essay on autism spectrum disorder

Autism - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication. Essays could explore the causes, symptoms, and treatment of autism, the experiences of individuals with autism, and societal understanding and acceptance of autism. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Autism you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Rain Man and Autism

The film Rain man was released into theaters in 1988 and was awarded many awards along with an Academy Award. The movie starts off by showing Charlie who works as a car salesman, attempting to close on a deal involving four Lamborghinis. Charlie decides to drive with his girlfriend Susanna to ensure that this deal goes through. On the drive over Charlie receives a call telling him that his father has just passed away. Charlie and his girlfriend go his […]

Applied Behavior Analysis and its Effects on Autism

Abstract During my research i have found several studies that have been done to support the fact that Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) does in fact make a positive impact on children with Autism through discrete trials. It is based on the thought that when a child is rewarded for a positive behavior or correct social interaction the process will want to be repeated. Eventually one would phase out the reward. Dr Lovaas, who invented this method, has spent his career […]

The Unique Parenting Challenges are Faced by the Parents of Special Children

Introduction For typical children, parenting experiences are shared by other parents whereas the unique parenting challenges are faced by the parents of special children. Mobility and Inclusion of the parents as well as children are affected many a times. Even though careful analysis often reveals abilities, habitual tendency to perceive the disabilities from society’s part often hinders effective normalization and proper rehabilitation. All impose severe identity crisis and role restrictions even in knowledgeable parents.. In some conditions, as in the […]

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Autism in Japanese Manga and its Significance on Current Progression in J-pop Culture

Abstract In this paper I will explore and examine Autism in Manga, the social and cultural context of Autism in Manga, its movement, and importance of Tobe Keiko’s, “With the Light.” Manga is a huge part of Japanese culture and can be appreciated by so many different people. There are different types of Manga that have been specifically produced for that type of audience. In this paper, I will address the less talked about, women’s Manga or also known as […]

Speech Therapist for Autism

Abstract Autism Spectrum Disorder is a condition that consists of various challenges to an individual such as social skills, nonverbal communication, repetitive behaviors and difficulties with speech. So far doctors have not been able to find out what causes autism although it is believed that it involves both environmental and genetic factors. Autism can usually be detected at an early age, therefore giving the patient and therapist an early start to improve their verbal skills. Speech language pathologists also known […]

Virtual Reality in Regards to Health and how it Can be Life-Changing

        Exploring Virtual Reality in Health Diego Leon Professor Ron Frazier October 29, 2018, Introduction When most individuals think of technology involving computers, they think it can solely involve two of the five senses we humans have – vision (sight) and hearing (audition). But what if we could interact with more than two sensorial channels? Virtual reality deals with just that. Virtual reality is defined as a “high-end user interface that involves real-time simulation and interaction through […]

Growing up with Autism

Autism is a profound spectrum disorder; symptoms, as well as severity, range. It is one of the fastest-growing developmental disorders in America. For every 68 children born in the United States, 1 is diagnosed with a neurological development disorder that impairs their ability to interact and communicate on what we constitute as normal levels. Autism is multifaceted; it affects the brain development of millions worldwide. Not only are those diagnosed on the Autism Spectrum facing difficulties, but the family members […]

Kids with Autism

In this earth we have many different lifeforms. Animals, plants, insects, and people. Humans have populated the earth all throughout it. Some people are born healthy and some are born will disorders and illnesses and diseases. One of the disorders is Autism. Autism is constantly affecting the people who have it and the people around them all over the world. So what is Autism? Autism is a disorder that impairs the ability for social interaction and communication. It is very […]

My Personal Experience of Getting to Know Asperger’s Syndrome

The beginning of this paper covers the history of Asperger’s Syndrome, followed by an explanation of what Asperger’s is. The history provides detailed insights into Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner, and their relationship to each other. Their work has significantly enriched our understanding of the research surrounding Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome. The paper also discusses the process leading to Asperger’s becoming a recognized diagnosis, including the contributions of Lorna Wing and Ulta Frita. Furthermore, it traces Asperger’s entry into the […]

Cultural Stereotypes and Autism Disorder

“It’s the fastest growing developmental disability, autism” (Murray, 2008, p.2). “It is a complex neurological disorder that impedes or prevents effective verbal communication, effective social interaction, and appropriate behavior” (Ennis-Cole, Durodoye, & Harris, 2013). “Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong disorder that may have comorbid conditions like attention deficit disorder (ADD)/attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety disorder, stereotypical and self-stimulatory behaviors, insomnia, intellectual disabilities, obsessive compulsive disorder, seizure disorder/epilepsy, Tourette syndrome, Tic disorders, gastrointestinal problems, and other conditions. Another certainty, […]

Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a cognitive disability that affects a person’s “communication, social, verbal, and motor skills” . The umbrella term of ASD created in 2013 by the American Psychiatric Association that covered 5 separate autism diagnosis and combined them into one umbrella term, the previous terms being Autistic Disorder, Rett syndrome, Asperger’s Disorder, Childhood disintegrative Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. The word spectrum in the diagnosis refers to the fact that the disability does not manifest itself in […]

Defining Altruism Issue

In current society, it can be justified that the level of autonomy directly influences the amount of altruism an autistic adolescent implements. Defining Altruism: When it comes to the comprehension of socialization within the development of behaviors in adolescents, altruism is vital. Although there is no true altruism, more or less altruism can be determined based upon the involuntary actions and behaviors of an individual. In the absence of motivation, altruism cannot transpire. An altruist must have the inherent belief […]

911 Telecommunicators Response to Autism

Autism is becoming more prevalent every day. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention released new statistics in 2018. Nationally, 1 in 59 children have autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and boys are 4 (four) times more likely to have autism than girls. 1 in 37 boys and 1 in 151 girls were found to have autism. These are incredibly high statistics that will affect our communities across the United States We, as Telecommunicators, need to know how to understand and […]

Representation of Autism in the Netflix TV Show “Atypical”

In the first season of the TV show “Atypical”, the viewer meets the Gardner family, a seemingly normal family with an autistic teenage son, Sam, as the focus. This show failed initially to deviate from typical portrayals of autistic people on screens, as a white male, intellectually gifted, and seemingly unrelatable, although it seemed to try. Sam acts in ways that seem almost unbelievable for even someone with autism to, such as when he declares his love for someone else […]

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disorders that challenges a child’s skills in social interaction, communication, and behavior. ASD’s collective signs and symptoms may include: making little eye contact, repetitive behaviors, parallel play, unexplainable temper tantrums, misunderstanding of nonverbal cues, focused interests, and/or sensory overload. Positive symptoms of ASD may reflect above-average intelligence, excellence in math, science, or art, and the ability to learn things in detail. A question that many parent has is whAlthough an individual […]

The Complexity of Autism

Autism spectrum disorder is a complex disease that affects the developmental and speech capabilities of adolescents that carries with them to adulthood. It is distinctly apparent when the child is still very young and able to be diagnosed from about a year and a half old onwards. Although the disease cannot be pinpointed to one specific area of the brain, it is believed to stem from a glitchy gene that makes the child more susceptible to developing autism, oxygen deprivation […]

An Overview of the Five Deadly Diseases that Affect the Human Brain

There are hundreds of diseases that affect the brain. Every day, we fight these diseases just as vehemently as they afflict their carriers. Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's, depression, autism, and strokes are just five of the most lethal and debilitating diseases that afflict human brains. Parkinson's disease alone claims up to 18,000 lives a year (Hagerman 1). But what is it? Parkinson's disease occurs when a brain chemical called dopamine begins to die in a region that facilitates muscle movement. Consequently, […]

Autism Genes: Unveiling the Complexities

“Autism is a brain disorder that typically affects a person’s ability to communicate, form relationships with others and respond appropriately to the environment (www.childdevelopmentinfo.com).” There are different levels of autism. “There is the autistic disorder, Asperger's syndrome and pervasive developmental syndrome (www.asws.org).” According to (www.everydayhealth.com/autism/types), “Each situation is unique as there are many levels and severities of it. Many cases also include sensory difficulties. These can range from imaginary sights and sounds to other sensations.” There are many different characteristics […]

Autism and Assistive Technology for Autistic Children

Autism is a complex neurobehavioral condition that is found in a person from early childhood days where the person faces difficulty in communicating with another person. It is also known as ASD or Autism Spectrum Disorder. It is a spectrum disorder because its effect varies from person to person. This is caused due to some changes that happen during early brain development. It is suggested that it may arise from abnormalities in parts of the brain that interpret sensory input […]

The Evolution of Autism Diagnosis: from Misunderstanding to Scientific Approach

Autism has come a long way from the early 1980s when it was rarely diagnosed to today where 100 out 10,000 kids are diagnosed. Autism is defined as a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior (NIMH 2018). There are many aspects surrounding Autism and the underlying effects that play a role in Autism. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, people with Autism have “Difficulty with communication and interaction with other people Restricted interests and repetitive […]

Do Vaccines Cause Autism

In a world of medicines and “mommy bloggers”, there is a controversy between pro-vaxxers and anti-vaxxers. The vaccination controversy cause an uproar for many people, understandably, it’s very polarized- you strongly believe in them or you strongly do not. For me, at the age of 15, I strongly believe in the Pro-Vaccine movement and I have data that can back me up. For starters, you may wonder ‘what is a vaccine’ or ‘how to do they work’. For a general […]

Autism: Characteristics, Diagnosis, and Understanding

The prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder has nearly doubled in recent years, and the numbers are staggering: nearly 1 in every 59 children are diagnosed with autism in the United States alone. Yet, there are so many questions surrounding the complexity and increase in diagnoses of this condition that affects so many in such diverse ways. (Autism Speaks) How autism originates in the first place and its impact on communication, both verbal and nonverbal, are questions that need to be […]

Autism Spectrum Disorder and its Positive Effects

 What would it feel like if you were constantly ignored or treated as though you have little usefulness? Many people experience this kind of treatment their entire lives. Long has it been assumed that people with mental disabilities such as Autism, were meant to be cared for but to never expect any value from them. Evil men such as Hitler even went so far as to kill them because he thought they had no use to society. However, there is […]

Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders and ADHD

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder that affects communication and behavior, generally diagnosed within the early stages of life. No two individuals living with Autism experience the same symptoms, as the type and severity varies with each case (Holland, 2018.). Autism has been around for hundreds of years, but the definition has evolved immensely. In 1943, scientists Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger conducted research on individuals with social and emotional deficits to better refine the definition […]

Raising a Child with Autism

All impose severe identity crisis and role restrictions even in knowledgeable parents.. In some conditions, as in the case of physical challenges, the child needs physical reassurance and support from the parents against those conditions of cognitive deficits in which the demands are always parent’s constant attention and feedback. As far as autism is concerned, the child’s deficits are many namely social, emotional, communicational, sensual, as well as behavioral. Symptoms are usually identified between one and two years of age. […]

Is Autism a Kind of Brain Damage

Many people have different views about autism. Autism may be only one simple word, but with this one word comes many forms in the way it could affect people with this disability. Autism should not be looked down on as much as this disability is from others in society. It may seem as if it has more “cons” than “pros” as some call them, but if looked at from a better perspective, there could be more pros than cons and […]

Trouble with Social Aspects and People on the Autism Spectrum

Autism in childhood starts as early as age two, and symptoms will become more severe as children continue into elementary school. When a child goes to a psychiatrist, they will work on social development. Adolescence with autism struggle when attempting to project others pain. For example, my brother has Asperger's and when I have a bone graph done on my hand, he could not stop touching my hand. He needed constant reminders to not touch and remind him of when […]

Effects of Autism

When he was eight years old, the parents of Joshua Dushack learned that their son was different. He had been diagnosed with Autism. According to the doctors, Joshua would never be able to read, write, talk, or go to school on his own. This might have been the case, had his parents accepted it. But his mother saw her son as a normal boy, and treated him as such. He did need some extra help in school, but because of […]

How Different Types of Assistive Technology Can Help Children with Autism

I. Introduction An anonymous speaker once said, “some people with Autism may not be able to speak or answer to their name, but they can still hear your words and feel your kindness.” Approximately thirty percent of people diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder never learn to speak more than a few words (Forman & Rudy, 2018). Fortunately in today’s society, new technologies have made it possible for these individuals to communicate and socialize with others. Purpose The primary focus of […]

Searching Employment Autism

Over the last 20 years, there has been an alarming increase for children who have been diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in the United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control, in the year 2000 1 in 159 children would be diagnosed with ASD. In the latest version of the study, the number has been reduced to 1 in 59 children will be diagnosed with ASD (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018). This is a subject that […]

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How To Write an Essay About Autism

Understanding autism.

Before writing an essay about autism, it's essential to understand what autism is and the spectrum of conditions it encompasses. Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a complex developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. It is characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication. Start your essay by explaining the nature of autism, its symptoms, and the spectrum concept, which acknowledges a range of strengths and challenges experienced by individuals with autism. It's also important to discuss the causes and diagnosis of autism, as well as the common misconceptions and stereotypes surrounding it. This foundational knowledge will set the stage for a more in-depth exploration of the topic.

Developing a Focused Thesis Statement

A strong essay on autism should be centered around a clear, focused thesis statement. This statement should present a specific angle or argument about autism. For example, you might discuss the importance of early intervention and therapy, the representation of autism in media, or the challenges faced by individuals with autism in education and employment. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and ensure that your analysis is structured and coherent.

Gathering and Analyzing Data

To support your thesis, gather relevant data and research from credible sources. This might include scientific studies, statistics, reports from autism advocacy organizations, and personal narratives. Analyze this data critically, considering different perspectives and the quality of the evidence. Including a range of viewpoints will strengthen your argument and demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Discussing Implications and Interventions

A significant portion of your essay should be dedicated to discussing the broader implications of autism and potential interventions. This can include the impact of autism on individuals and families, educational strategies, therapeutic approaches, and social support systems. Evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions, drawing on case studies or research findings. Discussing both the successes and challenges in managing and understanding autism will provide a balanced view and demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the key points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence and examples provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of understanding and supporting individuals with autism. You might also want to highlight areas where further research or development is needed or the potential for societal changes to improve the lives of those with autism.

Final Review and Editing

After completing your essay, it's important to review and edit your work. Ensure that your arguments are clearly articulated and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers or experts in the field to refine your essay further. A well-crafted essay on autism will not only inform but also engage readers in considering the complexities of this condition and the collective efforts required to support those affected by it.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder Research Paper

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As human beings grow up, they are bound to develop various behaviors that they carry on with, even in their adulthood. The behaviors could be of any type ranging from deviance to anti-social dispositions. Parents become worried when they realize that their children have any of these abnormalities.

To some parents, they may realize the behavior early enough for treatment while to others; they take too long to decipher the strange behaviors with their children. Although intervention is still viable in the latter case, full development is highly unlikely.

While there are many causes that can be associated to these anomalies of child development, or even peculiar adult conducts, one of the key contributors to these is autism spectrum disorder. This research paper provides an insight into the principal aspects of autism spectrum disorder including its causes, symptoms, treatment, and myths surrounding it.

Living with autism spectrum disorder is challenging to the patient and their surroundings that can differ widely from person to person. In many cases, normal development is more or less hindered in all spheres of life. Autism is, therefore, a permanent disability that affects societal and communication skills.

Autistics fail to comprehend the operation of their surroundings (Boutot & Tincani, 2009). They also find it difficult to interact. In particular, such people have difficulties in learning, grasping accepted rules of social intermingling that normal people take for granted. What exactly is this autism spectrum disorder?

The term ‘autism’ was first coined by Eugene Bleuler in 1912. It originates from the Greek word ‘autos’ meaning self. Bleuler used it to describe the schizophrenic’s apparent difficulty in interacting with other people. Although the term was used to describe people showing the autistic tendency to detach from personal contact, the disorder was not fully defined until the mid 19 th century.

Leo Kanner is considered the first physician to focus on autism in his seminal paper entitled ‘Autistic disturbances of affective contact’. Kanner suggested that the term ‘autism’ describe the fact that children seemed to lack interest in other people (Exkom, 2006).

His paper on the autism contained almost every trait still considered as typical of ASD. Since the publication of the Kanner’s paper on autism, other scholars have joined the trade and made various contributions to the issue. These included Hans Asperger, a German scientist of whom the Asperger’s syndrome is named after (Gallo, 2010).

Scientists have, for long, debated on autism, owing to a difficult in the consensus in the name for the handicap. Nevertheless, autism is unanimously considered as a sever form of Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD) or Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD).

Autism is a neurological syndrome with predominantly behavioral manifestations. Many children with autism show neurological symptoms and signs including seizures, dyspraxia, hypotonia, mental retardation, gait anomalies, and macrocephaly. As such, in this paper, autism will be used interchangeably with ASD (Matson, 2008).

Given that autism is puzzling even to experts, this phenomenon has given rise to a couple of myths and misconceptions concerning the disorder. For instance, it is widely believed that children with autism can perform amazing metal feats like multiplying multiple numbers in their heads.

However, the reality is that the number of children with autism and having high intelligence is insignificant. Another myth surrounding ASD is that dissocial or secluded mothering causes autism. (Sicira-Kira, 2004).

The reality is that autism is a biological handicap. However, some fathers and mothers of autistic children who seem very introverted, socially discomfited, or isolated may themselves be autistic.

Another widely held misconception about ASD is that it can be caused. This is, however, not the case. In the real sense, autism commonly appears within the first two years of life. This is the time when children are being vaccinated.

Nevertheless, the emergence of autistic symptoms preceding an immunization is only by coincidence. It is also believed that there are behavioral programs that can cure autism. This is not true because autism is not curable. Behavioral programs are meant to aid the autistic person handle the disorder, but not to cure it (Gupta, 2004).

Having looked at some of the myths and misconceptions surrounding ASD, this paper now shifts focus to the symptoms associated with the disorder. There are three major symptoms that people with Autism spectrum disorder exhibit.

They show flaws in social interaction, oral and nonverbal communication, and recurring conducts or interests. Autistics find it difficult to express emotions, empathy, and conversing with others. They may insist on following certain routines in a repetitive manner, or rigid organization of objects.

As evident from these symptoms, ASD is made of a triad of impairments with each having the two extremes of severe degree and mild degree.

It is very easy to identify children with ASD because they do not follow the normal patterns of development. In most cases, between the ages of one year and three years, the distinction in the way the children react to people and other unusual behaviors becomes apparent.

These behaviors include failure to coo, babble, point, or make meaningful gestures at the age of one year, failure to speak one word by 16 months, or inability to combine two words by two years. Other abnormal behaviors include inability to respond to name, loss of language or social skills, poor eye contact, and an occasional hearing impairment (Le Blanc & Volkers, 2007).

Despite its profound symptoms, there is no specifically cause of autism recognized yet. The only conventional ideas concerning the basis of autism are that it is considered to be present at birth, in spite of its appearance later in life. It is caused by anomalies in the brain and may be genetic.

However, the cause of the brain anomalies and the gene affected by the disorder are still up for debate. Another certainty concerning the causes of ASDs is that they are not a psychological disorder by poor parenting, unconsciously rejecting a child, or failing to bond emotionally.

As such, while studying the causes, the scope of the scope of this paper will be limited to the possible causes of ASD (Matson, 2008).

There are four possible causes of ASD. These are biological basis, genetic, pregnancy or birth injury, and vaccinations. Under biological basis, researches have not been able to venture into the study of the human brain anatomy due to its inaccessibility.

However, with the innovative emergence of new brain imaging tools such as computerized tomography (CT), and position emission tomography (PET), study of the structure and the functioning of the brain are now possible.

Post mortem and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have indicated that many major brain structures are implicated in autism. It is apparent that, in autism, a disorder is found in the structure of the brain.

There is a disorder localized in the frontal lobes. Reduced blood flow to some parts of the brain and decreased numbers of certain brain cells also seem to appear along autism traits (Matson & Minshawi, 2006).

Under hereditary, it is widely known that genetics are instrumental in the nature of holistic traits of human beings. This is the same for autism. Studies in the past have suggested an underlying genetic vulnerability to ASD. It is apparent that congenital factors play an important part.

Recent neuroimaging studies have shown that a cause for autism may be anomalous brain growth start from the infant’s first months. The idea that autism is caused by difficulties occurring during pregnancy, or birth process is also under investigation.

It is only in very exceptional cases that illness during pregnancy can cause autism (Sicira-Kira, 2004). A number of opinions exist concerning this cause with the most recent suggesting that laborious pregnancies are a consequence of autism in the child rather than a cause of it.

Another cause of ASD under investigation is toxins ingested by the mother during pregnancy. There is little evidence for the supposition that vaccinations cause autism.

In conclusion, there is no known cure for ASD. However, there are interventions that children or adults with this disorder.

The treatment is divided into a number of categories. These are nutritional-biologically based treatment, relational-socially based, sensory or neural based treatment, pharmacological-medically based treatment, and educational or behavioral skill based treatment (Williams & Williams, 2011). Since that ASD has no precise treatment, parents should pay attention to their growth and development patterns of their children.

Boutot, A. E., & Tincani, M. (2009). Autism Encyclopedia: the complete guide to Autism Spectrum Disorders . London: Sourcebooks, Inc.

Exkom, K. S. (2006). The Autism Sourcebook: Everything you need to know about diagnosis, treatment, coping, and healing–from a mother whose child recovered . New York: HarperCollins.

Gallo, D. P. (2010). Diagnosing Autism Spectrum Disorders: a lifespan perspective . New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Gupta, V. D. (2004). Autistic spectrum disorders in children . New York: CRC Press.

Le Blanc, R., & Volkers, H. (2007). What you should know about Autism Spectrum Disorders . New York: Cranendonck Coaching.

Matson, J. L. (2008). Clinical assessment and intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorders . Amsterdam: Academic Press.

Matson, J. L., & Minshawi, N. F. (2006). Early intervention for autism spectrum disorders: a critical analysis . London: Elsevier.

Sicira-Kira, C. (2004). Autism spectrum disorders: the complete guide to understanding autism, Asperger’s syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder, and other ASDs . London: Penguin.

Williams, B. F., & Williams, R. L. (2011). Effective programs for treating autism spectrum disorder: applied behavior analysis models . London: Taylor & Francis.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder

Learning objectives.

• Describe the symptoms, risk factors, influences, and prevalence of autism spectrum disorder

A seminal paper published in 1943 by psychiatrist Leo Kanner described an unusual neurodevelopmental condition he observed in a group of children. Kanner called this condition early infantile autism, and it was characterized mainly by an inability to form close emotional ties with others, speech and language abnormalities, repetitive behaviors, and an intolerance of minor changes in the environment and in normal routines (Bregman, 2005). What the DSM-5 refers to as autism spectrum disorder today is a direct extension of Kanner’s work.

In 2013, the DSM-5 replaced the previous subgroups of autistic disorder (Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and childhood disintegrative disorder) with the single term autism spectrum disorder .

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is probably the most misunderstood and puzzling of  neurodevelopmental disorders . Children with this disorder show signs of significant disturbances in three main areas: (a) deficits in social interaction, (b) deficits in communication, and (c) repetitive patterns of behavior or interests. These disturbances appear early in life and cause serious impairments in functioning (APA, 2013). The child with autism spectrum disorder might exhibit deficits in social interaction by not initiating conversations with other children or turning their head away when spoken to. These children do not make eye contact with others and seem to prefer playing alone rather than with others. In a certain sense, it is almost as though these individuals live in a personal and isolated social world others are simply not privy to or able to penetrate. Communication deficits can range from a complete lack of speech, to one-word responses (e.g., saying “Yes” or “No” when replying to questions or statements that require additional elaboration), to echoed speech (e.g., parroting what another person says, either immediately or several hours or even days later), to difficulty maintaining a conversation because of an inability to reciprocate others’ comments. These deficits can also include problems in using and understanding nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expressions, gestures, and postures) that facilitate normal communication.

Repetitive patterns of behavior or interests can be exhibited in a number of ways. A child with autism spectrum disorder might engage in stereotyped, repetitive movements (rocking, head-banging, or repeatedly dropping an object and then picking it up) or might show great distress at small changes in routine or the environment. For example, the child might throw a temper tantrum if an object is not in its proper place or if a regularly-scheduled activity is rescheduled. In some cases, the person with autism spectrum disorder might show highly restricted and fixated interests that appear to be abnormal in their intensity. For instance, the person might learn and memorize every detail about something even though doing so serves no apparent purpose. Importantly, autism spectrum disorder is not the same thing as intellectual development disorder (intellectual disability), although these two conditions are often comorbid. The DSM-5 specifies that the symptoms of autism spectrum disorder are not caused or explained by intellectual development disorder.

Life Problems from Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder is referred to in everyday language as autism; in fact, the disorder was termed autistic disorder  in earlier editions of the DSM, and its diagnostic criteria were much narrower than those of autism spectrum disorder. The qualifier spectrum  in autism spectrum disorder is used to indicate that individuals with the disorder can show a range, or spectrum, of symptoms that vary in their magnitude and severity: some severe, others less severe. The previous edition of the DSM included a diagnosis of Asperger’s disorder, generally recognized as a less severe form of autistic disorder; individuals diagnosed with Asperger’s disorder were described as having average or high intelligence and a strong vocabulary, but exhibiting impairments in social interaction and social communication, such as talking only about their special interests (Wing, Gould, & Gillberg, 2011). However, because research has failed to demonstrate that Asperger’s disorder differs qualitatively from autistic disorder, the DSM-5 dropped the distinction. Some individuals with autism spectrum disorder, particularly those with better language and intellectual skills, can live and work independently as adults. However, most do not because the symptoms remain sufficient to cause serious impairment in many areas of life (APA, 2013).

This video provides an overview of what you’ve read, describing its diagnostic criteria and the differences between the DSM-4 and DSM-5 terms for ASD.

You can view the transcript for “Autism Spectrum Disorder | Clinical Presentation” here (opens in new window) .

Epidemiology

Current estimates from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network indicate that one in 59 children in the United States has autism spectrum disorder; the disorder is four times more common among boys (one in 38) than in girls (one in 152) (Baio et al, 2018). Rates of autistic spectrum disorder have increased dramatically since the 1980s. For example, California saw an increase of 273% in reported cases from 1987 through 1998 (Byrd, 2002); between 2000 and 2008, the rate of autism diagnoses in the United States increased 78% (CDC, 2012). Although it is difficult to interpret this increase, it is possible that the rise in prevalence is the result of the broadening of the diagnosis, increased efforts to identify cases in the community, and greater awareness and acceptance of the diagnosis. In addition, mental health professionals are now more knowledgeable about autism spectrum disorder and are better equipped to make the diagnosis, even in subtle cases (Novella, 2008).

Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Early theories of autism placed the blame squarely on the shoulders of the child’s parents, particularly the mother. Bruno Bettelheim (an Austrian-born American child psychologist who was heavily influenced by Sigmund Freud’s ideas) suggested that a mother’s ambivalent attitudes and her frozen and rigid emotions toward her child were the main causal factors in childhood autism. In what must certainly stand as one of the more controversial assertions in psychology over the last 50 years, Bettelheim wrote, “I state my belief that the precipitating factor in infantile autism is the parent’s wish that his child should not exist” (Bettelheim, 1967, p. 125). As you might imagine, Bettelheim did not endear himself to a lot of people with this position; incidentally, no scientific evidence exists supporting his claims.

The exact causes of autism spectrum disorder remain unknown despite massive research efforts over the last two decades (Meek, Lemery-Chalfant, Jahromi, & Valiente, 2013). Autism appears to be strongly influenced by genetics, as identical twins show concordance rates of 60–90%, whereas concordance rates for fraternal twins and siblings are five to 10% (Autism Genome Project Consortium, 2007). Many different genes and gene mutations have been implicated in autism (Meek et al., 2013). Among the genes involved are those important in the formation of synaptic circuits that facilitate communication between different areas of the brain (Gauthier et al., 2011). A number of environmental factors are also thought to be associated with increased risk for autism spectrum disorder, at least in part, because they contribute to new mutations. These factors include exposure to pollutants, such as plant emissions and mercury, urban versus rural residence, and vitamin D deficiency (Kinney, Barch, Chayka, Napoleon, & Munir, 2009).

Certain prenatal and perinatal complications have been reported as possible risk factors for autism. These risk factors include maternal gestational diabetes, maternal and paternal age over 30, bleeding after the first trimester, use of prescription medication (e.g. valproate) during pregnancy, and meconium in the amniotic fluid. While research is not conclusive on the relation of these factors to autism, each of these factors has been identified more frequently in children with autism compared to their siblings who do not have autism, and other typically developing youth.  While it is unclear if any single factors during the prenatal phase affect the risk of autism,  complications during pregnancy may be a risk. Another hypothesized risk factor is low vitamin D levels in early development.

Child Vaccinations and Autism Spectrum Disorder

In the late 1990s, a prestigious medical journal published an article purportedly showing that autism is triggered by the MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) vaccine. These findings were very controversial and drew a great deal of attention, sparking an international forum on whether children should be vaccinated. In a shocking turn of events, some years later, the article was retracted by the journal that had published it after accusations of fraud on the part of the lead researcher. Despite the retraction, the reporting in popular media led to concerns about a possible link between vaccines and autism persisting. A recent survey of parents, for example, found that roughly a third of respondents expressed such a concern (Kennedy, LaVail, Nowak, Basket, & Landry, 2011); and perhaps fearing that their children would develop autism, more than 10% of parents of young children refuse or delay vaccinations (Dempsey et al., 2011). Some parents of children with autism mounted a campaign against scientists who refuted the vaccine-autism link. Even politicians and several well-known celebrities weighed in; for example, actress Jenny McCarthy (who believed that a vaccination caused her son’s autism) co-authored a book on the matter. However, there is no scientific evidence that a link exists between autism and vaccinations (Hughes, 2007). Indeed, a recent study compared the vaccination histories of 256 children with autism spectrum disorder with that of 752 control children across three time periods during their first two years of life (birth to three months, birth to seven months, and birth to two years) (DeStefano, Price, & Weintraub, 2013). At the time of the study, the children were between six and 13 years old, and their prior vaccination records were obtained. Because vaccines contain immunogens (substances that fight infections), the investigators examined medical records to see how many immunogens children received to determine if those children who received more immunogens were at greater risk for developing autism spectrum disorder. The results of this study, a portion of which are shown in Figure 3 and Table 1, clearly demonstrate that the quantity of immunogens from vaccines received during the first two years of life were not at all related to the development of autism spectrum disorder. There is not a relationship between vaccinations and autism spectrum disorders.

Why does concern over vaccines and autism spectrum disorder persist? Since the proliferation of the internet in the 1990s, parents have been constantly bombarded with online information that can become magnified and take on a life of its own. The enormous volume of electronic information pertaining to autism spectrum disorder, combined with how difficult it can be to grasp complex scientific concepts, can make separating good research from bad challenging (Downs, 2008). Notably, the study that fueled the controversy reported that eight out of 12 children—according to their parents—developed symptoms consistent with autism spectrum disorder shortly after receiving a vaccination. To conclude that vaccines cause autism spectrum disorder on this basis, as many did, is clearly incorrect for a number of reasons, not the least of which is because correlation does not imply causation, as you’ve learned.

Additionally, as was the case with diet and ADHD in the 1970s, the notion that autism spectrum disorder is caused by vaccinations is appealing to some because it provides a simple explanation for this condition. Like all disorders, however, there are no simple explanations for autism spectrum disorder. Although the research discussed above has shed some light on its causes, science is still a long way from a complete understanding of the disorder.

Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder

Several interventions can help children with autism, and the main goals of treatment are to lessen associated deficits and family distress and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes. Although evidence-based interventions for autistic children vary in their methods, many adopt a psychoeducational approach to enhancing cognitive, communication, and social skills while minimizing problem behaviors. It’s important to keep in mind that no single treatment is best, there is no “one-size-fits-all” solution, and treatment should be tailored to the child’s needs.  Intensive, sustained special education or remedial education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills. Available approaches include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy.  Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively or focus treatment on a specific area of deficit. 

There has been increasing attention to the development of evidence-based interventions for young children with ASD. Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include applied behavioral analysis (ABA) and the developmental social-pragmatic model (DSP).  Although applied behavioral analysis (ABA) therapy has a strong evidence base, particularly in regard to early intensive home-based therapy, ABA’s effectiveness may be limited by diagnostic severity and the IQ of the person affected by ASD.

Neurodiversity

The autism rights movement promotes the concept of neurodiversity , which views autism as a natural variation of the brain rather than a disorder to be cured. In response to the rising idea that autism (and other similar disorders) are an epidemic, the concept of neurodiversity shines a new perspective on the subject.

Coined in 1998 by Australian sociologist Judy Singer, who helped popularize the concept along with American journalist Harvey Blume, neurodiversity emerged as a challenge to prevailing views that certain neurodevelopmental disorders are inherently pathological and instead adopts the social model of disability, in which societal barriers are the main contributing factor that disables people. The term represented a move away from previous “mother-blaming” theories about the cause of autism.

Neurodiversity advocates point out that neurodiverse people often have exceptional abilities alongside their weaknesses. For example, a person with ADHD may hyperfocus on some tasks while struggling to focus on others, or an autistic person may have exceptional memory or even savant skills. In light of these facts, advocates argue for recognition of strengths as well as weaknesses in neurodiverse people, and that a variety of neurological conditions that are currently classified as disorders are better regarded as differences. This view is especially popular within the autism rights movement.

Neurodiversity advocates denounce the framing of autism, ADHD, dyslexia, and other neurodevelopmental disorders as requiring medical intervention to “cure” or “fix” them and instead promote support systems, such as inclusion-focused services, accommodations, communication, and assistive technologies, occupational training, and independent living support.  The intention is for individuals to receive support that honors authentic forms of human diversity, self-expression, and being, rather than treatment that coerces or forces them to adopt normative ideas of normality or to conform to a clinical ideal. Proponents of neurodiversity strive to reconceptualize autism and related conditions in society by the following measures: acknowledging that neurodiversity does not require a cure; changing the language from the current “condition, disease, disorder, or illness”-based nomenclature, and “broaden[ing] the understanding of healthy or independent living”; acknowledging new types of autonomy; and giving non-neurotypical individuals more control over their treatment, including the type, timing, and whether there should be treatment at all.

However, the neurodiversity paradigm  has been controversial among  disability  advocates, with  opponents  saying that its conceptualization doesn’t reflect the realities of individuals who have high-support needs.

Key Takeaways: Autism Spectrum Disorder

autism spectrum disorder: childhood disorder characterized by deficits in social interaction and communication and repetitive patterns of behavior or interests

neurodevelopmental disorder:  disorders that are first diagnosed in childhood and involve developmental problems in academic, intellectual, and social functioning

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• v.25(1); 2016 Feb

A Short Review on the Current Understanding of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Hye ran park.

1 Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Korea.

Jae Meen Lee

Hyo eun moon, dong soo lee.

2 Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.

Bung-Nyun Kim

3 Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.

Jinhyun Kim

4 Center for Functional Connectomics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea.

Dong Gyu Kim

Sun ha paek.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by a deficit in social behaviors and nonverbal interactions such as reduced eye contact, facial expression, and body gestures in the first 3 years of life. It is not a single disorder, and it is broadly considered to be a multi-factorial disorder resulting from genetic and non-genetic risk factors and their interaction. Genetic studies of ASD have identified mutations that interfere with typical neurodevelopment in utero through childhood. These complexes of genes have been involved in synaptogenesis and axon motility. Recent developments in neuroimaging studies have provided many important insights into the pathological changes that occur in the brain of patients with ASD in vivo. Especially, the role of amygdala, a major component of the limbic system and the affective loop of the cortico-striatothalamo-cortical circuit, in cognition and ASD has been proved in numerous neuropathological and neuroimaging studies. Besides the amygdala, the nucleus accumbens is also considered as the key structure which is related with the social reward response in ASD. Although educational and behavioral treatments have been the mainstay of the management of ASD, pharmacological and interventional treatments have also shown some benefit in subjects with ASD. Also, there have been reports about few patients who experienced improvement after deep brain stimulation, one of the interventional treatments. The key architecture of ASD development which could be a target for treatment is still an uncharted territory. Further work is needed to broaden the horizons on the understanding of ASD.

INTRODUCTION

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by a lack of social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication in the first 3 years of life. The distinctive social behaviors include an avoidance of eye contact, problems with emotional control or understanding the emotions of others, and a markedly restricted range of activities and interests [ 1 ]. The current prevalence of ASD in the latest large-scale surveys is about 1%~2% [ 2 , 3 ]. The prevalence of ASD has increased in the past two decades [ 4 ]. Although the increase in prevalence is partially the result of changes in DSM diagnostic criteria and younger age of diagnosis, an increase in risk factors cannot be ruled out [ 5 , 6 ]. Studies have shown a male predominance; ASD affects 2~3 times more males than females [ 2 , 3 , 7 ]. This diagnostic bias towards males might result from under-recognition of females with ASD [ 8 ]. Also, some researchers have suggested the possibility that the female-specific protective effects against ASD might exist [ 9 ].

A Swiss psychiatrist, Paul Eugen Bleuler used the term "autism" to define the symptoms of schizophrenia for the first time in 1912 [ 10 ]. He derived it from the Greek word αὐτὀς (autos), which means self. Hans Asperger adopted Bleuler's terminology "autistic" in its modern sense to describe child psychology in 1938. Afterwards, he reported about four boys who did not mix with their peer group and did not understand the meaning of the terms 'respect' and 'polite', and regard for the authority of an adult. The boys also showed specific unnatural stereotypic movement and habits. Asperger describe this pattern of behaviors as "autistic psychopathy", which is now called as Asperger's Syndrome [ 11 ]. The person who first used autism in its modern sense is Leo Kanner. In 1943, he reported about 8 boys and 3 girls who had "an innate inability to form the usual, biologically provided affective contact with people", and introduced the label early infantile autism [ 12 ]. Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner have been considered as those who designed the basis of the modern study of autism.

Most recently, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) adopted the term ASD with a dyadic definition of core symptoms: early-onset of difficulties in social interaction and communication, and repetitive, restricted behaviors, interests, or activities [ 13 ]. Atypical language development, which had been included into the triad of ASD, is now regarded as a co-occurring condition.

As stated earlier, the development of the brain in individuals with ASD is complex and is mediated by many genetic and environmental factors, and their interactions. Genetic studies of ASD have identified mutations that interfere with typical neurodevelopment in utero through childhood. These complexes of genes have been involved in synaptogenesis and axon motility. Also, the resultant microstructural, macrostructural, and functional abnormalities that emerge during brain development create a pattern of dysfunctional neural networks involved in socioemotional processing. Microstructurally, an altered ratio of short- to long-diameter axons and disorganization of cortical layers are observed. Macrostructurally, MRI studies assessing brain volume in individuals with ASD have consistently shown cortical and subcortical gray matter overgrowth in early brain development. Functionally, resting-state fMRI studies show a narrative of widespread global underconnectivity in socioemotional networks, and task-based fMRI studies show decreased activation of networks involved in socioemotional processing. Moreover, electrophysiological studies demonstrate alterations in both resting-state and stimulus-induced oscillatory activities in patients with ASD [ 14 ].

The well-conserved sets of genes and genetic pathways were implicated in ASD, many of which contribute toward the formation, stabilization, and maintenance of functional synapses. Therefore, these genetic aspects coupled with an in-depth phenotypic analysis of the cellular and behavioral characteristics are essential to unraveling the pathogenesis of ASD. The number of genes already discovered in ASD holds the promise to translate the knowledge into designing new therapeutic interventions. Also, the fundamental research using animal models is providing key insights into the various facets of human ASD. However, a better understanding of the genetic, molecular, and circuit level aberrations in ASD is still needed [ 15 ].

Neuroimaging studies have provided many important insights into the pathological changes that occur in the brain of patients with ASD in vivo. Importantly, ASD is accompanied by an atypical path of brain maturation, which gives rise to differences in neuroanatomy, functioning, and connectivity. Although considerable progress has been made in the development of animal models and cellular assays, neuroimaging approaches allow us to directly examine the brain in vivo, and to probably facilitate the development of a more personalized approach to the treatment of ASD [ 16 ].

ASD is not a single disorder. It is now broadly considered to be a multi-factorial disorder resulting from genetic and non-genetic risk factors and their interaction.

Genetic causes including gene defects and chromosomal anomalies have been found in 10%~20% of individuals with ASD [ 17 , 18 ]. Siblings born in families with an ASD subject have a 50 times greater risk of ASD, with a recurrence rate of 5%~8% [ 19 ]. The concordance rate reaches up to 82%~92% in monozygotic twins, compared with 1%~10% in dizygotic twins. Genetic studies suggested that single gene mutations alter developmental pathways of neuronal and axonal structures involved in synaptogenesis [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. In the cases of related with fragile X syndrome and tuberous sclerosis, hyperexcitability of neocortical circuits caused by alterations in the neocortical excitatory/inhibitory balance and abnormal neural synchronization is thought to be the most probable mechanisms [ 23 , 24 ]. Genome-wide linkage studies suggested linkages on chromosomes 2q, 7q, 15q, and 16p as the location of susceptibility genes, although it has not been fully elucidated [ 25 , 26 ]. These chromosomal abnormalities have been implicated in the disruption of neural connections, brain growth, and synaptic/dendritic morphology [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Metabolic errors including phenylketonuria, creatine deficiency syndromes, adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency, and metabolic purine disorders are also account for less than 5% of individuals with ASD [ 30 ]. Recently, the correlation between cerebellar developmental patterning gene ENGRAILED 2 and autism was reported [ 31 ]. It is the first genetic allele that contributes to ASD susceptibility in as many as 40% of ASD cases. Other genes such as UBE3A locus, GABA system genes, and serotonin transporter genes have also been considered as the genetic factors for ASD [ 18 ].

Diverse environmental causative elements including pre-natal, peri-natal, and post-natal factors also contribute to ASD [ 32 ]. Prenatal factors related with ASD include exposure to teratogens such as thalidomide, certain viral infections (congenital rubella syndrome), and maternal anticonvulsants such as valproic acid [ 33 , 34 ]. Low birth weight, abnormally short gestation length, and birth asphyxia are the peri-natal factors [ 34 ]. Reported post-natal factors associated with ASD include autoimmune disease, viral infection, hypoxia, mercury toxicity, and others [ 33 , 35 , 36 ]. Table 1 summarizes the known and putative ASD-related genes and environmental factors contributing to the ASD.

In recent years, some researchers suggest that ASD is the result of complex interactions between genetic and environmental risk factors [ 37 ]. Understanding the interaction between genetic and environmental factors in the pathogenesis of ASD will lead to optimal treatment strategy.

Clinical features and Diagnosis

ASD is typically noticed in the first 3 years of life, with deficits in social behaviors and nonverbal interactions such as reduced eye contact, facial expression, and body gestures [ 1 ]. Children also manifest with non-specific symptoms such as unusual sensory perception skills and experiences, motor clumsiness, and insomnia. Associated phenomena include mental retardation, emotional indifference, hyperactivity, aggression, self-injury, and repetitive behaviors such as body rocking or hand flapping. Repetitive, stereotyped behaviors are often accompanied by cognitive impairment, seizures or epilepsy, gastrointestinal complaints, disturbedd sleep, and other problems. Differential diagnosis includes childhood schizophrenia, learning disability, and deafness [ 38 , 39 ].

ASD is diagnosed clinically based on the presence of core symptoms. However, caution is required when diagnosing ASD because of non-specific manifestations in different age groups and individual abilities in intelligence and verbal domains. The earliest nonspecific signs recognized in infancy or toddlers include irritability, passivity, and difficulties with sleeping and eating, followed by delays in language and social engagement. In the first year of age, infants later diagnosed with ASD cannot be easily distinguished from control infants. However, some authors report that about 50% of infants show behavioral abnormalities including extremes of temperament, poor eye contact, and lack of response to parental voices or interaction. At 12 months of age, individuals with ASD show atypical behaviors, across the domains of visual attention, imitation, social responses, motor control, and reactivity [ 40 ]. There is also report about atypical language trajectories, with mild delays at 12 months progressing to more severe delays by 24 months [ 40 ]. By 3 years of age, the typical core symptoms such as lack of social communication and restricted/repetitive behaviors and interests are manifested. ASD can be easily differentiated from other psychosocial disorders in late preschool and early school years.

Amygdala and ASD

The frontal and temporal lobes are the markedly affected brain areas in the individuals with ASD. In particular, the role of amygdala in cognition and ASD has been proved in numerous neuropathological and neuroimaging studies. The amygdala located the medial temporal lobe anterior to the hippocampal formation has been thought to have a strong association with social and aggressive behaviors in patients with ASD [ 41 , 42 ]. The amygdala is a major component of the limbic system and affective loop of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuit [ 43 ].

The amygdala has 2 specific functions including eye gaze and face processing [ 44 ]. The lesion of the amygdala results in fear-processing, modulation of memory with emotional content, and eye gaze when looking at human face [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. The findings in individuals with amygdala lesion are similar to the phenomena in ASD. The amygdala receives highly processed somatosensory, visual, auditory, and all types of visceral inputs. It sends efferents through two major pathways, the stria terminalis and the ventral amygdalofugal pathway.

The amygdala comprises a collection of 13 nuclei. Based on histochemical analyses, these 13 nuclei are divided into three primary subgroups: the basolateral (BL), centromedial (CM), and superficial groups [ 42 ]. The BL group attributes amygdala to have a role as a node connecting sensory stimuli to higher social cognition level. It links the CM and superficial groups, and it has reciprocal connection with the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) [ 48 ]. The BL group contains neurons responsive to faces and actions of others, which is not found in the other two groups of amygdala [ 49 , 50 ]. The CM group consists of the central, medial, cortical nuclei, and the periamygdaloid complex. It innervates many of the visceral and autonomic effector regions of the brain stem, and provides a major output to the hypothalamus, thalamus, ventral tegmental area, and reticular formation [ 51 ]. The superficial group includes the nucleus of the lateral olfactory tract [ 42 ].

Neurochemistrial studies revealed high density of benzodiazepine/GABAa receptors and a substantial set of opiate receptors in the amygdala. It also includes serotonergic, dopaminergic, cholinergic, and noradrenergic cell bodies and pathways [ 52 ]. Since some patients with temporal epilepsy and aggressive behavior experienced improvement in aggressiveness after bilateral stereotactic ablation of basal and corticomedial amygdaloid nuclei, the role of amygdala in emotional processing, especially rage processing has been investigated [ 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ]. Some evidences for the amygdala deficit in patients with ASD have been suggested. Post-mortem studies found the pathology in the amygdala of individuals with ASD compared to age- and sex-matched controls [ 57 , 58 , 59 ]. Small neuronal size and increased cell density in the cortical, medial, and central nuclei of the amygdala were detected in ASD patients.

Several studies proposed the use of an animal model to confirm the evidence for the association between amygdala and ASD [ 60 , 61 ]. Despite the limitation which stems from the need to prove higher order cognitive disorder, the studies suggested that disease-associated alterations in the temporal lobes during experimental manipulations of the amygdala in animals have produced some symptoms of ASD [ 62 ]. Especially, the Kluver-Bucy syndrome, which is caused by bilateral damage to the anterior temporal lobes in monkeys, has characteristic manifestations similar to ASD [ 63 , 64 ]. Monkeys with the Kluver-Bucy syndrome shows absence of social chattering, lack of facial expression, absence of emotional reactions, repetitive abnormal movement patterns, and increased aggression. Sajdyk et al. performed experiments on rats and discovered that physiological activation of the BL nucleus of the amygdala by blocking tonic GABAergic inhibition or enhancing glutamate or the stress-associated peptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-mediated excitation caused reduction in social behaviors [ 65 ]. On the contrary, lesioning of the amygdala or blocking amygdala excitability with glutamate antagonist increased dyadic social interactions [ 60 ]. Besides animals, humans who underwent lesioning of the amygdala showed impairments in social judgment. This phenomenon is called acquired ASD [ 66 , 67 , 68 ]. The pattern of social deficits was similar in idiopathic and acquired ASD [ 69 ]. Felix-Ortiz and Tye sought to understand the role of projections from the BL amygdala to the ventral hippocampus in relation to behavior. Their study using mice showed that the BLS-ventral hippocampus pathway involved in anxiety plays a role in the mediation of social behavior as well [ 70 ].

The individuals with temporal lobe tumors involving the amygdala and hippocampus provide another evidence of the correlation between the amygdala and ASD. Some authors reported that patients experienced autistic symptoms after temporal lobe was damaged by a tumor [ 71 , 72 ]. Also, individuals with tuberous sclerosis experienced similar symptoms including facial expression due to a temporal lobe hamartoma [ 73 ].

Although other researchers failed to find structural abnormalities in the mesial temporal lobe of autistic subjects by performing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies [ 74 , 75 , 76 ], recent development in neuroimaging has facilitated the investigation of amygdala pathology in ASD. Studies using structural MRI estimated volumes of the amygdala and related structures in individuals with ASD and age-, gender, and verbal IQ-matched healthy controls [ 77 ]. Increase in bilateral amygdala volume and reduction in hippocampal and parahippocampal gyrus volumes were noted in individuals with ASD. Also, the lateral ventricles and intracranial volumes were significantly increased in the autistic subjects; however, overall temporal lobe volumes were similar between the ASD and control groups.

There was a significant difference in the whole brain voxel-based scans of individuals with ASD and control groups [ 78 ]. Individuals with ASD showed decreased gray matter volume in the right paracingulate sulcus, the left occipito-temporal cortex, and the left inferior frontal sulcus. On the contrary, the gray matter volume in the bilateral cerebellum was increased. Otherwise, they showed increased volume in the left amygdala/periamygdaloid cortex, the right inferior temporal gyrus, and the middle temporal gyrus.

Recently, the development of functional neuroimaging also provided some evidence for the correlation between amygdala deficit and ASD. A study using Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) found that regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) was decreased in the bilateral insula, superior temporal gyri, and left prefrontal cortices in individuals with ASD compared to age- and gender-matched controls with mental retardation [ 79 ]. Also, the authors found that rCBF in both the right hippocampus and amygdala was correlated with a behavioral rating subscale.

On proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) in the right hippocampal-amygdala region and the left cerebellar hemisphere, autistic subjects showed decreased level of N-acetyl aspartate (NAA) in both areas [ 80 ]. There was no difference in the level of the other metabolites, such as creatine and choline. This study implies that a decreased level of NAA might be associated with neuronal hypofunction or immature neurons.

These findings support the claim that amygdala might be a key structure in the development of ASD and a target for the management of the disease.

Prefrontal cortex and ASD

Frontal lobe has been considered as playing an important role in higher-level control and a key structure associated with autism. Individuals with frontal lobe deficit demonstrate higher-order cognitive, language, social, and emotion dysfunction, which is deficient in autism [ 81 ]. Recently, neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies have attempted to delineate distinct regions of prefrontal cortex supporting different aspects of executive function. Some authors have reported that the excessive rates of brain growth in infants with ASD, which is mainly contributed by the increase of frontal cortex volume [ 82 , 83 ]. Especially, the PFC including Brodmann areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 44, 45, 46, and 47 has been noted for the structure related with ASD [ 84 ]. The PFC is cytoarchitectonically defined as the presence of a cortical granular layer IV [ 85 ], and anatomically refers to the regions of the cerebral cortex that are anterior to premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area [ 86 ]. The PFC has extensive connections with other cortical, subcortical and brain stem sites [ 87 ]. It receives inputs from the brainstem arousal systems, and its function is particularly dependent on its neurochemical environment [ 88 ].

The PFC is broadly divided into the medial PFC (mPFC) and the lateral PFC (lPFC). The mPFC is further divided into four distinct regions: medial precentral cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, prelimbic and infralimbic prefrontal cortex [ 89 ]. While the lPFC is thought to support cognitive control process [ 90 ], the mPFC has reciprocal connections with brain regions involved in emotional processing (amygdala), memory (hippocampus) and higher-order sensory regions (within temporal cortex) [ 91 ]. This involvement of mPFC in social cognition and interaction implies that mPFC might be a key region in understanding self and others [ 92 ].

The mPFC involves in fear learning and extinction by reciprocal synaptic connections with the basolateral amygdala [ 93 , 94 ]. It is believed that the mPFC regulates and controls amygdala output and the accompanying behavioral phenomena [ 95 , 96 ]. Previous authors investigated how memory processing is regulated by interactions between BLA and mPFC by means of functional disconnection [ 97 , 98 ]. Disturbed communication within amygdala-mPFC circuitry caused deficits in memory processing. These informations provide support for a role of the mPFC in the development of ASD.

Nucleus Accumbens and ASD

Besides amygdala, nucleus accumbens (NAc) is also considered as the key structure which is related with the social reward response in ASD. NAc borders ventrally on the anterior limb of the internal capsule, and the lateral subventricular fundus of the NAc is permeated in rostral sections by internal capsule fiber bundles. The rationale for NAc to be considered as the potential target of DBS for ASD is its predominant role in modulating the processing of reward and pleasure [ 99 ]. Anticipation of rewarding stimuli recruits the NAc as well as other limbic structures, and the experience of pleasure activates the NAc as well as the caudate, putamen, amygdala, and VMPFC [ 100 , 101 , 102 ]. It is well known that dysfunction of NAc regarding rewarding stimuli in subjects with depression. Bewernick et al. demonstrated antidepressant effects of NAc-DBS in 5 of the 10 patients suffering from severe treatment-resistant depression [ 103 ].

Two groups reported about the neural basis of social reward processing in ASD. Schmitz et al. examined responses to a task that involved monetary reward. They investigated the neural substrates of reward feedback in the context of a sustained attention task, and found increased activation in the left anterior cingulate gyrus and left mid-frontal gyrus on rewarded trials in ASD [ 104 ]. Scott-Van Zeeland et al. investigated the neural correlates of rewarded implicit learning in children with ASD using both social and monetary rewards. They found diminished ventral striatal response during social, but not monetary, rewarded learning [ 105 ]. According to them, activity within the ventral striatum predicted social reciprocity within the control group, but not within the ASD group.

Anticipation of pleasurable stimuli recruits the NAc, whereas the experience of pleasure activates VMPFC [ 106 ]. NAc is activated by incentive motivation to reach salient goals [ 106 ]. Increased activation in the left anterior cingulate gyrus and left mid-frontal gyrus was noted during both the anticipatory and consummatory phase of the reward response [ 104 , 107 , 108 ]. However, the activity within the ventral striatum was decreased in autistic subjects, which caused impairment in social reciprocity [ 105 ].

These findings indicate that reward network function in ASD is contingent on both the temporal phase of the response and the type of reward processed, suggesting that it is critical to assess the temporal chronometry of responses in a study of reward processing in ASD. NAc might be one of the candidates as a target of DBS which is introduced as below.

Various educational and behavioral treatments have been the mainstay of the management of ASD. Most experts agree that the treatment for ASD should be individualized. Treatment of disabling symptoms such as aggression, agitation, hyperactivity, inattention, irritability, repetitive and self-injurious behavior may allow educational and behavioral interventions to proceed more effectively [ 109 ].

Increasing interest is being shown in the role of various pharmacological treatments. Medical management includes typical antipsychotics, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, α2-adrenergic agonists, β-adrenergic antagonist, mood stabilizers, and anticonvulsants [ 110 , 111 ]. So far, there has been no agent which has been proved effective in social communication [ 112 ]. A major factor in the choice of pharmacologic treatment is awareness of specific individual physical, behavioral or psychiatric conditions comorbid with ASD, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, mood disorder, and intellectual disability [ 113 ]. Antidepressants were the most commonly used agents followed by stimulants and antipsychotics. The high prevalence of comorbidities is reflected in the rates of psychotropic medication use in people with ASD. Antipsychotics were effective in treating the repetitive behaviors in children with ASD; however, there was not sufficient evidence on the efficacy and safety in adolescents and adults [ 114 ]. There are also alternative options including opiate antagonist, immunotherapy, hormonal agents, megavitamins and other dietary supplements [ 109 , 113 ].

However, the autistic symptoms remain refractory to medication therapy in some patients [ 115 ]. These individuals have severely progressed disease and multiple comorbidities causing decreased quality of life [ 44 , 110 ]. Interventional therapy such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) may be an alternative therapeutic option for these patients.

Two kinds of interventions have been used for treating ASD; focused intervention practices and comprehensive treatments [ 116 ]. The focused intervention practices include prompting, reinforcement, discrete trial teaching, social stories, or peer-mediated interventions. These are designed to produce specific behavioral or developmental outcomes for individual children with ASD, and used for a limited time period with the intent of demonstrating a change in the targeted behaviors. The comprehensive treatment models are a set of practices performed over an extended period of time and are intense in their application, and usually have multiple components [ 116 ].

Since it was approved by the FDA in 1997, DBS has been used to send electrical impulses to specific parts of the brain [ 117 , 118 ]. In recent years, the spectrum for which therapeutic benefit is provided by DBS has widely been expanded from movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, and dystonia to psychiatric disorders. Some authors have demonstrated the efficacy of DBS for psychiatric disorders including refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, Tourette syndrome, and others for the past few years [ 119 , 120 , 121 ].

To the best of our knowledge, there have been 2 published articles of 3 patients who underwent DBS for ASD accompanied by life-threatening self-injurious behaviors not alleviated by antipsychotic medication [ 122 , 123 ]. The targets were anterior limb of the internal capsule and globus pallidus internus, only globus pallidus, and BL nucleus of the amygdala, respectively. All patients obtained some benefit from DBS. Although the first patient showed gradual re-deterioration after temporary improvement, the patient who underwent DBS of the BL nucleus experienced substantial improvement in self-injurious behavior and social communication. These experiences suggested the possibility of DBS for the treatment of ASD. For patients who did not obtain benefit from other treatments, DBS may be a viable therapeutic option. Understanding the structures which contribute to the occurrence of ASD might open a new horizon for management of ASD, particularly DBS. Accompanying development of neuroimaging technique enables more accurate targeting and heightens the efficacy of DBS. However, the optimal DBS target and stimulation parameters are still unknown, and prospective controlled trials of DBS for various possible targets are required to determine optimal target and stimulation parameters for the safety and efficacy of DBS.

ASD should be considered as a complex disorder. It has many etiologies involving genetic and environmental factors, and further evidence for the role of amygdala and NA in the pathophysiology of ASD has been obtained from numerous studies. However, the key architecture of ASD development which could be a target for treatment is still an uncharted territory. Further work is needed to broaden the horizons on the understanding of ASD.

Acknowledgements

This study was partly supported by the Korea Institute of Planning & Evaluation for Technology in Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Republic of Korea (311011-05-3-SB020), by the Korea Healthcare Technology R&D Project (HI11C21100200) funded by Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea, by the Technology Innovation Program (10050154, Business Model Development for Personalized Medicine Based on Integrated Genome and Clinical Information) funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MI, Korea), and by the Bio & Medical Technology Development Program of the NRF funded by the Korean government, MSIP (2015M3C7A1028926).

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Autism Essay | Essay on Autism for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Autism Essay:  Autism, also known as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is a neurodevelopmental disorder. Problems with communications and social interactions, along with repetitive and restricted behaviour, are common in autism. The associated factors of autism include genetics and specific environmental influences.

Autism includes a wide range of disorders of which, Asperger syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and pervasive developmental disorders have been added recently. The symptoms of autism occur before three years in a child, as observed by doctors.

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Long and Short Essays on Autism for Students and Kids in English

We provide students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic Autism for reference.

Long Essay on Autism 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Autism is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Autism is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder and affects a person’s responsive and interactive behaviour. It requires sensitivity and a certain intensity of the traits that affect social development for diagnosis. Autism includes persistent deficits in social communication and interactions. People who have autism also face difficulties in social and emotional reciprocity and a reduced interest in sharing emotions or feelings and often fail to respond to social interactions. Autistic people often face difficulties in maintaining, developing, or understanding relationships. They exhibit poorly integrative verbal or non-verbal communications and abnormalities in making eye-contacts and body language.

Autism is characterized by stereotypical and repetitive movements, phrases and words, and reactions along with inflexible adherence to a particular routine. The abnormal intensity of attachment with unusual objects is often seen in autistic people, and they are hypersensitive to small changes around them. The symptoms of autism result from changes related to maturation in different brain systems. The mechanisms of autism can be divided into two ways. The pathophysiology of the brain structure and associated processes regulates the behavioural characteristics. There are individual neurophysiological connections between the brain and behaviours also.

Autism is a significant form of Pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) and is also classified as syndromal and non-syndromal. The extent of non-syndromal autism is unclear, but syndromal autism includes an intellectual disability or congenital syndromes. Diagnosed reports suggest some children lose their language and social skills at 15-30 months. Researches have been restricted due to identification problems in traditional boundaries between the subgroups and disciplines like psychiatry, neurology, paediatrics, and psychology.

According to doctors, very few people suffering from autism exhibit savant syndrome. A person starts to exhibit extraordinary skills and abilities in a specific field, like, calculating complicated sums at a very high speed, reading two books simultaneously, memorizing things quickly, etc. The exact causes leading to autism are still not known. It just occurs due to a different functioning of the brain and is often believed to be genetic, as the doctors found pieces of evidence. Autistic people experience changes in the significant areas of the brain that affect their speech and behaviour. In cases of twins, a strong correlation between them has also been observed in terms of autism. Environmental factors also cause autistic disorders. The risk factors during pregnancy, including rubella, toxins, autoimmune diseases, fetal growth restrictions, and air pollution, also play a vital role.

Autism results in low tolerance and perseverance levels in distinctive individuals. Autistic people often suffer from regular panic attacks and societal trauma which causes anxiety, self-esteem issues, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorders, epilepsy, and sleep disturbances. This trauma adversely affects their development. There is no such proven treatment for curing autism, but proper therapies and strategies can manage mental health issues. Treatment interventions are beneficial in autism cases. Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) increases desirable behaviour, reduces harmful isolation from others, and might improve memory-focus, academic performance, and communications. Other interventions include Early Start Denver Model (ESDM), Occupational Therapy (OT), Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT), Speech Therapy, Relationship Development Intervention (RDI), Verbal Behaviour Therapy (VBT), and TEACCH.

Short Essay on Autism 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Autism is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disability that occurs at the age of three years. It affects the social, behavioural and communicative skills. The characteristics of autism vary from person to person. Parents start to notice the autistics characteristics in their child when he/she avoids social interactions, has behavioural issues and speech problems.

One of the important behavioural characteristics of an autistic child is aggressiveness or self-harming behaviour, either active or passive. They exhibit odd behaviours and have a resistance to change regular routines. However, in many cases, extraordinary talents and skills are observed in autistic people. The symptoms of autism first appear during infancy or early childhood days. Autistic people have specific impairments which include problems in social interactions, communications, repetitive behaviour. Atypical eating habits are also common.

The causes of autism have not been discovered yet, but genetics play an essential role along with significant risk factors during the time of pregnancy. It is a disorder and not a disease and is not curable. Medications, therapies and strategies help to improve the conditions, physically and mentally, and people need to get more aware and careful while dealing with autistic children.

10 Lines on Autism in English

• Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder and not an illness.
• Genetics, environmental factors and risk factors at the time of pregnancy play a vital role in cases of autism.
• The first signs and symptoms of autism are seen during infancy and early childhood days.
• Autistic people face difficulties in communication and interactions and often suffer from mental health issues.
• Autistic people often have repetitive behaviour and may have speech problems.
• In some cases of autism, the person may exhibit unique talents and extraordinary skills in specific fields.
• Autism is a resultant form of differential performing of the brain.
• Autism is the most common form of Pervasive developmental disorders (PDD).
• Autistic people face issues related to the senses, memory and understanding verbal instructions.
• There is no cure for autism though medicines and therapies improve the mental health of the child.

FAQ’s on Autism Essay

Question 1.  What causes autism?

Answer:  There is no exact known cause of autism, but genetics and environmental often affect in cases of autism.

Question 2. What does ‘spectrum’ mean in autism cases?

Answer:  Autism does not come with a single disorder. It has a range of conditions related to behaviour, speech, communication and memory, and hence it is often called Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Question 3.  How to understand if a child is autistic?

Answer:  The signs of autism are identified in early childhood when the child isolates themselves or faces speech difficulties or have a tendency of repetitive behaviour or phrases.

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Autism Spectrum Disorders: Causes, Diagnosis and Support

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• A clear structure and daily routine
• Use of clear and unambiguous language (not a lot of humor or irony)
• Make clear which behaviors are unacceptable
• Address the child individually
• Provide a warning if there is an impending change in routine or activity switch
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• Regular opportunity for simple conversations to help increase the use of ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions
• Use charts to record behavioral progress reinforcement

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• Published: 16 January 2020

Autism spectrum disorder

• Catherine Lord 1 ,
• Traolach S. Brugha 2 ,
• Tony Charman 3 ,
• James Cusack 4 ,
• Guillaume Dumas 5 ,
• Thomas Frazier 6 ,
• Emily J. H. Jones 7 ,
• Rebecca M. Jones 8 , 9 ,
• Andrew Pickles 3 ,
• Matthew W. State 10 ,
• Julie Lounds Taylor 11 &
• Jeremy Veenstra-VanderWeele 12  

Nature Reviews Disease Primers volume  6 , Article number:  5 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Autism spectrum disorders
• Cognitive neuroscience
• Paediatrics

Autism spectrum disorder is a construct used to describe individuals with a specific combination of impairments in social communication and repetitive behaviours, highly restricted interests and/or sensory behaviours beginning early in life. The worldwide prevalence of autism is just under 1%, but estimates are higher in high-income countries. Although gross brain pathology is not characteristic of autism, subtle anatomical and functional differences have been observed in post-mortem, neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies. Initially, it was hoped that accurate measurement of behavioural phenotypes would lead to specific genetic subtypes, but genetic findings have mainly applied to heterogeneous groups that are not specific to autism. Psychosocial interventions in children can improve specific behaviours, such as joint attention, language and social engagement, that may affect further development and could reduce symptom severity. However, further research is necessary to identify the long-term needs of people with autism, and treatments and the mechanisms behind them that could result in improved independence and quality of life over time. Families are often the major source of support for people with autism throughout much of life and need to be considered, along with the perspectives of autistic individuals, in both research and practice.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank J. McCauley, S. Gaspar, K. Byrne and A. Holbrook from UCLA for help with manuscript preparation. S. Tromans is thanked for his updated review of the epidemiology literature. We recognize the many investigators who contributed research that we cannot cite due to space limitations. C.L. is supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD; R01 HD081199), the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; R01MH081873-01A1) and the Simons Foundation. T.S.B. is supported by grants from the Health and Social Care Information Centre, Leeds, and the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR HTA; grant ref. NIHR127337). T.C. is supported by grants from Innovative Medicines Initiative 2 (no. 777394), the Medical Research Council (MRC; grants MR/K021389/1) and the NIHR (grant 13/119/18). J.C. is funded by Autistica. G.D. is supported by the Institut Pasteur. T.F. is supported by the Autism Speaks Foundation. E.J.H.J. is supported by grants from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC; ES/R009368/1), the Innovative Medicines Initiative 2 (no. 777394), the MRC (MR/K021389/1) and the Simons Foundation (609081). R.M.J. acknowledges the Mortimer D. Sackler Family and the NIMH (R01MH114999). J.L.T. is supported by grants from the FAR fund and the NIMH (R34 MH104428, R03 MH 112783 and R01 MH116058). A.P. is partially supported by the Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King’s College London and the NIHR (NF-SI-0617-10120). M.W.S. is supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH; MH106934, MH109901, MH110928, MH116487 MH102342, MH111662, MH105575 and MH115747), the Overlook International Foundation and the Simons Foundation. J.V.-V. is supported by the NIH (MH016434 and MH094604), the Simons Foundation and the New York State Psychiatric Institute. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR, or the Department of Health and Social Care.

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All authors read and edited the full document. Introduction (C.L.), Epidemiology (T.S.B.), Mechanisms/pathophysiology (M.W.S., G.D., R.M.J., T.C. and E.J.H.J.), Diagnosis, screening and prevention (T.C., E.J.H.J. and T.S.B.), Management (T.S.B., T.C., E.J.H.J., J.L.T. and J.V.-V.), Quality of life (J.L.T., J.C. and T.F.), Outlook (C.L. and A.P.), Overview of Primer (C.L.).

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C.L. acknowledges the receipt of royalties from Western Psychological Services for the sale of the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADIR), the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). T.S.B. has received royalties from Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press. T.C. has served as a consultant to F. Hoffmann-La Roche. and has received royalties from Guilford Publications and Sage Publications. T.F. has received federal funding research support from, acted as a consultant to, received travel support from, and/or received a speaker’s honorarium from the Brain and Behaviour Research Foundation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, the Cole Family Research Fund, EcoEos, Forest Laboratories, Ingalls Foundation, IntegraGen, Kugona LLC, the National Institutes of Health, Roche Pharma, Shire Development and the Simons Foundation. J.L.T. receives compensation from Sage Publishers for editorial work. A.P. receives royalties from Imperial College Press, Oxford University Press and Western Psychological Services. M.W.S. serves on the scientific advisory boards and has stock or stock options for Arett Pharmaceuticals and BlackThorn Therapeutics. J.V.-V. has consulted or served on an advisory board for Novartis, Roche Pharmaceuticals and SynapDx, has received research funding from Forest, Novartis, Roche Pharmaceuticals, Seaside Therapeutics, SynapDx, and has received an editorial stipend from Springer and Wiley. All other authors declare no competing interests.

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Lord, C., Brugha, T.S., Charman, T. et al. Autism spectrum disorder. Nat Rev Dis Primers 6 , 5 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-019-0138-4

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• Autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder is a condition related to brain development that impacts how a person perceives and socializes with others, causing problems in social interaction and communication. The disorder also includes limited and repetitive patterns of behavior. The term "spectrum" in autism spectrum disorder refers to the wide range of symptoms and severity.

Autism spectrum disorder includes conditions that were previously considered separate — autism, Asperger's syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and an unspecified form of pervasive developmental disorder. Some people still use the term "Asperger's syndrome," which is generally thought to be at the mild end of autism spectrum disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder begins in early childhood and eventually causes problems functioning in society — socially, in school and at work, for example. Often children show symptoms of autism within the first year. A small number of children appear to develop normally in the first year, and then go through a period of regression between 18 and 24 months of age when they develop autism symptoms.

While there is no cure for autism spectrum disorder, intensive, early treatment can make a big difference in the lives of many children.

Products & Services

• Children’s Book: My Life Beyond Autism

Some children show signs of autism spectrum disorder in early infancy, such as reduced eye contact, lack of response to their name or indifference to caregivers. Other children may develop normally for the first few months or years of life, but then suddenly become withdrawn or aggressive or lose language skills they've already acquired. Signs usually are seen by age 2 years.

Each child with autism spectrum disorder is likely to have a unique pattern of behavior and level of severity — from low functioning to high functioning.

Some children with autism spectrum disorder have difficulty learning, and some have signs of lower than normal intelligence. Other children with the disorder have normal to high intelligence — they learn quickly, yet have trouble communicating and applying what they know in everyday life and adjusting to social situations.

Because of the unique mixture of symptoms in each child, severity can sometimes be difficult to determine. It's generally based on the level of impairments and how they impact the ability to function.

Below are some common signs shown by people who have autism spectrum disorder.

Social communication and interaction

A child or adult with autism spectrum disorder may have problems with social interaction and communication skills, including any of these signs:

• Fails to respond to his or her name or appears not to hear you at times
• Resists cuddling and holding, and seems to prefer playing alone, retreating into his or her own world
• Has poor eye contact and lacks facial expression
• Doesn't speak or has delayed speech, or loses previous ability to say words or sentences
• Can't start a conversation or keep one going, or only starts one to make requests or label items
• Speaks with an abnormal tone or rhythm and may use a singsong voice or robot-like speech
• Repeats words or phrases verbatim, but doesn't understand how to use them
• Doesn't appear to understand simple questions or directions
• Doesn't express emotions or feelings and appears unaware of others' feelings
• Doesn't point at or bring objects to share interest
• Inappropriately approaches a social interaction by being passive, aggressive or disruptive
• Has difficulty recognizing nonverbal cues, such as interpreting other people's facial expressions, body postures or tone of voice

Patterns of behavior

A child or adult with autism spectrum disorder may have limited, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests or activities, including any of these signs:

• Performs repetitive movements, such as rocking, spinning or hand flapping
• Performs activities that could cause self-harm, such as biting or head-banging
• Develops specific routines or rituals and becomes disturbed at the slightest change
• Has problems with coordination or has odd movement patterns, such as clumsiness or walking on toes, and has odd, stiff or exaggerated body language
• Is fascinated by details of an object, such as the spinning wheels of a toy car, but doesn't understand the overall purpose or function of the object
• Is unusually sensitive to light, sound or touch, yet may be indifferent to pain or temperature
• Doesn't engage in imitative or make-believe play
• Fixates on an object or activity with abnormal intensity or focus
• Has specific food preferences, such as eating only a few foods, or refusing foods with a certain texture

As they mature, some children with autism spectrum disorder become more engaged with others and show fewer disturbances in behavior. Some, usually those with the least severe problems, eventually may lead normal or near-normal lives. Others, however, continue to have difficulty with language or social skills, and the teen years can bring worse behavioral and emotional problems.

When to see a doctor

Babies develop at their own pace, and many don't follow exact timelines found in some parenting books. But children with autism spectrum disorder usually show some signs of delayed development before age 2 years.

If you're concerned about your child's development or you suspect that your child may have autism spectrum disorder, discuss your concerns with your doctor. The symptoms associated with the disorder can also be linked with other developmental disorders.

Signs of autism spectrum disorder often appear early in development when there are obvious delays in language skills and social interactions. Your doctor may recommend developmental tests to identify if your child has delays in cognitive, language and social skills, if your child:

• Doesn't respond with a smile or happy expression by 6 months
• Doesn't mimic sounds or facial expressions by 9 months
• Doesn't babble or coo by 12 months
• Doesn't gesture — such as point or wave — by 14 months
• Doesn't say single words by 16 months
• Doesn't play "make-believe" or pretend by 18 months
• Doesn't say two-word phrases by 24 months
• Loses language skills or social skills at any age

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Autism spectrum disorder has no single known cause. Given the complexity of the disorder, and the fact that symptoms and severity vary, there are probably many causes. Both genetics and environment may play a role.

• Genetics. Several different genes appear to be involved in autism spectrum disorder. For some children, autism spectrum disorder can be associated with a genetic disorder, such as Rett syndrome or fragile X syndrome. For other children, genetic changes (mutations) may increase the risk of autism spectrum disorder. Still other genes may affect brain development or the way that brain cells communicate, or they may determine the severity of symptoms. Some genetic mutations seem to be inherited, while others occur spontaneously.
• Environmental factors. Researchers are currently exploring whether factors such as viral infections, medications or complications during pregnancy, or air pollutants play a role in triggering autism spectrum disorder.

No link between vaccines and autism spectrum disorder

One of the greatest controversies in autism spectrum disorder centers on whether a link exists between the disorder and childhood vaccines. Despite extensive research, no reliable study has shown a link between autism spectrum disorder and any vaccines. In fact, the original study that ignited the debate years ago has been retracted due to poor design and questionable research methods.

Avoiding childhood vaccinations can place your child and others in danger of catching and spreading serious diseases, including whooping cough (pertussis), measles or mumps.

Risk factors

The number of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder is rising. It's not clear whether this is due to better detection and reporting or a real increase in the number of cases, or both.

Autism spectrum disorder affects children of all races and nationalities, but certain factors increase a child's risk. These may include:

• Your child's sex. Boys are about four times more likely to develop autism spectrum disorder than girls are.
• Family history. Families who have one child with autism spectrum disorder have an increased risk of having another child with the disorder. It's also not uncommon for parents or relatives of a child with autism spectrum disorder to have minor problems with social or communication skills themselves or to engage in certain behaviors typical of the disorder.
• Other disorders. Children with certain medical conditions have a higher than normal risk of autism spectrum disorder or autism-like symptoms. Examples include fragile X syndrome, an inherited disorder that causes intellectual problems; tuberous sclerosis, a condition in which benign tumors develop in the brain; and Rett syndrome, a genetic condition occurring almost exclusively in girls, which causes slowing of head growth, intellectual disability and loss of purposeful hand use.
• Extremely preterm babies. Babies born before 26 weeks of gestation may have a greater risk of autism spectrum disorder.
• Parents' ages. There may be a connection between children born to older parents and autism spectrum disorder, but more research is necessary to establish this link.

Complications

Problems with social interactions, communication and behavior can lead to:

• Problems in school and with successful learning
• Employment problems
• Inability to live independently
• Social isolation
• Stress within the family
• Victimization and being bullied

More Information

• Autism spectrum disorder and digestive symptoms

There's no way to prevent autism spectrum disorder, but there are treatment options. Early diagnosis and intervention is most helpful and can improve behavior, skills and language development. However, intervention is helpful at any age. Though children usually don't outgrow autism spectrum disorder symptoms, they may learn to function well.

• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Uno Y, et al. Early exposure to the combined measles-mumps-rubella vaccine and thimerosal-containing vaccines and risk of autism spectrum disorder. Vaccine. 2015;33:2511.
• Taylor LE, et al. Vaccines are not associated with autism: An evidence-based meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies. Vaccine. 2014;32:3623.
• Weissman L, et al. Autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents: Overview of management. https://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Autism spectrum disorder. In: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-5. 5th ed. Arlington, Va.: American Psychiatric Association; 2013. http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Weissman L, et al. Autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents: Complementary and alternative therapies. https://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Augustyn M. Autism spectrum disorder: Terminology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis. https://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Bridgemohan C. Autism spectrum disorder: Surveillance and screening in primary care. https://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Levy SE, et al. Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2015;24:117.
• Brondino N, et al. Complementary and alternative therapies for autism spectrum disorder. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/258589. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Volkmar F, et al. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2014;53:237.
• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/autism/Pages/default.aspx. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement: Sensory integration therapies for children with developmental and behavioral disorders. Pediatrics. 2012;129:1186.
• James S, et al. Chelation for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010766.pub2/abstract;jsessionid=9467860F2028507DFC5B69615F622F78.f04t02. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Van Schalkwyk GI, et al. Autism spectrum disorders: Challenges and opportunities for transition to adulthood. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2017;26:329.
• Autism. Natural Medicines. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com. Accessed April 4, 2017.
• Autism: Beware of potentially dangerous therapies and products. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm394757.htm?source=govdelivery&utm_medium=email&utm_source=govdelivery. Accessed May 19, 2017.
• Drutz JE. Autism spectrum disorder and chronic disease: No evidence for vaccines or thimerosal as a contributing factor. https://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed May 19, 2017.
• Weissman L, et al. Autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents: Behavioral and educational interventions. https://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed May 19, 2017.
• Huebner AR (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. June 7, 2017.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder

What is asd.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological and developmental disorder that affects how people interact with others, communicate, learn, and behave. Although autism can be diagnosed at any age, it is described as a “developmental disorder” because symptoms generally appear in the first 2 years of life.

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) , a guide created by the American Psychiatric Association that health care providers use to diagnose mental disorders, people with ASD often have:

• Difficulty with communication and interaction with other people
• Restricted interests and repetitive behaviors
• Symptoms that affect their ability to function in school, work, and other areas of life

Autism is known as a “spectrum” disorder because there is wide variation in the type and severity of symptoms people experience.

People of all genders, races, ethnicities, and economic backgrounds can be diagnosed with ASD. Although ASD can be a lifelong disorder, treatments and services can improve a person’s symptoms and daily functioning. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all children receive screening for autism. Caregivers should talk to their child’s health care provider about ASD screening or evaluation.

What are the signs and symptoms of ASD?

The list below gives some examples of common types of behaviors in people diagnosed with ASD. Not all people with ASD will have all behaviors, but most will have several of the behaviors listed below.

Social communication / interaction behaviors may include:

• Making little or inconsistent eye contact
• Appearing not to look at or listen to people who are talking
• Infrequently sharing interest, emotion, or enjoyment of objects or activities (including infrequent pointing at or showing things to others)
• Not responding or being slow to respond to one’s name or to other verbal bids for attention
• Having difficulties with the back and forth of conversation
• Often talking at length about a favorite subject without noticing that others are not interested or without giving others a chance to respond
• Displaying facial expressions, movements, and gestures that do not match what is being said
• Having an unusual tone of voice that may sound sing-song or flat and robot-like
• Having trouble understanding another person’s point of view or being unable to predict or understand other people’s actions
• Difficulties adjusting behaviors to social situations
• Difficulties sharing in imaginative play or in making friends

Restrictive / repetitive behaviors may include:

• Repeating certain behaviors or having unusual behaviors, such as repeating words or phrases (a behavior called echolalia)
• Having a lasting intense interest in specific topics, such as numbers, details, or facts
• Showing overly focused interests, such as with moving objects or parts of objects
• Becoming upset by slight changes in a routine and having difficulty with transitions
• Being more sensitive or less sensitive than other people to sensory input, such as light, sound, clothing, or temperature

People with ASD may also experience sleep problems and irritability.

People on the autism spectrum also may have many strengths, including:

• Being able to learn things in detail and remember information for long periods of time
• Being strong visual and auditory learners
• Excelling in math, science, music, or art

What are the causes and risk factors for ASD?

Researchers don’t know the primary causes of ASD, but studies suggest that a person’s genes can act together with aspects of their environment to affect development in ways that lead to ASD. Some factors that are associated with an increased likelihood of developing ASD include:

• Having a sibling with ASD
• Having older parents
• Having certain genetic conditions (such as Down syndrome or Fragile X syndrome)
• Having a very low birth weight

How is ASD diagnosed?

Health care providers diagnose ASD by evaluating a person’s behavior and development. ASD can usually be reliably diagnosed by age 2. It is important to seek an evaluation as soon as possible. The earlier ASD is diagnosed, the sooner treatments and services can begin.

Diagnosis in young children

Diagnosis in young children is often a two-stage process.

Stage 1: General developmental screening during well-child checkups

Every child should receive well-child check-ups with a pediatrician or an early childhood health care provider. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all children receive screening for developmental delays at their 9-, 18-, and 24- or 30-month well-child visits, with specific autism screenings at their 18- and 24-month well-child visits. A child may receive additional screening if they have a higher likelihood of ASD or developmental problems. Children with a higher likelihood of ASD include those who have a family member with ASD, show some behaviors that are typical of ASD, have older parents, have certain genetic conditions, or who had a very low birth weight.

Considering caregivers’ experiences and concerns is an important part of the screening process for young children. The health care provider may ask questions about the child’s behaviors and evaluate those answers in combination with information from ASD screening tools and clinical observations of the child. Read more about screening instruments   on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website.

If a child shows developmental differences in behavior or functioning during this screening process, the health care provider may refer the child for additional evaluation.

Stage 2: Additional diagnostic evaluation

It is important to accurately detect and diagnose children with ASD as early as possible, as this will shed light on their unique strengths and challenges. Early detection also can help caregivers determine which services, educational programs, and behavioral therapies are most likely to be helpful for their child.

A team of health care providers who have experience diagnosing ASD will conduct the diagnostic evaluation. This team may include child neurologists, developmental pediatricians, speech-language pathologists, child psychologists and psychiatrists, educational specialists, and occupational therapists.

The diagnostic evaluation is likely to include:

• Medical and neurological examinations
• Assessment of the child’s cognitive abilities
• Assessment of the child’s language abilities
• Observation of the child’s behavior
• An in-depth conversation with the child’s caregivers about the child’s behavior and development
• Assessment of age-appropriate skills needed to complete daily activities independently, such as eating, dressing, and toileting

Because ASD is a complex disorder that sometimes occurs with other illnesses or learning disorders, the comprehensive evaluation may include:

• Blood tests
• Hearing test

The evaluation may lead to a formal diagnosis and recommendations for treatment.

Diagnosis in older children and adolescents

Caregivers and teachers are often the first to recognize ASD symptoms in older children and adolescents who attend school. The school’s special education team may perform an initial evaluation and then recommend that a child undergo additional evaluation with their primary health care provider or a health care provider who specialize in ASD.

A child’s caregivers may talk with these health care providers about their child’s social difficulties, including problems with subtle communication. For example, some children may have problems understanding tone of voice, facial expressions, or body language. Older children and adolescents may have trouble understanding figures of speech, humor, or sarcasm. They also may have trouble forming friendships with peers.

Diagnosis in adults

Diagnosing ASD in adults is often more difficult than diagnosing ASD in children. In adults, some ASD symptoms can overlap with symptoms of other mental health disorders, such as anxiety disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Adults who notice signs of ASD should talk with a health care provider and ask for a referral for an ASD evaluation. Although evaluation for ASD in adults is still being refined, adults may be referred to a neuropsychologist, psychologist, or psychiatrist who has experience with ASD. The expert will ask about:

• Social interaction and communication challenges
• Sensory issues
• Repetitive behaviors
• Restricted interests

The evaluation also may include a conversation with caregivers or other family members to learn about the person’s early developmental history, which can help ensure an accurate diagnosis.

Receiving a correct diagnosis of ASD as an adult can help a person understand past challenges, identify personal strengths, and find the right kind of help. Studies are underway to determine the types of services and supports that are most helpful for improving the functioning and community integration of autistic transition-age youth and adults.

What treatment options are available for ASD?

Treatment for ASD should begin as soon as possible after diagnosis. Early treatment for ASD is important as proper care and services can reduce individuals’ difficulties while helping them build on their strengths and learn new skills.

People with ASD may face a wide range of issues, which means that there is no single best treatment for ASD. Working closely with a health care provider is an important part of finding the right combination of treatment and services.

A health care provider may prescribe medication to treat specific symptoms. With medication, a person with ASD may have fewer problems with:

• Irritability
• Repetitive behavior
• Hyperactivity
• Attention problems
• Anxiety and depression

Read more about the latest medication warnings, patient medication guides, and information on newly approved medications at the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) website  .

Behavioral, psychological, and educational interventions

People with ASD may be referred to a health care provider who specializes in providing behavioral, psychological, educational, or skill-building interventions. These programs are often highly structured and intensive, and they may involve caregivers, siblings, and other family members. These programs may help people with ASD:

• Learn social, communication, and language skills
• Reduce behaviors that interfere with daily functioning
• Increase or build upon strengths
• Learn life skills for living independently

Other resources

Many services, programs, and other resources are available to help people with ASD. Here are some tips for finding these additional services:

• Contact your health care provider, local health department, school, or autism advocacy group to learn about special programs or local resources.
• Find an autism support group. Sharing information and experiences can help people with ASD and their caregivers learn about treatment options and ASD-related programs.
• Record conversations and meetings with health care providers and teachers. This information may help when it’s time to decide which programs and services are appropriate.
• Keep copies of health care reports and evaluations. This information may help people with ASD qualify for special programs.

How can I find a clinical trial for ASD?

Clinical trials are research studies that look at new ways to prevent, detect, or treat diseases and conditions. The goal of clinical trials is to determine if a new test or treatment works and is safe. Although individuals may benefit from being part of a clinical trial, participants should be aware that the primary purpose of a clinical trial is to gain new scientific knowledge so that others may be better helped in the future.

Researchers at NIMH and around the country conduct many studies with patients and healthy volunteers. We have new and better treatment options today because of what clinical trials uncovered years ago. Be part of tomorrow’s medical breakthroughs. Talk to your health care provider about clinical trials, their benefits and risks, and whether one is right for you.

To learn more or find a study, visit:

• NIMH’s Clinical Trials webpage : Information about participating in clinical trials
• Clinicaltrials.gov: Current Studies on ASD  : List of clinical trials funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) being conducted across the country

Where can I learn more about ASD?

Free brochures and shareable resources.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder : This brochure provides information about the symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of ASD. Also available  en español .
• Digital Shareables on Autism Spectrum Disorder : Help support ASD awareness and education in your community. Use these digital resources, including graphics and messages, to spread the word about ASD.

Federal resources

• Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development  
• National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke  
• National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders  
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention   (CDC)
• Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee  
• MedlinePlus   (also available en español  )

Research and statistics

• Science News About Autism Spectrum Disorder : This NIMH webpage provides press releases and announcements about ASD.
• Research Program on Autism Spectrum Disorders : This NIMH program supports research focused on the characterization, pathophysiology, treatment, and outcomes of ASD and related disorders.
• Statistics: Autism Spectrum Disorder : This NIMH webpage provides information on the prevalence of ASD in the U.S.
• Data & Statistics on Autism Spectrum Disorder   : This CDC webpage provides data, statistics, and tools about prevalence and demographic characteristics of ASD.
• Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network   : This CDC-funded program collects data to better understand the population of children with ASD.
• Biomarkers Consortium - The Autism Biomarkers Consortium for Clinical Trials (ABC-CT)   : This Foundation for the National Institutes of Health project seeks to establish biomarkers to improve treatments for children with ASD.

Last Reviewed:  February 2024

Unless otherwise specified, the information on our website and in our publications is in the public domain and may be reused or copied without permission. However, you may not reuse or copy images. Please cite the National Institute of Mental Health as the source. Read our copyright policy to learn more about our guidelines for reusing NIMH content.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental and neurological disability that describes a constellation of early-appearing and repetitive sensory-motor behaviours and social communication deficits caused by differences in the brain. Individuals with ASD have different ways of paying attention, moving and learning. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with a strong genetic component but can also be caused by other factors, and the symptoms can appear as early as two years. According to  the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) , people with ASD often have symptoms that affect their ability to function in work, school, and other areas of their lives, repetitive behaviors and restricted interests, difficulties interacting with people and communication.  The outlook of ASD today is different compared to the past as the people suffering from the condition can live, read and speak comfortably after therapy and training while becoming free from the symptoms. Various studies about ASD have been conducted, and their findings have been significant in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of the disorder.

According to Hodges et al. (2020), clinical diagnosis of ASD involves a ‘gold standard to assess behavioural, historical, and parent-report information to determine the diagnosis. In DSM-5, the clinical diagnosis of ASD must follow a criterion whereby the symptoms must be present in the early developmental period. Nonetheless, all signs and symptoms of ASD might not manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities (Hodges et al., 2020). Another symptom that can help in the clinical diagnosis of ASD is the unusual interest in sensory aspects of the environment or the hyper- or hypo reactivity to sensory input, fixated and hyper restricted interests that are not normal in focus or intensity (Hodges et al., 2020). Young et al., (2018), includes that clinical diagnosis involves other signs and symptoms such as ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal behaviour, inflexible adherence to routines, Insistence on sameness, repetitive and stereotyped speech, use of objects and motor movements. In other words, any healthcare provider should establish whether the patient lacks social and emotional reciprocity, failure to develop peer relationships appropriate at their current stage of development when clinically diagnosing ASD. The body gesture and postures, facial expressions, and eye-to-eye gaze should also give the clinician a hint when diagnosing ASD.

ASD is associated with speech-language effects/impacts whereby the patient experiences delay in speech development language. In particular, autistic patients especially children experience challenges and difficulties in understanding spoken language. Vogindroukas et al. (2022) argues that some children suffering from ASD experience challenges across diverse language sub-systems including morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics, grammar, and pragmatics in written and oral languages while can demonstrate exceptional language abilities like linguistic creativity. All these assertions have been supported by Reindal et al. (2021) who elaborates that pragmatic language impairments are common in neurodevelopmental disorders such as ASD. Nonetheless, language and speech impairment vary depending on other developmental domains, the intellectual level of the patient, and an individual’s age of a child thus any healthcare provider in charge of such patients should consider those factors when intervening for any ASD patient (Reindal et al., 2021; Vogindroukas et al., 2022). Intervention for ASD patients may involve the development of programs that help the autistic children in developing spoken language and understanding communication through writing, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact and speech.

Crowe et al. (2021) conducted meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and mega-review of literature reviews to evaluate the effectiveness of using augmentative and alternative communicating (AAC) interventions for children suffering from ASD and found that the devices can be an important support for helping ASD patients with communication challenges. In particular, the AAC technology, with built-in speech generating capacity helps the child to understand what is being said and used by the child to express their thoughts. other benefits of using the AAC devices include increasing the quality of work in school and general life, literacy development, augment communication, language development and improves speech or the AAC users (Crowe et al., 2021). The AAC devices can be used to help in developmental skills like pragmatic skills, syntax, length of sentences and vocabulary because it is adaptable and personalized.

Autism affects other areas of a child’s development. Kiani et al., 2019; Lyall et al., 2017& Ratcliffe et al., 2015) concluded that autism affects a child’s cognitive ability, skills and strengths like execution of motor of fine and gross motor skills, memorizing vast amounts of information, attention to detail and theory of mind because of the delay in mental development compared to other children. On the flip side, Rai et al. (2018) conducted a population-based cohort study of 223 842 participants with a nested sibling comparison, individuals with autism spectrum disorders, particularly those without intellectual disability to establish whether they were prone to cognitive challenges in future. According to the study’s result, most patients who suffer from ASD are likely to develop mental challenges such as anxiety and depression in future because of the cognitive impairment and developmental challenges associated with the condition.

In addition to the cognitive challenges, autism is connected to social and emotional impacts on the life of a child. Jahromi et al. (2021) outlines that children with autism have a difficult time recognizing and regulating emotions. It is daunting for them to make responsible decisions and have social awareness. Consequently, social emotional learning (SEL) is the only way that can help children with autism to build social relationships and develop an awareness of emotions. Some of the students face challenges with academics thus they drop out of school early. The assertion has been suported by Dijkhuis et al. (2020) who explains that most autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) students attending higher education drop out prematurely because they cannot catchup with the other students. Another reason causing the students to drop out of school is because of the premature development in working memory and mental flexibility which slows their ability to execute mental functioning and cognitive based performances.

Lastly, the health characteristics associated with ASD are divided into two categories, namely restricted or repetitive behaviours or interests and social communication and interaction skills. Examples of social communication and social interaction characteristics include failure to play simple interactive games, not showing any facial interactions, not responding to names by 9 months of age, and avoiding eye contact. Other characteristics are having obsessive interests, getting upset about minor changes, continuous reputation of words and phrases.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a condition that affects the neurological and cognitive development of a child thus delaying their growth in diverse ways. In particular, patients diagnosed with ASD have challenges with communication, execution of cognitive functions; fine and motor skills thus they show different ways of paying attention, moving and learning. Genetics are thought to be one of the main causation factors for ASD even though there are other factors that lead to the development of ASD. Studies show that using augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) interventions for children suffering from ASD can help ASD patients with communication challenges. In particular, children who use the AAC devices tend to communicate better and have a normal social life with the people.

Crowe, B., Machalicek, W., Wei, Q., Drew, C., & Ganz, J. (2021). Augmentative and alternative communication for children with intellectual and developmental disability: A mega-review of the literature.  Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities , 1-42.

Dijkhuis, R., de Sonneville, L., Ziermans, T., Staal, W., & Swaab, H. (2020). Autism symptoms, executive functioning and academic progress in higher education students.  Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders ,  50 (4), 1353-1363.

Hodges, H., Falko, C., & Soares, N. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder: definition, epidemiology, causes, and clinical evaluation. Translational pediatrics, 9(Suppl 1), S55.

Jahromi, L. B., Kirkman, K. S., Friedman, M. A., & Nunnally, A. D. (2021). Associations between emotional competence and prosocial behaviors with peers among children with autism spectrum disorder.  American journal on intellectual and developmental disabilities ,  126 (2), 79-96.

Kiani, R., Bhaumik, S., Tyrer, F., Bankart, J., Miller, H., Cooper, S. A., & Brugha, T. S. (2019). The relationship between symptoms of autism spectrum disorder and visual impairment among adults with intellectual disability.  Autism Research ,  12 (9), 1411-1422.

Lyall, K., Croen, L. A., Sjödin, A., Yoshida, C. K., Zerbo, O., Kharrazi, M., & Windham, G. C. (2017). Polychlorinated biphenyl and organochlorine pesticide concentrations in maternal mid-pregnancy serum samples: association with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability.  Environmental health perspectives ,  125 (3), 474-480.

Ratcliffe, B., Wong, M., Dossetor, D., & Hayes, S. (2015). The association between social skills and mental health in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder, with and without intellectual disability.  Journal of autism and developmental disorders ,  45 (8), 2487-2496.

Rai, D., Heuvelman, H., Dalman, C., Culpin, I., Lundberg, M., Carpenter, P., & Magnusson, C. (2018). Association between autism spectrum disorders with or without intellectual disability and depression in young adulthood.  JAMA network open ,  1 (4), e181465-e181465.

Reindal, L., Nærland, T., Weidle, B., Lydersen, S., Andreassen, O. A., & Sund, A. M. (2021). Structural and pragmatic language impairments in children evaluated for autism spectrum disorder (ASD).  Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 1-19.

Young, H., Oreve, M. J., & Speranza, M. (2018). Clinical characteristics and problems diagnosing autism spectrum disorder in girls.  Archives de Pédiatrie ,  25 (6), 399-403.

Vogindroukas, I., Stankova, M., Chelas, E. N., & Proedrou, A. (2022). Language and speech characteristics in Autism.  Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment ,  18 , 2367-2377.

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