african american essays

Our Favorite Essays by Black Writers About Race and Identity

Books & Culture

A personal and critical lens to blackness in america from our archives.

It’s fitting that two of the first three essays in this roundup are centered on examining the Black American experience as one of horror. In a year when radical right-wing activists are truly leaning in, we’ve already seen record numbers of anti-LGBTQ legislation, the very real possibility of the end of Roe v. Wade, and more fervent redlining measures to keep Black people (and other marginalized communities) from voting. Gun violence is at an all time high, in particular mass shootings.

Since the success of Jordan Peele’s runaway hit film Get Out , there has been a steady rise in films depicting the Black American experience for the fraught, nuanced, dangerous life that it can be. This narrative isn’t entirely new, but this is the first time these films have gained critical acclaim and commercial attention. The reason is simple. Whatever the cause—social media, an increasingly diverse population—America can’t run from itself anymore. Our entertainment is finally asking the question that Black people have been asking for generations: In America, who is the real boogeyman?

Naturally, the discourse and critical analyses must follow suit. But it doesn’t stop there: the essays on this list span far and wide when it comes to subject matter, critical lens, and personal narrative. There are essays about Black friendship, the radical nature of Black people taking rest, and the affirmation of Black women writing for themselves, telling their own stories. Icons like Michelle Obama, Toni Morrison, and Gayle Jones get a deep dive, and we learn that we should always have been listening to Octavia Butler. This Juneteenth, I hope you’re taking a moment to reflect, on America’s troubled legacy, and to celebrate the ways that Black people continue to thrive.

Modern Horror Is the Perfect Genre for Capturing the Black Experience

Cree Myles writes about the contemporary Black creators rewriting the horror genre and growing the canon:

“Racism is a horror and should be explored as such. White folks have made it clear that they don’t think that’s true. Someone else needs to tell the story.”

Modern Narratives of Black Love and Friendship Are Centering Iconic Trios

Darise Jeanbaptiste writes about how Insecure and Nobody’s Magic illustrate the intricacy of evolving Black relationships:

“The power of the triptych is that it offers three experiences in addition to the fourth, which emerges when all three are viewed or read together.”

I Was Surrounded by “Final Girls” in School, Knowing I’d Never Be One

Whitney Washington writes that the erasure of Black women in slasher films has larger implications about race in America:

“Long before the realities of American life, it was slasher movies that taught me how invisible, ignored, and ultimately expendable Black women are. There was no list of rules long enough to keep me safe from the insidiousness of white supremacy… More than anything, slasher movies showed me that my role was to always be a supporting character, risking my life to be the voice of reason ensuring that the white girl makes it to the finish line.”

“Palmares” Is An Example of What Grows When Black Women Choose Silence

Deesha Philyaw, author of The Secret Lives of Church Ladies , writes that Gayl Jones’ decades-long absence from public life illuminates the power of restorative quiet:

“These women’s silences should not be interpreted as a lack of understanding or awareness, but rather as an abundance of both, most especially the knowledge of what to keep close to the vest, and the implications for failing to do so. They know better than to explain themselves, their powers and their origins, their beliefs and reasons, their magic. These women are silent not because they don’t know anything. They are silent because they know better.”

Toni Morrison’s “The Bluest Eye” Showed Me How Race and Gender Are Intertwined

For the 50th anniversary of Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye , Koritha Mitchell writes how the novel taught her that being a Black woman is more than just Blackness or womanhood:

“I didn’t have the gift of Kimberlé Crenshaw’s concept of ‘intersectionality,’ but The Bluest Eye revealed how, in my presence, racism and sexism would always collide to produce negative experiences that others could dodge. It was not simply being Black or being dark-skinned that mattered; it was being those things while also being female.”

The Delicate Balancing Act of Black Women’s Memoir

Koritha Mitchell writes about how Michelle Obama’s Becoming illustrates larger tensions for Black women writing about themselves:

“In other words, when Black women remain enigmas while seeming to share so much, they create proxies at a distance from their psychic and spiritual realities because they are so rarely safe in public. Despite the release of her memoir, audiences will never be privy to who Michelle Obama actually knows herself to be, and that is more than appropriate.”

50 Years Later, the Demands of “The Black Manifesto” Are Still Unmet

Carla Bell writes about James Forman’s famous 1969 address, The Black Manifesto , and its contemporary resonances:

“But the Manifesto is as vital a roadmap in our marches and protests today as the day it was first delivered. We, black people in America, remain compelled by the power and purpose of The Black Manifesto, and we continue to demand our full rights as a people of this decadent society.”

You Should Have Been Listening to Octavia Butler This Whole Time

Alicia A. Wallace writes that Octavia Butler’s Parable of the Sower isn’t just a prescient dystopia—it’s a monument to the wisdom of Black women and girls:

Through her protagonist Lauren Olamina, Butler has been telling the world for decades that it was not going to last in its capitalist, racist, sexist, homophobic form for much longer. She showed us the way injustice would cause the earth to burn, and the importance of community building for survival and revolution. Through Parable of the Sowe r, we had a better future in our hands, but we did not listen.

The Book You Need to Fully Understand How Racism Operates in America

Darryl Robertson writes about Ibram X. Kendi’s Stamped from the Beginning and its examination of the history of overt and covert bigotry:

“While How to Be an Antiracist is an informative and necessary read, it is his National Book Award-winning, Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America that deserves extra attention. If we want to uproot the current racist system, it’s mandatory that we understand how racism was constructed. Stamped does just that.”

I Reject the Imaginary White Man Judging My Work

Tracey Michae’l Lewis-Giggetts turns to Black writers as inspiration for resisting white expectations:

“…it doesn’t only matter that I’m a Black woman telling my story. What matters is the lens through which I’m telling it. And sometimes, many times, that lens, if we’re not careful, can be tainted by the ever-present consciousness of Whiteness as the default.”

Toni Morrison Gave My Own Story Back to Me

The incomparable literary powerhouse showed Brandon Taylor how to stop letting white people dictate the shape of his narrative:

“That’s the magic of Toni Morrison. Once you read her, the world is never the same. It’s deeper, brighter, darker, more beautiful and terrible than you could ever imagine. Her work opens the world and ushers you out into it. She resurfaced the very texture and nature of my imagination and what I could conceive of as possible for writing and for art, for life.”

Art Must Engage With Black Vitality, Not Just Black Pain

Jennifer Baker writes that books like The Fire This Time give depth and nuance to a reflection of Blackness in America:

“These essays provided a deeper connection because Black pain was part of the story; Black identity, self-recognition, our own awareness brokered every page. Black pain was not the sole criterion for the anthology’s existence.”

When Black Characters Wear White Masks

Jennifer Baker writes that whiteface in literature isn’t a disavowal of Blackness, but a commentary on privilege:

“Whiteface stories interrogate the mentality that it’s better to be white while examining how societal gains as well as societal “norms” inflict this way of thinking on Black people. Being white isn’t better, but, for some of these characters, it seems a hell of a lot easier, or at least preferable to dealing with racism.”

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130 African Americans Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

When it comes to discussing African American history, culture, and contributions, there is a wealth of topics to explore. Whether you are writing an essay for a history class, a social sciences course, or simply want to delve deeper into the African American experience, here are 130 essay topic ideas and examples to inspire your research and writing:

• The life and legacy of Martin Luther King Jr.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on African American communities.
• The Harlem Renaissance: A cultural and artistic movement.
• The contributions of African American musicians to American music.
• The role of African American athletes in breaking racial barriers.
• The history and significance of historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs).
• The influence of African American cuisine on American food culture.
• The portrayal of African Americans in popular media and its effects.
• The role of African American women in the suffrage movement.
• The experiences of African American soldiers in World War II.
• The impact of African American literature on American literature as a whole.
• The history and impact of African American churches.
• The contributions of African American scientists and inventors.
• The challenges faced by African American activists in the fight for equality.
• The impact of African American art on the art world.
• The achievements and contributions of African American educators.
• The role of African American musicians in shaping popular music genres.
• The history and significance of African American quilting traditions.
• The representation of African Americans in the criminal justice system.
• The impact of African American vernacular English on American language.
• The history and influence of African American hair culture.
• The contributions of African American dancers to the world of dance.
• The role of African American women in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The history and impact of African American fraternities and sororities.
• The portrayal of African Americans in literature throughout history.
• The experiences of African American immigrants in the United States.
• The impact of African American playwrights on American theater.
• The contributions of African American athletes to Olympic history.
• The role of African American women in the feminist movement.
• The influence of African American fashion on popular trends.
• The history and impact of African American folktales and storytelling.
• The representation of African Americans in the healthcare system.
• The contributions of African American architects to American cities.
• The role of African American musicians in the evolution of jazz.
• The impact of African American entrepreneurs on American business.
• The experiences of African American students during the era of school desegregation.
• The portrayal of African Americans in film and television.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of medicine.
• The role of African American women in the fight against police brutality.
• The impact of African American writers on American literature.
• The history and influence of African American gospel music.
• The contributions of African American activists to the LGBTQ+ movement.
• The role of African American artists in challenging racial stereotypes.
• The experiences of African American soldiers in the Vietnam War.
• The impact of African American athletes on college sports.
• The history and significance of African American hair braiding.
• The representation of African Americans in politics and government.
• The role of African American musicians in the development of rock and roll.
• The impact of African American entrepreneurs on the beauty industry.
• The experiences of African American students in historically white schools.
• The history and influence of African American spirituals.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of psychology.
• The role of African American women in the Black Lives Matter movement.
• The impact of African American poets on American literature.
• The history and significance of African American step dancing.
• The portrayal of African Americans in advertising.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of technology.
• The role of African American musicians in the evolution of hip-hop.
• The experiences of African American women in the workforce.
• The impact of African American athletes on professional sports.
• The history and influence of African American hair straightening techniques.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of environmental activism.
• The role of African American artists in highlighting racial inequality.
• The experiences of African American soldiers in the Korean War.
• The impact of African American politicians on local communities.
• The history and significance of African American drumming traditions.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of engineering.
• The role of African American musicians in the evolution of blues.
• The impact of African American entrepreneurs on the tech industry.
• The experiences of African American students in predominantly white universities.
• The history and influence of African American spoken word poetry.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of sports broadcasting.
• The role of African American women in the fight for reproductive rights.
• The impact of African American playwrights on contemporary theater.
• The history and significance of African American dance traditions.
• The portrayal of African Americans in reality television.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of education reform.
• The role of African American musicians in the evolution of reggae.
• The experiences of African American women in the STEM fields.
• The impact of African American artists on the art market.
• The history and influence of African American hair care products.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of social work.
• The role of African American musicians in the development of funk music.
• The impact of African American entrepreneurs on the fashion industry.
• The experiences of African American students in historically Black colleges.
• The history and significance of African American tap dancing.
• The representation of African Americans in the healthcare industry.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of space exploration.
• The role of African American musicians in the evolution of soul music.
• The impact of African American athletes on the Paralympic Games.
• The history and influence of African American hair braiding.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of social justice.
• The role of African American women in the fight against environmental racism.
• The experiences of African American soldiers in the Gulf War.
• The impact of African American politicians on national policies.
• The history and significance of African American drum circles.
• The portrayal of African Americans in video games.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of aviation.
• The role of African American musicians in the evolution of rap music.
• The impact of African American entrepreneurs on the food industry.
• The experiences of African American students in historically Black sororities and fraternities.
• The history and influence of African American call-and-response traditions.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of criminal justice reform.
• The role of African American musicians in the development of gospel music.
• The impact of African American athletes on international sports.
• The history and significance of African American hair extensions.
• The representation of African Americans in the fashion industry.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of urban planning.
• The role of African American musicians in the evolution of R&B music.
• The experiences of African American women in the entertainment industry.
• The impact of African American entrepreneurs on the music industry.
• The history and influence of African American spoken word poetry slams.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of environmental conservation.
• The role of African American musicians in the development of electronic music.
• The impact of African American athletes on the Special Olympics.
• The history and significance of African American hair salons.
• The portrayal of African Americans in children's literature.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of computer science.
• The role of African American musicians in the evolution of funk music.
• The impact of African American entrepreneurs on the film industry.
• The experiences of African American students in historically Black marching bands.
• The contributions of African Americans to the field of LGBTQ+ activism.
• The role of African American musicians in the development of country music.
• The impact of African American athletes on the X Games.
• The representation of African Americans in the gaming industry.

As you can see, there are countless topics to explore when it comes to African American history, culture, and contributions. Choose one that resonates with you, conduct thorough research, and craft a compelling and insightful essay that sheds light on the rich and diverse experiences of African Americans throughout history.

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14 influential essays from Black writers on America's problems with race

• Business leaders are calling for people to reflect on civil rights this Martin Luther King Jr. Day.
• Black literary experts shared their top nonfiction essay and article picks on race. 
• The list includes "A Report from Occupied Territory" by James Baldwin.

For many, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is a time of reflection on the life of one of the nation's most prominent civil rights leaders. It's also an important time for people who support racial justice to educate themselves on the experiences of Black people in America. 

Business leaders like TIAA CEO Thasunda Duckett Brown and others are encouraging people to reflect on King's life's work, and one way to do that is to read his essays and the work of others dedicated to the same mission he had: racial equity. 

Insider asked Black literary and historical experts to share their favorite works of journalism on race by Black authors. Here are the top pieces they recommended everyone read to better understand the quest for Black liberation in America:

An earlier version of this article was published on June 14, 2020.

"Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases" and "The Red Record: Tabulated Statistics and Alleged Causes of Lynching in the United States" by Ida B. Wells

In 1892, investigative journalist, activist, and NAACP founding member Ida B. Wells began to publish her research on lynching in a pamphlet titled "Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases." Three years later, she followed up with more research and detail in "The Red Record." 

Shirley Moody-Turner, associate Professor of English and African American Studies at Penn State University recommended everyone read these two texts, saying they hold "many parallels to our own moment."  

"In these two pamphlets, Wells exposes the pervasive use of lynching and white mob violence against African American men and women. She discredits the myths used by white mobs to justify the killing of African Americans and exposes Northern and international audiences to the growing racial violence and terror perpetrated against Black people in the South in the years following the Civil War," Moody-Turner told Business Insider. 

Read  "Southern Horrors" here and "The Red Record" here >>

"On Juneteenth" by Annette Gordon-Reed

In this collection of essays, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Annette Gordon-Reed combines memoir and history to help readers understand the complexities out of which Juneteenth was born. She also argues how racial and ethnic hierarchies remain in society today, said Moody-Turner. 

"Gordon-Reed invites readers to see Juneteenth as a time to grapple with the complexities of race and enslavement in the US, to re-think our origin stories about race and slavery's central role in the formation of both Texas and the US, and to consider how, as Gordon-Reed so eloquently puts it, 'echoes of the past remain, leaving their traces in the people and events of the present and future.'"

Purchase "On Juneteenth" here>>

"The Case for Reparations" by Ta-Nehisi Coates

Ta-Nehisi Coates, best-selling author and national correspondent for The Atlantic, made waves when he published his 2014 article "The Case for Reparations," in which he called for "collective introspection" on reparations for Black Americans subjected to centuries of racism and violence. 

"In his now famed essay for The Atlantic, journalist, author, and essayist, Ta-Nehisi Coates traces how slavery, segregation, and discriminatory racial policies underpin ongoing and systemic economic and racial disparities," Moody-Turner said. 

"Coates provides deep historical context punctuated by individual and collective stories that compel us to reconsider the case for reparations," she added.  

Read it here>>

"The Idea of America" by Nikole Hannah-Jones and the "1619 Project" by The New York Times

In "The Idea of America," Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative journalist Nikole Hannah-Jones traces America's history from 1619 onward, the year slavery began in the US. She explores how the history of slavery is inseparable from the rise of America's democracy in her essay that's part of The New York Times' larger "1619 Project," which is the outlet's ongoing project created in 2019 to re-examine the impact of slavery in the US. 

"In her unflinching look at the legacy of slavery and the underside of American democracy and capitalism, Hannah-Jones asks, 'what if America understood, finally, in this 400th year, that we [Black Americans] have never been the problem but the solution,'" said Moody-Turner, who recommended readers read the whole "1619 Project" as well. 

Read "The Idea of America" here and the rest of the "1619 Project here>>

"Many Thousands Gone" by James Baldwin

In "Many Thousands Gone," James Arthur Baldwin, American novelist, playwright, essayist, poet, and activist lays out how white America is not ready to fully recognize Black people as people. It's a must read, according to Jimmy Worthy II, assistant professor of English at The University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

"Baldwin's essay reminds us that in America, the very idea of Black persons conjures an amalgamation of specters, fears, threats, anxieties, guilts, and memories that must be extinguished as part of the labor to forget histories deemed too uncomfortable to remember," Worthy said.

"Letter from a Birmingham Jail" by Martin Luther King Jr.

On April 13 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. and other Civil Rights activists were arrested after peaceful protest in Birmingham, Alabama. In jail, King penned an open letter about how people have a moral obligation to break unjust laws rather than waiting patiently for legal change. In his essay, he expresses criticism and disappointment in white moderates and white churches, something that's not often focused on in history textbooks, Worthy said.

"King revises the perception of white racists devoted to a vehement status quo to include white moderates whose theories of inevitable racial equality and silence pertaining to racial injustice prolong discriminatory practices," Worthy said. 

"The Transformation of Silence into Language and Action" by Audre Lorde

Audre Lorde, African American writer, feminist, womanist, librarian, and civil rights activist asks readers to not be silent on important issues. This short, rousing read is crucial for everyone according to Thomonique Moore, a 2016 graduate of Howard University, founder of Books&Shit book club, and an incoming Masters' candidate at Columbia University's Teacher's College. 

"In this essay, Lorde explains to readers the importance of overcoming our fears and speaking out about the injustices that are plaguing us and the people around us. She challenges us to not live our lives in silence, or we risk never changing the things around us," Moore said.  Read it here>>

"The First White President" by Ta-Nehisi Coates

This essay from the award-winning journalist's book " We Were Eight Years in Power ," details how Trump, during his presidency, employed the notion of whiteness and white supremacy to pick apart the legacy of the nation's first Black president, Barack Obama.

Moore said it was crucial reading to understand the current political environment we're in. 

"Just Walk on By" by Brent Staples

In this essay, Brent Staples, author and Pulitzer Prize-winning editorial writer for The New York Times, hones in on the experience of racism against Black people in public spaces, especially on the role of white women in contributing to the view that Black men are threatening figures.  

For Crystal M. Fleming, associate professor of sociology and Africana Studies at SUNY Stony Brook, his essay is especially relevant right now. 

"We see the relevance of his critique in the recent incident in New York City, wherein a white woman named Amy Cooper infamously called the police and lied, claiming that a Black man — Christian Cooper — threatened her life in Central Park. Although the experience that Staples describes took place decades ago, the social dynamics have largely remained the same," Fleming told Insider. 

"I Was Pregnant and in Crisis. All the Doctors and Nurses Saw Was an Incompetent Black Woman" by Tressie McMillan Cottom

Tressie McMillan Cottom is an author, associate professor of sociology at Virginia Commonwealth University and a faculty affiliate at Harvard University's Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society. In this essay, Cottom shares her gut-wrenching experience of racism within the healthcare system. 

Fleming called this piece an "excellent primer on intersectionality" between racism and sexism, calling Cottom one of the most influential sociologists and writers in the US today.  Read it here>>

"A Report from Occupied Territory" by James Baldwin

Baldwin's "A Report from Occupied Territory" was originally published in The Nation in 1966. It takes a hard look at violence against Black people in the US, specifically police brutality. 

"Baldwin's work remains essential to understanding the depth and breadth of anti-black racism in our society. This essay — which touches on issues of racialized violence, policing and the role of the law in reproducing inequality — is an absolute must-read for anyone who wants to understand just how much has not changed with regard to police violence and anti-Black racism in our country," Fleming told Insider.  Read it here>>

"I'm From Philly. 30 Years Later, I'm Still Trying To Make Sense Of The MOVE Bombing" by Gene Demby

On May 13, 1985, a police helicopter dropped a bomb on the MOVE compound in Philadelphia, which housed members of the MOVE, a black liberation group founded in 1972 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Eleven people, including five children, died in the airstrike. In this essay, Gene Demby, co-host and correspondent for NPR's Code Switch team, tries to wrap his head around the shocking instance of police violence against Black people. 

"I would argue that the fact that police were authorized to literally bomb Black citizens in their own homes, in their own country, is directly relevant to current conversations about militarized police and the growing movement to defund and abolish policing," Fleming said.  Read it here>>

When you buy through our links, Insider may earn an affiliate commission. Learn more .

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On Freedom and the Will to Adorn

The art of the african american essay, by cheryl a. wall.

288 pp., 6.125 x 9.25, notes, bibl., index

• Paperback ISBN: 978-1-4696-4690-9 Published: January 2019
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About the Author

Cheryl A. Wall is the Board of Governors Zora Neale Hurston Professor of English at Rutgers University and author of Worrying the Line . For more information about Cheryl A. Wall, visit the Author Page .

"A pathbreaking work of scholarship, invigorating interest in the essay as a portal to some of the most pressing issues of race, culture, and politics across history, including our present time."--Gene Andrew Jarrett, New York University

"Beautifully written and compellingly argued, this welcome and necessary book rescues the genre of the essay from the margins of our discussions about African American intellectual and cultural production."--Farah J. Griffin, Columbia University

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Black americans have a clear vision for reducing racism but little hope it will happen, many say key u.s. institutions should be rebuilt to ensure fair treatment.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand the nuances among Black people on issues of racial inequality and social change in the United States. This in-depth survey explores differences among Black Americans in their views on the social status of the Black population in the U.S.; their assessments of racial inequality; their visions for institutional and social change; and their outlook on the chances that these improvements will be made. The analysis is the latest in the Center’s series of in-depth surveys of public opinion among Black Americans (read the first, “ Faith Among Black Americans ” and “ Race Is Central to Identity for Black Americans and Affects How They Connect With Each Other ”).

The online survey of 3,912 Black U.S. adults was conducted Oct. 4-17, 2021. Black U.S. adults include those who are single-race, non-Hispanic Black Americans; multiracial non-Hispanic Black Americans; and adults who indicate they are Black and Hispanic. The survey includes 1,025 Black adults on Pew Research Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP) and 2,887 Black adults on Ipsos’ KnowledgePanel. Respondents on both panels are recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses.

Recruiting panelists by phone or mail ensures that nearly all U.S. Black adults have a chance of selection. This gives us confidence that any sample can represent the whole population (see our Methods 101 explainer on random sampling). Here are the questions used for the survey of Black adults, along with its responses and methodology .

The terms “Black Americans,” “Black people” and “Black adults” are used interchangeably throughout this report to refer to U.S. adults who self-identify as Black, either alone or in combination with other races or Hispanic identity.

Throughout this report, “Black, non-Hispanic” respondents are those who identify as single-race Black and say they have no Hispanic background. “Black Hispanic” respondents are those who identify as Black and say they have Hispanic background. We use the terms “Black Hispanic” and “Hispanic Black” interchangeably. “Multiracial” respondents are those who indicate two or more racial backgrounds (one of which is Black) and say they are not Hispanic.

Respondents were asked a question about how important being Black was to how they think about themselves. In this report, we use the term “being Black” when referencing responses to this question.

In this report, “immigrant” refers to people who were not U.S. citizens at birth – in other words, those born outside the U.S., Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories to parents who were not U.S. citizens. We use the terms “immigrant,” “born abroad” and “foreign-born” interchangeably.

Throughout this report, “Democrats and Democratic leaners” and just “Democrats” both refer to respondents who identify politically with the Democratic Party or who are independent or some other party but lean toward the Democratic Party. “Republicans and Republican leaners” and just “Republicans” both refer to respondents who identify politically with the Republican Party or are independent or some other party but lean toward the Republican Party.

Respondents were asked a question about their voter registration status. In this report, respondents are considered registered to vote if they self-report being absolutely certain they are registered at their current address. Respondents are considered not registered to vote if they report not being registered or express uncertainty about their registration.

To create the upper-, middle- and lower-income tiers, respondents’ 2020 family incomes were adjusted for differences in purchasing power by geographic region and household size. Respondents were then placed into income tiers: “Middle income” is defined as two-thirds to double the median annual income for the entire survey sample. “Lower income” falls below that range, and “upper income” lies above it. For more information about how the income tiers were created, read the methodology .

More than a year after the murder of George Floyd and the national protests, debate and political promises that ensued, 65% of Black Americans say the increased national attention on racial inequality has not led to changes that improved their lives. 1 And 44% say equality for Black people in the United States is not likely to be achieved, according to newly released findings from an October 2021 survey of Black Americans by Pew Research Center.

This is somewhat of a reversal in views from September 2020, when half of Black adults said the increased national focus on issues of race would lead to major policy changes to address racial inequality in the country and 56% expected changes that would make their lives better.

At the same time, many Black Americans are concerned about racial discrimination and its impact. Roughly eight-in-ten say they have personally experienced discrimination because of their race or ethnicity (79%), and most also say discrimination is the main reason many Black people cannot get ahead (68%).  

Even so, Black Americans have a clear vision for how to achieve change when it comes to racial inequality. This includes support for significant reforms to or complete overhauls of several U.S. institutions to ensure fair treatment, particularly the criminal justice system; political engagement, primarily in the form of voting; support for Black businesses to advance Black communities; and reparations in the forms of educational, business and homeownership assistance. Yet alongside their assessments of inequality and ideas about progress exists pessimism about whether U.S. society and its institutions will change in ways that would reduce racism.

These findings emerge from an extensive Pew Research Center survey of 3,912 Black Americans conducted online Oct. 4-17, 2021. The survey explores how Black Americans assess their position in U.S. society and their ideas about social change. Overall, Black Americans are clear on what they think the problems are facing the country and how to remedy them. However, they are skeptical that meaningful changes will take place in their lifetime.

Black Americans see racism in our laws as a big problem and discrimination as a roadblock to progress

Black adults were asked in the survey to assess the current nature of racism in the United States and whether structural or individual sources of this racism are a bigger problem for Black people. About half of Black adults (52%) say racism in our laws is a bigger problem than racism by individual people, while four-in-ten (43%) say acts of racism committed by individual people is the bigger problem. Only 3% of Black adults say that Black people do not experience discrimination in the U.S. today.

In assessing the magnitude of problems that they face, the majority of Black Americans say racism (63%), police brutality (60%) and economic inequality (54%) are extremely or very big problems for Black people living in the U.S. Slightly smaller shares say the same about the affordability of health care (47%), limitations on voting (46%), and the quality of K-12 schools (40%).

Aside from their critiques of U.S. institutions, Black adults also feel the impact of racial inequality personally. Most Black adults say they occasionally or frequently experience unfair treatment because of their race or ethnicity (79%), and two-thirds (68%) cite racial discrimination as the main reason many Black people cannot get ahead today.

Black Americans’ views on reducing racial inequality

Black Americans are clear on the challenges they face because of racism. They are also clear on the solutions. These range from overhauls of policing practices and the criminal justice system to civic engagement and reparations to descendants of people enslaved in the United States.

Changing U.S. institutions such as policing, courts and prison systems

About nine-in-ten Black adults say multiple aspects of the criminal justice system need some kind of change (minor, major or a complete overhaul) to ensure fair treatment, with nearly all saying so about policing (95%), the courts and judicial process (95%), and the prison system (94%).

Roughly half of Black adults say policing (49%), the courts and judicial process (48%), and the prison system (54%) need to be completely rebuilt for Black people to be treated fairly. Smaller shares say the same about the political system (42%), the economic system (37%) and the health care system (34%), according to the October survey.

While Black Americans are in favor of significant changes to policing, most want spending on police departments in their communities to stay the same (39%) or increase (35%). A little more than one-in-five (23%) think spending on police departments in their area should be decreased.

Black adults who favor decreases in police spending are most likely to name medical, mental health and social services (40%) as the top priority for those reappropriated funds. Smaller shares say K-12 schools (25%), roads, water systems and other infrastructure (12%), and reducing taxes (13%) should be the top priority.

Voting and ‘buying Black’ viewed as important strategies for Black community advancement

Black Americans also have clear views on the types of political and civic engagement they believe will move Black communities forward. About six-in-ten Black adults say voting (63%) and supporting Black businesses or “buying Black” (58%) are extremely or very effective strategies for moving Black people toward equality in the U.S. Smaller though still significant shares say the same about volunteering with organizations dedicated to Black equality (48%), protesting (42%) and contacting elected officials (40%).

Black adults were also asked about the effectiveness of Black economic and political independence in moving them toward equality. About four-in-ten (39%) say Black ownership of all businesses in Black neighborhoods would be an extremely or very effective strategy for moving toward racial equality, while roughly three-in-ten (31%) say the same about establishing a national Black political party. And about a quarter of Black adults (27%) say having Black neighborhoods governed entirely by Black elected officials would be extremely or very effective in moving Black people toward equality.

Most Black Americans support repayment for slavery

Discussions about atonement for slavery predate the founding of the United States. As early as 1672 , Quaker abolitionists advocated for enslaved people to be paid for their labor once they were free. And in recent years, some U.S. cities and institutions have implemented reparations policies to do just that.

Most Black Americans say the legacy of slavery affects the position of Black people in the U.S. either a great deal (55%) or a fair amount (30%), according to the survey. And roughly three-quarters (77%) say descendants of people enslaved in the U.S. should be repaid in some way.

Black adults who say descendants of the enslaved should be repaid support doing so in different ways. About eight-in-ten say repayment in the forms of educational scholarships (80%), financial assistance for starting or improving a business (77%), and financial assistance for buying or remodeling a home (76%) would be extremely or very helpful. A slightly smaller share (69%) say cash payments would be extremely or very helpful forms of repayment for the descendants of enslaved people.

Where the responsibility for repayment lies is also clear for Black Americans. Among those who say the descendants of enslaved people should be repaid, 81% say the U.S. federal government should have all or most of the responsibility for repayment. About three-quarters (76%) say businesses and banks that profited from slavery should bear all or most of the responsibility for repayment. And roughly six-in-ten say the same about colleges and universities that benefited from slavery (63%) and descendants of families who engaged in the slave trade (60%).

Black Americans are skeptical change will happen

Even though Black Americans’ visions for social change are clear, very few expect them to be implemented. Overall, 44% of Black adults say equality for Black people in the U.S. is a little or not at all likely. A little over a third (38%) say it is somewhat likely and only 13% say it is extremely or very likely.

They also do not think specific institutions will change. Two-thirds of Black adults say changes to the prison system (67%) and the courts and judicial process (65%) that would ensure fair treatment for Black people are a little or not at all likely in their lifetime. About six-in-ten (58%) say the same about policing. Only about one-in-ten say changes to policing (13%), the courts and judicial process (12%), and the prison system (11%) are extremely or very likely.

This pessimism is not only about the criminal justice system. The majority of Black adults say the political (63%), economic (62%) and health care (51%) systems are also unlikely to change in their lifetime.

Black Americans’ vision for social change includes reparations. However, much like their pessimism about institutional change, very few think they will see reparations in their lifetime. Among Black adults who say the descendants of people enslaved in the U.S. should be repaid, 82% say reparations for slavery are unlikely to occur in their lifetime. About one-in-ten (11%) say repayment is somewhat likely, while only 7% say repayment is extremely or very likely to happen in their lifetime.

Black Democrats, Republicans differ on assessments of inequality and visions for social change

Party affiliation is one key point of difference among Black Americans in their assessments of racial inequality and their visions for social change. Black Republicans and Republican leaners are more likely than Black Democrats and Democratic leaners to focus on the acts of individuals. For example, when summarizing the nature of racism against Black people in the U.S., the majority of Black Republicans (59%) say racist acts committed by individual people is a bigger problem for Black people than racism in our laws. Black Democrats (41%) are less likely to hold this view.

Black Republicans (45%) are also more likely than Black Democrats (21%) to say that Black people who cannot get ahead in the U.S. are mostly responsible for their own condition. And while similar shares of Black Republicans (79%) and Democrats (80%) say they experience racial discrimination on a regular basis, Republicans (64%) are more likely than Democrats (36%) to say that most Black people who want to get ahead can make it if they are willing to work hard.

On the other hand, Black Democrats are more likely than Black Republicans to focus on the impact that racial inequality has on Black Americans. Seven-in-ten Black Democrats (73%) say racial discrimination is the main reason many Black people cannot get ahead in the U.S, while about four-in-ten Black Republicans (44%) say the same. And Black Democrats are more likely than Black Republicans to say racism (67% vs. 46%) and police brutality (65% vs. 44%) are extremely big problems for Black people today.

Black Democrats are also more critical of U.S. institutions than Black Republicans are. For example, Black Democrats are more likely than Black Republicans to say the prison system (57% vs. 35%), policing (52% vs. 29%) and the courts and judicial process (50% vs. 35%) should be completely rebuilt for Black people to be treated fairly.

While the share of Black Democrats who want to see large-scale changes to the criminal justice system exceeds that of Black Republicans, they share similar views on police funding. Four-in-ten each of Black Democrats and Black Republicans say funding for police departments in their communities should remain the same, while around a third of each partisan coalition (36% and 37%, respectively) says funding should increase. Only about one-in-four Black Democrats (24%) and one-in-five Black Republicans (21%) say funding for police departments in their communities should decrease.

Among the survey’s other findings:

Black adults differ by age in their views on political strategies. Black adults ages 65 and older (77%) are most likely to say voting is an extremely or very effective strategy for moving Black people toward equality. They are significantly more likely than Black adults ages 18 to 29 (48%) and 30 to 49 (60%) to say this. Black adults 65 and older (48%) are also more likely than those ages 30 to 49 (38%) and 50 to 64 (42%) to say protesting is an extremely or very effective strategy. Roughly four-in-ten Black adults ages 18 to 29 say this (44%).

Gender plays a role in how Black adults view policing. Though majorities of Black women (65%) and men (56%) say police brutality is an extremely big problem for Black people living in the U.S. today, Black women are more likely than Black men to hold this view. When it comes to criminal justice, Black women (56%) and men (51%) are about equally likely to share the view that the prison system should be completely rebuilt to ensure fair treatment of Black people. However, Black women (52%) are slightly more likely than Black men (45%) to say this about policing. On the matter of police funding, Black women (39%) are slightly more likely than Black men (31%) to say police funding in their communities should be increased. On the other hand, Black men are more likely than Black women to prefer that funding stay the same (44% vs. 36%). Smaller shares of both Black men (23%) and women (22%) would like to see police funding decreased.

Income impacts Black adults’ views on reparations. Roughly eight-in-ten Black adults with lower (78%), middle (77%) and upper incomes (79%) say the descendants of people enslaved in the U.S. should receive reparations. Among those who support reparations, Black adults with upper and middle incomes (both 84%) are more likely than those with lower incomes (75%) to say educational scholarships would be an extremely or very helpful form of repayment. However, of those who support reparations, Black adults with lower (72%) and middle incomes (68%) are more likely than those with higher incomes (57%) to say cash payments would be an extremely or very helpful form of repayment for slavery.

• Black adults in the September 2020 survey only include those who say their race is Black alone and are non-Hispanic. The same is true only for the questions of improvements to Black people’s lives and equality in the United States in the October 2021 survey. Throughout the rest of this report, Black adults include those who say their race is Black alone and non-Hispanic; those who say their race is Black and at least one other race and non-Hispanic; or Black and Hispanic, unless otherwise noted. ↩

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About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

How to Tell 400 Years of Black History in One Book

From 1619 to 2019, this collection of essays, edited by two of the nation’s preeminent scholars, shows the depth and breadth of African American history

History Correspondent

In August of 1619, the English warship White Lion sailed into Hampton Roads, Virginia, where the conjunction of the James, Elizabeth and York rivers meet the Atlantic Ocean. The White Lion ’s captain and crew were privateers, and they had taken captives from a Dutch slave ship. They exchanged, for supplies, more than 20 African people with the leadership and settlers at the Jamestown colony. In 2019 this event, while not the first arrival of Africans or the first incidence of slavery in North America , was widely recognized as inaugurating race-based slavery in the British colonies that would become the United States.

That 400th anniversary is the occasion for a unique collaboration: Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619-2019 , edited by historians Ibram X. Kendi and Keisha N. Blain. Kendi and Blain brought together 90 black writers—historians, scholars of other fields, journalists, activists and poets—to cover the full sweep and extraordinary diversity of those 400 years of black history. Although its scope is encyclopedic, the book is anything but a dry, dispassionate march through history. It’s elegantly structured in ten 40-year sections composed of eight essays (each covering one theme in a five-year period) and a poem punctuating the section conclusion; Kendi calls Four Hundred Souls “a chorus.”

The book opens with an essay by Nikole Hannah-Jones, the journalist behind the New York Times ’ 1619 Project , on the years 1619-1624, and closes with an entry from Black Lives Matter co-creator Alicia Garza writing about 2014-19, when the movement rose to the forefront of American politics. The depth and breadth of the material astounds, between fresh voices, such as historisn Mary Hicks writing about the Middle Passage for 1694-1699, and internationally renowned scholars, such as Annette Gordon-Reed writing about Sally Hemings for 1789-94. Prominent journalists include, in addition to Hannah-Jones, The Atlantic ’s Adam Serwer on Frederick Douglass (1859-64) and New York Times columnist Jamelle Bouie on the Civil War (1864-69). The powerful poems resonate sharply with the essays, Chet’la Sebree’s verses in “And the Record Repeats” about the experiences of young black women, for example, and Salamishah M. Tillet’s account of Anita Hill’s testimony in the Senate confirmation hearings for Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas.

“We are,” Kendi writes in the introduction collectively of black Americans, “reconstructing ourselves in this book.” The book itself, Blain writes in the conclusion, is “a testament to how much we have overcome, and how we have managed to do it together, despite our differences and diverse perspectives.” In an interview, Blain talked about how the project and the book’s distinctive structure developed, and how the editors imagine it will fit into the canon of black history and thought. A condensed and edited version of her conversation with Smithsonian is below.

Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619-2019

Four Hundred Souls is a unique one-volume “community” history of African Americans. The editors, Ibram X. Kendi and Keisha N. Blain, have assembled 90 brilliant writers, each of whom takes on a five-year period of that four-hundred-year span.

How did the Four Hundred Souls book come about?

We started working on the project in 2018 (it actually predates the [publication of] the New York Times 1619 Project.) Ibram reached out to me with the idea that with the 400th year anniversary of the first captive Africans arriving in Jamestown, maybe we should collaborate on a project that would commemorate this particular moment in history, and look at 400 years of African American history by pulling together a diverse set of voices.

The idea was that we'd be able to create something very different than any other book on black history. And as historians, we were thinking, what would historians of the future want? Who are the voices they would want to hear from? We wanted to create something that would actually function as a primary source in another, who knows, 40 years or so—that captures the voices of black writers and thinkers from a wide array of fields, reflecting on both the past but also the present too.

Did you have any models for how you pulled all these voices together?

There are a couple of models in the sense of the most significant, pioneering books in African American history. We thought immediately of W.E.B. De Bois' Black Reconstruction in America in terms of the scope of the work, the depth of the content, and the richness of the ideas. Robin D.G. Kelley's Freedom Dreams is another model, but more recent. Martha Jones' Vanguard , is a book that captures decades right of black women's political activism and the struggle for the vote in a way that I think, does a similar kind of broad, sweeping history. Daina Ramey Berry and Kali N. Gross's Black Woman's History of the United States is another.

But ours was not a single authored book or even an edited collection of just historians. We didn't want to produce a textbook, or an encyclopedia. We wanted this work to be, as an edited volume, rich enough and big enough to cover 400 years of history in a way that would keep the reader engaged from start to finish, 1619 to 2019. That’s part of the importance of the multiple different genres and different voices we included moving from period to period.

How does Four Hundred Souls reflect the concept of a community history?

We figured that community would show up in different ways in the narrative, but we were really thinking initially, how do we recreate community in putting this book together? One of the earliest analogies that Ibram used was describing this as a choir. I love this—he described the poets as soloists. And then in this choir, you'd have sopranos, you'd have tenors, and you’d have altos. And so the question was: Who do we invite to be in this volume that would capture collectively that spirit of community?

We recognized that we could never fully represent every single field and every single background, but we tried as much as possible. And so even in putting together the book, there was a moment where we said, for example, "Wait a minute, we don't really have a scholar here who would be able to truly grapple with the sort of interconnection between African American History and Native American history." So we thought, is there a scholar, who identifies as African American and Native American and then we reached out to [UCLA historian] Kyle Mays .

So there were moments where we just had to be intentional about making sure that we were having voices that represented as much as possible the diversity of black America. We invited Esther Armah to write about the black immigrant experience because what is black America without immigrants? The heart of black America is that it's not homogenous at all—it's diverse. And we tried to capture that.

We also wanted to make sure that a significant number of the writers were women, largely because we acknowledge that so many of the histories that we teach, that we read, and that so many people cite are written by men. There's still a general tendency to look for male expertise, to acknowledge men as experts, especially in the field of history. Women are often sidelined in these conversations . So we were intentional about that, too, and including someone like Alicia Garza, one of the founders of Black Lives Matter, we wanted to acknowledge the crucial role that black women are playing in shaping American politics to this very day.

How did historians approach their subjects differently than say, creative writers?

One of the challenges with the book, which turned out to be also an opportunity, was that we were focusing on key historical moments, figures, themes and places in the United States, each within in a very specific five-year period. We actually spent a lot of time mapping out instructions for authors. It wasn't just: “Write a piece for us on this topic.” We said, “Here's what we want and what we don't want. Here's what we expect of you ask these questions as you're writing the essay, make sure you're grappling with these particular themes.”

But they also had to have a bit of freedom, to look backward, and also to look forward. And I think the structure with a bit of freedom worked, it was a pretty nice balance. Some essays the five years just fit like a glove, others a little less so but the writers managed to pull it off.

We also spent a lot of time planning and carefully identifying who would write on certain topics. “Cotton,” which memoirist Kiese Laymon wrote about for 1804-1809, is a perfect example. We realized very early that if we asked a historian to write about cotton, they would be very frustrated with the five-year constraint. But when we asked Kiese, we let him know that we would provide him with books on cotton and slavery for him to take a look at. And then he brought to it his own personal experience, which turned out to be such a powerful narrative. He writes, “When the land is freed, so will be all the cotton and all the money made off the suffering that white folks made cotton bring to Black folks in Mississippi and the entire South.”

And so that's the other element of this too. Even a lot of people wondered how we would have a work of history with so many non-historians. We gave them clear guidance and materials, and they brought incredible talent to the project.

The New York Times ’ 1619 project shares a similar point of origin, the 400th anniversary of the arrival of enslaved Africans to colonial America. What did you make of it when it came out last year?

When the 1619 Project came out, [Ibram and I] were thrilled, because actually, it, in so many ways, complemented our vision for our project. Then we decided we really had to invite Nikole Hannah-Jones to contribute. We weren't sure who we would ask for that first essay, but then we were like, "You know what? This makes sense."

I know there are so many different critiques, but for me, what is most valuable about the project is the way that it demonstrates how much, from the very beginning, the ideas and experiences of black people have been sidelined.

This is why we wanted her to write her essay [about the slave ship White Lion .] Even as someone who studied U.S. history, I did not even know about the White Lion for many years. I mean, that's how sad it is…but I could talk about the Mayflower . That was part of the history that I was taught. And so what does that tell us?

We don't talk about 1619 the way that we do 1620. And why is that? Well, let's get to the heart of the matter. Race matters and racism, too, in the way that we even tell our histories. And so we wanted to send that message. And like I said, to have a complementary spirit and vision as the 1619 Project.

When readers have finished going through 400 Souls , where else can they read black scholars writing on black history?

One of the things that the African American Intellectual History Society [Blain is currently president of the organization] is committed to doing is elevating the scholarship and writing of Black scholars as well as a diverse group of scholars who work in the field of Black history, and specifically Black intellectual history.

Black Perspectives [an AAIHS publication] has a broad readership, certainly, we're reaching academics in the fields of history and many other fields. At the same time, a significant percentage of our readers are non-academics. We have activists who read the blog, well known intellectuals and thinkers, and just everyday lay people who are interested in history, who want to learn more about black history and find the content accessible.

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Karin Wulf | | READ MORE

Karin Wulf is the director of the John Carter Brown Library and a historian at Brown University. She was previously the executive director of the Omohundro Institute of American History & Culture and a professor of history at William & Mary.

269 African American Essay Topics

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• Single African American Mothers’ Relationships With Sons
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• The Literature of African American Diaspora
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• Single African American Mothers’ Experiences With Sons Parenting adolescents is a challenging task in the modern American society. The problem is compounded when one is forced to raise such teenagers as a single mother.
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• Aesthetics in African and African American Art To connect to their ancestral land and their blackness, many African American artists incorporated stylistic elements of visual arts from African art in their works.
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• The History of African American Slavery The fact that African Americans were taken captive and brought to America as enslaved gave them an unfair start in the country.
• Injustices Faced by African American People Since Slavery The paper states that African Americans experienced a great deal of racial discrimination, which diminished their confidence among whites.
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• The African American Community African Americans form a unique population in the wider American community. They exhibit unique cultural and religious attributes or practices that define who they are.
• Historical Trauma in Native Americans and African Americans Comparing and contrasting the historical trauma of Native Americans and African Americans provides an opportunity to see similarities in their life experiences.
• African Americans’ Life in 1900 Led by industrialization and related to its migration, many race problems appeared in during 1900 period especially for African Americans.
• African American Cultural Group’s Attributes The paper explores the nature and attributes of African American culture. It examines the types of oppression and privileges the community has encountered.
• The Emancipation in the Political and Economic Status of African Americans The emancipation proclamation led to the freeing of African Americans and gave them the right to participate in the political and election processes.
• Homelessness and Racial Disparities of African Americans African Americans possess the highest rate of homelessness and racial disparities in America, with the resultant causes and effects being the legacy of slavery and poverty.
• How Colorism Has Affected African Americans in Today’s Society Skin tone stratification continually shapes African Americans’ life experiences. Colorism affects all critical elements in the lives of black people.
• Racelessness and the Success of African Americans According to Mason, the theory of racelessness is founded on two alternative philosophical positions on race: eliminativism and skepticism.
• African American Studies: Black Lives Matter “Black lives matter” is not merely a slogan; it is a protest against the dehumanizing conditions American society perpetuates against its black populace.
• Negative Racial Stereotypes of African American The death of African American George Floyd after being detained by the police provoked protests and riots not only across America but also beyond its borders.
• African Americans: Racial and Class Exclusion Racial and class exclusion is a failure of integration of proper structural changes rather than the culture of poverty among African Americans.
• Incarceration Mass Act Among African American Males Mass incarceration of male African Americans is a common scenario in the US. The likelihood of black American men being arrested is higher than any other group.
• Healthcare Disparity in the African American Community The paper analyzes health care disparity focusing on recently published medical journals with a focus on the COVID-19 pandemic and its impacts on the African American community.
• The History of Relationships Between Police and African Americans The paper describes the necessity to spread the knowledge of racism’s history and discuss it to ensure the next generations’ tolerance.
• African American Slavery in Case of Harriet Jacobs This paper reviews life for Harriet Jacobs and other slaves, how African Americans were treated, and how Harriet Jacobs and other slaves coped with the bondage.
• History of African American Slavery Before the introduction of the slave trade, Africans who lived in West Africa had diverse and rich histories of their culture.
• “Space Is the Place”: Reflecting the African American Culture in Cinematography This paper reviews the film “Space is the Place” and reflects on its spreading equality idea. It concerns the influence on the perception of the Afro-American culture.
• African American Civil Rights Movements: Lessons Learned The African American civil rights movements played a significant role in the push for changes and new legislation, they emerged a society that has humanity towards individuals.
• African Americans in the Civil War This paper examines the influence of African Americans on the course and outcomes of the Civil War in the United States of America.
• The Civil Rights Movement: Impact on the African American Citizens By building the Civil Rights Movement, African Americans managed to change not only the legal standards but also the social perspective, gaining the recognition that they deserved.
• Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on the African American Communities This paper analyzes how the COVID-19 pandemic affected the economic aspect of the African American communities. A female and two males were interviewed.
• The Gilded Age and Modern Oppression of African Americans The continuing killings of African Americans by the police show that there is still a problem with the fair treatment of black people in the country.
• “The Ballot or the Bullet” by Malcolm X: African Americans Right to Vote Malcolm X delivered a speech titled “The Ballot or the Bullet,” in it, he counseled African Americans to utilize their right to vote responsibly.
• African Americans Struggle to Achieve Equality in America African Americans’ struggle to achieve equality underscores the foundation of democracy and equality in America, and this essay will encompass the path to equality since 1865.
• African American Struggle: The Historical Perspective This paper aims to discuss the obstacles and incentives that African Americans faced before forming an independent community of black people.
• African American Musical Styles and Its Influence on the American Culture This paper seeks to discuss how the African American musical styles influenced American society’s social and cultural developments.
• Southern and African American Literature’s Characteristics There are the traditional and family-oriented Southern themes, with emphasis on concrete imagery, grotesque humor, and the Southern gothic.
• Changing the American Dream of Immigrants and African Americans The position of African Americans and other immigrants was not the same throughout US history, denoting that they had different dreams during various periods.
• African American Culture and Identity in Visual Arts During the colonial period, African American art was marginalized, facing a lot of controversies; however, present today, the Africa American culture is popular distinct culture.
• Autonomy and Social Justice for African American and Latino Populations These study objectives are formulated so that the findings will promote autonomy and social justice among the study population.
• African Americans’ and Southern Whites’ Freedom The relation to freedom in African Americans and Southern Whites has always been different, and each race could not understand and accept the ideas of their opponents.
• The Civil War and the Status of African Americans The paper discusses the outcomes of the Civil War that considerably changed the status of African Americans in American society.
• African American Women and Higher Education Barriers The annotated bibliography’s purpose is to analyze the unique experiences of African American women’s racial abuse and microaggressions in different workplaces.
• What Effect Did the World War II Wartime Experience Have on African Americans? World War II was the battle of all races: white, Asian, and Black people. This essay will discover whether they were treated differently during and after the initial strife.
• Treating Mental Disorders Among African Americans Compared to other ethnic communities in the United States, African Americans are more severely affected with emotional and behavioral disorders.
• African American Experience During the Harlem Renaissance The essay discusses the life of African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance and examines how the poems reflect that experience.
• Nutrition Plan for an African American Woman for High Cholesterol In the case study, Ms. Ellie is elderly and has a history of diabetes. Her job allows her a minimal physical activity level of about ten hours a week.
• Overview of African Americans’ Genetic Diseases African Americans are more likely to suffer from certain diseases than white Americans, according to numerous studies.
• Police Brutality on African Americans Police brutality against African Americans has been on the rise even after several constitutional and legal reforms made by the country to control it.
• African American Genomes Largest Study The study allows historians to look more closely at the conditions of the slave trade and establish new facts, using DNA analysis techniques to help in investigating.
• Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois Fighting Discrimination Against African Americans Washington prioritized education as the vehicle for African American people to gain independence, whereas Du Bois emphasized the significance of political involvement.
• African American Women With HIV in the United States This paper aims to determine factors that can influence treatment compliance among African American women and provide support during the treatment process.
• African Americans: Participation in the Civil War According to the research paper, African Americans were doing their utmost in order to prevent slavery during the Civil War.
• Sampling for African American HIV Women Study This paper is aimed at defining the appropriate sampling strategy and sample size for the study concerning the relationship between HIV treatment compliance and social support.
• African Americans’ Issues in the Healthcare Sector The African Americans feared that their race could be used for testing new medicine in the market without their consent.
• Diabetes in African Americans and Effectiveness of Educational Sessions According to the Diabetes Research Institute Foundation, over a tenth of the population has diabetes and related conditions, and the number of new cases continues to rise rapidly.
• Psychosocial Keys to African American Achievement The scholarly work answers the problem by using quantitative methods for assessing if psychological variables affect the achievement of high-performing African American students.
• Aspects of African American Culture The paper states that African Americans historically have expressed themselves through art, shaping the American cultural landscape.
• African American Families in Poverty Even though the United States declares the equality of white and black people quite often, the socio-economic situation of African Americans still need changes for the better.
• African American Women and Higher Education Barriers This research takes a qualitative interpretative phenomenology approach to study the barriers that African-American women face when obtaining higher education.
• Marginalized Status of African Americans in the USA The Unites States experiences inequality among African-American people due to their skin color, violating their rights.
• Obesity and Disparity in African American Women Several studies indicate that the rate of developing obesity is the highest in African American populations in the US.
• African American Students in Special Education The author notes that African American students are more likely to be identified as being mentally retarded, labeled as having learning disabilities.
• Increase the Rate of Exclusive Breastfeeding Among African American Other factors to consider will be the absence of conditions excluding or complicating breastfeeding and belonging to the African American race.
• African American Population’s Health-Related Problems This paper provides a critical analysis of the factors that put African Americans at greater health risks and steps that can be taken by the governments to address this problem.
• Civil Rights Struggle of African Americans This paper aims to analyze three primary sources to reveal in detail the various aspects of the struggle for African Americans’ rights.
• Advocacy Campaign for Hypertension in African American Population The paper argues health risks can be eliminated with the help of thoroughly designed and successfully implemented health advocacy campaigns.
• Health Outcomes of African Americans With Hypertension This paper looks at various issues regarding hypertension and how best health care providers can deal with hypertension as a menace to society.
• Healthcare System for Native and African Americans This paper discusses historical events contributing to mistrust of the health care system and steps to reduce health disparities among Native Americans and African Americans.
• Police Brutality Against African Americans in America The purpose of this article is to describe the different approaches to researching the problem of police brutality against African Americans.
• HIV Treatment Compliance and Social Support Among African American Women HIV is one of the major public health threats. Researchers find that among all the groups of the American population, African-Americans are affected by HIV the most.
• Problem of Malaria in the African American Community This paper examines how Community-Based Participatory Research will be used to address the problem of malaria in the African American community.
• African American Cultural Group’s Health Beliefs The African American community is the second-largest minority ethnic community in the US. Many African Americans are increasingly becoming aware of modern healthcare options.
• HIV Treatment Compliance in African American Women The study tries to prove that social support for African American females affects HIV treatment adherence and allows them to cope with negative influences.
• Police Brutality Against African Americans The issue being examined refers to the problem of police brutality on African Americans. The mentioned problem is a burning one and is vividly expressed in modern society.
• Treatment Compliance Among African American Women With HIV This study looks into how African American women relate to HIV in terms of treatment and the social support offered to those living with HIV.
• HIV Treatment in the African American Women The research is important for finding out the connections between social support and HIV treatment in the African American women population, which is the most affected.
• HIV-Positive African American Women Living in Rural Areas This study shows how Black American women have a higher transmission rate of being infected and are more affected relative to their counterparts in the population.
• Substance Abuse Among African American Women in Miami The purpose of this paper is to discuss substance abuse among African American women aged 25-55 years living in Miami.
• The Various Risk Factors that Face African American Men and Women over 50 Years The research paper discusses similarities and differences of cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic, musculoskeletal risk factors in African American men and women over 50 years.
• African American Cultural Group’s Health Analysis African Americans have increased levels of consciousness about the importance of medical care. However, their levels of literacy for health affairs vary with each generation.
• Religion and Its Role Among African Americans Religion has become a shared platform where African Americans could support their fellows and contribute to their communities.
• Coronary Artery Disease: Prevalence of Risk Factors in African American Society Hypertension compounds risk of developing coronary artery disease by encouraging left ventricular hypertrophy and malfunctioning of endothelium.
• African American Women and Cancer The existing disparities regarding healthcare services provision in the United States is a critical issue related to such phenomena as racial and gender discrimination.
• Police Brutality Against African Americans and Media Portrayal Police brutality toward the African-American population of the United States is an issue that has received nationwide publicity in recent years.
• Police Violence Against African Americans in the USA The statistic shows that the violence from law enforcement officials causes thousands of deaths of black men in the USA.
• Cultural Identity Formation of Black Americans and African Americans The relations between two cultures that possibly share certain standard features (be it language or parts of history) may seduce one to view them as the same.
• Freedom of African Americans in the Southern States The abolition of slavery in the United States was a long process rather than a series of amendments to the Constitution.
• African American Females Diversity in the Workplace The US labor market is overwhelmed with a variety of discriminative practices, one of the most common causes of discrimination is the one associated with a part-time job.
• Civil Rights for African Americans: Evolution From the Civil War to Today Due to the efforts of many activists, African Americans gained the status of free citizens and equal rights in the second half of the 20th century, which continues to this day.
• African Americans During World War II During World War II, African Americans served in every capacity while simultaneously struggling to advance their status in society and gain more civil rights.
• Wellness Education Program for African Americans A new wellness education program for African Americans will cover the educational needs of the latter concerning healthy prevention practices and management of diabetes.
• The Need for Curriculum Change Among African American Students The purpose of the study was to determine if schools’ racial composition had a significant impact on the achievement of students in elementary, middle, and high schools.
• COVID-19 Mortality Among African Americans The primary factors that affect mortality rates among African Americans are underlying health conditions and discrepancy in access to care.
• The African American Nurse: Discrimination Case From the Elderly Patients Elderly patients who have discriminatory tendencies simply do not respect or trust doctors or nurses who are from a minority.
• African American Females’ Experiences in Community Colleges Although African American women receive many opportunities to get a degree, there are still some barriers that can be faced by women of color on their path to higher education.
• African Americans in the Revolutionary War Slavery and its factors such as the lack of basic human and civil rights, severe living conditions resulted in many African Americans joining the Revolutionary War.
• Mathematics Performance Among African Americans in Los Angeles This essay will act as an advocacy piece for African American students who have registered varying performances in mathematics within the Los Angeles School Department.
• Social Sciences: African American Stereotypes Dating back to the colonial years of settlement, stereotypes have been part of America, especially after inheriting slavery.
• Retention Rates & Modalities Rate of African American Children Aged 4–9 Students’ learning patterns and the stages of information processing, which students go through, must be observed closely from the very start of the child’s academic life.
• African American Population in the United States Socioeconomics of the African American population demonstrate that Black American middle class has long since established in the United States.
• The Making of African American: American Historiography The change in the number of African Americans in USA was even felt in church congregations. In New York, immigrants composed well over a third of the whole black population.
• African American Women and Stroke Education The investigations prove that when it comes to stroke education, African American women are the little-informed category.
• Retention Rate for African American Women Aged 40-50 in Obtaining Higher Education Recent reports have shown, that the retention rates among African American students aged 40–50 remain comparatively low despite the latest changes in standards for job applicants.
• African American Women Obtaining Higher Education Over the past few years, African American women have gained a number of opportunities for pursuing higher education. Women in their 40s-50s are finally capable of getting a degree.
• United States History and African American Movements This essay is about the rise of the different movements that fought for African American emancipation, the government’s reaction and action towards them
• Africa’s Role for African Americans in Literature Africa means the consciousness of having a particular way of doing things. This is because the African culture has so many events which are carried out seasonally.
• African Americans in Films
• African Americans and the Quest for Civil Rights
• Major Problems in African American History by T. Holt
• Single African American Mothers and Their Relationship With Adolescent Sons
• HIV Management in African American Residents of Houston, TX
• Data Mining Techniques for African American Childhood Obesity Factors
• Lung Cancer Early Screening in African Americans
• Factors Influencing Breast Cancer Screening in Low-Income African Americans in Tennessee
• African American Women Education: Barriers Population Faces
• Single African American Mothers’ Experiences of Relationships With Their Sons
• Health Promotion Among African Americans
• HIV Among Caucasian, African American, and Latino Homosexual Men
• Teaching Sessions for African American Children With Asthma Issue
• Harlem Renaissance and African American Society
• African American Revolutionary Era
• African American Female College Students’ Barriers
• Single African American Mothers: Research Methods
• African American, African and Haitian Heritage Culture
• Are African Americans More Harassed by Police?
• African American Cultural Group and Heritage
• African American Minority in the School Workplace
• Higher Education for African American Women
• Biases Against Female African American Researchers
• Asthma Care Education in African American Children
• The Religion of African Americans during the 20th Century
• Diabetes in African American Patients
• African Americans and Racial Profiling in the USA
• Health Issues Affecting Latinos and African Americans
• African American Women and Higher Education Barriers
• Supporting African American Women in Pursuing Higher Education
• African Americans in the United States’ History
• Diseases and Health Promotion in African Americans
• Schizophrenia Features Among African American Men
• Breaking Barriers Program: African American Women
• Different Roles in African American Literature
• Asthma Factors Among African Americans in California
• The Historical Background of African Americans
• Police’s Brutality Towards African American Males
• Diabetes Interventions for Aging African Americans
• HIV and AIDS among African American Women
• Melvin Tolson and Toni Morrison: African American Equality
• Racism Against African Americans as a Social Construct
• Racial Profiling of African American Drivers
• African Americans: Health Related Issues Identification
• Healthcare: Stroke Education Needs of African American Women
• African American Family Assessment and Diagnosis
• Hispanics and African Americans in Miami Community
• The Number of African Americans in Baseball
• Stroke Education Needs of African American Women
• Health Status of African American Community
• Education for African American Women: Breaking Barriers Program
• Diet Educational Intervention for African Americans
• Improving the African Americans Health in the USA
• Descendants of Slaves: African Americans
• Health Issues Affecting African Americans and Hispanics
• Presentation of African Americans in Education Programs
• African Americans and Equality Under the Law
• Cardiovascular Diseases in African Americans
• Higher Education Role for African American Women
• Prostate Cancer: African American Cancer Initiative
• Obesity in African Americans: Prevention and Therapy
• African Americans and Politics in the Media
• African American Politics and Their Representation in the Media
• Higher Education for African American Women: Problems and Challenges
• Cardiovascular Disease in African American Population
• The African American Soldiers in the American Revolution
• African Americans Stereotypes and Prejudices
• The Issue of Class Oppression Among African Americans
• African American Women: Domestic Violence and Integrity
• African American: History and the Present
• American Society and the Impact of the African American Family
• African American Contributions During the Civil War
• General Characteristics Afro-American Religion and Its Origins
• African American Leaders Post Reconstruction
• Overview of African American Artists During the Great Depression
• African American Colonial Lifestyle Overview
• Analysis of African American Music and Its Impact on American Culture
• Causes of Migration of African Americans and Foreign Immigration
• African American Paintings During the Harlem Renaissance
• African American Integration and Independence
• Overview of Stereotypes of African American Youth
• African American Males and Disparity in the Justice System
• General Information on the African American Civil Rights Movement
• African American and Racial Generalization
• African American Males and Secondary Education
• Abraham Lincoln and the Use of African American Troops
• African American Men and the United States Prison System
• Analysis of African American Cultural Beliefs
• African American Literature and Spirituality
• African American Athletes and Their Role in Foreign and Domestic Policy
• The Role of African American Leaders in the Civil Rights Movement and Their Impact on Social Change
• Analyzing the Portrayal of African Americans in the Media: Addressing Stereotypes and Promoting Positive Representation
• Criminal Justice System and Racial Disparities: Analyzing the Overrepresentation of African Americans in Prisons
• The Impact of the Black Lives Matter Movement on Raising Awareness of Police Brutality and Racial Injustice
• Future of Racial Equity and Inclusivity in American Society: Strategies for Progress and Unity
• Representation of African American History and Figures in School Curricula
• Contributions of African Americans to the Fields of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
• African American Churches and Promotion of Social Justice and Community Empowerment
• Influence of African American Athletes in Breaking Racial Barriers and Promoting Social Change in Sports
• Systemic Racism on the Socioeconomic Status of African Americans in Contemporary Society
• How Did African Americans Help the Abolitionist Movement Gain Strength?
• Who Was the First African American to Publish a Book?
• How Did Black Churches Influence African Americans?
• Who Was the First African American President of the Naacp?
• Did Any African American Men Sign the Declaration of Independence?
• What Is the Origin of the African American People?
• How Did the Compromise of 1877 Affect African Americans?
• What Is Realism in African American Literature?
• What Started the African American Civil Rights Movement?
• What Was One Lasting Effect of World War Ii on African Americans?
• How Did African American Influence Jazz?
• How Did Marcus Garvey Encourage African American Pride?
• Why Did the Continental Army Start Recruiting Free African Americans?
• Why Was It Unusual That African Americans Supported FDR?
• How Did Westward Expansion Affect African American Life?
• How Many African Americans Owned Slaves Before the Civil War?
• Who Was the First African American Nobel Peace Prize Winner?
• How Did Emancipation Affect the Structure of the African American Family?
• What Is the Great Migration North by African Americans?
• What Contributed to the Expansion of Civil Rights for African Americans After World War Ii?
• What Makes African American Culture Unique?
• What Did the African Americans Contribute to Society?
• How Has African American Culture Influenced Music?
• What Were the Best Economic Opportunities for African American Entrepreneurs During the Segregation Era?
• Which Amendment Guaranteed Voting Rights to African Americans?
• When Did African American Religious Beliefs Become Americanized?
• What Is Traditional African American Food?
• What Is the Prevalence of African American Males in the Military?
• Who Was the First African American to Appear on a U.S. Postage Stamp?
• Which Ivy League College Was the First to Employ an African American as President?

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StudyCorgi. (2021, December 21). 269 African American Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/african-american-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "269 African American Essay Topics." December 21, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/african-american-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "269 African American Essay Topics." December 21, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/african-american-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on African American were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 5, 2024 .

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Growing up black in America: here's my story of everyday racism

As a middle-class, light-skinned black man I am ‘better’ by American standards but there is no amount of assimilation that can shield you from racism in the US

I am a black man who has grown up in the United States. I know what it is like to feel the sting of discrimination. As a middle-class, light-skinned black man I also know that many others suffered (and continue to suffer) a lot worse than me. I grew up around a lot of white people. In elementary school, I remember being told that I was one of the “good ones” – not like the “bad ones” I was meant to understand; I was different.

I remember the way this kind of backhanded compliment stung me, but it took me a long time to understand why it hurt. In truth, though, the comment rings true. I am “good” by America’s standards, or at least “better”: my skin is light, most of the time I dress like a middle-class professional and my manner of speech betrays a large degree of assimilation in the white American mainstream (for example, I use phrases like “manner of speech”).

But as many others have learned, there is no amount of assimilation that can shield you from racism in this country. Throughout my life, something – the kink of my hair or my “attitude” – would mark me as inferior, worthy of ridicule, humiliation or ostracism. In elementary school I got the distinct impression that teachers didn’t like me. I got in trouble a lot, and one teacher actually wrote on my report card that I was “amoral”. In third grade, I had my first black teacher and the whole dynamic changed. Mrs Brooks decided it was OK if I squirmed in my chair. She taught us about discrimination and injustice and taught us to recite and interpret poetry from the black arts movement. (Thank you, Mrs Brooks!)

As I got older, I observed that my mother saw racism around every corner. She assumed that I would be the object of discrimination in school and maintained an intense, vigilant determination to protect me from it. She monitored everything about my treatment in school, ready to leap at the slightest slight. Sometimes I thought she went too far. I wasn’t chosen to give a speech to my middle school’s assembly, and so she inquired as to why I wasn’t chosen, and she insisted that I be given a shot. So, thanks to my mother raising a fuss I had to give a speech to my entire middle school. (Thank you, mom!)

In high school I started wondering, as teenagers do, how people go about finding romantic partners. From what I could tell in movies and television shows – my principal sources of information – you had to be a rich and white to be worthy of love. I was neither, so I was worried. Like many young black people, I internalized the idea that I would have be twice as good to get half as much respect. Much to my dismay, my blackness seemed to be the salient thing about me. One of my classmates had a gift for inventing creative ways to make fun of my kinky hair, and he got enough people laughing to send me home in tears for a good part of my freshman and sophomore years of high school.

One year, one of the few black students at my high school found a noose hanging in his locker one day. The culprit – a white student – was quickly discovered, and all he had to do to get out of trouble was issue a lame apology. I thought his punishment should have been more severe. I convinced my best friend to wear black armbands in school to protest. This act earned me no greater respect, and actually greater ridicule. Several of our teachers thought it was funny and even prompted our classmates to laugh at our expense: “Look at Jones,” one teacher said, “starting a revolution.” (Thank you, Mr I forget-your-name!)

Looking back, I realize that, apart from my black armband episode, my survival strategy was to make myself as non-threatening as possible. I became so well-practiced in the art of not offending racist white people that I ceased to become outraged by them, at least when they affected me directly. I knew how to enter a store, to make eye contact with someone who worked there, to smile and say hello as if to say: “Don’t worry, I’m not trying to steal anything.” Somehow – I suppose from being followed in stores frequently – I learned not to carry books into a bookstore, not to walk through a store with bags that were not sealed or zippered shut, and so on.

Now that I’m older, with a graying beard and significantly less hair on my head, I probably don’t need to keep up this routine, as I’m probably the cause of less suspicion, but the habit has stayed with me. While shopping, I still assume that I am suspect. I am a middle-aged man, and yet I still habitually enter the grocery store, the book store, the clothing store, etc looking for the first opportunity to reassure the employees that I’m not going to be a problem.

At some point, I figured out (at least, intellectually) that it doesn’t matter how “good” I am – my fate is bound up with all of those who are “bad”. There was a moment in my adulthood when I decided that the present order is intolerable and a new world is both possible and necessary. In the grand scheme of things, my experiences of everyday racism are not that important. I am neither the most privileged nor most oppressed. I know that there are people of all stripes who are trying to survive on this planet with fewer resources than I have.

I am consistently inspired by the words of the early 20th-century socialist Eugene V Debs (a white guy!) who famously told a judge, after being convicted of sedition: “Your Honor, years ago I recognized my kinship with all living beings, and I made up my mind that I was not one bit better than the meanest on earth. I said then, and I say now, that while there is a lower class, I am in it, and while there is a criminal element, I am of it, and while there is a soul in prison, I am not free.”

I am also inspired by the words of Malcolm X, who summarized the goals of the black movement as: “Human rights! Respect as human beings! That’s what American black masses want. That’s the true problem. The black masses want to not be shrunk from as though they are plague-ridden. They want not to be walled up in slums, in the ghettoes, like animals. They want to live in an open, free society where they can walk with their heads up, like men and women!”

Eugene Debs and Malcolm X are very different men from very different social contexts, and yet in my mind they are congruent.

Growing up in this country, my experience with everyday racism, although unique to my class and complexion, has nevertheless given me some access to the “second sight” that is a crucial part of black people’s gift to the world. To paraphrase WEB Du Bois, I believe that black history has a message for humanity. That message, to paraphrase activist Alicia Garza, is that the kind of equality black people need to be free is the kind of equality that will make everyone else free.

I write this as a black person who also knows the white American world. There is ignorance and prejudice there, but there is also pain, suffering and struggle. I am grateful to my parents and teachers who helped me to notice and name racism and discrimination. They have helped me to understand my personal experience and, just as importantly, to see beyond it. I have become convinced that black liberation is bound up with true human liberation. Look at me, with any luck, starting a revolution.

Brian Jones is an educator and activist in New York. He is the associate director of education at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.

• Everyday racism in America
• Race in education

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Black History Month and Reasons to Celebrate It

Dr. carter g. woodson - the father of black history month, the beginning of slavery in the u.s., the stereotypes about african americans, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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The Challenges African Americans Faced in The United States

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The Presence of Black Theology in Black Power Movement

Comparison of the life of slaves and indentured servants, violence in music and media and its effects on children, rhetorical analysis of kristof’s article "food for the soul", the impact of music and dance on saving african slaves culture, the comparison of "poem about my rights" by june jordan and "the day lady died" by frank o'hara, food to feed one’s soul, influence of 'red summer' on the naacp, the importance of slave songs in african american history, diversity and social complexity of africans before the atlantic slave trade, blacks in american history: racism and american dream, northern states abolished slavery, critical analysis of plessy vs ferguson case, dred scott decision: the role of supreme court and political parties, why is black history month important: my views, tuskegee airmen and discrimination of african americans during world war ii, black history month: the importance of knowing african american history, review of the film tuskegee airmen, the underground railroads for african-american slaves, new jazz and the civil rights movement.

History of African Americans began when "twenty and odd" Africans were landed in the English colony of Virginia in 1619. The majority of African Americans are the descendants of Africans who were forced into slavery. In 1790 Black people numbered almost 760,000. During that time, they were considered an inferior race with heathen culture.

The blacks were documented into slavery in Virginia in 1661 and in all the English colonies by 1750. They were forced to work in the farmlands of the New World. They were sold as merchandise by European traders on slave ships. During the period of the 17th and 18th centuries, they were forced to work as slaves on tobacco, rice, and indigo plantations. In 1807 Thomas Jefferson signed legislation that officially ended the African trade of enslaved peoples. However, this act did not presage the end of slavery.

Abolitionists in the United States in the 1840-1860 period developed large propaganda campaigns against slavery. At the beginning of 1861, a movement, known as the Civil War, was launched in an attempt to liberate all the country's slaves. In September 1862 Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, stating that all slaves were to be free. After the Civil War, nearly four million slaves were freed.

The Civil Rights Act of 1866 made Black people full U.S. citizens. Ratification of the 15th amendment in 1870 extended the right to vote to Black males. However, in the post-Reconstruction years, African Americans struggled to find a job, so many of them decided to migrate westward.

In 1900, nearly 8 million African Americans still lived in the South, however, due to economic depression, more African Americans moved Northwards and were then embroiled in WWI. Between 1910 and 1920 an estimated 500,000 African Americans left the South. During the war thousands of black officers were commissioned and many served abroad in labour battalions and service regiments.

The Great Depression of the 1930s worsened the already bleak economic situation of African Americans. During that period, a large number of African Americans lost their jobs amidst inherent discrimination. African Americans were aided with low cost public housing, education and more jobs.

In World War II as in World War I, there was a mass migration of Blacks from the South. Abbout 1.5 million African Americans left the South during the 1940s. During the war, an African American soldiers were in service units, and combat troops remained segregated.

The Civil Rights Movement was the persistent and deliberate step of African Americans in the 1940s and 1950s. The culmination of the Civil Rights Movement was in 1963, which aided in securing the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned discrimination in voting, public accommodations, and employment.

The post-civil rights era is notable for the New Great Migration, in which millions of African Americans have returned to the South, often to pursue increased economic opportunities in now-desegregated southern cities. Politically and economically, Black people have made substantial strides in the post-civil rights era. The dramatic political breakthrough came in the 2008 election, with the election of Barack Obama.

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• Westward Expansion
• Boston Massacre
• Florence Kelley
• Atlantic Slave Trade
• Benjamin Franklin
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• American History
• Indian Removal Act

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African American History & Culture; with Memoirs, Essays, and More

A selection of books about African American and Black history and culture, with emphasis on books by Black authors. For more books and resources on Racial Equity and Social Justice, see the resource guide Racial Equity Resources . For more new and/or significant books highlighting the African American experience, sent to your inbox, subscribe to the African American Culture Insider Newsletter .

Art, Music, & Literature | Civil Rights & Social Justice | Economics, Business, & Leadership | Food, Health & Wellness | History | Humor | Memoirs & Essays | Sports

Art, Music, and Literature

A Little Devil in America: Notes in Praise of Black Performance

A Little Devil in America is an urgent project that unravels all modes and methods of Black performance, in this moment when Black performers are coming to terms with their value, reception, and immense impact on America. With sharp insight, humor, and heart, Abdurraqib examines how Black performance happens in specific moments in time and space--midcentury Paris, the moon, or a cramped living room in Columbus, Ohio. Abdurraqib's prose is entrancing and fluid as he leads us along the links in his remarkable trains of thought. A Little Devil in America considers, critiques, and praises performance in music, sports, writing, comedy, grief, games, and love.

Available to download: eBook Audio

Hollywood Black: The Stars, the Films, the Filmmakers

A sweeping overview of blacks in film from the silent era through Black Panther, with striking photos and an engrossing history by award-winning author Donald Bogle.

The Obama Portraits

A richly illustrated celebration of the paintings of President Barack Obama by Kehinde Wiley and First Lady Michelle Obama by Amy Sherald.

Never Givin' Up: The Life and Music of Al Jarreau

Finally "discovered" in 1975 (at age 35) by Warner Brothers Records, he recorded 13 albums in 20 years for Warners. He became a "star" in the early '80s, crafting best-selling albums with a unique combination of jazz, pop and R&B. Ultimately, he was the first artist to win Grammy Awards in those three categories. Stardom in the world of popular music can be fleeting, however, and as records sales waned, Al had to adjust to new, sometimes harsh, realities. Al Jarreau follows Al's career and music through contemporary articles, filmed documentaries and extensive interviews with family members, fellow musicians, friends and associates.

August Wilson: A Life

The first authoritative biography of August Wilson, the most important and successful American playwright of the late 20th century, by a theater critic who knew him.

Tupac Shakur: The Authorized Biography

In Tupac Shakur , author and screenwriter Staci Robinson-who knew Tupac as a young man and who was entrusted by his mother, Afeni Shakur, to write his biography-peels back the myths and unpacks the complexities that have shadowed Tupac's existence. With exclusive access to his private notebooks, letters, unpublished lyrics and uncensored conversations with those who knew and loved him best, Robinson tells a powerful story of a life defined by politics and art, and a man driven by equal parts brilliance and impulsiveness. It is a story of a mother and son bound together by a love for each other and for their people, and the relationship that endured through their darkest times. It is a political story that begins in the whirlwind of the 60's Civil Rights Movement, and takes you through a young artist's awakening to rage and purpose in the nineties era of Rodney King. It is a story of dizzying success and its devastating consequences. And, of course, it is the story of his music, his timeless message that will never die as it continues to touch and inspire past, present and future generations

Supreme Sirens: Iconic Black Women Who Revolutionized Music

Through exquisite photographs, personal interviews, short biographies, and career milestones, Reynolds details how these women's music and careers have become the soundtrack of our lives. Supreme Sirens shares the power and wisdom of women who are at the forefront of entertainment; women who have overcome racial prejudices and redefined contemporary notions of Black women by breaking glass ceilings and tearing down barriers in the recording studio and on stage and screen. Book 3 in series.

Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin): A Memoir

As the front man for the sixties pop-rock-funk band Sly and the Family Stone, a songwriter who created some of the most memorable anthems of the 1960s and 1970s ("Everyday People," "Family Affair"), and a performer who electrified audiences at Woodstock and elsewhere, Sly Stone's influence on modern music and culture is indisputable. But as much as people know the music, the man remains a mystery. After a rapid rise to superstardom, Sly spent decades in the grip of addiction. Now he is ready to relate the ups and downs and ins and outs of his amazing life in his memoir.

Black Women Writers at Work

Through candid interviews with Maya Angelou, Toni Cade Bambara, Gwendolyn Brooks, Alexis De Veaux, Nikki Giovanni, Kristin Hunter, Gayl Jones, Audre Lorde, Toni Morrison, Sonia Sanchez, Ntozake Shange, Alice Walker, Margaret Walker, and Sherley Anne Williams, the book highlights the practices and critical linkages between the work and lived experiences of Black women writers whose contributions to the literary world laid the foundation for many who have come after. Responding to questions about why and for whom they write, and how they perceive their responsibility to their work, to others, and to society, the featured playwrights, poets, novelists, and essayists provide a window into the connections between their lives and their art.

Easily Slip into Another World: A Life in Music

An autobiography of one of the towering figures of contemporary American music and a powerful meditation on history, race, capitalism and art.

Civil Rights and Social Justice

The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness

In a bold and innovative argument, a rising legal star shows readers how the mass incarceration of a disproportionate number of black men amounts to a devastating system of racial control. Despite the triumphant dismantling of the Jim Crow laws, the system that once forced African-Americans into a segregated second-class citizenship still haunts and the criminal justice system still unfairly targets black men and deprives an entire segment of the population of their basic rights.

The Fire Next Time

A national bestseller when it first appeared in 1963, The Fire Next Time galvanized the nation and gave passionate voice to the emerging civil rights movement. At once a powerful evocation of James Baldwin's early life in Harlem and a disturbing examination of the consequences of racial injustice, the book is an intensely personal and provocative document. It consists of two "letters," written on the occasion of the centennial of the Emancipation Proclamation, that exhort Americans, both black and white, to attack the terrible legacy of racism. Available to download: eBook Audio

White Space, Black Hood: Opportunity Hoarding and Segregation in the Age of Inequality

A meditation on how America protects and overinvests in "white space" and disinvests, surveils, and stereotypes in "the Hood;" Cashin calls for abolition of these anti-Black processes and bold new investment to repair poor Black neighborhoods and our broken race relations.

Between the World and Me

In a profound work that pivots from the biggest questions about American history and ideals to the most intimate concerns of a father for his son, Ta-Nehisi Coates offers a powerful new framework for understanding our nation's history and current crisis. Available to download: eBook Audio

Freedom is a Constant Struggle

In these newly collected essays, interviews, and speeches, world-renowned activist and scholar Angela Y. Davis illuminates the connections between struggles against state violence and oppression throughout history and around the world. Available to download: eBook Audio

Tears We Cannot Stop: A Sermon to White America

Fifty years ago Malcolm X told a white woman who asked what she could do for the cause, 'Nothing.' Michael Eric Dyson believes he was wrong. Now he responds to that question. If society is to make real racial progress, people must face difficult truths, including being honest about how Black grievance has been ignored, dismissed, or discounted. Available to download: Audio

Risking Everything: A Freedom Summer Reader

Eyewitness accounts of a pivotal episode in American history, including murder, suspense, and extraordinary courage by ordinary people.

Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow

The abolition of slavery after the Civil War is a familiar story, as is the civil rights revolution that transformed the nation after World War II. But the century in between remains a mystery: if emancipation sparked 'a new birth of freedom' in Lincoln's America, why was it necessary to march in Martin Luther King, Jr.'s America? Gates uncovers the roots of structural racism in our own time, while showing how African-Americans after slavery combated it by articulating a vision of a 'New Negro' to force the nation to recognize their humanity and unique contributions to the United States. Available to download: eBook

The Tuskegee Student Uprising: A History

The Tuskegee Student Uprising tells what happened when the Black Power movement arrived at the institution founded by the nation's most famous black educator, Booker T. Washington.

How to Be an Antiracist

In this book, Kendi weaves an electrifying combination of ethics, history, law, and science, bringing it all together with an engaging personal narrative of his own awakening to antiracism, and he asks us to think about what an antiracist society might look like, and how we can play an active role in building it. Available to download: eBook Audio

Stamped From the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America

The National Book Award winning history of how racist ideas were created, spread, and deeply rooted in American society. Available to download: eBook

When They Call You a Terrorist: A Black Lives Matter Memoir

A memoir by the co-founder of the Black Lives Matter movement explains the movement's position of love, humanity, and justice, challenging perspectives that have negatively labeled the movement's activists while calling for essential political changes. Available to download: eBook Audio

March Book 1

March is a vivid first-hand account of John Lewis' lifelong struggle for civil and human rights, meditating in the modern age on the distance traveled since the days of Jim Crow and segregation. Rooted in Lewis's personal story, it also reflects on the highs and lows of the broader civil rights movement. Also look for volumes 2 & 3. Available to download: eBook

They Can't Kill Us All: Ferguson, Baltimore, and a New Era in America's Racial Justice Movement

A behind-the-scenes account of the #blacklivesmatter movement shares insights into the young men and women behind it, citing the racially charged controversies that have motivated members and the economic, political, and personal histories that inform its purpose.

Pushout: The Criminalization of Black Girls in Schools

For four years Monique W. Morris chronicled the experiences of black girls across the country whose intricate lives are misunderstood, highly judged--by teachers, administrators, and the justice system--and degraded by the very institutions charged with helping them flourish. Morris shows how, despite obstacles, stigmas, stereotypes, and despair, black girls still find ways to breathe remarkable dignity into their lives in classrooms, juvenile facilities, and beyond.

The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America

Chronicling the emergence of deeply embedded notions of black people as a dangerous race of criminals by explicit contrast to working-class whites and European immigrants, this book reveals the influence such ideas have had on urban development and social policies.

Mighty Justice: My Life in Civil Rights

Trailblazing African American civil rights attorney Dovey Johnson Roundtree, who remains largely unknown to the American public despite her significant and influential achievements, recounts her inspiring life story that speaks movingly and urgently to our racially troubled times.

Hellhound on His Trail: The Stalking 0f Martin Luther King, Jr. and the International Hunt for His Assassin

A taut, intense narrative about the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., and the largest manhunt in American history--a sixty-five-day search that led investigators to Canada, Portugal, and England.

Driving While Black: African American Travel and the Road to Civil Rights

Acclaimed historian Gretchen Sorin reveals how the car--the ultimate symbol of independence and possibility--has always held particular importance for African Americans, allowing black families to evade the many dangers presented by an entrenched racist society and to enjoy, in some measure, the freedom of the open road. She recounts the creation of a parallel, unseen world of black motorists, who relied on travel guides, black only businesses, and informal communications networks to keep them safe.

Just Mercy: A Story of Justice and Redemption

The founder of the Equal Justice Initiative in Montgomery, Alabama recounts his experiences as a lawyer working to assist those desperately in need, reflecting on his pursuit of the ideal of compassion in American justice. Available to download: eBook Audio

I Can't Breathe: A Killing on Bay Street

A work of riveting literary journalism that explores the roots and repercussions of the infamous killing of Eric Garner by the New York City police.

A More Beautiful and Terrible History: The Uses and Misuses of Civil Rights History

The civil rights movement has become national legend, lauded by presidents from Reagan to Obama to Trump, as proof of the power of American democracy. This fable, featuring dreamy heroes and accidental heroines, has shuttered the movement firmly in the past, whitewashed the forces that stood in its way, and diminished its scope. And it is used perniciously in our own times to chastise present-day movements and obscure contemporary injustice. In A More Beautiful and Terrible History , award-winning historian Jeanne Theoharis dissects this national myth-making, teasing apart the accepted stories to show them in a strikingly different light.

The Autobiography of Malcolm X

In the searing pages of this classic autobiography, originally published in 1964, Malcolm X, the Muslim leader, firebrand, and anti-integrationist, tells the extraordinary story of his life and the growth of the Black Muslim movement. Available to download: eBook

The Fire This Time: A New Generation Speaks About Race

National Book Award winner Jesmyn Ward takes James Baldwin's 1963 examination of race in America, The Fire Next Time , as a jumping off point for this groundbreaking collection of essays and poems about race from the most important voices of her generation and our time.

Economics, Business, and Leadership

Minority Leader: How To Lead From the Outside and Make Real Change

A personal and empowering blueprint from one of America's rising Democratic stars for outsiders who seek to become the ones in charge.

Our Black Year: One Family's Quest to Buy Black in America's Racially Divided Economy

In this analysis of her family’s year-long public pledge to "buy black," Maggie Anderson draws on economic research and social history as well as her personal story to show why the black economy continues to suffer and issues a call to action to all of us to do our part to reverse this trend.

The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism

A groundbreaking history demonstrating that America's economic supremacy was built on the backs of slaves.

Finding My Voice: My Journey to the West Wing and the Path Forward

When Valerie Jarrett interviewed a promising young lawyer named Michelle Robinson in July 1991, neither knew that it was the first step on a path that would end in the White House. Jarrett joined the White House team on January 20, 2009 as the Obamas' personal adviser and departed with the First Family on January 20, 2017. In this memoir, she shares her optimistic perspective on the importance of leadership and the responsibilities of citizenship in the twenty-first century, inspiring readers to lift their own voices.

How We Can Win: Race, History and Changing the Money Game that's Rigged

In How We Can Win, Jones delves into the impacts of systemic racism and reveals how her formative years in Chicago gave birth to a lifelong devotion to justice. Here, in a vital expansion of her declaration, she calls for Reconstruction 2.0, a multilayered plan to reclaim economic and social restitutions--those restitutions promised with emancipation but blocked, again and again, for more than 150 years. And, most of all, Jones delivers strategies for how we can effect change as citizens and allies while nurturing ourselves--the most valuable asset we have--in the fight against a system that is still rigged.

Black Fortunes: The Story of the First Six African Americans Who Escaped Slavery and Became Millionaires

The astonishing untold history of America's first black millionaires - former slaves who endured incredible challenges to amass and maintain their wealth for a century, from the Jacksonian period to the Roaring Twenties - self-made entrepreneurs whose unknown success mirrored that of American business heroes such as Henry Ford, John D. Rockefeller, and Thomas Edison. Between the years of 1830 and 1927, as the last generation of blacks born into slavery was reaching maturity, a small group of smart, tenacious, and daring men and women broke new ground to attain the highest levels of financial success.

Food, Health, and Wellness

An acclaimed graphic novel that offers a poignant glimpse into black women's lives and coming-of-age stories as seen across a crowded, ammonia-scented hair salon while ladies gossip and bond over the burn.

I'm Telling the Truth, but I'm Lying: Essays

Bassey Ikpi explores her life--as a Nigerian-American immigrant, a black woman, a slam poet, a mother, a daughter, an artist--through the lens of her mental health and diagnosis of bipolar II and anxiety. Her remarkable memoir in essays implodes our preconceptions of the mind and normalcy as Bassey bares her own truths and lies for us all to behold with radical honesty and brutal intimacy. Available to download: Audio

Sweet Home Cafe Cookbook: A Celebration of African American Cooking

A celebration of African American cooking with 109 recipes from the National Museum of African American History and Culture's Sweet Home Café. Available to download: eBook

Notes From a Young Black Chef: A Memoir

By the time he was twenty-seven years old, Kwame Onwuachi (winner of the 2019 James Beard Foundation Award for Rising Star Chef of the Year) had opened--and closed--one of the most talked about restaurants in America. He had launched his own catering company with twenty thousand dollars that he made from selling candy on the subway, yet he'd been told he would never make it on television because his cooking wasn't "Southern" enough. In this inspiring memoir about the intersection of race, fame, and food, he shares the remarkable story of his culinary coming-of-age. Available to download: Audio

Farming While Black: Soul Fire Farm’s Practical Guide to Liberation on the Land

The first comprehensive "how to" guide for aspiring African-heritage growers to reclaim their dignity as agriculturists and for all farmers to understand the distinct, technical contributions of African-heritage people to sustainable agriculture.

Soul Food Love: Healthy Recipes Inspired by One Hundred Years of Cooking in a Black Family

A mother-daughter duo reclaims and redefines soul food by mining the traditions of four generations of black women and creating 80 healthy recipes to help everyone live longer and stronger.

Every Body Yoga: Let Go of Fear, Get on the Mat, Love Your Body

Jessamyn Stanley, a yogi who breaks all the stereotypes, has built a life as an internationally recognized yoga teacher and award-winning Instagram star by combining a deep understanding for yoga with a willingness to share her personal struggles in a way that touches everyone who comes to know her. Now she brings her body-positive, emotionally uplifting approach to yoga in a book that will help every reader discover the power of yoga and how to weave it seamlessly into his or her life.

The Body is Not an Apology: The Power of Radical Self-Love

World-renowned activist and poet Sonya Renee Taylor invites us to reconnect with the radical origins of our minds and bodies and celebrate our collective, enduring strength. As we awaken to our own indoctrinated body shame, we feel inspired to awaken others and to interrupt the systems that perpetuate body shame and oppression against all bodies.

Black Food: Stories, Art and Recipes from Across the African Diaspora

In this stunning and deeply heartfelt tribute to Black culinary ingenuity, Bryant Terry captures the broad and divergent voices of the African Diaspora through the prism of food. With contributions from more than 100 Black cultural luminaries from around the globe, the book moves through chapters exploring parts of the Black experience, from Homeland to Migration, Spirituality to Black Future, offering delicious recipes, moving essays, and arresting artwork.

Jubilee: Recipes from Two Centuries of African American Cooking

Throughout her career, Toni Tipton-Martin has shed new light on the history, breadth, and depth of African American cuisine. She's introduced us to black cooks, some long forgotten, who established much of what's considered to be our national cuisine. After all, if Thomas Jefferson introduced French haute cuisine to this country, who do you think actually cooked it? In Jubilee , Tipton-Martin brings these masters into our kitchens with more than 100 recipes.

Black Man in a White Coat: A Doctor’s Reflections on Race and Medicine

One doctor's passionate and profound memoir of his experience grappling with race, bias, and the unique health problems of black Americans. Available to download: eBook

The Cooking Gene: A Journey Through African-American Culinary History in the Old South

A memoir of Southern cuisine and food culture that traces the paths of the author's ancestors (black and white) through the crucible of slavery to show its effects on our food today.

A Black Women’s History of the United States

A vibrant and empowering history that emphasizes the perspectives and stories of African American women to show how they are--and have always been--instrumental in shaping our country.

Empire of Cotton: A Global History

The empire of cotton was, from the beginning, a fulcrum of constant global struggle between slaves and planters, merchants and statesmen, workers and factory owners. Beckert makes clear how these forces ushered in the world of modern capitalism, including the vast wealth and disturbing inequalities that are with us today. The result is a book as unsettling as it is enlightening: a book that brilliantly weaves together the story of cotton with how the present global world came to exist.

Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom

An acclaimed historian's definitive biography of the most important African-American figure of the 19th century, Frederick Douglass, who was to his century what Martin Luther King, Jr. was to the 20th century. Available to download: eBook

She Came to Slay: The Life and Times of Harriet Tubman

A lively, informative, and illustrated tribute to one of the most exceptional women in American history--Harriet Tubman--a heroine whose fearlessness and activism still resonates today. Available to download: eBook

Gateway to Freedom: The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad

Pulitzer Prize-winning historian Eric Foner relates the dramatic story of fugitive slaves and the antislavery activists who defied the law to help them reach freedom.

The Last Negroes at Harvard: The Class of 1963 and the Eighteen Young Men Who Changed Harvard Forever

The untold story of the Harvard class of '63, whose Black students fought to create their own identities on the cusp between integration and affirmative action.

The Black Church: This is Our Story, this is Our Song

Gates takes us on a journey spanning more than five centuries, from the intersection of Christianity and the transatlantic slave trade to today's political landscape. We emerge with a new understanding of the importance of African American religion to the larger national narrative: as a center of resistance to slavery and white supremacy, as a magnet for political mobilization, as an incubator of musical and oratorical talent that would transform the culture, and as a crucible for working through the Black community's most critical personal and social issues.

And Still I Rise: Black America Since MLK

A timeline and chronicle of the past fifty years of black history in the U.S. in more than 350 photos.

The Hemingses of Monticello: an American Family

This epic work tells the story of the Hemingses, a slave family whose close blood ties to American president Thomas Jefferson had been systematically edited out from American history until very recently. This book sets the family's compelling saga against the backdrop of Revolutionary America, Paris on the eve of its own revolution, 1970s Philadelphia and plantation life at Monticello. Available to download: Audio

Black Radical: The Life and Times of William Monroe Trotter

This long-overdue biography reestablishes William Monroe Trotter's essential place next to Douglass, Du Bois, and King in the pantheon of American civil rights heroes.

Wayward Lives, Beautiful Experiments: Intimate Histories of Social Upheaval

Traces a time of radical transformation of black life in early twentieth-century America, revealing how a large number of black women forged relationships, families, and jobs that were more empowered and typically indifferent to moral dictates.

Barracoon: The Story of the Last “Black Cargo”

A major literary event: a newly published work from the author of the American classic Their Eyes Were Watching God , with a foreword from Pulitzer Prize-winning author Alice Walker, brilliantly illuminates the horror and injustices of slavery as it tells the true story of one of the last-known survivors of the Atlantic slave trade--abducted from Africa on the last "Black Cargo" ship to arrive in the United States. Available to download: eBook Audio

The Other Madisons: The Lost History of a President’s Black Family

Bettye Kearse--a descendant of an enslaved cook and, according to oral tradition, President James Madison--shares her family story and explores the issues of legacy, race, and the powerful consequences of telling the whole truth. 

Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

A gripping true story of racism, murder, rape, and the law that brings to light one of the most dramatic court cases in American history, and offers a rare and revealing portrait of Thurgood Marshall that the world has never seen before. Available to download: eBook Audio

We Could Not Fail: The First African Americans in the Space Program

The Space Age began just as the struggle for civil rights forced Americans to confront the long and bitter legacy of slavery, discrimination, and violence against African Americans. Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson utilized the space program as an agent for social change, using federal equal employment opportunity laws to open workplaces at NASA and NASA contractors to African Americans while creating thousands of research and technology jobs in the Deep South to ameliorate poverty. We Could Not Fail tells the inspiring, largely unknown story of how shooting for the stars helped to overcome segregation on earth.

Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

The phenomenal true story of the black female mathematicians at NASA at the leading edge of the feminist and civil rights movement, whose calculations helped fuel some of America's greatest achievements in space--a powerful, revelatory contribution that is essential to our understanding of race, discrimination, and achievement in modern America. Available to download: eBook Audio

The Blood of Emmett Till

This extraordinary bestseller reexamines a pivotal event of the civil rights movement--the 1955 lynching of Emmett Till--"and demands that we do the one vital thing we aren't often enough asked to do with history: learn from it" ( The Atlantic ). Available to download: Audio

Smoketown: The Untold Story of the Other Great Black Renaissance

Today black Pittsburgh is known as the setting for August Wilson's famed plays about noble but doomed working-class strivers. But this community once had an impact on American history that rivaled the far larger black worlds of Harlem and Chicago. Mark Whitaker’s captivating portrait of this unsung community is a vital addition to the story of black America.

The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration

In this beautifully written masterwork, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Isabel Wilkerson chronicles one of the great untold stories of American history: the decades-long migration of black citizens who fled the South for northern and western cities, in search of a better life. From 1915 to 1970, this exodus of almost six million people changed the face of America. Available to download: eBook

Harriet Jacobs: A Life

In this remarkable biography, Jean Fagan Yellin recounts the full adventures of Harriet Jacobs, author of Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , one of the most widely read slave narratives of all time, before and after slavery.

I Can't Date Jesus: Love, Sex, Family, Race, and Other Reasons I've Put My Faith in Beyoncé

A timely collection of alternately hysterical and soul‑searching essays about what it is like to grow up as a creative, sensitive black man in a world that constantly tries to deride and diminish your humanity. Available to download: Audio

The Awkward Thoughts of W. Kamau Bell: Tales of a 6' 4", African American, Heterosexual, Cisgender, Left-leaning, Asthmatic, Black and Proud Blerd, Mama's Boy, Dad, and Stand-up Comedian

A humorous, well-informed take on the world today, tackling a wide range of issues, such as race relations; fatherhood; the state of law enforcement today; comedians and superheroes; right-wing politics; left-wing politics; failure; Bell’s interracial marriage; white men; his up-bringing by very strong-willed, race-conscious, yet ideologically opposite parents; his early days struggling to find his comedic voice, then his later days struggling to find his comedic voice; why he never seemed to fit in with the Black comedy scene . . . or the white comedy scene; how he was a Black nerd way before that became a thing; how it took his wife and an East Bay lesbian to teach him that racism and sexism often walk hand in hand; and much, much more.

I Can’t Make This Up: Life Lessons

Superstar, comedian and Hollywood box-office star Kevin Hart turns his immense talent to the written word by writing some words. Some of those words include, the, a, for, above, and even even. Put them together and listeners have the funniest, most heartfelt, and most inspirational memoir on survival, success, and the importance of believing in themselves since Old Yeller. Available to download: eBook

F*ck Your Diet: And Other Things My Thighs Tell Me

A collection of laugh-out-loud funny and insightful essays that explore race, feminism, pop culture, and how society reinforces the message that we are nothing without the perfect body.

How Not to Get Shot: And Other Advice from White People

Legendary African American activist-comedian D. L. Hughley uses satire to draw attention to white privilege and racial injustice, sardonically offering an illustrated how-to guide for black people, full of insight from white people, about how to act, dress, speak, walk, and drive in the safest manner possible. Available to download: eBook

Wow, No Thank You: Essays

From Samantha Irby--beloved author of New York Times bestseller We Are Never Meeting in Real Life- -a rip-roaring, edgy and unabashedly raunchy new collection of hilarious essays.

The Misadventures of Awkward Black Girl

A collection of humorous essays on what it's like to be unabashedly awkward in a world that regards introverts as hapless misfits, and black as cool. Available to download: eBook

You Can’t Touch My Hair and Other Things I Still Have to Explain

Phoebe Robinson is a stand-up comic, which means that comedic fodder runs through her everyday life. And as a black woman in America, she asserts, sometimes you need to have a sense of humor to deal with the nonsense you are handed every day. And Robinson has experienced her fair share over the years, not lest the people who ask her whether they can touch her hair. All. The. Time. Now, she's ready to take these topics to the page in an utterly modern essay collection: one that examines our cultural climate and skewers our biases. Available to download: eBook Audio

Here For It, Or, How to Save Your Soul in America; Essays

R. Eric Thomas didn't know he was different until the world told him so. Everywhere he went--whether it was his rich, mostly white, suburban high school, his conservative black church, or his Ivy League college in a big city--he found himself on the outside looking in. In essays by turns hysterical and heartfelt, Thomas reexamines what it means to be an "other" through the lens of his own life experience.

How to Be Black

Baratunde Thurston shares his 30-plus years of expertise in being black, with helpful essays like "How to Be the Black Friend," "How to Speak for All Black People," "How To Celebrate Black History Month," and more, in this satirical guide to race issues--written for black people and those who love them. Available to download: eBook

We're Going to Need More Wine: Stories That Are Funny, Complicated, and True

In this moving collection of thought provoking essays infused with her unique wisdom and deep humor, Union uses that same fearlessness to tell astonishingly personal and true stories about power, color, gender, feminism, and fame.

Memoirs and Essays

White Girls

One of The New Yorker 's boldest cultural critics deftly weaves together his brilliant analyses of literature, art, and music with fearless insights on race, gender, and history. The result is an extraordinary, complex portrait of "white girls," as Als dubs them--an expansive but precise category that encompasses figures as diverse as Truman Capote and Louise Brooks, Malcolm X and Flannery O'Connor.

Mom & Me & Mom

The story of Maya Angelou's extraordinary life has been chronicled in her multiple bestselling autobiographies. But now, at last, the legendary author shares the deepest personal story of her life: her relationship with her mother. Available to download: eBook Audio

Fire Shut Up in My Bones: A Memoir

A gorgeous, moving memoir of how one of America's most innovative and respected journalists found his voice by coming to terms with a painful past. Available to download: eBook

The Yellow House

A brilliant, haunting and unforgettable memoir from a stunning new talent about the inexorable pull of home and family, set in a shotgun house in New Orleans East. Available to download: eBook

I’m Still Here: Black Dignity in a World Made for Whiteness

From a powerful new voice on racial justice, an eye-opening account of growing up Black, Christian, and female in middle-class white America. Available to download: eBook

A Piece of Cake

Moving and almost transgressive in its frankness, this memoir is a relentlessly gripping tale of a resilient spirit who took on the worst of contemporary urban life and survived it with a furious wit and unyielding determination.

Things I Should Have Told My Daughter: Lies, Lessons, & Love Affairs

In this inspiring memoir, the award-winning playwright and bestselling author reminisces on the art of juggling marriage, motherhood, and politics while working to become a successful writer.

Eloquent Rage: A Black Feminist Discovers Her Superpower

So what if it's true that Black women are mad as hell? They have the right to be. In the Black feminist tradition of Audre Lorde, Brittney Cooper reminds us that anger is a powerful source of energy that can give us the strength to keep on fighting.

Thick: And Other Essays

In these eight piercing explorations on beauty, media, money, and more, Tressie McMillan Cottom-award-winning professor and acclaimed author-embraces her venerated role as a purveyor of wit, wisdom, and Black Twitter snark about all that is right and much that is wrong with this thing we call society.

Angela Davis: An Autobiography

Angela Y. Davis has been a political activist at the cutting edge of the Black liberation, feminist, queer, and prison abolitionist movements. Fifty years after its original publication, the author revisits her life's story in print.

Brother, I’m Dying

A powerfully moving family story that centers around the men closest to the author's heart--her father, Mira, and his older brother, Joseph.

Black Nerd Problems

The creators of the popular website Black Nerd Problems bring their witty and unflinching insight to this engaging collection of pop culture essays on everything from Mario Kart and The Wire to issues of representation and police brutality across media.

Available to download: Audio

The Book of (More) Delights

A collection of essays in which the author discusses the small and large things that delight him.

There Will Be No Miracles Here

The testament of a boy and a generation who came of age as the world came apart--a generation searching for a new way to live.

You Don't Know Us Negroes and other Essays

The essays in this essential collection are grouped thematically and cover a panoply of topics, including politics, race and gender, and folkloric study from the height of the Harlem Renaissance to the early years of the Civil Rights movement. Demonstrating the breadth of this revered and influential writer's work, You Don't Know Us Negroes and Other Essays is an invaluable chronicle of a writer's development and a window into her world and time.

Quietly Hostile

The success of Irby's career has taken her to new heights. She fields calls with job offers from Hollywood and walks the red carpet with the iconic ladies of Sex and the City. But, behind all that new-found glam, Irby is just trying to keep her life together as she always had. She gets turned away from a restaurant for wearing ugly clothes, she goes to therapy and tries out Lexapro, gets healed with Reiki, explores the power of crystals, and becomes addicted to QVC. Making light of herself as she takes us on an outrageously funny tour of all the details that make up a true portrait of her life, Irby is once again the relatable, uproarious tonic we all need.

Survival Math: Notes on an All-American Family

An electrifying, dazzlingly written reckoning and an essential addition to the national conversation about race and class that takes its name from the calculations award-winning author Mitchell S. Jackson made to survive the Portland, Oregon of his youth.

This Will Be My Undoing: Living at the Intersection of Black, Female, and Feminist in (White) America

From one of the fiercest critics writing today, Morgan Jerkins' highly-anticipated collection of linked essays interweaves her incisive commentary on pop culture, feminism, black history, misogyny, and racism with her own experiences to confront the very real challenges of being a black woman today.

How We Fight For Our Lives: A Memoir

In this stunning coming-of-age memoir, Jones tells the story of a young, black, gay man from the South as he fights to carve out a place for himself, within his family, within his country, within his own hopes, desires, and fears. Through a series of vignettes that chart a course across the American landscape, Jones draws readers into his boyhood and adolescence--into tumultuous relationships with his family, into passing flings with lovers, friends, and strangers. Each piece builds into a larger examination of race and queerness, power and vulnerability, love and grief: a portrait of what we all do for one another--and to one another--as we fight to become ourselves. Available to download: eBook Audio

Heavy: An American Memoir

In this powerful and provocative memoir, genre-bending essayist and novelist Kiese Laymon explores what the weight of a lifetime of secrets, lies, and deception does to a black body, a black family, and a nation teetering on the brink of moral collapse. Available to download: eBook Audio

How Far to the Promised Land: One Black Family's Story of Hope and Survival in the American South

The way to the promised land is not a trip from poverty to success, but the journey to finding beauty even in dark places. In searching prose, McCaulley chronicles his lifelong effort to understand the community that shaped him and the struggle they endured to make a home for their loved ones. McCaulley raises questions that implicate us all: How do we make sense of America's triumphs and misdeeds? Where might God be found in trauma and miracle that is Black life in the American South? Written with profound honesty and compassion, How Far to the Promised Land is a weighty examination of our most pressing societal issues and the hope that keeps us alive

No Ashes in the Fire: Coming of Age Black & Free in America

From a leading journalist and activist comes a brave, beautifully wrought memoir, a story of beauty and hope-and an honest reckoning with family, with place, and with what it means to be free. Available to download: eBook

The Source of Self-Regard: Selected Essays, Speeches, and Meditations

Arguably the most celebrated and revered writer of our time now gives us a new nonfiction collection--a rich gathering of her essays, speeches, and meditations on society, culture, and art, spanning four decades.

In a life filled with meaning and accomplishment, Michelle Obama has emerged as one of the most iconic and compelling women of our era. As First Lady of the United States of America, she helped create the most welcoming and inclusive White House in history. With unerring honesty and lively wit, she describes her triumphs and her disappointments, both public and private. A deeply personal reckoning of a woman of soul and substance who has steadily defied expectations. Available to download: eBook Audio

Chasing Me to My Grave: An Artist's Memoir of the Jim Crow South

Rembert's work has been exhibited at museums and galleries across the country, profiled in the New York Times and more, and honored by Bryan Stevenson's Equal Justice Initiative. In Chasing Me to My Grave, he relates his life in prose and paintings--vivid, confrontational, revelatory, complex scenes from the cotton fields and chain gangs of the segregated south to the churches and night clubs of the urban north. This is also the story of finding epic love, and with it the courage to revisit a past that begs to remain buried, as told to Tufts philosopher Erin I. Kelly.

Available to download: eBook

Invisible Man, Got the Whole World Watching: A Young Black Man’s Education

An unflinching account of what it means to be a young black man in America today, and how the existing script for black manhood is being rewritten in one of the most fascinating periods of American history.

We Speak for Ourselves: A Word from Forgotten Black America

The critically lauded author provides an existential look at life in low-income black communities, while also offering a new framework for how to improve the conversations occurring about them.

Let It Bang: A Young Black Man’s Reluctant Odyssey into Guns

The quest, funny and searing, of a young man black man learning to shoot--a fascinating odyssey into race, guns, and self-protection in America.

Arthur Ashe: A Life

The first comprehensive, authoritative biography of American icon Arthur Ashe--the Jackie Robinson of men's tennis--a pioneering athlete who, after breaking the color barrier, went on to become an influential civil rights activist and public intellectual. Available to download: eBook

The Heritage: Black Athletes, a Divided America, and the Politics of Patriotism

The story of sports post-9/11, once neutral but now embedded with deference toward the military and police, colliding with the political reawakening of the black athlete in post-Ferguson America.

The Last Hero: the Life of Henry Aaron

In the thirty-four years since his retirement, Henry Aaron's reputation has only grown in magnitude: he broke existing records (rbis, total bases, extra-base hits) and set new ones (hitting at least thirty home runs per season fifteen times, becoming the first player in history to hammer five hundred home runs and three thousand hits). But his influence extends beyond statistics, and at long last here is the first definitive biography of one of baseball's immortal figures. Available to download: eBook

Driven: From Homeless to Hero, My Journeys On and Off Lambeau Field

The Green Bay Packers legendary NFL receiver, all-time receptions and yards leader for the Green Bay Packers, and Dancing with the Stars champion looks back on his life and career.

Ali: A Life

The definitive biography of an American icon, from a New York Times best-selling author with unique access to Ali's inner circle.

Tigerland: 1968-1969, a City Divided, a Nation Torn Apart, and a Magical Season of Healing

Against the backdrop of one of the most tumultuous periods in recent American history,, the Tigers of poor, segregated East High School in Columbus, Ohio did something no team from one school had ever done before: they won the state basketball and baseball championships in the same year. They defeated bigger, richer, whiter teams across the state and along the way eased a painful racial divide throughout the state and overcame extraordinary obstacles on their road to success. In Tigerland, Wil Haygood gives us a spirited and stirring account of this improbable triumph and takes us deep into the personal lives of these local heroes. At the same time, he places the Tigers' story in the context of the racially charged sixties, bringing in such national figures as Jackie Robinson, Martin Luther King Jr., and Richard Nixon, all of whom had a connection to the teams and a direct effect on their mythical season.

Strong Inside: Perry Wallace and the Collision of Race and Sports in the South

Based on more than eighty interviews, this fast-paced, richly detailed biography of Perry Wallace, the first African American basketball player in the SEC, digs deep beneath the surface to reveal a more complicated and profound story of sports pioneering than we've come to expect from the genre. Perry Wallace's unusually insightful and honest introspection reveals his inner thoughts throughout his journey.

I Beat the Odds: From Homelessness to the Blind Side and Beyond

The football star made famous in the hit film "The Blind Side" reflects on how far he has come from the circumstances of his youth. While many people are now familiar with Oher's amazing journey, this is the first time he shares his story in his own words. Available to download: eBook

Tigerbelle: The Wyomia Tyus Story

In 1968, Wyomia Tyus became the first person ever to win gold medals in the 100-meter sprint in two consecutive Olympic Games, a feat that would not be repeated for twenty years or exceeded for almost fifty. Tigerbelle chronicles Tyus's journey from her childhood as the daughter of a tenant dairy farmer through her Olympic triumphs to her post-competition struggles to make a way for herself and other female athletes.

The Noble Hustle: Poker, Beef Jerky, and Death

Pulitzer finalist Colson Whitehead's hilarious memoir of his search for meaning at high stakes poker tables, which the author describes as " Eat, Pray, Love for depressed shut-ins."

The African American Literature Essay

Historical events from other parts of the world, works cited.

The major outstanding and pivotal event that greatly influenced the African American literature in the 1764-1865 was slavery and its anti-movements. This fact is buttressed by Krise (3) in succinctly stating that “Early representations of opposition to slavery tend to be overlooked or disregarded in sweeping accounts of the rise and success of the antislavery movement – particularly in accounts that focus on literary representations of opposition to slavery”. African American literature during this turbulent period in the lives of African Americans was heavily influenced by the rise in radicalism, enlightenment and the advent of industrialization.

The earliest surviving works of African American literature date from the mid-1700 and were written by Africans brought to America as slaves. These include the poem “Bars Fight ” by Lucy terry about the raid in Massachusetts and a number of poems recorded by Phillis Wheatley in 1773. The most important factor is that all these literal works touched on slavery in their themes. Rise of anti-slavery movements characterized major themes of these Literatures. Krise (5) portrays that “The antislavery movement of the later seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is often associated with progressive movements and ideas: radicalism, enlightenment, natural rights, as well as sensibility, nascent industrialism and the simultaneous decline of the master–servant relationship and the rise of wage labor”. The most documented article of the seventeenth century that centered on slavery as its theme is the Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko, also referred to as the Royal Slave. This is a true story that was later published in 1968. Centering on the theme of slavery during this period and its influence on the African American literature, it focused on other aspects of slavery such as enslavement and the relationship between the master and the servant.

Another notable literature that portrays the influence of slavery on the African American literature was “A Discourse in way of Dialogue”. This is a literal work that details the social life of an Ethiopian or Negro-Slave, and a Christian Master in America that was documented by Tyron in 1942. A synthesis of the dialogue as documented here reveals themes that captured social existences and relationship between the servant and the master. Calls for freedom and equality for all regardless of race and color marked the early part of the 18 th Century. This was precipitated by nascent industrialization and the growth of knowledge and rise in wages. Changes in the lifestyles and decline in the master to servant form of slavery brought with it the understanding that African Americans could make their lives better if they wished so. The African American literature thus centered on the better living conditions and the struggle to achieve high social status measured by the level of living standards.

Lastly, the historical events from other parts of the world notably the political, social and economic events in the European countries were easily imported to the United States. Political instabilities such as civil wars in the European countries and changes in ruler ship often found their way in to the themes of African American literature (Carretta, 4). This was due to the fact that slaves in European countries had their roots in Africa and shared a common ancestry with the African Americans. A good example is demonstrated by Rosenberg (17) in stating that “The characters of George III, the circumstances accompanying his accession to the throne, and the forced abandonment by France of her colonial empire in America were probably the chief causes of the struggle between the practically unconnected American colonies and the mother-country heavily had an impact on the literal works”.

Carretta, Vincent. Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2005.

Krise, Thomas W. An Anthology of English Literature of the West Indies, 1657-1777 Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1999.

Rosenberg, Philippe. Thomas Tryon and the Seventeenth-Century Dimensions of Antislavery. The William and Mary Quarterly 3rd Series, 64:1. 2004.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, March 16). The African American Literature. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-african-american-literature/

"The African American Literature." IvyPanda , 16 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/the-african-american-literature/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'The African American Literature'. 16 March.

IvyPanda . 2024. "The African American Literature." March 16, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-african-american-literature/.

1. IvyPanda . "The African American Literature." March 16, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-african-american-literature/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The African American Literature." March 16, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-african-american-literature/.

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Black History

Civil Rights Movement Timeline

The civil rights movement was an organized effort by black Americans to end racial discrimination and gain equal rights under the law. It began in the late 1940s and ended in the late 1960s.

Rosa Parks (1913—2005) helped initiate the civil rights movement in the United States when she refused to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery, Alabama bus in 1955. Her actions inspired the leaders of the local Black community to organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Black History Month

February is dedicated as Black History Month, honoring the triumphs and struggles of African Americans throughout U.S. history.

Black History Milestones: Timeline

Black history in the United States is a rich and varied chronicle of slavery and liberty, oppression and progress, segregation and achievement.

Coretta Scott King

After her husband became pastor, Coretta Scott King joined the choir at the Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church. Hear two of her friends and members of the congregation remember Mrs. King’s legacy and her voice.

When Segregationists Bombed Martin Luther King Jr.’s House

On January 30, 1956, Martin Luther King Jr.’s house was bombed by segregationists in retaliation for the success of the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Brown v. Board of Education

In 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously strikes down segregation in public schools, sparking the Civil Rights movement.

How the Montgomery Bus Boycott Accelerated the Civil Rights Movement

For 382 days, almost the entire African-American population of Montgomery, Alabama, including leaders Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks, refused to ride on segregated buses, a turning point in the American civil rights movement.

The Black Explorer Who May Have Reached the North Pole First

In 1909 African American Matthew Henson trekked with explorer Robert Peary, reaching what they claimed was the North Pole. Who got there first?

How Madam C.J. Walker Became a Self-Made Millionaire

Despite Jim Crow oppression, Walker founded her own haircare company that helped thousands of African American women gain financial independence.

8 Black Inventors Who Made Daily Life Easier

Black innovators changed the way we live through their many innovations, from the traffic light to the ironing board.

Harlem Renaissance: Photos From the African American Cultural Explosion

From jazz and blues to poetry and prose to dance and theater, the Harlem Renaissance of the early 20th century was electric with creative expression by African American artists.

This Day in History

Misty Copeland becomes American Ballet Theater’s first Black principal dancer

Mae jemison becomes first black woman in space, harlem riot of 1935, rebecca lee crumpler becomes first black woman to earn a medical degree, first hbcu, lincoln university, chartered, john singleton, 24, becomes first black director nominated for an oscar.

• Collection edited by Yogita Goyal broadens research on African American literature

Marta Wallien | April 10, 2024

Although contemporary African American writing has evolved in remarkable fashion within the last five decades, scholarship on the subject remains sparse. A new essay collection edited by UCLA professor Yogita Goyal, “ The Cambridge Companion to Contemporary African American Literature , ” aims to widen its discourse.

“I’ve always been struck by how difficult it is — both for the classroom and for our own research — to find extensive scholarship on the subject. We tend to favor research on historically more distant eras,” said Goyal, a professor of English and African American studies. “I wanted to put together a resource for those of us who work in contemporary African American literature, which I define as post-1975 for this volume, as the Black Arts Movement was waning, and new forms of writing were coming into view.”

Goyal’s previous essay collection for Cambridge University Press, “ The Cambridge Companion to Transnational American Literature ,” centered on the global shift American literary studies took within the last century. Goyal explained that the 17 essays in this new book highlight the shift taking place within Black studies and the need for further research.

“My hope is that readers appreciate the enormous vitality of the field. There has been another cultural renaissance of sorts in the last few decades in Black studies and all the essays in the volume are alive to the vibrancy of the debates about racial justice, the afterlife of slavery, literary experimentation and play, and attention to new audiences and critical methods.”

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African Americans at Work

From enslaved workers in the 19th century to agricultural, industrial, and professional workers in the 20th and 21st centuries, African Americans have always been a vital part of the American workforce. The photographs from the collection of the National Museum of African American History and Culture below document African Americans at work from the 1860s to today.

Before and During the Civil War

Few photographic images of early American workplaces exist. After all, photography was not invented (in France) until the 1820s, was not introduced in America until the 1840s, and did not become an affordable amateur hobby until the 1880s. Most photographs of African Americans at work before and during the Civil War depict enslaved or recently emancipated workers on farms or plantations

No. 24: A Plantation Scene In South Carolina , ca. 1860. Photograph by S.T. Souder.

Women and children in a cotton field, 1860s. Photograph by J.H. Aylsworth.

Enslaved women and their children near Alexandria, Virginia, December 2, 1861, to March 10, 1862. Photograph by James E. Larkin.

Charleston Slave Hire Badges

From 1800 to 1865 in Charleston, North Carolina, slave hire badges were worn by enslaved individuals who were hired out by their enslavers to work for others. The enslaver paid an annual fee for the badge, providing revenue for the city of Charleston. Wages earned by the enslaved were often kept by the enslaver, but sometimes were shared with the enslaved. The badges served to identify those African Americans who were allowed to move about the city and to ensure that they only worked at jobs for which they were qualified, thus limiting competition with white workers. While some enslaved individuals learned skilled trades (“Mechanic”) useful to their enslavers in the plantation economy, a more common occupation was “House Servant.” These badges were public symbols of the hiring out system which allowed enslavers to allow their slaves a sense of autonomy, while maintaining control over them and profiting from their labor.

Charleston slave badge from 1812 for Fisher No. 103.

Charleston slave badge from 1811 for Porter No. 27.

Charleston slave badge from 1800 for House Servant No. 354.

Charleston slave badge from 1816 for Mechanic No. 39.

Civil War Soldiers

During the Civil War , approximately 179,000 African American men served in the Union Army as U.S. Colored Troops and over 20,000 in the Union Navy. Although Black soldiers were involved in forty major battles and hundreds of skirmishes—and 16 were awarded the Medal of Honor—a disproportionate amount of Black soldiers were assigned work as laborers, digging ditches, building fortifications, and burying the dead.

Carte-de-visite of a sailor named Jim, late 19th century. 

Tintype of a Civil War soldier, 1861–1865.

Photograph of members of the 55th Massachusetts Infantry, 1863–1865.

Colored Pickets on Duty Near Dutch Gap , 1864. 

The Era of Jim Crow

The American nation was fundamentally changed—reconstructed—by three major social process in the century following the emancipation of four million enslaved individuals and the end of the Civil War. Each of these processes of change took decades to be completed and each changed the world of work for both Black and white workers.

First, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution—the so-called Reconstruction Amendments—abolished slavery across the nation, established the notion of “due process of law,” defined citizenship to include everyone born in the United States, extended voting rights to all Black men, and empowered the federal government to protect these rights for all citizens. Newly emancipated African Americans quickly understood that they needed to participate in both the federal legislative system and the court system to enlarge and protect their employment opportunities as integral to their civil rights. While some African Americans found success as professionals in the areas of law, education, and business, by far the great majority were forced into restrictive labor contracts as sharecroppers, while some were even forced into labor as convicts.

W. A. Neely's blacksmith shop in Laurinburg, North Carolina, January 1, 1910.      

Four unidentified men in cooks’ uniforms on a porch, 1941–43.

J. J. Cotten Barbershop, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, ca. 1910.

Convict Labor

According to the Prison Policy Initiative , the United States houses more prisoners than any other country, of whom 38.5% are Black. Within these prisons, many are forced to work, contributing to a multibillion-dollar industry. Yet this form of labor is not included in official employment statistics of Black workers, causing a sector of Black labor to be heavily ignored.

After the passage of the 13th Amendment, involuntary servitude was abolished, “except as punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.” Soon after, states began passing laws, known as Black Codes, leading to mass incarceration of Black individuals. The system of convict leasing, where prisoners or prisons could legally be purchased to perform labor, began shortly after the Civil War. In some cases, this led to prisoners working on the same lands and for people that previously enslaved them. The impacts of these systems cannot be understated—in 1898, 73% of Alabama’s annual state revenue reportedly came from convict leasing. Many protested and spoke out against this system, calling it slavery under a different name. 

Convict leasing was abolished in all states by the 1930s. However, with the fall of one form of prison labor came a new one—chain gangs. This form of incarcerated labor involved having chains wrapped around the ankles of multiple prisoners while they worked, ate, and slept outside of prison walls. These incarcerated workers labored at gunpoint or risked whipping—leading again to many protesting its use. By the 1950s, chain gangs were abolished in all states due to its violation of the 8th Amendment's “cruel and unusual punishment” clause. 

Today, prison labor continues to be prevalent. In 1934, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order #6917 to establish the Federal Prison Industries, now called UNICOR. This program allows the use of incarcerated labor for the government. Incarcerated workers in prison, jails, and even immigration centers work to support their operations and maintenance of prisons. They also work in state-run prison factories, producing common goods and services.  

Convict laborers at Swannanoa Cut, Asheville, North Carolina, ca. 1885. Photograph by Thomas H. Lindsey.

The second fundamental change in African American labor came through the laws and social customs that reinforced white supremacy and a system of “separate but equal” segregation—Jim Crow society. This also created a new hierarchy of occupations: those that were reserved for whites and those open to Black citizens.

Two unidentified women in uniform with toddler, Port Gibson, Mississippi, 1940. Photograph by Marion Post Wolcott.

Beautician brushing an unidentified women’s hair in salon chair, mid-20th century. Photograph by Rev. Henry Clay Anderson.

Grocery Store, 14th & U Streets , ca. 1945. Photograph by Robert H. McNeill.

Barbershop , ca. 1945. Photograph by Robert H. McNeill.

Pullman Porters

Pullman Porters occupied a coveted position in Black communities in the late 19th and early 20th century. These workers, typically Black men, would assist with luggage, maintain sleeping quarters, and serve passengers in the Pullman Palace Car Company’s luxury sleeping cars. The pay was higher than most other employers at the time, travel was possible, and many were able to move on to better jobs in hotels and restaurants.

However, the position did not come without discrimination and racism. George Pullman wanted Black porters, specifically those who were formerly enslaved, because he believed they would work under harsh conditions and would attend to every need of passengers. Porters were often called “boy” or “George” instead of their own names, and they were commonly berated or harassed by customers in the cars.

The Pullman maids were a lesser-known employee of the company: Black women who would clean Pullman cars and cater to guests. They typically worked with women, the elderly, and the infirmed. They often received lower wages from tips than Pullman Porters who worked in cars with businessmen and politicians.

Pullman Porter T.R. Joseph in uniform, ca. 1930s.

Preparing Dinner in the Dining Car Kitchen , mid-20th century.

Pullman Porter James Bryant in uniform, 1973.

Historically, a major sector of work for Black women was midwifery . This practice included caring for mothers and infants during childbirth. Black midwives often used tactics derived from African tradition and were seen very highly in their communities. Midwives were also incredibly important to enslaved communities, as they could keep records of ancestry and community ties. After the Civil War, Black midwives continued to be incredibly important, especially in rural Southern states. Notably, they did not just work for Black mothers, they also supported white mothers in their communities.

With the medicalization of childbirth, the practices of midwives began to be questioned and delegitimized. Maternal and infant mortality rates began to rise, and many blamed midwives. However, midwives had fewer instances of maternal and infant mortality than medical doctors. The passage of the Sheppard-Towner Maternity and Infancy Protection Act of 1921 made traditional midwifing more difficult with increased regulations, mandatory trainings, and supervision necessary to continue working in the field. Black midwives were often being taught by nurses with less training than themselves.

While leading to better health outcomes of mothers and infants, these regulations led to increased barriers for Black midwives to work in professional maternal healthcare. In particular, requirements to receive state licensing became an obstacle for many. In 2021, only 7% of certified nurse-midwives and certified midwives were Black . Some believe that these historical systemic barriers to Black midwives have contributed to the prominent Black maternal mortality rate seen today

Midwife standing next to woman in bed with bassinet to her left, mid-20th century. Photograph by Rev. Henry Clay Anderson.

Collection of the Smithsonian Museum of African American History and Culture, Gift of Robert Galbraith, © 1987 Robert Galbraith

Midwife Susie Carey, 1940–1953.

The third change in Black labor that came about during the Jim Crow Era was the Industrial Revolution. This transition from a rural, agricultural society to an urban, industrial one, was driven by new technologies in manufacturing, agriculture, transportation, and communication, that created entirely new occupations and work processes.

Workers outside the Grendel Textile Mill, 1923–1924.

Student working a printing press, ca. 1935. Photograph by Lewis Wickes Hine.

Workers at the International Harvester tractor works, 1946–1948. From the series The Way of Life of the Northern Negro. Photograph by Wayne F. Miller.

Postal Workers

The United States Postal Service (USPS) plays an important role in Black labor history. As of 2022, almost 29% of the USPS was Black, making it one of the top employers of African Americans in the United States. The history of Black workers in the postal service can be traced to the institution of slavery, with many enslaved persons working as transportation contractors. However, rebellions in Haiti sparked fear in Southern whites, leading to Congress prohibiting African American mail carriers in the postal service until 1865. During the Civil War, the first known Black post office clerk was appointed, William Cooper Nell, in Boston, Massachusetts. He is also believed to be the first Black civilian employee of the federal government.

In 1914, the Civil Service Commission issued a new order requiring applicants for federal jobs to submit a photograph. These policies led to the founding of the National Alliance of Postal and Federal Employees (NAPFE) an independent, African American controlled labor union with a mission to eliminate discrimination and injustice in the federal service. The 1940s saw the passage of Executive Order #8802, which created the Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC) to oversee claims of discrimination. By the 1960s, Black representation in the Postal Service was seen at higher leadership levels, with the three biggest post offices in the country having Black Postmasters. In 1971, the Postal Service adopted an Equal Employment Opportunity policy, which aided in the recruitment of minority and female applicants to the organization. Today, the USPS has the highest median annual and hourly wage within the top ten occupations with the highest proportions of Black workers. The wage gap is also narrower among postal workers than in the private sector.

A postal worker sorting mail into cubby holes, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1950. Photograph by Charles “Teenie” Harris.

A mailman outside of Rev. H.C. Anderson's photo shop, mid-20th century. Photograph by Rev. Henry Clay Anderson. 

The Post-Civil Rights Era

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , in 2019, 29% of employed Black Americans worked in education and health services. Another 10% worked in retail trade and 10% in leisure and hospitality. Less than 1% worked in mining, gas, and oil and barely 2% in agriculture, forestry, and fishing.

Architect Norma Sklarek reviewing plans, ca. 1979. Photograph by Jasmin Photo.

Photograph of flight attendant Casey Grant working mid-flight on a 757, 1985–1987.

Bob Johnson, President and founder Black Entertainment Television, in his Georgetown office in the early days of B.E.T evolution , June 5, 1981. Photograph by Milton Williams.

We still have much to learn about the world of work that African Americans have faced over the past four centuries and how it has changed. Until the 20th century, agriculture occupied over 90% of Black workers and now it occupies less than 1%. The causes are many: civil rights activism, affirmative action policies, educational opportunities, entrepreneurial energy, international competition, and the shift from industrial to digital and finance capitalism.

As these photos demonstrate, it is too easy to simply apply labels: “agricultural worker,” “domestic worker,” “skilled tradesman,” “unskilled labor,” “professional,” “union worker.” African Americans are and have been an integral part of the American workforce for centuries.

VIEW PHOTOGRAPHS OF AFRICAN AMERICANS AT WORK

Written by Bill Pretzer, Senior Curator of History; Amira Dehmani, Summer 2023 Stanford in Government Afrofuturism Curatorial Intern; and Douglas Remley, Rights & Publications Manager. Published on September 1, 2023

A Rice Raft, South Carolina

A Rice Raft, South Carolina , captured 1895; printed 1904. Photograph by Strohmeyer & Wyman. Published by Underwood & Underwood. 

A woman with plow and oxen, Alabama

A woman with plow and oxen, Alabama, ca. 1875. Photograph by Russell Bros.

A Black nurse with two white children

A Black nurse with two white children, mid- to late 19th century. 

Picking Strawberries, Plant City, Florida

PICKING STRAWBERRIES, PLANT CITY, FLA. , 1946. 

Weighing cotton, Thomasville, Georgia

No. 44, Weighing Cotton , ca. 1895. From the series Views of Thomasville and Vicinity . Photograph by A. W. Möller. 

A store clerk with a customer, Harlem, New York

A store clerk with a customer, Harlem, New York. Photograph by Lloyd W. Yearwood. 

Councilwoman Hilda Mason in her office, Washington, D. C.

Washington D. C. Councilwoman at Large Hilda Mason of the D. C. Statehood Party in her office in the District Building , July 25, 1983. Photograph by Milton Williams. 

Men outside the United Steelworkers of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Men outside the United Steelworkers of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, August 1946. Photograph by Charles "Teenie" Harris. 

A coal miner, Library, Pennsylvania

A coal miner, Library, Pennsylvania, ca. 1947. Photograph by Charles "Teenie" Harris. 

Two young men in wood shop, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Two young men in wood shop, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1930–1950. Photograph by Charles "Teenie" Harris. 

A construction worker, Washington, D.C.

Construction Flag Person , 1978. Photograph by Milton Williams. 

A policeman, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 

A policeman in a motorcycle with a sidecar, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, mid-20th century. Photograph by Charles "Teenie" Harris. 

Rev. Dr. Pauli Murray, Arlington, Virginia

Rev. Dr. Pauli Murray Esq. (1910-1985), civil rights lawyer and Episcopal priest was an activist who fought to dismantle segregation and end discrimination through the courts and on the streets , December 21, 1977. Photograph by Milton Williams. 

Shrimpers on boat, Hilton Head Island, South Carolina

Shrimpers Eugene Orage and Diogenese Miller on boat, Hilton Head Island, SC , 2004. From the series  Shadows of the Gullah Geechee . Photograph by Pete Marovich. 

A construction worker, Harlem, New York

A construction worker operating a front end loader, Harlem, New York, 1987. Photograph by Lloyd W. Yearwood. 

Salt-N-Pepa recording at Bayside Studios, Queens, New York

Salt-N-Pepa recording at Bayside Studios, February 6, 1989. Photograph by Al Pereira. 

A porter from the Hotel Palomares, Pamona, California

A porter from the Hotel Palomares, Pamona, California, 1885–1899. 

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Open Yale Courses

You are here, engl 300: introduction to theory of literature,  - african-american criticism.

In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry examines trends in African-American criticism through the lens of Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and Toni Morrison. A brief history of African-American literature and criticism is undertaken, and the relationship of both to feminist theory is explicated. The problems in cultural and identity studies of essentialism, “the identity queue,” expropriation, and biology are surveyed, with particular attention paid to the work of Michael Cooke and Morrison’s reading of  Huckleberry Finn . At the lecture’s conclusion, the tense relationship between African-American studies and New Critical assumptions are explored with reference to Robert Penn Warren’s poem, “Pondy Woods.”

Lecture Chapters

• Origins of African-American Literary Criticism
• Henry Louis Gates and the Problem of Essentialism
• The Problem of the "Identity Cue"
• Tony Morrison and African-American Identity
• Morrison's Reading of Huckleberry Finn
• Gates and the Community of African-American Critics
• Expropriation
• Robert Penn Warren and Problems with New Criticism

What Students Have to Say About AP African American Studies

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Students at Henry Clay High School in Lexington, Ky., initially signed up for an African American literature and film class this year.

But after English teacher Ahenewa El-Amin got the support of her school administrators to run the second-year pilot of the College Board’s AP African American Studies course, students took the new AP class in stride. They actively provide feedback to El-Amin on how to best structure the course to ensure all required topics are covered while allowing for students to dive deeper into topics of interest.

The course officially launches nationwide this fall after initial national pushback over its merits.

Students in El-Amin’s class (the “founders” as she calls them) shared their perspectives on why they signed up for it, what they love about the course, and what they think peers can get out of it should they enroll this fall.

AP African American Studies course is unique

“I’m African American, and honestly I felt like this was a phase of my life where I was trying to discover who I was. And so I felt like taking African American Studies, it would give me some introspect into who I am, where my bloodline comes from, my ancestry and all that.”

— Cole Wicker, senior, 18

I haven’t taken any AP history classes, except for this one, but in the history classes that I have taken, you do touch on the topic of African American history and stuff like that, but you don’t get into real depth other than racism and slavery and stuff. So to take this class and have the perspective of what it was also like for African Americans, not just in the U.S., but also in other countries as well. The diaspora. I love that.

—Kennedy Yarber, senior, 17

Seeing how Miss El-Amin teaches it and how [another] teacher teaches it. I feel like he kind of tiptoes around some of the subjects. I think we have four African American people in our [other] class. And so I think he kind of tiptoes around the subject but still tries to connect with us. But with AP African American Studies you get a lot more of what people did that you usually don’t get. Like I didn’t know who Marcus Garvey was until we talked about him or Toussaint Louverture. My dad’s Haitian and he hadn’t talked to me about him until we talked about the Haitian Revolution [in class].

—Nia Henderson-Louis, junior, 17

There’s no other course like it. I’ve taken all the other AP history classes and this is different from the rest.

— Ian Rone, junior, 17

Connections between lessons and modern day

We talked about the Emancipation Proclamation, and also [President Abraham] Lincoln’s views on it, like he originally didn’t want to free the slaves. And then as the war progressed, he kind of got into it. And then he was like, to finish this war we have to end slavery, like his ideals. And after that, I thought they got 40 acres and a mule and I thought that was it. But the whole convict leasing system goes straight to the criminalization of African American men, as we’ve seen in videos. And as we’ve seen, how people were afraid of them, because these people were getting thrown into jail for just some of the smallest things. So I think seeing that and how it bridges and connects to some of the ideals today was really cool to see. But also very horrifying to see that they were still treated like that, even after slavery was done.

—Nia Henderson-Louis

After taking a bunch of history courses, I had a pretty good background knowledge of this class, but we watched a documentary about the 13th Amendment. And that was one of the most eye-opening documentaries I’ve ever watched in my life. I’ve seen a lot of documentaries, but it is pretty crazy to me how the 13th Amendment [has] direct relation to our current status of racism and criminalization of African American men.

— Catalina Hicks, senior, 17

[For this class] I researched COINTELPRO, which was this government initiative to silence leaders in the Black community. And it was just really interesting, because I’ve researched that, and then recently watched the documentary about the 13th Amendment. So it was just realizing how much of a role the government played in destroying Black communities. I didn’t really realize it was to that extent.

— Cole Wicker

Taking ownership of the course

All of our lives, we’ve had classes where the course has been engraved into the curriculum. And this course is new and fresh, and people are interested in taking it. And we’re growing our roots right now with this class with Miss El-Amin too. She’s putting us on the podium to give her constructive criticism on whether something was good or bad or efficient or inefficient. It gives the students a little bit more power when it comes to teaching.

—Catalina Hicks

You have teachers who like to know if you like what you’re learning about and like the way that they’re teaching it. But Miss El-Amin really does care about the feedback that you give her and she does put that towards future assignments. She listens to what we do like, what we don’t like, and what we struggle with. And she helps us understand things that we sometimes don’t understand. And so for her to take feedback and put it towards assignments, it makes it easier for us to understand. I really liked that aspect of the class.

—Kennedy Yarber

Miss El-Amin always asks questions. She shows us that she cares a lot. But I think we don’t realize how much consideration she puts forth when she’s trying to make assignments and make sure that we understand the topic because she’s learning with us. And so when we ask questions, she also wants to know the answer to those. So we get more in-depth than some teachers who would just gloss over it and give you just an okay answer.

[Giving feedback] makes us want to do more. If the course has already been set for years and years and years. I feel like it gets repetitive. Having our input, it makes it something different and so makes us want to do more.

Be eager to learn and engage

For students who do think about taking this class, I would definitely encourage them to have conversations, because the whole point is to come into this class sounding ignorant and maybe say some stuff that’s outlandish, because the whole point is to learn. The history of African Americans is not something that’s broadcasted. It’s not something that everybody knows about. So I wouldn’t be afraid of not knowing an issue. Just ask questions.

—Cole Wicker

What AP African American Studies Looks Like in Practice

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2023 Winners

High school:.

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• Lamiya Ousley
• Kiera Phillips
• Gabrielle Pippins
• Ethan Snead
• Sydney Springs
• Kirsten Tilford
• Tamira Weeks
• Justin Williams

2022 Winners

• Paul Aucremann
• William Booker
• Robyn Cunningham
• Kani'ya Davis
• Oluwatomi Dugbo
• Lillian Goins
• Parker Hall
• Collin Hatfield
• Gabrielle Izu
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• Kaden Oquelí-White
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• Brian Perryman
• De'Marco Riggins
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• Sydney Russell
• Carlie Spore
• Morgan Standifer
• Ionia Thomas
• Ramaya Thomas
• Jaylen Toran
• Amani Veals
• Taylor Williams
• Alana Wilson
• Taryn Wilson
• Aryaunna Armstrong
• Hannah Blackwell
• T'Aneka Bowers
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• Arianna Cannon
• Taylor Cline
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• Margaret Fitzgerald
• Chloe Franklin
• Camryn Gaines
• Thomas Greer
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• Logan Kurtz
• Samuel Lambert
• Jaylon Muchison
• Teresa Odom
• Andrew Payne
• Carey Price
• Emily SantiAnna
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• Jered Smith
• Mariah Standifer
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• Anna Wilkes