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Essay on Islamophobia and Its Effects

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Thesis Statement

Introduction, causes of islamophobia, effects of islamophobia.

• Islamophobic Incidents
• Efforts Against Islamophobia

Islamophobia has directly affected young Muslims; the negative perceptions that are associated with Islam may lead to self-exclusion and exclusion, with noticeable effects on self esteem and social practices. A lot of efforts were made to control the effects that were triggered by the impact of Islamophobia.

Experts define Islamophobia as fear against, or prejudice or hate towards Islam or Muslims. (islamophobia.org) There has been an increase of the perceived trend of Islamophobia in the 2000s, that been linked to the 9/11 attacks in the USA, while on the other hand some relate it to the rapidly growing Muslim populations in the Western World, due to both immigrations and high fertility rate.

A lot of young people are negatively affected by Islamophobia. Young Muslims are directly and highly affected by it, the facts that lead to many acts of discrimination. It’s quite obvious that negative perceptions associated with Islam may lead to self-exclusion and exclusion, with noticeable effects on self esteem and social practices.

The concerns of Muslim world over the rise of Islamaphobia have become one of the major challenges of today’s world. This phenomenon is voiced very strongly in global and regional politics troubling the relationship between Islam and Western countries. Terrorism has assumed serious proportions and become major cause Muslim stereotyping in the modern world where the role of media is central. Media wars took turned for the worst since the 9/11 terrorists attacks in the US.

As a result, Muslims are subjected to different forms of discrimination inciting hatred and unrest in the society. This has been blamed on manipulation and misrepresentation of actual facts by media particularly in the North America, Britain and Europe. Media portrayal of Muslims in an offensive and denigrating manner witnessed unsettling changes on both systems making Muslims victims of terror and violence.

Media have been delegated the responsibility of shaping public opinion while covering reality at the same time, but in this case, continued attacks by a section of marginal groups by the West has fostered a culture of intolerance and misunderstanding.

Media shapes how we see the world, and by choosing negative and frightening names for people in communicating the crisis problem greatly shapes individual’s perception towards the group in question. Mirza (2009) argues that global dominance of Western media is capable of influencing people against Islam and Muslims by using the 9/11 attacks to capitalize its political campaign.

Mirza (2009) adds that the media depict Muslim what Mirza (2009) terms as “fundamentalism”, “extremism” and “racialism” (p.1). Media being the central information point represent Muslims as collective victims of terrorisms and a security threat to the Western people hence the reason for their war justification in wars tone countries.

While politicization of how media has stereotyped the entire Muslim group, little efforts have been made to respond to new cadre of islamaphobic. Too often, we (viewers and readers) are caught in between engaging in revisionism debate of Islamic religion and the convincing media position of what would otherwise be classified as injustice.

Discrimination, Exclusion and Self-esteem

Dekker and Jolander (2009) argue that “Islam is the most anti-racist and anti- prejudicial way of life” (p.1). Politicisation of Muslim followers as terrorists has brought a very sad reality of hate and violence. It has been argued that discrimination of such groups has become a major problem on the minority in Muslim communities living in foreign countries diminishing the powerful universality of their culture.

The development of hostile relationships has been on the rise resulting to increased discrimination and social isolation among Muslims. Muslim youths on the other hand have experienced great social exclusion increasing chances of school dropouts and low performances. The European Monitoring Centre (EUMC) also reported high undesirable outcome of discrimination and violence towards Muslims to be attributed from negative mass media reports.

Many of these reports were associated with exclusion, discrimination and violence particularly in schools and in housing sectors. These unfounded hostility on Muslin followers led to one-dimensional interpretation of the Islam as ‘terrorists’ resulting to low school performances, high unemployment rate, low wages, verbal threats and physical aggression (Dekker and Jolander, 2009, p.3).

EUMC Reports

European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC) reports on the nature of discrimination against Muslim and Islamophobic incidents recorded high rates of discrimination incidents particularly in areas of employment, education and housing which it argues to be linked to Islamaphobic attitudes (Bohner, 2010, p.240).

Increased levels of Islamaphobic are represented in areas of poor housing and below average grades particularly in school going youths. In employment sector, EUMC (2004) argues that in Ireland State an increase of 7% in unemployment rates as opposed to the national average of 4 per cent as a result of low income levels. The same reports provided that European immigrants, more particularly Muslims are more likely to drop out of schools or even worse obtain lower qualifications as a result of discrimination.

In whereas religious education is involved, Imams without formal qualification with little understanding of the local social context invited to teach Muslim immigrants were likely to increase lack of understanding of Muslim religion. While on housing aspect, Muslim followers suffered greater vulnerability and insecurity in their housing status as opposed to other groups.

List of incidents described as “Islamophobic”

United kingdom.

Since the September 11 th attacks on the U.S, extremists groups have targeted Muslim communities in UK by vandalising their places of worship and intimidating their religion. For example, the Kingston Mosque was attacked by throwing bottles of beer and bacons and urinating on mosques following match against Muslim extremism (Commet, 2010, p.1).

United States

A Muslim cab driver was brutally attacked by a New York resident after professing to the Muslim religion (Siegel, 2010, p.1).

At the beginning of May, a group of unknown people attacked a mosque in Canadian City of Hamilton causing severe damages to Muslim schools and buildings which were estimated to have cost 5,000 Canadian dollars (Trend, 2010, p.1).

Efforts against Islamophobia and Conclusion

EUMC has proposed policies and measures to adequately tackle discrimination and addresses social injustice in areas of discrimination, employment opportunities and education standards that lead to social cohesion. Such strategies include;

• Implementation of legislation; EUMC proposes for specific measures to promote equality. It argues that formation of groups such as Race Equality Directive and the Employment Equality Directive will ensure minority individuals vulnerable to discrimination are aware of their rights.
• Recording and policing Islamic incidents. EUMC proposes for recording of racism incidents and encouragement of diversity police training programs.
• Implementation of social integration to ensure equal opportunities and encourage social cohesion should include Muslim representatives in policy making.
• Promotion of equal access to education and inclusion of Muslim religion in current curriculum to ensure history of minority groups are accurately represented (EUMC, 2004, p.4).

In practical efforts, Luxembourg Ministry of Education incorporated a syllabus on “Instruction religieuse et morale” which focused on Inter-faith dialogues and explains human values of non-Christian religions. Secondly, the Inter-faith dialogue known as the ‘Islamic Forums’ in the same country aimed at reducing prejudices and fears towards the Muslim community will greatly reduce Islamaphobia incidents.

Discussions on racism and Islamophobia in schools should be greatly encouraged to reflect diversity within communities. Encouraging Muslims to engage in Europe public life such as politics and social processes will greatly reduce Islamaphobic incidents. And lastly, media should validate its information to ensure its accuracy before reporting to the general public.

Bohner, G. (2001). Attitudes. Introduction to social psychology, 3 , 239-282.

Commet, S. (2010). UK: Mosque attacked by protesters against Muslim extremism . Web.

Dekker, H., & Jolanda, N. (2009). Islamophobia and its origins: A study among Dutch youth. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20 (3), 1-31.

EUMC. (2004). Highlights of EUMC report: Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia. Social Science Research , 45, 1-5.

Mirza, M. (2009). The Perception of Islam and Muslims in the Media and the Responsibility of European Muslims Towards the Media. Islamic Journal , 1, 1-4.

Siegel, E. (2010). Muslim cab driver stabbed in New York City Michael Enright arrested on hate crime charge. The Huffington Post , 1,1.

Trend. (2010). Unknown persons attacked mosque in Canada . Web.

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Islamophobia in the west: a critical discourse analysis of imran khan’s unga speech.

1. Introduction

1.1. islamophobia across the world, 1.2. unpacking islamophobia, 1.3. countering islamophobia, 1.4. self–other dichotomy and pakistan, 2. critical discourse analysis, 3. the ideological square.

• Emphasize positive things about “Us”
• Emphasize negative things about “Them”
• De-emphasize negative things about “Us”
• De-emphasize positive things about “Them”

4. Methodology

5. selection and background of imran khan’s speech, 6. analysis and findings, 6.1. computer-assisted analysis, 6.2. macro-strategies analysis, 7. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Javaid, M.; Khan, M.H.; Kaur, S.; Qazalbash, F. Islamophobia in the West: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Imran Khan’s UNGA Speech. Religions 2022 , 13 , 284. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13040284

Javaid M, Khan MH, Kaur S, Qazalbash F. Islamophobia in the West: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Imran Khan’s UNGA Speech. Religions . 2022; 13(4):284. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13040284

Javaid, Meesam, Mohsin Hassan Khan, Surinderpal Kaur, and Farwa Qazalbash. 2022. "Islamophobia in the West: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Imran Khan’s UNGA Speech" Religions 13, no. 4: 284. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13040284

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Islamophobia: causes and consequences

• Nimra Masood
• April 6, 2022
• CSS , CSS Solved Pakistan Affairs , Current Affairs , Governance in Pakistan , Pakistan & Muslim World , Pakistan's Domestic Affairs , Pakistan's External Affairs , PMS
• 41250 Views

CSS Solved Past Papers | Islamophobia: causes and consequences | Best for CSS, PMS Current Affairs, Pakistan Affairs, and Essay Papers

The answer is solved by Miss Nimra Masood on the given pattern, which  Sir Syed Kazim Ali  teaches to his students, who consistently score the maximum because of their attempting the questions.

Introduction

Current Situation

• Clash of civilizations
• The collusion of clergy and monarch:  vested political interests
• Lack of understanding about Islam:  poor interaction levels
• Role of media in building perceptions

Consequences

• Political Consequences
• The rise in extremist activities
• Collective trauma: resilience and consciousness of Muslim community
• Socio-Economic Consequences
• Alienation of Muslims from economic activities
• Hatred and reaction in the Muslim world
• Psychological Suffering
• Victims of discrimination: psychological suffering

Recommendations

• The influential role of OIC in fighting stereotypes and misconceptions
• Role of Muslim organizations and institutions 
• Building self-image of Islam:  especially in younger generations
• Role of media in building a positive image

Critical Analysis

Answer to the Question

Islamophobia has emerged as one of the biggest threats of the twenty-first century. From hate speech to violence, Islamophobia has challenged the core of inter-faith harmony and security. Although the phenomenon has posed more threats in the west, unfortunately, it has encompassed every corner of the world. Inexplicably, the clash of civilizations, the rise of right-wing politics, misconceptions, and, above all, the delusionary role of media have nourished the phenomenon of Islamophobia. Islamophobia has had widespread political, socio-economic, and psychological consequences for society and the Muslim community. Politically, extremist activities and collective resistance are the progeny of rising Islamophobic trends. Similarly, hatred toward the Muslim world and alienation across the Muslim community lead to socio-economic challenges. Moreover, the astounding psychological impacts like discrimination and extremism are also a threat to inter-faith harmony, stability, and prosperity. However, a series of collective and individual steps can prove effective in curbing the menace of Islamophobia. Collectively, the role of the organization of the Islamic council is the cornerstone to fight evil. Furthermore, socio-religious institutions, the role of media, and improving self-image are pivotal in eradicating Islamophobia. The question would examine the causes, consequences, and recommendations to overcome the threat of Islamophobia.

Currently, humanity has witnessed many instances of Islamophobia across the world. From the mosque attack in New Zealand to the frequent degrading cartoons, Islamophobia has been a threat. Western societies, in particular, are facing a threat more prominently than the rest of the world. Unfortunately, the Muslim states have witnessed a severe backlash to these events, especially those meant to target Islam and its messenger. Therefore, the phenomenon has emerged as the dividing line between the Muslim and Non-Muslim communities, threatening humankind’s peace, prosperity, and security. Thus, the world must develop a coherent and dynamic approach to tackle this extremist threat.

Surprisingly, there are multiple factors behind the nourishment of the threat. First and foremost, the clash of civilizations is a reality that has given birth to many insecurities and hurdles among societies—sociologists  like Samuel. P. Huntington  has given a detailed analysis of Western societies resisting other cultures and values. For example, Islam is a religion that possesses its own culture and belief system that, currently, is in direct confrontation with western values. Moreover, western societies have also prioritized national interests; meanwhile, Islam believes in the concept of Pan-Islamism. Therefore, the clash of civilizations is one of the core reasons behind the rising threat of Islamophobia.

Moreover, the collusion of clergy and politics is another reason that flares the menace of Islamophobia. Across many western countries, politicians have used the phenomenon to achieve their vested political interests. It is a fact that right-wing politics has been on the rise in different parts of the world; hence, they have used Islamophobia as a tool to arouse public sentiments. According to different media reports, after the 9/11 attack, Islamophobia was at its peak during the 2008 election in the United States. Thus the convergence of clergy and monarchs has been a stimulator for the Islamophobic trends.

Another crucial factor contributing to the menace of Islamophobia is the misconceptions and lack of understanding about Islam. Without a doubt, Muslims have conducted many terrorist activities. However, it does not portray the true picture of Islam. Non-Muslims have built stereotypes based on the isolated incidents that took place.  According to a report published by Gallup survey, Sixty-four per cent of people in the west denounced Islam; nonetheless, less than half of them had ever interacted with a Muslim . Henceforth, poor interaction and stereotypes have played their role in the growth of Islamophobia.

Finally, the media has also acted as a catalyst in expanding the evil of Islamophobia across the globe. Unfortunately, the media has glamorized and moulded extremist activities in such a way that it builds stereotypes in the masses. The media has the power to shape social values, and it has done so to satisfy the interests of politicians and clergy. Ironically, media has filtered and shaped information in a way that has aggravated the Islamophobic trends. There are a lot of misconceptions about Islam that have led to Islamophobia; abysmally, the media has a significant role in reaffirming these stereotypes. Therefore, many factors have contributed to making Islamophobia a global challenge that has had severe repercussions for society, especially Muslims.

Sorrowfully, Islamophobia has a number of consequences for Muslims in particular and society in general. It is a fact that Islamophobia has left a significant mark on the political outlook. Surprisingly, Islamophobia has forced the Muslim community into a sense of alienation and discrimination. Therefore, there has a significant surge in extremist activities by the Muslim community. Furthermore, it has also resulted in collective trauma, forcing the community as a whole to resist. Recent Hijab row in France and events alike are evident examples of rising Muslim consciousness. Thus, societies are facing considerable political impacts of Islamophobia.

Ironically, Islamophobia has also left its mark on the socio-economic sphere of society. While Muslims in the west have struggled in the economic sphere on many occasions, inopportunely, it is the Muslim world that has resented. From a series of protests to social hatred towards the Non-Muslim world, Muslims have reacted staunchly to every event of Islamophobia. A series of protests and demands to oust the French ambassador from Pakistan are a few examples of society’s reaction toward Islamophobia. On the other side, Muslims in the west have been economically alienated, adding to the rise in extremist activities.

Strangely, most severe and long-lasting are the psychological consequences that shatter the very foundation of society. Realistically, racial discrimination and alienation are impetus to the terrorist activities that take place. Interestingly, it is Islamophobia that has sowed the seeds for this racial discrimination and a sense of alienation in the Muslim communities. According to sociologists like Charles Darwin, man is a social animal and cannot survive in alienation. Thus, alienation and discrimination have a far-reaching impact on the psychological well being of the individuals. Nonetheless, a series of proactive and holistic steps can help overcome the menace of Islamophobia.

Thankfully, Muslims have a unanimous platform in the form of the Organization of Islamic Council. The organization can play a pivotal role in overcoming the challenge of Islamophobia. Recently, the efforts of OIC to convince the United Nations about Islamophobia and acknowledge the 15th march as an international day against the phenomenon are symbolic. However, the Muslim world must react proactively to counter misconceptions and stereotypes that breed Islamophobia. Moreover, the platform of the United Nations and foreign policy are also useful tools in fighting the threat. The organization comprises more than fifty countries and a plethora of financial and human resources to fight this threat. Awareness campaigns, documentaries, and films can play a noteworthy role in diminishing the Islamophobic thoughts of people worldwide.

Surprisingly, Muslims have many state-owned and private institutions that can play their part. Islamophobia is a threat that requires collective efforts from the Muslim community. Initiatives in educational institutions, workshops, and seminars are an effective way to impart education. Furthermore, institutions must discourage any extremist or terrorist mindset within the Muslim community. Moreover, Muslim social service organizations have a role to play in this regard to fight stereotypes and conceptions. Thus, credible institutions and organizations can help heaps and bounds in fighting the threat.

Similarly, individuals have a mammoth part in overcoming stereotypes and misconceptions. Realistically, violent reactions, terrorist activities, and militancy can do no good for the betterment of the Muslim community. Therefore, Muslims as individuals can play a role that no other factor can do. Truthfully, Islam is a religion of peace, patience, and tolerance. However, Muslims have failed in following the path laid by Islam. Moreover, the young generation can play a pivotal role as they are the role models of moderate Islam who could help build back the real image of Islam. Hence, building back the peaceful image of Islam at the individual level is the crux of fighting Islamophobia.

Lastly, the media has a fate-turning responsibility in overcoming the barrier of Islamophobia. Although media has contributed massively to making Islamophobia a daemon for society, surprisingly, it can play an even substantial role in overcoming this evil. Likewise, social media has a particular role in countering propaganda, stereotypes, and misconceptions. In today’s digital age, media is a gatekeeper to monitor and mold information to build perceptions and beliefs. To conclude, media and other factors can prove influential in curbing the menace of Islamophobia.

Despicably, Islamophobia has emerged as an enormous threat to the masses’ peace, stability, and security. Islamophobia has rattled society from its very foundation, influencing the political, socio-economic, and, above all, the psychological outlook of the masses. Islamophobia has blossomed under stereotypes, misconceptions, clash of civilizations, and biased role of media. Nonetheless, a few pragmatic and holistic steps can help the Muslim world restore its lost glory. Therefore, it is a fact that the world must respond drastically to the daemon before it turns into a monster. Hence, Islamophobia is a direct threat to the survival of the Muslim community and retaining of past glory.

To conclude, Islamophobia is a threat to society and the Muslim community. Either in the form of hate speech, violence, or any other, Islamophobia directly targets the sentiments and beliefs of the Muslim community. Poor interaction, the unprecedented role of media, and individual misconceptions have nourished the evil of Islamophobia. Appallingly, Islamophobia has had a far-reaching impact on society and its integration across the globe-especially the western world. However, the Muslim world- particularly- under the umbrella of OIC has the potential and resources to fight this evil. Moreover, states and individuals must also take initiatives to curb this evil for the masses’ stability, integration, and security. To say the least, collective and individual efforts are required at a drastic pace to secure the future of humanity.

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Islamophobia Essay

Complete CSS Essay | Islamophobia Essay

By: Talha Aslam

Islamophobia, a term expressed to depict fear of Islam is widely used to connote indiscriminate attitudes, beliefs and emotions directed towards Islam or Muslims.

In reference to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word Islamophobia means “Intense dislike or fear of Islam”. It was first coined by French Scholar Alain Quellien, as ‘’Islamphobie” in 1910 to describe a prejudice against Islam that is rife among the people of the West. Later, it was adopted by English Literature in 1923. As a concept in practice, it is considered a new word of an old notion presented by Edward Said in his work on Orientalism where West has always been associating derogatory sentiments and stereotypes to the practices of Islam.

The term Islamophobia developed in late 1990’s and early 2000’s by political activists, non-governmental organizations, commentators, international organization to draw attention towards the evils of a rhetoric bringing harms directed towards Muslims and Islam.

Yet Islamophobia emerged on the plane of international discourse with the publication of a report by the Runnymede Trust in 1997 titled; ‘’Islamophobia: A Challenge for all of us’’. It laid down the concept of Islamophobia as a useful shorthand way of referring to dread or hatred of Islam – and therefore, to fear or dislike of all or most Muslims.

In 2004 United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan opened a UN conference on “Confronting Islamophobia” with the lament, “When the world is compelled to coin a new term to take account of increasingly widespread bigotry, that is a sad and troubling development. Such is the case with Islamophobia.”

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According to Imam Dr Abdul Jalil Sajid, chairman of the Muslim Council for Religious and Racial Harmony UK, Islamophobia is “the fear and/or hatred of Islam, Muslims or Islamic culture and history. Islamophobia can be characterized by the belief that all or most Muslims are religious fanatics, have violent tendencies towards non-Muslims, and reject as directly opposed to Islam such concepts as equality, tolerance, and democracy” (RISC 2011).

The Terrorist Attack of 9/11 provided an impetus to the rise of Islamophobia. After the attack of Twin Towers Islam was being viewed as a conservative, barbaric and intolerant perspective of life. Muslim was posited as blood thirsty savages under the banner of a monolithic religion.

The West holding the power to Information Technology spread the acrimony, condemning Muslims to racial discrimination and ridiculed Muslim community as perpetrators of violence and unrest in society.

With the rise of Islamophobia across the board, the far-right political parties of liberal western communities gained momentum in exploiting the subjected minorities of Muslims to confer political gains. Islamophobia became a subterfuge to add defamation to Islam by public commentators and political actors. The 2016 Presidential elections of America were one of the most acrimonious and confrontational campaigns in the history of America.

Extraordinary political rhetoric, outbursts in distasteful discriminatory tones, and anti-Muslim invectives blemished the campaign of United States (US) Presidential Elections of 2016. To endorse his political agenda, Donald J. Trump specifically focused upon Muslims as a grave issue, and likely toyed with the public pulses, which resulted in an unpredictable election result.

Mirroring the perceived reality, media as an invention of information shapes public opinion. Media reports after 9/11 specifically underrepresented Muslim views and negatively portrayed Islamic culture. Islam was painted as a religion of discrimination, radicalization and regression by the Western media. With the advent of digital media, providing a carte blanche demerited the situation further.

The rhetoric of Islamophobia dispersed hatred speech & acts of defamation on social media websites backed by the freedom of speech narrative.

Social media being a personal medium of communication galvanized the connotations of Islamophobia and intimidated Muslim minorities living in liberal Western communities. Society deprived of inter-faith harmony glaringly promotes intolerance and rejection towards those who is considered other. European countries including America and Canada practiced anti-Semitism long before Islamophobia surfaced. The hate of Muslims towards Jews and of Jews towards Muslims persists even in today’s scenario.

Terrorist attack of 9/11 and shooting in Orlando’s night club reinforced the primitive visceral hatred towards Muslims and Islam, exacerbating the discriminative attitudes and tarnishing the fabric of freedom for all narrative of Western society. Islamophobia, a narrative delegated to hatred and intolerance took its toll on the Muslim minorities resided in Europe and America.

Bin Laden became a schoolyard taunt and banning Muslim women from wearing hijab, a public policy. Implicating Muslims with discriminations in political, social and civic life became a normalized attitude by the authorities.

Surveillance by security agencies in order to keep radicalization at bay and interfering with practices of Islam demonstrated consequences far beyond the imagination.

In the wake of events like 9/11 and with the rise of ISIS and Al-Qaeda, West launched a military operation to quell the terrorism machinations.

In quest to quash Talibans of Afghanistan, a full fledge operation was launched by Western forces on 16 September, 2001. Furtherance of the military operation was seen by the world as Operation Inherent Resolve to quash the ISIS in Middle East. Fallouts by use of cogency to suppress the militancy had adversarial effects. It led to displacement of indigenous innocents and anarchy for the state structures.

The aftermath of Islamophobia’s notion was evidently witnessed during the refugee crisis resulting from Arab Spring specifically during and after Civil War of Syria. Hundreds of thousands were displaced and was seeking refuge in the modernized Western states.

Engulfed by the fear of Islam and hatred rooted deep in conscience towards Muslims, the European countries demurred the refugees entering their premises. The far-right political parties of the West depicted the war-torn refugees as invaders of freedom to culture and Western values. Rallies and protests were carried out extensively against the refugee situation and the debate of Us versus Them surfaced in the legislative bodies of the Western societies. The provocative phobia of Islam, hurtling in the Western society presents itself as propensity of violence and vandalism.

The antipathy of Westerners towards followers of Islam turned out as harrowing for Muslims in West.

A report published by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (US) states that more than two thousand anti-Muslim offenses have been perpetuated in United States alone. The Kingston mosque incident where English vandalized the holy premises of worship and attack of violent mobs in Hamilton City of Canada on Muslim Education centres and mosques is another story of the liberal region.

One major incident reported as a backlash of Islamophobia was shootings in New Zealand, where 51 Muslims were subjected to death.

The pretext of ‘national security’ in a post-9/11 world is particularly useful, being an amorphous concept that can be made to fit any inconvenient truth and throttle indicted to discriminatory shenanigans.

Alienation of Muslims from political and civic life in upgraded societies of West is an epitome of Islamophobia.

The unemployment rate for followers of Islam was seen at pinnacle especially in United States and European countries. Subjected to discrimination in education sectors, the repugnancy of Islamic views with the values of West was deplored on behest of Islamophobia. Travesties of Muslims as subjugators, discriminatory attitudes of authorities were considered just.

Irreverent attitudes of the West towards the diaspora of the East proved to be harrowing for Muslim women and children. The Council on American-Islamic Relations’ in California surveyed 11 to 18 years old Muslim students to examine their experiences in school and reported that 50% American Muslim students were bullied based by the hatred towards Islam. In France, incidents of pulling scarfs of Muslim women in public was highly reported. Islamophobia, as a just reason of hatred provided abyss for the most vulnerable community of Muslims minority residing in the West.

As a principle, it is the duty of United Nations and its law enforcing organs to maintain International Peace and protect its subjects from Human Rights violations. The world post 9/11 witnessed the failure of United Nations and its law enforcing organs. A research conducted by Brown University states 200,000 & 40,000 civilian causalities in Iraq and Afghanistan respectively.

Arab League Envoy to Syria put out an estimate of 400,000 that had died in the Civil War. The supreme of all states and international protector of civil rights was proved as a fiasco.

The on-going atrocities of Indian Military on the besieged Kashmiri’s resulted in 51,000 civilian casualties from 1989-2018 but as the Guardian Angel of Human Rights, United Nations neutrality to the conflict is questionable for the supremacy of International Humanitarian Law.

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Islamophobia: Challenges and Ways to Combat for Ummah Essay

I. introduction.

Islamophobia is defined as an irrational fear, hatred, or discrimination towards Islam and Muslims. This can manifest in various forms such as verbal or physical abuse, and hate crimes. Moreover, it includes discrimination in the workplace or housing and negative stereotypes and representation in the media. It is a form of racism and discrimination that targets individuals and communities based on their perceived or actual religious identity.

Reasons for the Rise of Islamophobia in Recent Years

There are several reasons for the rise of Islamophobia in recent years, including:

• Political Rhetoric : Certain politicians and public figures have used inflammatory language and made false claims about Islam and Muslims. This has contributed to a rise in anti-Muslim sentiment.
• Terrorist Attacks : Terrorist attacks by individuals or groups claiming to be Muslim have been used to justify Islamophobia and discrimination against all Muslims.
• Media Representation : Negative and stereotypical portrayals of Muslims in the media have contributed to the spread of misinformation and fear about Islam and Muslims.
• Immigration : The influx of Muslim immigrants and refugees in some countries has led to fear and mistrust among some members of the population.
• Lack of Education : Many people lack education about Islam and Muslims, leading to misconceptions and misunderstandings which fuel Islamophobia.
• Fear of Change : Some people might feel threatened by the growing presence of Muslims in their societies, which leads to Islamophobia.
• Economic Factors : Economic insecurity and competition for resources can also drive Islamophobia, as people may blame minorities for their problems.
• Historical Factors : Historical events, such as the Crusades and colonialism , have also contributed to negative perceptions of Islam and Muslims.

Also Read: Globalization: A Weapon for Colonisation or a Tool for Development

Impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Communities

Islamophobia has a significant negative impact on Muslim communities. Some examples include:

• Psychological Harm : Muslims who experience Islamophobia suffer from anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues. They also feel isolated and marginalized from society.
• Discrimination in the Workplace : Muslims face discrimination in the workplace, including being passed over for promotions, receiving lower pay, and experiencing harassment from coworkers.
• Hate Crimes : Muslims are often targeted in hate crimes. These include verbal and physical abuse, vandalism of mosques, and even murder.
• Economic Marginalization : Muslims, in some countries, face difficulties in finding housing and accessing education and healthcare. This is leading to economic marginalization.
• Racial Profiling : Muslims, particularly those who are perceived to be of Middle Eastern or South Asian descent, may be subjected to racial profiling by law enforcement and other authorities.

Cases in Point

• An example of this is the case of the Muslim Ban in the United States , which prohibited citizens of several predominantly Muslim countries from entering the country. This policy has significantly impacted Muslim communities, many of whom have been separated from family members and faced difficulties in traveling for work or study.

2. Another example is the case of the Quebec City mosque shooting. At this, a gunman killed six people and injured 19 others at a mosque in Quebec City, Canada . This attack was motivated by Islamophobia and had a significant impact on the Muslim community in Quebec City. It caused fear and trauma among its members.

Also Read: The Importance of Water will be more than Oil in the Future Essay

II. Challenges of Islamophobia

1. media portrayal of muslims.

Media representation of Muslims has a significant impact on how the public perceives Islam and Muslims. Unfortunately, many media outlets tend to perpetuate negative stereotypes and misinformation about Islam and Muslims. This can lead to the spread of Islamophobia and contribute to the marginalization of Muslim communities.

An example of this is the coverage of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States . Following the attacks, many media outlets portrayed Muslims as violent extremists and terrorists. This led to a significant increase in anti-Muslim sentiment and discrimination against Muslims. Although the vast majority of Muslims had nothing to do with the attacks still they had to face criticism. This portrayal of Muslims as violent and dangerous has continued to be perpetuated in the media in the years since the attacks.

2. Political Rhetoric & Policies

Political rhetoric and policies can have a significant impact on the rise of Islamophobia. Politicians and public figures who use inflammatory language and make false claims about Islam and Muslims can contribute to the spread of anti-Muslim sentiment and discrimination.

An example is the case of the “ burqa ban ” in France . The ban was implemented in 2010 . This prohibited the wearing of face-covering veils in public spaces. This policy was based on the false claim that the burqa is a symbol of oppression. It was widely criticized as being discriminatory and Islamophobic. The ban has had a significant impact on the lives of Muslim women in France. Many of those women have been forced to choose between violating the law and giving up their religious beliefs.

3. Hate Crimes & Discrimination

Hate crimes and discrimination are major concerns for Muslim communities. These acts of violence and discrimination are often motivated by Islamophobia and can have a significant impact on the lives of Muslims.

An example of this is the case of the Christchurch mosque shootings in New Zealand in 2019 . A white supremacist attacker targeted two mosques. He killed 51 people and injured dozens more. The attack was widely criticized as being motivated by Islamophobia. It also had a significant impact on the Muslim community in New Zealand, causing fear and trauma among its members.

Also Read: Causes of Bad Governance in Pakistan

4. Economic & Social Marginalization of Muslim Communities

Economic and social marginalization are also major concerns for Muslim communities. These issues can be a result of discrimination and Islamophobia. They can limit access to education, housing, healthcare, and other essential services.

An example of this is the case of the Muslim minority in China , particularly the Uyghurs in Xinjiang . There, the government has been accused of implementing a wide-ranging policy of economic and social marginalization. This includes restrictions on access to education, healthcare, and employment. This has led to significant economic and social marginalization of the Uyghur Muslim minority in China.

5. Difficulty Accessing Employment & Housing due to Discrimination

Discrimination can make it difficult for Muslims to access employment and housing, leading to economic marginalization. This can be a result of direct discrimination, where employers or landlords refuse to hire or rent to Muslims, or indirect discrimination, where policies or practices disproportionately affect Muslims.

An example of this is the case of employment discrimination in the United States . Studies have shown that Muslims face significant employment discrimination. Muslim job applicants are less likely to be hired than non-Muslim applicants with similar qualifications. This has led to significant economic marginalization of Muslim communities in the United States.

6. Fear and Mistrust within Muslim communities due to Increased Surveillance & Profiling

Increased surveillance and profiling of Muslim communities can lead to fear and mistrust within these communities. This can be a result of government policies and practices that disproportionately target Muslims, such as racial profiling and mass surveillance.

An example is the case of the surveillance of Muslim communities in France . The French government has implemented a number of policies and practices that disproportionately target Muslim communities. It includes mass surveillance and racial profiling. This has led to significant fear and mistrust within Muslim communities in France. They feel that they are being targeted and stigmatized by the government.

Also Read: Importance of Free Speech Essay

7. Lack of Representation & Visibility of Muslims in Mainstream Society

Muslims have historically faced a lack of representation and visibility in mainstream society. This can be seen in various aspects of society such as politics, media, and entertainment. Muslims are underrepresented in government, with few elected officials identifying as Muslim. In the media, Muslims are often portrayed negatively or associated with terrorism. Additionally, there are few Muslim characters in mainstream movies and television shows, and when they are depicted, they are often stereotypical. This lack of representation and visibility can contribute to negative perceptions of Muslims and reinforce harmful stereotypes.

One specific example , in this case, is the portrayal of Muslims in Hollywood movies. A study conducted by the University of California , Berkeley found that from 2002 to 2012 , of the top 100 grossing movies , only 3.6% of characters were Muslim. Furthermore, over 80% of those characters were portrayed negatively. This is despite the fact that Muslims make up a significant portion of the global population and are a diverse group of people with different backgrounds and beliefs.

9. Negative Impact on Children and Youth

Another negative impact of Islamophobia on children and youth is bullying and discrimination in schools. Children who are Muslim or perceived to be Muslim are subjected to verbal and physical abuse. They also face discrimination from teachers and school staff. This can lead to decreased academic performance and mental health issues such as anxiety and depression.

There have been several documented cases of bullying and discrimination against Muslim children and youth in schools. One example is the case of a 14-year-old Muslim student in the United States . She was bullied and physically assaulted by her classmates. The student reported that her classmates had made derogatory comments about her religion. They pulled her hijab off her head and threw objects at her. The school administration did not take appropriate action to address the bullying.h Te student eventually had to transfer to a different school.

III. Ways to combat Islamophobia

There are several ways to combat Islamophobia and promote greater understanding and acceptance of Muslim individuals and communities. Some of these include:

• Education : Raising awareness and educating people about the diversity of the Muslim community, their beliefs, and their contributions to society can help to dispel stereotypes and myths.
• Media Literacy : Encouraging critical thinking and media literacy skills can help people to recognize and reject harmful stereotypes and misinformation about Muslims in the media.
• Interfaith Dialogue : Promoting dialogue and understanding between different religious and cultural groups can help to build bridges of understanding and acceptance.
• Advocacy : Supporting and amplifying the voices of Muslim individuals and organizations working to combat Islamophobia and promote greater understanding and acceptance.
• Government Action : Governments have a responsibility to combat hate speech and hate crimes, and to ensure that policies and laws do not discriminate against Muslims or any other minority groups.
• Encourage Positive Representation of Muslims in Mainstream Media : This can be done by promoting positive portrayals of Muslims in movies, television shows, and other forms of media to counter negative stereotypes.
• Addressing Structural Issues : Examining and addressing the structural issues that contribute to discrimination and marginalization of Muslims such as poverty, lack of access to education, and housing discrimination.

Also Read: Why Pakistan is Important for the World?

IV. Conclusion

It is crucial that we continue to address and combat Islamophobia for the well-being of Muslim communities and for the promotion of a more inclusive and equitable society. Islamophobia has a detrimental impact on the lives .of Muslim individuals and communities, and it undermines the principles of equality, justice, and human rights. By challenging stereotypes and misinformation, promoting understanding and acceptance, and taking concrete steps to combat discrimination and violence, we can work toward a society where all individuals and communities are treated with respect and dignity. The ongoing efforts to combat Islamophobia are essential for building a more just, fair, and inclusive society for all, regardless of religion or ethnicity.

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Countering and Dismantling Islamophobia: A Comprehensive Guide for Individuals and Organizations (2021-04-02 / Institute for Social Policy and Understanding)

This document is a comprehensive resource for individuals and organizations alike. Laypeople such as concerned citizens, parents, neighbors, and members of religious congregations will find tools here that empower them to challenge Islamophobia in their homes, neighborhoods, and communities. Educators; political, civic, religious or business community leaders; civic organizations; and any entity looking for guidance to fight bigotry in their ranks, organization, or wider communities can follow actionable items in this guidebook to help them dismantle Islamophobia. REPORT TEAM Azka Mahmood, Report Author Petra Alsoofy, Outreach and Partnerships Manager, ISPU Lida Azim, Program Manager, America Indivisible Nina Fernando, Program Director, Shoulder to Shoulder Erum Ikramullah, Research Project Manager, ISPU Dr. Catherine Orsborn, Executive Director, Shoulder to Shoulder Lindsay Schubiner, Momentum Program Director, Western States Center Meira Neggaz, Executive Director, ISPU Dalia Mogahed, Director of Research, ISPU

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Islamophobia in the United States: A Reading Resource Pack

Elsadig Elsheikh , Rhonda Itaoui

THIS READING RESOURCE PACK provides a thematic overview of current academic research on Islamophobia in the United States in the form of peer-reviewed academic journal articles and books. This effort brings to light the wide range of research on Islamophobia produced in the last few decades. In doing so, the authors wish to highlight trends in knowledge production around this topic and draw attention to any areas in need of further development where contributions can be made. The purpose of this publication is to enhance the utility of existing academic research on Islamophobia in the United States for a wide range of stakeholders interested in challenging this global phenomenon. These stakeholders may include activists, civil rights organizations, community workers, counselors, students, researchers, and policy-makers. In providing the community with a short-hand summary of publications about Islamophobia, we aim to categorize existing work, encourage a robust expansion of these debates, and establish a framework for the synthesis and summary of anti-Islamophobia research across the globe.

Hatem Bazian

Sammy A Rahmatti

Given the Islamophobia in the public sphere in the United States, including in various media, in this thesis, I will present responses to Islamophobia both in and outside the academy, and by Muslims and non-Muslims alike, so that I can contribute to a fuller account of this phenomenon. I suggest that getting to know Muslims beyond the media stereotypes through interreligious dialogue is an important way to counter Islamophobia. As we dialogue across traditions, this is simultaneously an effort at intra-Muslim engagement as well. Sammy Aziz Rahmatti is an advocate of interfaith dialogue for global peace.

Announcing the new volume: Islamophobia Studies Journal Volume 4 • Issue 1 • Fall 2017 Produced and distributed by ISSN: 23258381 (print) EISSN: 2325839X (online)

Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research: Unpacking the Effects of Islamophobia Collection

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Challenging Islamophobia in Public Schools

Amna Salameh , Naved Bakali

This report aims to inform policymakers, school districts, educators, and researchers about the overall problems Muslims are facing in public schools as a result of an increase in Islamophobia and the lack of training schools are providing in dealing with this issue. In the post-Trump political context, many minorities have been marginalized and targeted, and Muslims have not been immune to this problem. Muslims in America have had a long history of being targets of discrimination and exclusion predating September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks (9/11). Through this trajectory of Islamophobia in conjunction with current affairs, Muslim students (K-12) have encountered an increased amount of bullying, discrimination, and are confronted with unsafe school environments that have affected their performance in school and impacted their mental health. The following report recommends strategies and tools to challenge anti-Muslim bias for school administrators and teachers, to help create inclusive educational spaces that promote critical thinking and empower students to be transformative leaders in the twenty-first century. The following report examines the cycle of Islamophobia in the K-12 educational system. Beyond public hate crimes and the violation of basic human rights, Islamophobia can have traumatic and lingering effects on young Muslims in schools, leading to internalized mental health problems. There is a rich body of literature that details how bullying, racialization, and discrimination from students and teachers has become a pervasive feature of Muslim youth experiences in American schools. However, these experiences are further exacerbated by negative and stereotypical depictions of Muslims embedded in educational curricula, ignorance of Islam and Muslims, and lack of teacher training. Countering Islamophobia at the pre-service level and in schools is important to stopping the cycle of Islamophobia in society. There are a number of theoretical frameworks, as well as state and federal level legislation, to draw from when combating Islamophobia and other forms of systemic racism in schools. However, there are very few examples of schools that have taken formal steps to address these issues. As such, this report details two preliminary recommendations to help address racism and Islamophobia in American schooling contexts.

The theme for the ninth annual International Islamophobia Conference is framed by a critical article written by Professor S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil (https://irdproject.com/reports-of-islamophobia-1997-2017/) on the occasion of Runnymede Trust publishing, " Islamophobia: Still a Challenge for us all ". We included the full article below to contextualize the ninth annual conference call for papers, which seeks to examine five areas framed by the authors and abstracts should engage one or more of these strands. The conference welcomes panels organized around one of the themes or a panel that have distinct papers each covering one of the themes.

Special Volume Editor’s Statement: Comparative Approaches to the Study of Islamophobia in Europe and Beyond Farid Hafez University of Salzburg Comparing Islamophobia with other phenomena is nothing new. Recent scholarship in Islamophobia Studies primarily conceptualizes Islamophobia as a form of racism, especially within the Anglo-Saxon scientific community. At the same time, scholars in different areas of the world explore Islamophobia by drawing on the most popular and widest studied forms of racism, e.g. anti-Semitism in Germany, anti-Communism in the United States and anti-Black racism in Britain and the USA. This special issue of the Islamophobia Studies Journal takes a closer look at comparative research on Islamophobia. Farid Hafez starts with an article on the state of the art of contemporary comparative studies on anti-Semitism and Islamophobia and takes especially German and English literature into consideration. He concludes in presenting blind spots of both traditions and identifies fruitful future research to be done. Fatih Ünal analyzes both phenomena in their structural and dispositional similarities and differences from a social psychological perspective based on a survey with young adults from Berlin. Also Henk Dekker and Jolanda van der Noll conducted a study based on Dutch youths’ attitudes toward Islam and Muslims, and their attitudes toward Judaism and Jews. They ask to what extent Islamophobia is empirically a unique phenomenon, or that it is not funda-mentally different from negative attitudes toward other out-groups. They conclude that in order to understand individual differences in Islamophobia, one needs to consider cog-nitions and emotions targeted at Islam and Muslims specifically. Based on a comparative understanding of anti-Muslim racism in Hannover (Germany) and Vienna (Austria), Eva Kalny presents strategies of how to counter Islamophobia in the classroom. Ineke Van der Valk explores the state of the art of racism and Islamophobia Studies. She argues that unlike anti-Semitism, racism as well as Islamophobia are an under-researched field of study. She shows how academics, politics and the police struggle with social problems and concepts. Based on a case study on police practices she illustrated that the under-theorization and lack of recognition and know-how of problems related to racism and discrimination toward Muslims is not only detrimental for science, but also has undesirable practical implications. Peter O’Brien examines a form of resistance to Islamophobia in what he calls “Europhobia” (essentializing and distorting depictions of Europe [and the West] as thoroughly decadent, corrupt, and sadistic) by Islamists. With the category of “inverted othering”, he system-atically compares Islamophobic and Europhobic discourse in Europe. A theory-informed article, which discusses Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism is presented by Fanny Uri-Müller and Benjamin Opratko. Wolfgang Aschauer presents the multidimensional nature of Islamophobia with the helo of a Mixed Method Approach to construct the Attitudes Towards Muslims Scale (ATMS). Stephanie Wright looks at the recent discourse of Islamophobes in the USA on ‘Creeping Sharia’. She analyzes these recent discourses in light of broader historical and discursive practices in the United States. Two cases are analyzed: the debates over the US Constitution in 1787-88; and anti-Mormon polemics in the mid-nineteenth century. Coskun Canan and Naika Foroutan demonstrate in their article what they call “the paradox of equal belonging of Muslims.” Adapting Axel Honneth and Ferdinand Sutterlüty’s model of normative paradox, they show how the ongoing process of social integration of Muslims produces reverse effects of disrespect. They present the first results of a representative telephone survey conducted among German citizens with more than 8,000 respondents. By using representative surveys from Germany (2005, 2007, and 2011), Marcus Eisentraut and Aribert Heyder try to examine several causes of Islamophobia. With the help of structural equation modeling, they investigate the effect of age and education on perceptions of Islam and Muslims.

Table of Contents Editorial Statement 7-12 Reconstructing the Muslim Self: Muhammad Iqbal, Khudi, and the Modern Self Hasan Azad 14-28 Reading Power: Muslims in the War on Terror Discourse Dr. Uzma Jamil 29-42 Disciplining the ‘Muslim Subject’: The Role of Security Agencies in Establishing Islamic Theology within the State’s Academia Dr. Farid Hafez 43-57 The Islamophobic-Neoliberal-Educational Complex Ahmed Kabel 58-75 “Ex-Muslims,” Bible Prophecy, and Islamophobia: Rhetoric and Reality in the Narratives of Walid Shoebat, Kamal Saleem, Ergun and Emir Caner Christopher Cameron Smith 76-93 The Politics of Arab and Muslim American Identity in a Time of Crisis: The 1986 House of Representatives Hearing on Ethnically Motivated Violence Against Arab-Americans Maxwell Leung 94-113 A Chronicle of A Disappearance Mapping the Figure of the Muslim in Berlin’s Verfassungsschutz Reports (2002-2009) Anna-Esther Younes 114-142 The Socio-political Context of Islamophobic Prejudices Denise Helly and Jonathan Dubé 143-156 The Islamophobia Industry, Hate, and Its Impact on Muslim Immigrants and OIC State Development Joseph Kaminski 157-176

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• DOI: 10.31538/nzh.v5i2.1991
• Corpus ID: 249968209

Islamophobia: Definition, History, and Aspects

• Nihaya Jaber
• Published in Nazhruna: Jurnal Pendidikan… 23 March 2022
• Sociology, Political Science
• Nazhruna: Jurnal Pendidikan Islam

2 Citations

The role of the organization of islamic cooperation in combating islamophobia the post-paris attacks 13 november 2015, growing together: displaced women’s resilience and growth in reciprocal relationship, 33 references, islamophobia: understanding anti-muslim racism through the lived experiences of muslim youth, the impact of islamophobia on the muslim american community : accounts of psychological suffering, identity negotiation, and collective trauma, securitized citizens: islamophobia, racism and the 7/7 london bombings, wearing the hijab: an argument for moderate selective acculturation of newly immigrated arab-american women, disrupting islamophobia: teaching the social construction of terrorism in the mass media., the news media and the "clash of civilizations", bin laden in the suburbs: criminalising the arab other, scott poynting, greg noble, paul tabar and jock collins, sydney, institute of criminology series, 2004.

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Islamophobia Essay Outline

Pages: 1 (525 words)

Subject: Social Issues

Topic: Islamophobia

Document Type: Outline

Document: #M25140336

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I. Introduction

A. What is Islamophobia?

1. Fear or mistrust of Muslim culture or people

2. Manifests in the media and public discourse.

B. History of Islamophobia

1. Christian crusades

2. Islamophobia since the 20th century

C. Consequences of Islamophobia

1. Political instability

2. Economic instability

3. Unnecessary hostility and antagonism

D. Thesis Statement: Islamophobia can be traced back to the earliest conflicts between Christianity and Islam, and has resulted in a distorted view of human history politics, and society.

II. History of Islamophobia

A. Early instances of Islamophobia

1. The crusades and Spanish Inquisition

2. Rise of the Ottoman Empire

B. Fall of the Ottoman Empire

1. After centuries of fragmentation

2. Industrial Age and oil

3. Israel and Palestine

III. Rise of Islamophobia in 20th Century

A. Iran and Iraq

1. CIA, the Shah, and the Ayatollah

2. Iran/Iraq war

3. Hostage crisis

B. Rise of Islamist terrorism

IV. September 11 and Beyond

A. Framing the Axis of Evil

B. Islamophobia in America

C. Islamophobia in Europe

V. Conclusion

A. Problems with Islamophobia

B. Tempering Islamophobia

Islamophobia Essay Outline Example

A. The term Islamophobia may be new, but European societies had long fostered mistrust towards Semitic peoples.

B. After the Moors were ousted from Spain and the Ottoman Empire grew, European societies became increasingly hostile towards Islam and Muslim people.

C. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century, Islamophobia reached new heights, due in part to the discovery of oil.

D. Thesis: Islamist terrorism is certainly a global problem, but Islamophobia is an immature and ineffective response.

II. History

A. Christianity and Islam have butted heads for centuries, and not just for religious reasons.

B. Muslim and Christian kingdoms vied for political and economic power throughout the Mediterranean.

C. The fall of the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century coincided with the rise of the petroleum economy, which created an uncomfortable relationship between Muslim and Western powers.

III. Islamophobia in the 20th century

A. Political and social instability throughout the Middle East led to the rise of fundamentalism and Islamist terrorism.

B. Islamophobia grew out of a genuine concern about terrorism, especially given the precarious dependency on oil-producing Muslim nations.

C. Iran hostage crisis, the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, anti-Israel terrorist attacks, and several other 20th century global issues gave rise to an entrenched view that Islam was an enemy of world peace  

A. Islamophobia became commonplace in the aftermath of September 11.

B. In Europe and the United States, innocent people were targeted on the basis of their ethnicity and religion, as mass hysteria ensued.

C. The media and the rhetoric used by politicians contributed to the rise of Islamophobia. 

D. Islamophobia only worsened the problems related to terrorism, as ordinary Muslims started to see the West as being hostile.

A. While it seems that there is no hope for world peace, it may still be possible to create a meaningful dialogue to end Islamophobia.

B. To end Islamophobia, Muslims around the world also need a constructive agenda for reducing the prevalence of fundamentalism and terrorist organizations.

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