: [ 14 , 15 , 17 , 18 ]. In general, there are at least four steps involved in a standard implementation.

5.1 Conduct pilot studies

A pilot study is a “pre-study” conducted as a dry-run prior to launching the full effort. The study should be on a much smaller scale than the full curriculum (e.g., fewer students, less costly technology, fewer classes), but still preserve the essence of the program.

5.2 Refine essential elements

The results of the pilot study should be examined and lessons learned should be noted. Specifically, at least the following elements need to be reviewed and modifications made.

5.2.1 Outcomes/competencies

Are these the right outcomes or competencies for this curriculum? Should more be added? Should some be deleted?

5.2.2 Time frames

Is the timing of events (course duration, project times, testing schedules) optimal? Where can changes occur?

5.2.3 Prerequisites

Were the correct prerequisites identified? Should some be added? Should some be removed?

5.2.4 Administrative procedures

Was the administration of the pilot study efficient? Where were the administrative bottlenecks and glitches? How can these be improved?

5.2.5 Learning and performance activities

Did the learning and performance activities produce the intended outcomes? Should new activities be added? Should some activities be discarded? Can improvements be made to the existing set of activities?

5.2.6 Tests and measures

Did the knowledge tests and performance measures assess the outcomes and competencies of the students as expected? What adjustments should be made?

5.2.7 Data collection

Are the data collected easily obtained and in a usable form? Can clear conclusions be drawn from these data?

5.3 Market the initiative

To help ensure success, a marketing plan should be devised to advertise the program and recruit students. The following items should be considered: (a) identify the target audience, (b) align the marketing objectives with the curriculum objectives, (c) create a communication plan, (d) publish a schedule, and (e) use specific institutional marketing techniques (e.g., fact sheets, web and electronic media, newsletter, brochures, communication networks, open house events, personal visits to potential recruiting venues).

5.4 Launch full curriculum

In this step, the program gets implemented in accordance with the pilot study modifications.

6. Phase V: evaluation

After the course or program has been implemented, it must be evaluated for effectiveness. This evaluation should be driven by some formal model such as the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick model [ 13 ] shown in Table 1 . If the Kirkpatrick’s model is adopted, then data are required that assess each of the four levels. If the evaluation is for a single course, then the tests and measures will be mainly, but not exclusively, relevant to level 2 (learning). If the evaluation is for an entire program, then all the levels should be assessed (as shown in Figure 3 to be discussed below). I’ll begin with the evaluation of a single course, and show one possible approach.

6.1 Evaluating a course

Once the knowledge tests and performance measures have been administered to students in a class, each person should have a set of relatively objective scores. These scores, when combined, should show how successful the student was with regard to the class outcomes. The approach illustrated here is based on “performance indexing” developed by Tatum and Nebeker [ 19 ]. Performance indexing is a system for combining and weighting a set of scores and generating an overall index. Performance indexing has been employed successfully in fields outside of education (e.g., real estate, environmental quality management, organizational improvement), but can be used just as effectively in an educational setting. The weighting feature is especially useful because it takes into account how valuable each test or measure is in the overall assessment. If, for example, in a biology class, mid-term and final exam performance is more important than homework, this difference will be reflected in the final index. Often, the degree of importance is reflected by the number of points that can be earned by each assignment. Performance indexing offers a more sophisticated system for balancing performance and getting at the essence of student learning. An example of performance indexing used in a hypothetical class is shown in Figure 2 .

A performance index table used to assign a final course grade to a single student in a hypothetical class.

There are several steps to developing and using performance indexing (for a more complete discussion of the topic see Tatum and Nebeker [ 19 ]). The most essential features are (a) each test or measure is given a weight according to its importance in the assessment, and (b) an overall index score is generated from the weighted values (e.g., 370–400 is outstanding performance). Table 2 is a step-by-step guide for building and using the performance index table in Figure 2 .

Steps for building and using a performance index table.

6.2 Evaluating a program

A program (e.g. clinical psychology, biology, history) is designed so that students graduate having met certain competencies or PLOs. Whether the program uses competencies or PLOs is a matter of preference, but regardless of this choice, the CLOs must be designed to meet one or more of these competencies or PLOs. When students successfully complete all of courses in the program, they will have satisfied the expected objectives of the program and will leave with specific knowledge, skills, abilities and other desired characteristics (e.g., attitudes, personal ethics, interests).

Figure 3 is an example of how performance indexing can be used to evaluate an entire program (as opposed to a specific course within that program as shown above in Figure 2 ). Developing an index table for a program involves basically the same steps outline in Table 2 , with a few modifications. The evaluation measures (shown in the diagonal spaces) are based on the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick [ 13 ] levels (see Table 1 ), which are shown at the top of the Figure 3 . The specific evaluation measures will vary from program to program, but each measure should fall into one of the levels. For example, level 1 (reaction) is supposed to indicate the students’ satisfaction rating of the program and an assessment of how much they think they have learned. These ratings can be obtained from each class or as part of an exit survey at the end of the program. Level 2 (learning) is intended to reveal, on a more objective basis, how much the students learned (in this case based on grades, ratings of acquired skills, and test scores average across classes). Level 2 is closely tied to the competencies or PLOs of the program. Level 3 (behavior) is an indication of the degree to which the program changed the student’s behavior and the extent to which the student can transfer this behavior to other settings (e.g., did they learn valuable job skills, did the acquire knowledge and skills in prerequisite classes that they can apply to future classes?). Although level 3 is normally associated with assessing an entire program, it is still possible to include behavioral measures at the course level. For example, Figure 2 shows an “internship supervisor rating” as an essential measure of the student’s ability to apply what was learned. Finally, level 4 (results) is supposed to show that the program had a positive impact on the current success and future improvement of the institution (e.g., local school, school district, college). Evidence for positive results can be demonstrated by a variety of data such as graduation rates, employment success, advancement to higher levels of education, or ratings by external agencies. Level 4 measures are not common among educational institutions when evaluating individual programs (although these data are routinely collected at higher levels), but they should be. To capture the essence of academic performance, we must assess the degree to which our programs contribute to the general success and welfare of the broader academic community.

A performance index table used to evaluate a hypothetical academic program.

Once the final index is computed, the overall success of the program can be evaluated. In the hypothetical program depicted in Figure 3 , the index score of 300 indicates that the program is above average. A close examination of Figure 3 will also reveal where the program is performing well (students rate their learning and job skills as exceptional, the program gets an exceptionally high rating by external agencies) and where it requires improvement (test scores are low, there is a low percentage of students finding jobs or advancing to other programs).

7. Concluding remarks

The phases and steps advocated here are obviously a mechanistic (non-theoretical) approach. It resembles Tyler’s [ 20 ] thinking about curricular design more than contemporary thought (e.g., [ 21 , 22 ]). There is nothing wrong with a more mechanical approach. In fact, the phases and steps proposed in this article are not incompatible with modern views of education such as the sharing of common goals [ 23 ], scaffolding [ 24 ], or the spiral curriculum [ 25 ]. At some point, however, we need to find and follow a path towards building an educational program, and this roadmap shows us the way without too many detours.

Academic performance has been the focus of much research and interest during the past few years. Initiatives such as No Child Left Behind [ 26 ] and Race to the Top [ 27 ] have generated much debate and concern regarding the components of academic performance [ 28 ] and the optimal methods for assessing learning and success [ 29 ]. This chapter proposes a method for developing and evaluating courses and programs that gets at the heart of academic performance in five phases (i.e., planning, design, development, implementation, and evaluation). The first four phases are a prelude to what the author considers the true essence of academic performance; namely, the identification and measurement of performance indicators. This chapter presents an evaluation model (based on [ 13 , 19 ]) that guides the user down a well-traveled road that leads, in the end, to a quantitative understanding of student course performance and program success. In the inimitable words of Peter Drucker: You can’t manage what you can’t measure .

Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge the valued assistance of Dr. Don T. Sine for his support and critique of parts of this research and manuscript.

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Evaluations of Educational Practice, Programs, Projects, Products, and Policies

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There are well-established evaluation methods that can be applied to programs, projects, products, practice, and policies in many domains. However, evaluations of educational efforts and technologies to support learning, instruction, and performance have received less support than in other domains such as health care or marketing. Education is a complex enterprise which makes the evaluation of efforts to improve education a challenge. The importance of conducting evaluations and constructing a body of knowledge with regard to what works (and what does not work) and when and why in education is important for progressive development and ongoing improvement in learning, instruction, and performance. This contribution describes what is known in general about a variety of evaluation approaches, and it summarizes findings pertinent to the evaluation of interventions and innovations in education, especially those involving technology. Both formative and summative evaluations are addressed, with particular emphasis on formative evaluations, as they are generally more complex. The use of a logic model is described. Fidelity of implementation and impact studies are illustrated. The relationship between evaluation studies and research is also discussed.

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Spector, J.M. (2023). Evaluations of Educational Practice, Programs, Projects, Products, and Policies. In: Spector, M.J., Lockee, B.B., Childress, M.D. (eds) Learning, Design, and Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17727-4_1-2

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What Are the Different Types of Educational Programs for Children?

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There are so many different educational programs for children, and these are taught in a variety of formats to kids of many ages. They begin with early learning opportunities such as those offered in preschool programs, or even earlier with early reading taped programs for infants and toddlers. Opportunities progress as children grow so that kids may explore a number of extracurricular interests or enhance skills needed in the school environment.

In early years, and though educational value may be debated, there are many television shows that are viewed as educational for children. Some of these integrate early reading and math skills, and others may focus more on storytelling or teaching of ethics and manners. These small basic steps actually play a huge part as a child eventually transitions to learning more complex concepts like statistics or precalculus . So as early as now, make sure you're checking every learning material before you let your kids consume them so that it doesn't affect their ability to learn later on. Certain televised or taped programs are set up to promote early learning specifically, or to accomplish certain goals like teaching very young children to read. These are often purchased in sets and can be quite expensive.

Parents may want a less televised approach when they choose educational programs for children and there are many preschools and nursery schools that focus on early childhood education. These are viewed as separate from daycare situations, though some daycares do have strong early learning programs. The principal difference between the two tends to be that preschool is more likely to have a focus on learning skills students might need for kindergarten readiness, and they usually feature shorter days or attendance only a few days a week.

When children are in formal school settings, such as the primary grades, educational programs for children don’t stop. In fact, with many schools now so focused on meeting state standards, they may be needed more than ever to create a well-rounded education. For instance, there are several disciplines of Mathematics that vary in complexity and difficulty. Different educational programs will allow them to explore these areas in the most conducive way without compromising their ability to learn other things. Certain hallmarks of early primary school, such as experimentation with art and music, have often been dropped or reduced in favor of focus on reading and math.

Parents may need to find programs that can augment skills that aren’t receiving much attention. Some schools have enrichment classes, offered at low prices, where kids can explore artistic or musical gifts, and these programs could have other potential classes such as those in drama, foreign languages, interpretation of literature, chess, or even sports. Enrichment classes can provide an outlet for students to explore their talents and gifts, and they can also help them develop skills in reading or writing that they may not get a chance to develop in a regular class setting. Parents can decide when and if these classes or ones offered through private education institutions are appropriate to their kids.

Educational programs for children may take the form of acquiring better study skills too. Many private learning companies offer tutoring or specific work on learning some aspect of school curriculum. Sometimes schools, recreation centers, or groups like the YMCA® offer these too. Cost frequently depends on the business running it, and can be expected to be very high in formal tutoring or learning schools and much lower if offered by community agencies.

Parents should also weigh timing of enrolling students in these kinds of educational programs for children, especially if a child is already struggling at school. If you think hiring a Trigonometry tutor for your kid is helpful, you should do that. However, you must be sensitive and attentive to your child's current workload at school so you don't add unnecessary stress that will further affect their learning. Even the best intended tutoring/teaching could end up creating a greater workload than a child can handle. Summer enrollment might be a better alternative.

When learning the basics is not the issue, parents can look to more enrichment classes for their children. For example, geometry subjects  can be slowly introduced through these programs until such a time when upgrading is necessary. Many kids want to take a specific martial art, play soccer, interpret literature, really want to play a specific instrument, or just want to learn something new. Private and community organizations have lots of these learning opportunities available for the older child. These will vary in price, length, skill of teachers and many other factors, but they can considerably augment school curriculum.

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• What is Pre-Kindergarten?
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