what is presentation layer in reporting

• Engineering Mathematics
• Discrete Mathematics
• Operating System
• Computer Networks
• Digital Logic and Design
• C Programming
• Data Structures
• Theory of Computation
• Compiler Design
• Computer Org and Architecture
• Computer Network Tutorial

Basics of Computer Network

• Basics of Computer Networking
• Introduction to basic Networking Terminology
• Goals of Networks
• Basic Characteristics of Computer Networks
• Challenges of Computer Network
• Physical Components of Computer Network

Network Hardware and Software

• Types of Computer Networks
• LAN Full Form
• How to Set Up a LAN Network?
• MAN Full Form in Computer Networking
• MAN Full Form
• WAN Full Form
• Introduction of Internetworking
• Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet
• Protocol Hierarchies in Computer Network
• Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
• Introduction of a Router
• Introduction of Gateways
• What is a network switch, and how does it work?

Network Topology

• Types of Network Topology
• Difference between Physical and Logical Topology
• What is OSI Model? - Layers of OSI Model
• Physical Layer in OSI Model
• Data Link Layer
• Session Layer in OSI model

Presentation Layer in OSI model

• Application Layer in OSI Model
• Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks
• Examples of Data Link Layer Protocols
• TCP/IP Model
• TCP/IP Ports and Its Applications
• What is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)?
• TCP 3-Way Handshake Process
• Services and Segment structure in TCP
• TCP Connection Establishment
• TCP Connection Termination
• Fast Recovery Technique For Loss Recovery in TCP
• Difference Between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Medium Access Control

• MAC Full Form
• Channel Allocation Problem in Computer Network
• Multiple Access Protocols in Computer Network
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
• Collision Detection in CSMA/CD
• Controlled Access Protocols in Computer Network

SLIDING WINDOW PROTOCOLS

• Stop and Wait ARQ
• Sliding Window Protocol | Set 3 (Selective Repeat)
• Piggybacking in Computer Networks

IP Addressing

• What is IPv4?
• What is IPv6?
• Introduction of Classful IP Addressing
• Classless Addressing in IP Addressing
• Classful Vs Classless Addressing
• Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR)
• Supernetting in Network Layer
• Introduction To Subnetting
• Difference between Subnetting and Supernetting
• Types of Routing
• Difference between Static and Dynamic Routing
• Unicast Routing - Link State Routing
• Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Protocol
• Fixed and Flooding Routing algorithms
• Introduction of Firewall in Computer Network

Congestion Control Algorithms

• Congestion Control in Computer Networks
• Congestion Control techniques in Computer Networks
• Computer Network | Leaky bucket algorithm
• TCP Congestion Control

Network Switching

• Circuit Switching in Computer Network
• Message switching techniques
• Packet Switching and Delays in Computer Network
• Differences Between Virtual Circuits and Datagram Networks

Application Layer:DNS

• Domain Name System (DNS) in Application Layer
• Details on DNS
• Introduction to Electronic Mail
• E-Mail Format
• World Wide Web (WWW)
• HTTP Full Form
• Streaming Stored Video
• What is a Content Distribution Network and how does it work?

CN Interview Quetions

• Top 50 Plus Networking Interview Questions and Answers for 2024
• Top 50 TCP/IP Interview Questions and Answers 2024
• Top 50 IP Addressing Interview Questions and Answers
• Last Minute Notes - Computer Networks
• Computer Network - Cheat Sheet
• Network Layer
• Transport Layer
• Application Layer

Prerequisite : OSI Model

Introduction : Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a data translator for the network. The data which this layer receives from the Application Layer is extracted and manipulated here as per the required format to transmit over the network. The main responsibility of this layer is to provide or define the data format and encryption. The presentation layer is also called as Syntax layer since it is responsible for maintaining the proper syntax of the data which it either receives or transmits to other layer(s).

Functions of Presentation Layer :

The presentation layer, being the 6th layer in the OSI model, performs several types of functions, which are described below-

• Presentation layer format and encrypts data to be sent across the network.
• This layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data efficiently and effectively.
• This layer manages the abstract data structures and allows high-level data structures (example- banking records), which are to be defined or exchanged.
• This layer carries out the encryption at the transmitter and decryption at the receiver.
• This layer carries out data compression to reduce the bandwidth of the data to be transmitted (the primary goal of data compression is to reduce the number of bits which is to be transmitted).
• This layer is responsible for interoperability (ability of computers to exchange and make use of information) between encoding methods as different computers use different encoding methods.
• This layer basically deals with the presentation part of the data.
• Presentation layer, carries out the data compression (number of bits reduction while transmission), which in return improves the data throughput.
• This layer also deals with the issues of string representation.
• The presentation layer is also responsible for integrating all the formats into a standardized format for efficient and effective communication.
• This layer encodes the message from the user-dependent format to the common format and vice-versa for communication between dissimilar systems.
• This layer deals with the syntax and semantics of the messages.
• This layer also ensures that the messages which are to be presented to the upper as well as the lower layer should be standardized as well as in an accurate format too.
• Presentation layer is also responsible for translation, formatting, and delivery of information for processing or display.
• This layer also performs serialization (process of translating a data structure or an object into a format that can be stored or transmitted easily).

Features of Presentation Layer in the OSI model: Presentation layer, being the 6th layer in the OSI model, plays a vital role while communication is taking place between two devices in a network.

List of features which are provided by the presentation layer are:

• Presentation layer could apply certain sophisticated compression techniques, so fewer bytes of data are required to represent the information when it is sent over the network.
• If two or more devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, then this presentation layer is responsible for adding encryption on the sender’s end as well as the decoding the encryption on the receiver’s end so that it can represent the application layer with unencrypted, readable data.
• This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent over a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems.
• This presentation layer also negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
• This presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data it receives from the application layer before delivering it to the session layer (which is the 5th layer in the OSI model) and thus improves the speed as well as the efficiency of communication by minimizing the amount of the data to be transferred.

Working of Presentation Layer in the OSI model : Presentation layer in the OSI model, as a translator, converts the data sent by the application layer of the transmitting node into an acceptable and compatible data format based on the applicable network protocol and architecture.  Upon arrival at the receiving computer, the presentation layer translates data into an acceptable format usable by the application layer. Basically, in other words, this layer takes care of any issues occurring when transmitted data must be viewed in a format different from the original format. Being the functional part of the OSI mode, the presentation layer performs a multitude (large number of) data conversion algorithms and character translation functions. Mainly, this layer is responsible for managing two network characteristics: protocol (set of rules) and architecture.

Presentation Layer Protocols : Presentation layer being the 6th layer, but the most important layer in the OSI model performs several types of functionalities, which makes sure that data which is being transferred or received should be accurate or clear to all the devices which are there in a closed network. Presentation Layer, for performing translations or other specified functions, needs to use certain protocols which are defined below –

• Apple Filing Protocol (AFP): Apple Filing Protocol is the proprietary network protocol (communications protocol) that offers services to macOS or the classic macOS. This is basically the network file control protocol specifically designed for Mac-based platforms.
• Lightweight Presentation Protocol (LPP): Lightweight Presentation Protocol is that protocol which is used to provide ISO presentation services on the top of TCP/IP based protocol stacks.
• NetWare Core Protocol (NCP): NetWare Core Protocol is the network protocol which is used to access file, print, directory, clock synchronization, messaging, remote command execution and other network service functions.
• Network Data Representation (NDR): Network Data Representation is basically the implementation of the presentation layer in the OSI model, which provides or defines various primitive data types, constructed data types and also several types of data representations.
• External Data Representation (XDR): External Data Representation (XDR) is the standard for the description and encoding of data. It is useful for transferring data between computer architectures and has been used to communicate data between very diverse machines. Converting from local representation to XDR is called encoding, whereas converting XDR into local representation is called decoding.
• Secure Socket Layer (SSL): The Secure Socket Layer protocol provides security to the data that is being transferred between the web browser and the server. SSL encrypts the link between a web server and a browser, which ensures that all data passed between them remains private and free from attacks.

Please Login to comment...

Similar reads, improve your coding skills with practice.

What kind of Experience do you want to share?

• Network infrastructure

presentation layer

• Andrew Froehlich, West Gate Networks

What is the presentation layer?

The presentation layer resides at Layer 6 of the Open Systems Interconnection ( OSI ) communications model and ensures that communications that pass through it are in the appropriate form for the recipient application. In other words, the presentation layer presents the data in a readable format from an application layer perspective.

For example, a presentation layer program could format a file transfer request in binary code to ensure a successful file transfer . Because binary is the most rudimentary of computing languages, it ensures that the receiving device can decipher and translate it into a format the application layer understands and expects.

How the presentation layer works

Once the application layer passes data meant for transport to another device in a certain format, the presentation layer then prepares this data in the most appropriate format the receiving application can understand.

Common data formats include the following:

• American Standard Code for Information Interchange and Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code for text;
• JPEG , GIF and TIFF for images; and
• MPEG, MIDI and QuickTime for video.

Encryption and decryption of data communications are also performed at the presentation layer. Here, encryption methods and keys exchange between the two communicating devices. Only the sender and receiver can properly encode and decode data so it returns to a readable format.

The presentation layer can serialize -- or translate -- more complex application data objects into a storable and transportable format. This helps to rebuild the object once it arrives at the other side of the communications stream. The presentation layer also deserializes the data stream and places it back into an object format that the application can understand by the application.

The tool that manages Hypertext Transfer Protocol ( HTTP ) is an example of a program that loosely adheres to the presentation layer of OSI.

Although it's technically considered an application-layer protocol per the TCP/IP model , HTTP includes presentation layer services within it. HTTP works when the requesting device forwards user requests passed to the web browser onto a web server elsewhere in the network.

HTTP receives a return message from the web server that includes a Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions ( MIME ) header. The MIME header indicates the type of file -- text, video, or audio -- that has been received so that an appropriate player utility can present the file to the user.

Functions of the presentation layer

• ensures proper formatting and delivery to and from the application layer;
• performs data encryption; and
• manages serialization of data objects.

Editor's note: This article was republished in January 2023 to improve the reader experience.

Continue Reading About presentation layer

• What is the difference between TCP/IP model vs. OSI model?
• Data and file formatting

Related Terms

Dig deeper on network infrastructure.

What are the most important email security protocols?

file extension (file format)

network protocol

MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)

Organizations have ramped up their use of communications platform as a service and APIs to expand communication channels between ...

Google will roll out new GenAI in Gmail and Docs first and then other apps throughout the year. In 2025, Google plans to ...

For successful hybrid meeting collaboration, businesses need to empower remote and on-site employees with a full suite of ...

Apple has built a Private Cloud Compute server to process and then delete data sent from Apple Intelligence running on an iPhone,...

When setting up Android Enterprise devices, there are several enrollment methods IT should consider. Admins should learn how to ...

Mobile payments provide customers with a fast and secure way to pay without cash or physical cards. Managing these systems can be...

A data center's UPS might not be overloaded. Check loads on the circuits and balance all three phases as closely as possible to ...

As climate change becomes a more pressing issue, these sustainability best practices can help your data center go greener, which ...

StorMagic looks to court customers with smaller data centers for SMBs and the edge with SvHCI, a new VMware alternative with a ...

IT service providers are upskilling a large portion of their workforces on the emerging technology. The campaign seeks to boost ...

Early-stage companies featured at MIT Sloan's annual CIO event tap partners to speed up technology deployment and broaden their ...

Kaseya's pledge to partners promises more pricing controls and a new subscription service that lets MSPs manage and secure their ...

  Layer 6 Presentation Layer

De/Encryption, Encoding, String representation

The presentation layer (data presentation layer, data provision level) sets the system-dependent representation of the data (for example, ASCII, EBCDIC) into an independent form, enabling the syntactically correct data exchange between different systems. Also, functions such as data compression and encryption are guaranteed that data to be sent by the application layer of a system that can be read by the application layer of another system to the layer 6. The presentation layer. If necessary, the presentation layer acts as a translator between different data formats, by making an understandable for both systems data format, the ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax Notation One) used.

OSI Layer 6 - Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is responsible for the delivery and formatting of information to the application layer for further processing or display. It relieves the application layer of concern regarding syntactical differences in data representation within the end-user systems. An example of a presentation service would be the conversion of an EBCDIC-coded text computer file to an ASCII-coded file. The presentation layer is the lowest layer at which application programmers consider data structure and presentation, instead of simply sending data in the form of datagrams or packets between hosts. This layer deals with issues of string representation - whether they use the Pascal method (an integer length field followed by the specified amount of bytes) or the C/C++ method (null-terminated strings, e.g. "thisisastring\0"). The idea is that the application layer should be able to point at the data to be moved, and the presentation layer will deal with the rest. Serialization of complex data structures into flat byte-strings (using mechanisms such as TLV or XML) can be thought of as the key functionality of the presentation layer. Encryption is typically done at this level too, although it can be done on the application, session, transport, or network layers, each having its own advantages and disadvantages. Decryption is also handled at the presentation layer. For example, when logging on to bank account sites the presentation layer will decrypt the data as it is received.[1] Another example is representing structure, which is normally standardized at this level, often by using XML. As well as simple pieces of data, like strings, more complicated things are standardized in this layer. Two common examples are 'objects' in object-oriented programming, and the exact way that streaming video is transmitted. In many widely used applications and protocols, no distinction is made between the presentation and application layers. For example, HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), generally regarded as an application-layer protocol, has presentation-layer aspects such as the ability to identify character encoding for proper conversion, which is then done in the application layer. Within the service layering semantics of the OSI network architecture, the presentation layer responds to service requests from the application layer and issues service requests to the session layer. In the OSI model: the presentation layer ensures the information that the application layer of one system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system. For example, a PC program communicates with another computer, one using extended binary coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC) and the other using ASCII to represent the same characters. If necessary, the presentation layer might be able to translate between multiple data formats by using a common format. Wikipedia

• Data conversion
• Character code translation
• Compression
• Encryption and Decryption

The Presentation OSI Layer is usually composed of 2 sublayers that are:

CASE common application service element

SASE specific application service element

Layer 7   Application Layer

Layer 6   presentation layer, layer 5   session layer, layer 4   transport layer, layer 3   network layer, layer 2   data link layer, layer 1   physical layer.

Presentation layer and Session layer of the OSI model

There are two popular networking models: the OSI layers model and the TCP/IP layers model. The presentation layer and session layer exist only in the OSI layers models. The TCP/IP layers model merges them into the application layer.

The Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is the sixth layer of the OSI Reference model. It defines how data and information is transmitted and presented to the user. It translates data and format code in such a way that it is correctly used by the application layer.

It identifies the syntaxes that different applications use and formats data using those syntaxes. For example, a web browser receives a web page from a web server in the HTML language. HTML language includes many tags and markup that have no meaning for the end user but they have special meaning for the web browser. the web browser uses the presentation layer's logic to read those syntaxes and format data in such a way the web server wants it to be present to the user.

On the sender device, it encapsulates and compresses data before sending it to the network to increase the speed and security of the network. On the receiver device, it de-encapsulates and decompresses data before presenting it to the user.

Examples of the presentation layer

Example standards for representing graphical information: JPEG, GIF, JPEG, and TIFF.

Example standards for representing audio information: WAV, MIDI, MP3.

Example standards for representing video information: WMV, MOV, MP4, MPEG.

Example standards for representing text information: doc, xls, txt, pdf.

Functions of the presentation layer

• It formats and presents data and information.
• It encrypts and compresses data before giving it to the session layer.
• It de-encrypts and decompresses the encrypted and compressed data it receives from the session layer.

Session layer

The session layer is the fifth layer of the OSI layers model. It is responsible for initiating, establishing, managing, and terminating sessions between the local application and the remote applications.

It defines standards for three modes of communication: full duplex, half-duplex, and simplex.

In the full duplex mode, both devices can send and receive data simultaneously. The internet connection is an example of the full duplex mode.

In the half duplex mode, only one device can send data at a time. A telephone conversation is an example of the half-duplex mode.

In the simplex mode, only one device can send data. A radio broadcast is an example of the simplex mode.

Functions of the session layer

• It is responsible for terminating sessions, creating checkpoints, and recovering data when sessions are interrupted.
• It opens and maintains logical communication channels between network applications running on the local host and network applications running on the remote host.
• If a network application uses an authentication mechanism before it opens a logical communication channel (session) with the remote host, it handles the authentication process.

Examples of the session layer

Structure Query Language (SQL), Remote Procedure Call (RPC), and Network File System (NFS) are examples of the session layer.

By ComputerNetworkingNotes Updated on 2023-04-25

ComputerNetworkingNotes CCNA Study Guide Presentation layer and Session layer of the OSI model

We do not accept any kind of Guest Post. Except Guest post submission, for any other query (such as adverting opportunity, product advertisement, feedback, suggestion, error reporting and technical issue) or simply just say to hello mail us [email protected]

Data solution design patterns, implementation, and automation

Presentation Layer

The ‘architecture’ section of this weblog serves as an introduction for the Data Integration Framework Github repository (see the collaboration section ). This Github repository contains the various levels of documentation that constitutes the Enterprise Data Warehouse (EDW) architecture, pattern documentation and supporting metadata and control frameworks.

In the Presentation Layer of the architecture, the data is converted from ‘data’ to ‘information’ to be further picked up by reporting and analysis tools. This consists of the processe from the Integration Layer to the Information Marts. The Presentation Layer is a collection of derived data from the Data Vault including persistent (but completely rebuildable) aggregate and helper tables which can make life easier for ETL and reporting tooling.

The hierarchies are defined and maintained here as series of primary key’s from the involved hubs in a certain order.

To create a Dimension, the data is pulled from the satellites related to these hubs to create a typical ‘Kimball’ dimension for a defined grain. The Presentation Layer is comprised of two parts (or areas): the supporting area and the presentation area . The datamart layer is not a persistent layer since it can be recreated from the integration layer at any time. Performance considerations however will usually require the information to be stored in the datamart layer permanently for quick access. The datamart layer is the location in the architecture where the all business rules (but the enterprise wide ones) are applied to the data. One very important aspect of the datamart layer is that it inherits its datawarehouse keys from the integration layer, thus enabling backtracking of information. The detailed (raw or cleaned) data from the integration layer is still applicable to the keys in the datamart layer.

The supporting area  in an optional phase where calculations can be stored which are shared for every datamart. Using semi-aggregate tables, summaries or any shared calculation can prevent datamarts from executing performance heavy aggregations more than once. The use of a supporting area is very dependant of the way the datamarts are modelled and what their purpose is.

The core area of the datamart layer is the presentation area . Here all the specific subject areas of information are modelled from the integration layer model to a model which suits the requirements of the recipient of the information. The presentation area is the only part of the datawarehouse that is accessible to end-users.

Considerations which affect the presentation layer in general and the datamart area specifically are:

• Front-end analysis and reporting tooling used. Some reporting and analysis software performs better on a specific data model. In this case the datamart that is created for this tool has to conform to these requirements as much as possible.
• Views on history. Not everyone needs a historical view on the data. For most reasons the current view (type 1) might be sufficient whether other recipients might need to monitor how information changes over time.
• Quality of data. All data is stored in the integration layer: its raw form in the integration area and the cleaned form in the cleansing area. By selecting information from the cleansing area, based on the error bitmap, varying levels of data can be selected. Alternatively there is the option of creating a data quality helper summary which uses the error bitmap to enable the selection of data with or without certain errors.

Implementation overview

• In the Integration layer every attribute has been modelled as Type 2 history (stacking), but since the datamarts themselves are specific for the end-users purposes the attributes should be individually labeled as type 1,2 or 3 (well, type 3 cannot be labelled individually).
• Every table which is accessed by front-end tooling (SQL clients excluded) should have a 1-on-1 view as per best practice of working with front-end tooling. This will add flexibility when moving changes in the table structure forward without having to impact the front-end layer right away. Of course it is best to do this quick, but at least you have the option for a more gradual change path. These views are completely similar to the tables they represent, in other words they contain no business logic. Due to the nature of these views, they can be easily generated (if you stay consistent in your approach). Handling these views this way provides a clean line between ETL/Datawarehousing and Front-end/Business Intelligence.
• In terms of database and ETL design this layer can consist of (semi) aggregates and datamarts per subject area or customer. It is advisable to combine the (semi)aggregates in a single group, ETL folder or schema to enable multiple datamarts to (re)use them. The datamarts themselves should be logically separated for whatever purpose they are presented.
• Depending on the front-end software or performance demands,  dimensions can be modelled as star or as snowflake models.

Using dates and times

Dates and times always need special care in the datawarehouse data model. The following agreement exists about date, times, timestamps and so forth:

If date/time attributes are stored for aggregation then foreign keys can be used.  This make roll-up in the front-end much easier. On the other hand, if the only function this attribute in a table has is pure display on a report or minor calculation then the information can be stored as date time.

History in datamarts

The datamart attributes are all type 1 by default. This information is most frequently requested by Business Intelligence users. By request datamart table attributes may be set to type2 (history) or type3 (today’s view of the history).

Supporting Area

The supporting area is an optional area where semi-aggregates or any useful tables can be stored. These types of tables are usually added for either performance reasons or the wish to implement the same business logic in as few places as possible. Supporting tables can be modelled in any way as long as they benefit the presentation area. They are not accessible by users or front-end reporting and analysis tools.

By thoughtfully creating aggregate tables which can be shared by the datamarts one could for instance create a fact table on a certain aggregate level and have different datamarts aggregate this table further depending on their needs. The business logic and performance demanding calculations only have to be done once this way. The helper table can have any structure as long as it will support the connected datamarts. Performance and limiting the duplicate implementation of business rules is the mail goal. Usually though the helper area will follow the design of the datamarts which will in most cases lead to a star- or snowflake model.

Presentation Area

The Presentation Layer is the final part of the outline architecture. A mart is modelled for a specific purpose, audience and technical requirement. The complete Data Warehouse can contain many different marts with different models and different ‘versions of the truth’ depending on the business needs.

In the process from loading the data from the Integration layer to the Datamart layer most of the business logic is implemented.

Search this site

Upcoming events.

Data Vault Meetup - Germany (June 10, 2024)

Recent Posts

• Data Engine Thinking – the book
• Introducing Agnostic Data Labs
• Remedies for Driving Keys
• End dating, or not, in Data Vault
• A brief update on data solution automation progress

Presentation Layer: Protocols, Examples, Services | Functions of Presentation Layer

Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model where all application programmer consider data structure and presentation, beyond of simply sending the data into form of datagram otherwise packets in between the hosts. Now, we will explain about what is presentation layer with its protocols, example, service ; involving with major functions of presentation Layer with ease. At the end of this article, you will completely educate about What is Presentation Layer in OSI Model without any hassle.

What is Presentation Layer?

Definition : Presentation layer is 6th layer in the OSI model , and its main objective is to present all messages to upper layer as a standardized format. It is also known as the “ Translation layer “.  This layer takes care of syntax and semantics of messages exchanged in between two communication systems. Presentation layer has responsible that receiver can understand all data, and it will be to implement all data languages can be dissimilar of two communication system.

Presentation Layer Tutorial Headlines:

In this section, we will show you all headlines about this entire article; you can check them as your choice; below shown all:

Let’s Get Started!!

  functions of presentation layer.

Presentation layer performs various functions in the OSI model ; below explain each one – 

Protocols of Presentation Layer

Example of presentation layer protocols:.

Here, we will discuss all examples of presentation layer protocols; below explain each one –  

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) : MIME protocol was introduced by Bell Communications in 1991, and it is an internet standard that provides scalable capable of email for attaching of images, sounds and text in a message.

Apple Filing Protocol (AFP ) : AFP protocol is designed by Apple company for sharing all files over the entire network .

Network Data Representation (NDR) : NDR is an data encoding standard, and it is implement in the Distributed Computing Environment (DCE).

Telnet (Telecommunication Network) : Telnet protocol was introduced in 1969, and it offers the command line interface for making communication along with remote device or server .

eXternal Data Representation (XDR) : This protocol provides the description and encoding of entire data, and  it’s main goal is to transfer data in between dissimilar computer architecture.

Presentation Layer Services

Design issues with presentation layer, faqs (frequently asked questions), what is meant by presentation layer in osi model.

Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model that is the lowest layer, where all application programmer consider data structure and presentation, beyond of simply sending the data into form of datagram otherwise packets in between the hosts.

What protocols are used in the presentation layer?

Can you explain some presentation layer examples, what are the main functions of the presentation layer, what are services of presentation layer in osi.

Presentation layer has a responsibility for formatting, translation, and delivery of the information for getting to process otherwise display .

Also Read: Data Link Layer: Protocols, Examples | Functions of Data Link Layer

If you have any experience, tips, tricks, or query regarding this issue? You can drop a comment!

Related Posts

UiPath Blog

Digital Transformation

Industry Solutions

Community Blog

Resource Center

What is the Presentation Layer, Anyway?

If you’ve ever heard the term “presentation layer” thrown around in discussions of computers or software, you may have been able to make a pretty good guess at what it is. In the world of robotic process automation (RPA) , the presentation layer becomes a major topic, so let’s take a minute to flesh it out.

In technical speech, the presentation layer is the sixth of seven layers of OSI code that translates data stored in another layer into something a human can interpret. It’s the presentation layer that knows to put the right information into the appropriate fields of a customer record, for example: Name, Date of Birth, Address, etc. The presentation layer is where you’ll find the code for making a program look nice as well. Most importantly to this discussion, the presentation layer is where RPA functions .

One of the main goals of RPA software is for it to behave just like a human being would in any situation. Since most human workers interact with data through the presentation layer of a software program, that’s what RPA robots do. This key component of RPA allows a business to keep its existing information systems while trying new things. You don’t need to overhaul everything in order to make new uses for the information you have.

With the presentation layer aspect of RPA, a company can gain a certain amount of technology independence . Your IT professionals are more important than ever, but RPA software like UiPath allows more people to interact with the data and the systems that make them better workers. An employee doesn’t have to wait for a “deep tech” solution if she can set up her own automation workflow. In addition, as existing systems get more and more out of date (though still vital to a company’s processes), there will be fewer and fewer computer programmers able to rework them. It’s similar to the idea that very few computer repair shops can fix a machine that runs floppy disks: the knowledge is simply lost over time. By using a presentation layer approach, you can cut that dependency and trust that any new IT hires will be able to keep pace.

There are other benefits to the RPA presentation layer approach, some of which are outlined in the 2011 Forrester report, “The Role of IT in Business-Driven Process Automation.” RPA’s ability to work with the presentation layer is, essentially, what makes it so useful in the world of automation.

Client Service Representative , Arts People

Related articles

UiPath named a Leader in Gartner® Magic Quadrant™ for five years in a row

UiPath Named a Leader in the 2023 Gartner® Magic Quadrant™ Report for Robotic Process Automation

Meet the first country in EMEA with an RPA Developer National Qualification

Get articles from automation experts in your inbox.

Sign up today and we'll email you the newest articles every week.

Thank you for subscribing!

Thank you for subscribing! Each week, we'll send the best automation blog posts straight to your inbox.

Presentation Layer In OSI Model : A Comprehensive Guide

In the vast landscape of computer networks, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model stands as a fundamental framework for understanding how data is transmitted from one device to another. Among its seven layers, the presentation layer holds an important place, acting as a translator and formatter to ensure seamless communication between different systems. Through this article, we will try to know what is presentation layer in OSI model, what is its role in the field of networking and what is its importance.

Table of Contents

What is the Presentation Layer?

The Presentation Layer, within the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, is the sixth layer. It focuses on the representation of data, ensuring that information exchanged between applications is formatted appropriately for transmission and receipt across a network. This layer handles tasks such as data translation, encryption, compression, and formatting. Its primary function is to ensure that data remains readable and understandable by both the sender and receiver, regardless of differences in data formats. In essence, the Presentation Layer acts as a translator and formatter, facilitating seamless communication between different systems and enhancing the reliability and security of data transmission.

Working of Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer acts like a language translator and document formatter in the OSI model. It takes data from applications and prepares it for transmission over the network by translating it into a language that both the sender and receiver understand. Think of it as converting a letter into a universal format before mailing it overseas. Additionally, the Presentation Layer ensures that the data looks right by formatting it properly, like adjusting the font and spacing in a document. It also adds extra security by encrypting the data if needed, making it like a secret code that only the intended recipient can understand. Lastly, it might shrink the data down to save space during transmission, similar to compressing a file before emailing it. In short, the Presentation Layer makes sure data is ready for its journey across the network, keeping it secure, readable, and efficient along the way.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

• Data Translation : Converting data from the format used by the application into a format suitable for transmission over the network, and vice versa, ensuring interoperability between different systems.
• Encryption and Decryption : Securing data during transmission by encrypting it before sending and decrypting it upon reception, ensuring confidentiality and integrity of the information.
• Data Compression : Reducing the size of data before transmission to optimize bandwidth usage and speed up the transfer process, improving network efficiency.
• Data Formatting: Formatting data according to predefined standards for transmission, including character encoding, data structure, and multimedia representation, ensuring compatibility between sender and receiver applications.
• Protocol Conversion : Adapting data between different network protocols or data formats, facilitating communication between systems with varying requirements or standards.
• Character Code Translation: Converting characters between different character sets or encoding schemes to ensure proper interpretation of text-based data across systems with different language or encoding preferences.

Protocols are Use in Presentation layer

The Presentation Layer primarily focuses on data representation and formatting rather than specific protocols. However, some protocols or standards are commonly associated with the Presentation Layer due to their role in data representation and formatting. Here are a few examples.

• MIME : MIME stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions. It’s a protocol that broadens the scope of email messages, enabling the use of text in various character sets beyond ASCII. Additionally, MIME facilitates the inclusion of attachments such as audio, video, images, and application programs within emails.
• SSL/TLS : SSL/TLS protocols provide secure communication over a computer network by encrypting data between the client and server, ensuring data confidentiality and integrity. While SSL/TLS operate at the Transport Layer, they often involve encryption and decryption processes associated with the Presentation Layer.
• ASCII (: ASCII and Unicode are character encoding standards that represent text characters using numerical codes. These standards ensure consistent representation of text characters across different systems and platforms, which is crucial for data interchange.
• JPEG, GIF, PNG : These image file formats are commonly used for encoding and transmitting images over networks. While the specifics of image compression and encoding are often handled by the Application Layer, the Presentation Layer ensures proper interpretation and formatting of these image data.
• PDF : PDF is a file format used to present and exchange documents reliably, independent of software, hardware, or operating systems. The Presentation Layer ensures proper interpretation and rendering of PDF documents for display or printing

the Presentation Layer of the OSI Model acts as a translator and formatter, ensuring that data exchanged between applications remains readable and compatible across diverse systems. By handling tasks such as data translation, encryption, compression, and formatting, it enhances the reliability, efficiency, and security of data transmission over networks. Essentially, the Presentation Layer plays a crucial role in facilitating seamless communication between different systems, ensuring that information is accurately represented and securely transmitted, thus contributing to the smooth functioning of modern networking environments.

Recommended Article

• What Are The Difference Between Analog And Digital Signal
• What Are Antennas ? | Types Of Antenna And How Do They Work
• Difference Between Hub Switch And Router
• 7 Layers of the OSI Model – Definition, Layers, and Functions
• What Is Ping Command In Computer Network
• Difference Between Webpage And Website
• Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model in Networking
• OFC Full Form – Optical Fibre Cable | Types, Usage and Working
• Application Layer In OSI Model : A Comprehensive Guide
• Latest Posts
• Types of Computer Processor (CPUs) - 21 June 2024
• Understanding Types of Graphics Cards (GPU) - 19 June 2024
• Ryzen vs Intel: Which CPU Is Right for You? - 17 June 2024

Please Share This Share this content

• Opens in a new window X
• Opens in a new window Facebook
• Opens in a new window Pinterest
• Opens in a new window LinkedIn
• Opens in a new window WhatsApp

You Might Also Like

Types of internet connection – from dial-up to cellular broadband, what is star topology features, & how does it work, firewall in computer network features, types & working.

Presentation Layer

Last Edited

What is the Presentation Layer?

Presentation Layer is the Layer 6 of the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model . The presentation layer structures data that is passed down from the application layer into a format suitable for network transmission. This layer is responsible for data encryption, data compression, character set conversion, interpretation of graphics commands, and so on. The network redirector also functions at this layer.

Presentation Layer functions

• Translation:  Before being transmitted, information in the form of characters and numbers should be changed to bit streams. Layer 6 is responsible for interoperability between encoding methods as different computers use different encoding methods. It translates data between the formats the network requires and the format the computer.
• Encryption:  Encryption at the transmitter and decryption at the receiver
• Compression:  Data compression to reduce the bandwidth of the data to be transmitted. The primary role of  data compression  is to reduce the number of bits to be transmitted. Multimedia files, such as audio and video, are bigger than text files and compression is more important.

Role of Presentation Layer in the OSI Model

This layer is not always used in network communications because its functions are not always necessary. Translation is only needed if different types of machines need to talk with each other. Encryption is optional in communication. If the information is public there is no need to encrypt and decrypt info. Compression is also optional. If files are small there is no need for compression.

Explaining Layer 6 in video

Most real-world protocol suites, such as TCP/IP , do not use separate presentation layer protocols. This layer is mostly an abstraction in real-world networking.

An example of a program that loosely adheres to layer 6 of OSI is the tool that manages the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) — although it’s technically considered an application-layer protocol per the TCP/IP model.

However, HTTP includes presentation layer services within it. HTTP works when the requesting device forwards user requests passed to the web browser onto a web server elsewhere in the network.

It receives a return message from the web server that includes a multipurpose internet mail extensions (MIME) header. The MIME header indicates the type of file – text, video, or audio – that has been received so that an appropriate player utility can be used to present the file to the user.

In short, the presentation layer

Makes sure that data which is being transferred or received should be accurate or clear to all the devices which are there, in a closed network.

• ensures proper formatting and delivery to and from the application layer;
• performs data encryption; and
• manages serialization of data objects.

Computer Network

• Operating Systems
• Computer Fundamentals
• Interview Q

Physical Layer

Data link layer, network layer, routing algorithm, transport layer, application layer, application protocols, network security.

Interview Questions

• Send your Feedback to [email protected]

Help Others, Please Share

Learn Latest Tutorials

Transact-SQL

Reinforcement Learning

R Programming

React Native

Python Design Patterns

Python Pillow

Python Turtle

Preparation

Verbal Ability

Company Questions

Trending Technologies

Artificial Intelligence

Cloud Computing

Data Science

Machine Learning

B.Tech / MCA

Data Structures

Operating System

Compiler Design

Computer Organization

Discrete Mathematics

Ethical Hacking

Computer Graphics

Software Engineering

Web Technology

Cyber Security

C Programming

Control System

Data Mining

Data Warehouse

Presentation Layer

• First Online: 13 June 2023

Cite this chapter

• Brian Hodel 2  

475 Accesses

3 Altmetric

The presentation layer consists of various methods of presenting and interacting with your data. In Power Platform, there are several tools with which to do this, such as Power Apps, Power BI, and Power Pages. Designing an interface for your data is one of the more challenging aspects of designing a solution because it is where users interact with data. It needs to be built in such a way that users can intuitively find and navigate data structures. In my experience, this part of the process involves numerous iterations to find a balance between functionality and what makes sense to users.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Bothell, WA, USA

Brian Hodel

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Hodel, B. (2023). Presentation Layer. In: Beginning Microsoft Dataverse. Apress, Berkeley, CA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9334-8_5

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9334-8_5

Published : 13 June 2023

Publisher Name : Apress, Berkeley, CA

Print ISBN : 978-1-4842-9333-1

Online ISBN : 978-1-4842-9334-8

eBook Packages : Professional and Applied Computing Apress Access Books Professional and Applied Computing (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• Data Structure
• Coding Problems
• C Interview Programs
• C++ Aptitude
• Java Aptitude
• C# Aptitude
• PHP Aptitude
• Linux Aptitude
• DBMS Aptitude
• Networking Aptitude
• AI Aptitude
• MIS Executive
• Web Technologie MCQs
• CS Subjects MCQs
• Databases MCQs
• Programming MCQs
• Testing Software MCQs
• Digital Mktg Subjects MCQs
• Cloud Computing S/W MCQs
• Engineering Subjects MCQs
• Commerce MCQs
• More MCQs...
• Machine Learning/AI
• Operating System
• Computer Network
• Software Engineering
• Discrete Mathematics
• Digital Electronics
• Data Mining
• Embedded Systems
• Cryptography
• CS Fundamental
• More Tutorials...
• Tech Articles
• Code Examples
• Programmer's Calculator
• XML Sitemap Generator
• Tools & Generators

Computer Network Tutorial

• Computer Network - Home
• Computer Network - Overview
• Computer Network - Applications
• Computer Network - TCP/IP
• Computer Network - OSI Model
• Computer Network - Transport, Network, & Application Layers
• Computer Network - Network Protocols & Network Software
• Computer Network - TopologiesTypes
• Computer Network - Hub
• Computer Network - Routing
• Computer Network - Routers
• Computer Network - Dynamic Routing Protocols
• Computer Network - Router
• Computer Network - Populating a Routing Table
• Computer Network - Switches
• Computer Network - Layer 2 Switching
• Computer Network - Configure Cisco Switch
• Computer Network - ICMP
• Computer Network - ICMP Messages
• Computer Network - Addressing
• Computer Network - Classless Addressing
• Computer Network - IPV4 Addressing
• Computer Network - IPV6 Addressing
• Computer Network - Logical Addressing, Notations
• Computer Network - Classful & Classless Addressing
• Computer Network - Subnetting & Supernetting
• Computer Network - Network Address Translation
• Computer Network - FLSM & VLSM
• Computer Network - Line Configuration
• Transmission Computer Network - Modes
• Computer Network - Data Link Layer
• Computer Network - Physical Layer
• Computer Network - Network Layer
• Computer Network - Session Layer
• Computer Network - Transport Layer
• Computer Network - Application Layer
• Computer Network - Presentation Layer
• Computer Network - Coaxial Cable
• Computer Network - Optical Fiber
• Computer Network - Unguided Transmission Media
• Computer Network - Virtual LAN (VLAN)
• Computer Network - VSAN
• Computer Network - Multiple Access Protocol
• Computer Network - Random Access methods
• Computer Network - Aloha Network
• Computer Network - CSMA
• Computer Network - FDMA & TDMA
• Computer Network - CDMA
• Computer Network - Ethernet Technology
• Computer Network - Types of Network Topology
• Computer Network - Data Transmission
• Computer Network - Switching Techniques
• Computer Network - Transmission Impairment
• Computer Network - Synchronous & Asynchronous Transmission
• Computer Network - Intent-Based Networking
• Computer Network - Software-Defined Networking
• Computer Network - Wireless Personal Area Network
• Computer Network - Wireless Wide Area Network
• Computer Network - P2P File Sharing
• Computer Network - Packet Switching
• Computer Network - PGP - Authentication & Confidentiality
• Computer Network - PGP - Encryption & Compression
• Computer Network - Phishing Attacks
• Computer Network - ICMP Ping
• Computer Network - Pipelining in Packet Switching
• Computer Network - Plaintext Vs. Cleartext Encryption
• Computer Network - Platform as a Service (PaaS)
• Computer Network - GPRS Architecture
• Computer Network - Identify & Prevent Phishing & Pharming
• Computer Network - Change MAC Address
• Computer Network - Network Administrator Vs. Network Engineer

Difference B/W Articles

• Computer Network - Phishing & Pharming
• Computer Network - Ping Vs. Traceroute
• Computer Network - Network Vs. System Administrator
• Computer Network - Network & Application Layer Protocols
• Computer Network - Network Security Vs. Network Administration
• Computer Network - Network Vs. Internet
• Computer Network - PDH Vs. SDH
• Computer Network - PCI Vs. PCI express
• Computer Network - PCI-E Vs. PCI-X
• Computer Network - OT Vs. IT Networks

Computer Network Practice

• Computer Network - MCQs
• Computer Network - Aptitude Questions

Home » Computer Network

Presentation Layer: What It Is, Design Issues, Functionalities

Description and Functions of Presentation Layer in the OSI model: In this tutorial, we are going to learn what the Presentation layer is and the Functions of the Presentation Layer in the OSI model in Computer Networking. We will also discuss the Design issues with the Presentation Layer and the working of the Presentation Layer with the help of its diagram. By Monika Jha Last updated : May 05, 2023

What is Presentation Layer?

The Presentation Layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two communicating devices.

• The presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in that way the receiver of the data will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
• Languages that are syntax can be different from the two communicating machines. In this condition, the presentation layer plays the role of translator between them.
• It is possible for two machines to communicate with different data representations, data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way.
• These abstract data structures will be managed by the presentation layer and this layer allows higher-level data structures (For example banking records), to be defined and exchanged.

This figure shows the relationship of the presentation layer to the session layer and application layer.

Design Issues with Presentation Layer

The following are the design issues with presentation layer:

• To manage and maintain the Syntax and Semantics of the information transmitted.
• Encoding data in a standard agreed-upon way just like a string, double, date, etc.
• It Performs Standard Encoding scheme on the wire.

Functionalities of the Presentation Layer

Specific functionalities of the presentation layer are as follows:

1. Translation

• The processes or running programs in two machines are usually exchanging the information in the form of numbers, character strings and so on before being transmitted. The information should be changed to bitstreams because different computers use different encoding schemes.
• The Presentation layer is responsible for compatibility between these encoding methods.
• The Presentation layer at the sender's side changes the information from its sender dependent format.
• The Presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receivers dependent format.

Example: Convert ASCII code to EBCDIC code.

2. Encryption

• The system must be able to assure privacy regarding the message or information as it also carries sensitive information.
• Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information or message to another form, this data after encryption is known as the ciphertext and this ciphertext sends the resulting message out over the network.
• Decryption concerned with the transform of the message back to its original form. This decrypted data is known as plain text.

3. Compression

• Data Compression means reduces the number of bits to be transmitted by this reduce the bandwidth of the data.
• Data Compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as audio, video, text, etc.

Related Tutorials

• IPV4 Addressing | Classful and Classless Addressing
• Subnetting and Supernetting in Computer Network
• Network Address Translation (NAT) in Computer Network
• Fixed Length and Variable Length Subnet Mask (FLSM & VLSM)
• Line Configuration in Computer Network
• Transmission Modes in Computer Network
• Data Link Layer: What It Is, Sublayers, Design Issues, Functions
• Physical Layer: What It Is, Design Issues, Functions
• Network Layer: What It Is, Design Issues, Responsibilities
• Session Layer: What It Is, Design Issues, Functionalities
• Transport Layer: What It Is, Design Issues, Functions, and Example
• Optical Fiber (Fiber Optics) in Computer Network
• Unguided Transmission Media in Computer Network
• Virtual LAN (VLAN) in Computer Network
• Virtual Storage Area Networking (VSAN)

Comments and Discussions!

Load comments ↻

• Marketing MCQs
• Blockchain MCQs
• Artificial Intelligence MCQs
• Data Analytics & Visualization MCQs
• Python MCQs
• C++ Programs
• Python Programs
• Java Programs
• D.S. Programs
• Golang Programs
• C# Programs
• JavaScript Examples
• jQuery Examples
• CSS Examples
• C++ Tutorial
• Python Tutorial
• ML/AI Tutorial
• MIS Tutorial
• Software Engineering Tutorial
• Scala Tutorial
• Privacy policy
• Certificates
• Content Writers of the Month

Copyright © 2024 www.includehelp.com. All rights reserved.

• Managing Metadata Repositories for Oracle Analytics Server
• Build Your Metadata Repository
• Create and Maintain the Presentation Layer

About the Presentation Layer

You can provide customized, secure, role-based views of a business model to users in the Presentation layer.

Role-based views provide object security and also provide a way to hide some of the complexity of the business model.

In the Presentation layer, you can set an implicit fact column. The primary function of the Presentation layer is to provide custom names, dictionary entries, organization, and security for different groups of users.

Presentation layer views are called subject areas. In previous versions, subject areas were called presentation catalogs. You can create a subject area that's identical to your business model, or you can create role-based subject areas that show a single subject or that supports a specific business role. Subject areas aren't abstract views. You should create subject areas that organize your content in a way that benefits your users.

Subject areas in the Presentation layer appear as catalogs to client tools that use the Oracle BI Server as an ODBC data source. Subject areas contain presentation tables, columns, hierarchies, and levels.

Even though the Logical SQL requests from Answers and other clients query the presentation tables and columns, the logic for entities, relationships, and joins is in the Business Model and Mapping layer.

• Stack Overflow Public questions & answers
• Stack Overflow for Teams Where developers & technologists share private knowledge with coworkers
• Talent Build your employer brand
• Advertising Reach developers & technologists worldwide
• Labs The future of collective knowledge sharing
• About the company

Collectives™ on Stack Overflow

Find centralized, trusted content and collaborate around the technologies you use most.

Q&A for work

Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search.

Get early access and see previews of new features.

Separating SQL reporting layer and presentation layer?

I'm using SQL Server Reporting Services. Most of my queries run as reports which are simply exported as PDF.

I'd like to know which type of calculations, if any, should done in the actual SQL query and which should be calculated using the SSRS IDE (Business Intelligence Studio).

For example, if I have a 12 month sales report (12 months) which requires a sales average of the 3 most recent months, where should that average be calculated?

Should most calculations/aggregations be done in the presentation layer? Any exceptions?

• reporting-services
• presentation-layer

3 Answers 3

This could be looked at in 2 ways:

• where do you put business logic
• given time is needed for calculations, where is more efficient

The answer to either of these is "it depends". For your example of a 12-month report that also displayed trends, if you have a couple of parameters that change the logic used to get the data, I'd be tempted to do as much as possible in the SQL stored procedure (even the averages) and make the report pretty "dumb" to just display the results. If the report is very simple or the logic is specific to that report only, then in the report might work.

For re-usability I favor doing things in SQL. For complex display stuff (heatmapping, graphs, etc.), in the report is probably better.

Keep the logic of the report with the report. SQL Server will give you the data but it is best to keep customized logic with the report.

I would stay away from having the report make roundtrips to the database for calculations. If your stored procedure(s) grouping and ordering matches your report layout then SSRS is pretty efficient at making aggregated calculations.

Your Answer

Reminder: Answers generated by artificial intelligence tools are not allowed on Stack Overflow. Learn more

Sign up or log in

Post as a guest.

Required, but never shown

By clicking “Post Your Answer”, you agree to our terms of service and acknowledge you have read our privacy policy .

Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged reporting-services reporting presentation-layer or ask your own question .

• Featured on Meta
• Upcoming sign-up experiments related to tags
• The 2024 Developer Survey Is Live
• The return of Staging Ground to Stack Overflow
• Policy: Generative AI (e.g., ChatGPT) is banned

Hot Network Questions

• Why is "Colourless green ideas sleep furiously" considered meaningless?
• What is TokenzQdBNbLqP5VEhdkAS6EPFLC1PHnBqCXEpPxuEb in process of creating spl token?
• Are there any precautions I should take if I plan on storing something very heavy near my foundation?
• Recommendations Modifying/increasing a bicycles Max Weight limits
• What can I add to my too-wet tuna+potato patties to make them less mushy?
• Could a Google Chrome extension read my password?
• Should I practise a piece at a metronome tempo that is faster than required?
• What is the meaning of this black/white (likely non-traffic) sign seen on German highways?
• Looking for a story that possibly started "MYOB"
• Ideal test/p-value calculation for difference in means with small sample size and right skewed data?
• Bibliographic references: “[19,31-33]”, “[33,19,31,32]” or “[33], [19], [31], [32]”?
• How can non-residents apply for rejsegaranti with Nordjyllands Trafikselskab?
• Which CAS can do basic non-commutative differential algebra?
• Blend a list of colors with hues from 0 to 1 in increments of 0.1
• How can I permute pair of elements in a list?
• A Fantasy movie with a powerful humanoid being that lives in water
• Is there a way to snap Bézier curve handles to axes or angles?
• Tool Storage Corrosion Risk
• Can the laser light, in principle, take any wavelength in the EM spectrum?
• Transforming sentences with perfect infintive
• Why do we need unit vectors in a differential bit of area?
• Is this crumbling concrete step salvageable?
• Why is the Newcomb problem confusing?
• Why didn't Harry go back to Grimmauld Place in the Easter holidays in OotP?