qualitative research examples in education

Qualitative research in education : Background information

Background information

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Last Updated: Jan 23, 2024 12:45 PM
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Chapter 1. Introduction

“Science is in danger, and for that reason it is becoming dangerous” -Pierre Bourdieu, Science of Science and Reflexivity

Why an Open Access Textbook on Qualitative Research Methods?

I have been teaching qualitative research methods to both undergraduates and graduate students for many years. Although there are some excellent textbooks out there, they are often costly, and none of them, to my mind, properly introduces qualitative research methods to the beginning student (whether undergraduate or graduate student). In contrast, this open-access textbook is designed as a (free) true introduction to the subject, with helpful, practical pointers on how to conduct research and how to access more advanced instruction.

Textbooks are typically arranged in one of two ways: (1) by technique (each chapter covers one method used in qualitative research); or (2) by process (chapters advance from research design through publication). But both of these approaches are necessary for the beginner student. This textbook will have sections dedicated to the process as well as the techniques of qualitative research. This is a true “comprehensive” book for the beginning student. In addition to covering techniques of data collection and data analysis, it provides a road map of how to get started and how to keep going and where to go for advanced instruction. It covers aspects of research design and research communication as well as methods employed. Along the way, it includes examples from many different disciplines in the social sciences.

The primary goal has been to create a useful, accessible, engaging textbook for use across many disciplines. And, let’s face it. Textbooks can be boring. I hope readers find this to be a little different. I have tried to write in a practical and forthright manner, with many lively examples and references to good and intellectually creative qualitative research. Woven throughout the text are short textual asides (in colored textboxes) by professional (academic) qualitative researchers in various disciplines. These short accounts by practitioners should help inspire students. So, let’s begin!

What is Research?

When we use the word research , what exactly do we mean by that? This is one of those words that everyone thinks they understand, but it is worth beginning this textbook with a short explanation. We use the term to refer to “empirical research,” which is actually a historically specific approach to understanding the world around us. Think about how you know things about the world. [1] You might know your mother loves you because she’s told you she does. Or because that is what “mothers” do by tradition. Or you might know because you’ve looked for evidence that she does, like taking care of you when you are sick or reading to you in bed or working two jobs so you can have the things you need to do OK in life. Maybe it seems churlish to look for evidence; you just take it “on faith” that you are loved.

Only one of the above comes close to what we mean by research. Empirical research is research (investigation) based on evidence. Conclusions can then be drawn from observable data. This observable data can also be “tested” or checked. If the data cannot be tested, that is a good indication that we are not doing research. Note that we can never “prove” conclusively, through observable data, that our mothers love us. We might have some “disconfirming evidence” (that time she didn’t show up to your graduation, for example) that could push you to question an original hypothesis , but no amount of “confirming evidence” will ever allow us to say with 100% certainty, “my mother loves me.” Faith and tradition and authority work differently. Our knowledge can be 100% certain using each of those alternative methods of knowledge, but our certainty in those cases will not be based on facts or evidence.

For many periods of history, those in power have been nervous about “science” because it uses evidence and facts as the primary source of understanding the world, and facts can be at odds with what power or authority or tradition want you to believe. That is why I say that scientific empirical research is a historically specific approach to understand the world. You are in college or university now partly to learn how to engage in this historically specific approach.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe, there was a newfound respect for empirical research, some of which was seriously challenging to the established church. Using observations and testing them, scientists found that the earth was not at the center of the universe, for example, but rather that it was but one planet of many which circled the sun. [2] For the next two centuries, the science of astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry emerged and became disciplines taught in universities. All used the scientific method of observation and testing to advance knowledge. Knowledge about people , however, and social institutions, however, was still left to faith, tradition, and authority. Historians and philosophers and poets wrote about the human condition, but none of them used research to do so. [3]

It was not until the nineteenth century that “social science” really emerged, using the scientific method (empirical observation) to understand people and social institutions. New fields of sociology, economics, political science, and anthropology emerged. The first sociologists, people like Auguste Comte and Karl Marx, sought specifically to apply the scientific method of research to understand society, Engels famously claiming that Marx had done for the social world what Darwin did for the natural world, tracings its laws of development. Today we tend to take for granted the naturalness of science here, but it is actually a pretty recent and radical development.

To return to the question, “does your mother love you?” Well, this is actually not really how a researcher would frame the question, as it is too specific to your case. It doesn’t tell us much about the world at large, even if it does tell us something about you and your relationship with your mother. A social science researcher might ask, “do mothers love their children?” Or maybe they would be more interested in how this loving relationship might change over time (e.g., “do mothers love their children more now than they did in the 18th century when so many children died before reaching adulthood?”) or perhaps they might be interested in measuring quality of love across cultures or time periods, or even establishing “what love looks like” using the mother/child relationship as a site of exploration. All of these make good research questions because we can use observable data to answer them.

What is Qualitative Research?

“All we know is how to learn. How to study, how to listen, how to talk, how to tell. If we don’t tell the world, we don’t know the world. We’re lost in it, we die.” -Ursula LeGuin, The Telling

At its simplest, qualitative research is research about the social world that does not use numbers in its analyses. All those who fear statistics can breathe a sigh of relief – there are no mathematical formulae or regression models in this book! But this definition is less about what qualitative research can be and more about what it is not. To be honest, any simple statement will fail to capture the power and depth of qualitative research. One way of contrasting qualitative research to quantitative research is to note that the focus of qualitative research is less about explaining and predicting relationships between variables and more about understanding the social world. To use our mother love example, the question about “what love looks like” is a good question for the qualitative researcher while all questions measuring love or comparing incidences of love (both of which require measurement) are good questions for quantitative researchers. Patton writes,

Qualitative data describe. They take us, as readers, into the time and place of the observation so that we know what it was like to have been there. They capture and communicate someone else’s experience of the world in his or her own words. Qualitative data tell a story. ( Patton 2002:47 )

Qualitative researchers are asking different questions about the world than their quantitative colleagues. Even when researchers are employed in “mixed methods” research ( both quantitative and qualitative), they are using different methods to address different questions of the study. I do a lot of research about first-generation and working-college college students. Where a quantitative researcher might ask, how many first-generation college students graduate from college within four years? Or does first-generation college status predict high student debt loads? A qualitative researcher might ask, how does the college experience differ for first-generation college students? What is it like to carry a lot of debt, and how does this impact the ability to complete college on time? Both sets of questions are important, but they can only be answered using specific tools tailored to those questions. For the former, you need large numbers to make adequate comparisons. For the latter, you need to talk to people, find out what they are thinking and feeling, and try to inhabit their shoes for a little while so you can make sense of their experiences and beliefs.

Examples of Qualitative Research

You have probably seen examples of qualitative research before, but you might not have paid particular attention to how they were produced or realized that the accounts you were reading were the result of hours, months, even years of research “in the field.” A good qualitative researcher will present the product of their hours of work in such a way that it seems natural, even obvious, to the reader. Because we are trying to convey what it is like answers, qualitative research is often presented as stories – stories about how people live their lives, go to work, raise their children, interact with one another. In some ways, this can seem like reading particularly insightful novels. But, unlike novels, there are very specific rules and guidelines that qualitative researchers follow to ensure that the “story” they are telling is accurate , a truthful rendition of what life is like for the people being studied. Most of this textbook will be spent conveying those rules and guidelines. Let’s take a look, first, however, at three examples of what the end product looks like. I have chosen these three examples to showcase very different approaches to qualitative research, and I will return to these five examples throughout the book. They were all published as whole books (not chapters or articles), and they are worth the long read, if you have the time. I will also provide some information on how these books came to be and the length of time it takes to get them into book version. It is important you know about this process, and the rest of this textbook will help explain why it takes so long to conduct good qualitative research!

Example 1 : The End Game (ethnography + interviews)

Corey Abramson is a sociologist who teaches at the University of Arizona. In 2015 he published The End Game: How Inequality Shapes our Final Years ( 2015 ). This book was based on the research he did for his dissertation at the University of California-Berkeley in 2012. Actually, the dissertation was completed in 2012 but the work that was produced that took several years. The dissertation was entitled, “This is How We Live, This is How We Die: Social Stratification, Aging, and Health in Urban America” ( 2012 ). You can see how the book version, which was written for a more general audience, has a more engaging sound to it, but that the dissertation version, which is what academic faculty read and evaluate, has a more descriptive title. You can read the title and know that this is a study about aging and health and that the focus is going to be inequality and that the context (place) is going to be “urban America.” It’s a study about “how” people do something – in this case, how they deal with aging and death. This is the very first sentence of the dissertation, “From our first breath in the hospital to the day we die, we live in a society characterized by unequal opportunities for maintaining health and taking care of ourselves when ill. These disparities reflect persistent racial, socio-economic, and gender-based inequalities and contribute to their persistence over time” ( 1 ). What follows is a truthful account of how that is so.

Cory Abramson spent three years conducting his research in four different urban neighborhoods. We call the type of research he conducted “comparative ethnographic” because he designed his study to compare groups of seniors as they went about their everyday business. It’s comparative because he is comparing different groups (based on race, class, gender) and ethnographic because he is studying the culture/way of life of a group. [4] He had an educated guess, rooted in what previous research had shown and what social theory would suggest, that people’s experiences of aging differ by race, class, and gender. So, he set up a research design that would allow him to observe differences. He chose two primarily middle-class (one was racially diverse and the other was predominantly White) and two primarily poor neighborhoods (one was racially diverse and the other was predominantly African American). He hung out in senior centers and other places seniors congregated, watched them as they took the bus to get prescriptions filled, sat in doctor’s offices with them, and listened to their conversations with each other. He also conducted more formal conversations, what we call in-depth interviews, with sixty seniors from each of the four neighborhoods. As with a lot of fieldwork , as he got closer to the people involved, he both expanded and deepened his reach –

By the end of the project, I expanded my pool of general observations to include various settings frequented by seniors: apartment building common rooms, doctors’ offices, emergency rooms, pharmacies, senior centers, bars, parks, corner stores, shopping centers, pool halls, hair salons, coffee shops, and discount stores. Over the course of the three years of fieldwork, I observed hundreds of elders, and developed close relationships with a number of them. ( 2012:10 )

When Abramson rewrote the dissertation for a general audience and published his book in 2015, it got a lot of attention. It is a beautifully written book and it provided insight into a common human experience that we surprisingly know very little about. It won the Outstanding Publication Award by the American Sociological Association Section on Aging and the Life Course and was featured in the New York Times . The book was about aging, and specifically how inequality shapes the aging process, but it was also about much more than that. It helped show how inequality affects people’s everyday lives. For example, by observing the difficulties the poor had in setting up appointments and getting to them using public transportation and then being made to wait to see a doctor, sometimes in standing-room-only situations, when they are unwell, and then being treated dismissively by hospital staff, Abramson allowed readers to feel the material reality of being poor in the US. Comparing these examples with seniors with adequate supplemental insurance who have the resources to hire car services or have others assist them in arranging care when they need it, jolts the reader to understand and appreciate the difference money makes in the lives and circumstances of us all, and in a way that is different than simply reading a statistic (“80% of the poor do not keep regular doctor’s appointments”) does. Qualitative research can reach into spaces and places that often go unexamined and then reports back to the rest of us what it is like in those spaces and places.

Example 2: Racing for Innocence (Interviews + Content Analysis + Fictional Stories)

Jennifer Pierce is a Professor of American Studies at the University of Minnesota. Trained as a sociologist, she has written a number of books about gender, race, and power. Her very first book, Gender Trials: Emotional Lives in Contemporary Law Firms, published in 1995, is a brilliant look at gender dynamics within two law firms. Pierce was a participant observer, working as a paralegal, and she observed how female lawyers and female paralegals struggled to obtain parity with their male colleagues.

Fifteen years later, she reexamined the context of the law firm to include an examination of racial dynamics, particularly how elite white men working in these spaces created and maintained a culture that made it difficult for both female attorneys and attorneys of color to thrive. Her book, Racing for Innocence: Whiteness, Gender, and the Backlash Against Affirmative Action , published in 2012, is an interesting and creative blending of interviews with attorneys, content analyses of popular films during this period, and fictional accounts of racial discrimination and sexual harassment. The law firm she chose to study had come under an affirmative action order and was in the process of implementing equitable policies and programs. She wanted to understand how recipients of white privilege (the elite white male attorneys) come to deny the role they play in reproducing inequality. Through interviews with attorneys who were present both before and during the affirmative action order, she creates a historical record of the “bad behavior” that necessitated new policies and procedures, but also, and more importantly , probed the participants ’ understanding of this behavior. It should come as no surprise that most (but not all) of the white male attorneys saw little need for change, and that almost everyone else had accounts that were different if not sometimes downright harrowing.

I’ve used Pierce’s book in my qualitative research methods courses as an example of an interesting blend of techniques and presentation styles. My students often have a very difficult time with the fictional accounts she includes. But they serve an important communicative purpose here. They are her attempts at presenting “both sides” to an objective reality – something happens (Pierce writes this something so it is very clear what it is), and the two participants to the thing that happened have very different understandings of what this means. By including these stories, Pierce presents one of her key findings – people remember things differently and these different memories tend to support their own ideological positions. I wonder what Pierce would have written had she studied the murder of George Floyd or the storming of the US Capitol on January 6 or any number of other historic events whose observers and participants record very different happenings.

This is not to say that qualitative researchers write fictional accounts. In fact, the use of fiction in our work remains controversial. When used, it must be clearly identified as a presentation device, as Pierce did. I include Racing for Innocence here as an example of the multiple uses of methods and techniques and the way that these work together to produce better understandings by us, the readers, of what Pierce studied. We readers come away with a better grasp of how and why advantaged people understate their own involvement in situations and structures that advantage them. This is normal human behavior , in other words. This case may have been about elite white men in law firms, but the general insights here can be transposed to other settings. Indeed, Pierce argues that more research needs to be done about the role elites play in the reproduction of inequality in the workplace in general.

Example 3: Amplified Advantage (Mixed Methods: Survey Interviews + Focus Groups + Archives)

The final example comes from my own work with college students, particularly the ways in which class background affects the experience of college and outcomes for graduates. I include it here as an example of mixed methods, and for the use of supplementary archival research. I’ve done a lot of research over the years on first-generation, low-income, and working-class college students. I am curious (and skeptical) about the possibility of social mobility today, particularly with the rising cost of college and growing inequality in general. As one of the few people in my family to go to college, I didn’t grow up with a lot of examples of what college was like or how to make the most of it. And when I entered graduate school, I realized with dismay that there were very few people like me there. I worried about becoming too different from my family and friends back home. And I wasn’t at all sure that I would ever be able to pay back the huge load of debt I was taking on. And so I wrote my dissertation and first two books about working-class college students. These books focused on experiences in college and the difficulties of navigating between family and school ( Hurst 2010a, 2012 ). But even after all that research, I kept coming back to wondering if working-class students who made it through college had an equal chance at finding good jobs and happy lives,

What happens to students after college? Do working-class students fare as well as their peers? I knew from my own experience that barriers continued through graduate school and beyond, and that my debtload was higher than that of my peers, constraining some of the choices I made when I graduated. To answer these questions, I designed a study of students attending small liberal arts colleges, the type of college that tried to equalize the experience of students by requiring all students to live on campus and offering small classes with lots of interaction with faculty. These private colleges tend to have more money and resources so they can provide financial aid to low-income students. They also attract some very wealthy students. Because they enroll students across the class spectrum, I would be able to draw comparisons. I ended up spending about four years collecting data, both a survey of more than 2000 students (which formed the basis for quantitative analyses) and qualitative data collection (interviews, focus groups, archival research, and participant observation). This is what we call a “mixed methods” approach because we use both quantitative and qualitative data. The survey gave me a large enough number of students that I could make comparisons of the how many kind, and to be able to say with some authority that there were in fact significant differences in experience and outcome by class (e.g., wealthier students earned more money and had little debt; working-class students often found jobs that were not in their chosen careers and were very affected by debt, upper-middle-class students were more likely to go to graduate school). But the survey analyses could not explain why these differences existed. For that, I needed to talk to people and ask them about their motivations and aspirations. I needed to understand their perceptions of the world, and it is very hard to do this through a survey.

By interviewing students and recent graduates, I was able to discern particular patterns and pathways through college and beyond. Specifically, I identified three versions of gameplay. Upper-middle-class students, whose parents were themselves professionals (academics, lawyers, managers of non-profits), saw college as the first stage of their education and took classes and declared majors that would prepare them for graduate school. They also spent a lot of time building their resumes, taking advantage of opportunities to help professors with their research, or study abroad. This helped them gain admission to highly-ranked graduate schools and interesting jobs in the public sector. In contrast, upper-class students, whose parents were wealthy and more likely to be engaged in business (as CEOs or other high-level directors), prioritized building social capital. They did this by joining fraternities and sororities and playing club sports. This helped them when they graduated as they called on friends and parents of friends to find them well-paying jobs. Finally, low-income, first-generation, and working-class students were often adrift. They took the classes that were recommended to them but without the knowledge of how to connect them to life beyond college. They spent time working and studying rather than partying or building their resumes. All three sets of students thought they were “doing college” the right way, the way that one was supposed to do college. But these three versions of gameplay led to distinct outcomes that advantaged some students over others. I titled my work “Amplified Advantage” to highlight this process.

These three examples, Cory Abramson’s The End Game , Jennifer Peirce’s Racing for Innocence, and my own Amplified Advantage, demonstrate the range of approaches and tools available to the qualitative researcher. They also help explain why qualitative research is so important. Numbers can tell us some things about the world, but they cannot get at the hearts and minds, motivations and beliefs of the people who make up the social worlds we inhabit. For that, we need tools that allow us to listen and make sense of what people tell us and show us. That is what good qualitative research offers us.

How Is This Book Organized?

This textbook is organized as a comprehensive introduction to the use of qualitative research methods. The first half covers general topics (e.g., approaches to qualitative research, ethics) and research design (necessary steps for building a successful qualitative research study). The second half reviews various data collection and data analysis techniques. Of course, building a successful qualitative research study requires some knowledge of data collection and data analysis so the chapters in the first half and the chapters in the second half should be read in conversation with each other. That said, each chapter can be read on its own for assistance with a particular narrow topic. In addition to the chapters, a helpful glossary can be found in the back of the book. Rummage around in the text as needed.

Chapter Descriptions

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Research Design Process. How does one begin a study? What is an appropriate research question? How is the study to be done – with what methods ? Involving what people and sites? Although qualitative research studies can and often do change and develop over the course of data collection, it is important to have a good idea of what the aims and goals of your study are at the outset and a good plan of how to achieve those aims and goals. Chapter 2 provides a road map of the process.

Chapter 3 describes and explains various ways of knowing the (social) world. What is it possible for us to know about how other people think or why they behave the way they do? What does it mean to say something is a “fact” or that it is “well-known” and understood? Qualitative researchers are particularly interested in these questions because of the types of research questions we are interested in answering (the how questions rather than the how many questions of quantitative research). Qualitative researchers have adopted various epistemological approaches. Chapter 3 will explore these approaches, highlighting interpretivist approaches that acknowledge the subjective aspect of reality – in other words, reality and knowledge are not objective but rather influenced by (interpreted through) people.

Chapter 4 focuses on the practical matter of developing a research question and finding the right approach to data collection. In any given study (think of Cory Abramson’s study of aging, for example), there may be years of collected data, thousands of observations , hundreds of pages of notes to read and review and make sense of. If all you had was a general interest area (“aging”), it would be very difficult, nearly impossible, to make sense of all of that data. The research question provides a helpful lens to refine and clarify (and simplify) everything you find and collect. For that reason, it is important to pull out that lens (articulate the research question) before you get started. In the case of the aging study, Cory Abramson was interested in how inequalities affected understandings and responses to aging. It is for this reason he designed a study that would allow him to compare different groups of seniors (some middle-class, some poor). Inevitably, he saw much more in the three years in the field than what made it into his book (or dissertation), but he was able to narrow down the complexity of the social world to provide us with this rich account linked to the original research question. Developing a good research question is thus crucial to effective design and a successful outcome. Chapter 4 will provide pointers on how to do this. Chapter 4 also provides an overview of general approaches taken to doing qualitative research and various “traditions of inquiry.”

Chapter 5 explores sampling . After you have developed a research question and have a general idea of how you will collect data (Observations? Interviews?), how do you go about actually finding people and sites to study? Although there is no “correct number” of people to interview , the sample should follow the research question and research design. Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research involves nonprobability sampling. Chapter 5 explains why this is so and what qualities instead make a good sample for qualitative research.

Chapter 6 addresses the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research. Related to epistemological issues of how we know anything about the social world, qualitative researchers understand that we the researchers can never be truly neutral or outside the study we are conducting. As observers, we see things that make sense to us and may entirely miss what is either too obvious to note or too different to comprehend. As interviewers, as much as we would like to ask questions neutrally and remain in the background, interviews are a form of conversation, and the persons we interview are responding to us . Therefore, it is important to reflect upon our social positions and the knowledges and expectations we bring to our work and to work through any blind spots that we may have. Chapter 6 provides some examples of reflexivity in practice and exercises for thinking through one’s own biases.

Chapter 7 is a very important chapter and should not be overlooked. As a practical matter, it should also be read closely with chapters 6 and 8. Because qualitative researchers deal with people and the social world, it is imperative they develop and adhere to a strong ethical code for conducting research in a way that does not harm. There are legal requirements and guidelines for doing so (see chapter 8), but these requirements should not be considered synonymous with the ethical code required of us. Each researcher must constantly interrogate every aspect of their research, from research question to design to sample through analysis and presentation, to ensure that a minimum of harm (ideally, zero harm) is caused. Because each research project is unique, the standards of care for each study are unique. Part of being a professional researcher is carrying this code in one’s heart, being constantly attentive to what is required under particular circumstances. Chapter 7 provides various research scenarios and asks readers to weigh in on the suitability and appropriateness of the research. If done in a class setting, it will become obvious fairly quickly that there are often no absolutely correct answers, as different people find different aspects of the scenarios of greatest importance. Minimizing the harm in one area may require possible harm in another. Being attentive to all the ethical aspects of one’s research and making the best judgments one can, clearly and consciously, is an integral part of being a good researcher.

Chapter 8 , best to be read in conjunction with chapter 7, explains the role and importance of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) . Under federal guidelines, an IRB is an appropriately constituted group that has been formally designated to review and monitor research involving human subjects . Every institution that receives funding from the federal government has an IRB. IRBs have the authority to approve, require modifications to (to secure approval), or disapprove research. This group review serves an important role in the protection of the rights and welfare of human research subjects. Chapter 8 reviews the history of IRBs and the work they do but also argues that IRBs’ review of qualitative research is often both over-inclusive and under-inclusive. Some aspects of qualitative research are not well understood by IRBs, given that they were developed to prevent abuses in biomedical research. Thus, it is important not to rely on IRBs to identify all the potential ethical issues that emerge in our research (see chapter 7).

Chapter 9 provides help for getting started on formulating a research question based on gaps in the pre-existing literature. Research is conducted as part of a community, even if particular studies are done by single individuals (or small teams). What any of us finds and reports back becomes part of a much larger body of knowledge. Thus, it is important that we look at the larger body of knowledge before we actually start our bit to see how we can best contribute. When I first began interviewing working-class college students, there was only one other similar study I could find, and it hadn’t been published (it was a dissertation of students from poor backgrounds). But there had been a lot published by professors who had grown up working class and made it through college despite the odds. These accounts by “working-class academics” became an important inspiration for my study and helped me frame the questions I asked the students I interviewed. Chapter 9 will provide some pointers on how to search for relevant literature and how to use this to refine your research question.

Chapter 10 serves as a bridge between the two parts of the textbook, by introducing techniques of data collection. Qualitative research is often characterized by the form of data collection – for example, an ethnographic study is one that employs primarily observational data collection for the purpose of documenting and presenting a particular culture or ethnos. Techniques can be effectively combined, depending on the research question and the aims and goals of the study. Chapter 10 provides a general overview of all the various techniques and how they can be combined.

The second part of the textbook moves into the doing part of qualitative research once the research question has been articulated and the study designed. Chapters 11 through 17 cover various data collection techniques and approaches. Chapters 18 and 19 provide a very simple overview of basic data analysis. Chapter 20 covers communication of the data to various audiences, and in various formats.

Chapter 11 begins our overview of data collection techniques with a focus on interviewing , the true heart of qualitative research. This technique can serve as the primary and exclusive form of data collection, or it can be used to supplement other forms (observation, archival). An interview is distinct from a survey, where questions are asked in a specific order and often with a range of predetermined responses available. Interviews can be conversational and unstructured or, more conventionally, semistructured , where a general set of interview questions “guides” the conversation. Chapter 11 covers the basics of interviews: how to create interview guides, how many people to interview, where to conduct the interview, what to watch out for (how to prepare against things going wrong), and how to get the most out of your interviews.

Chapter 12 covers an important variant of interviewing, the focus group. Focus groups are semistructured interviews with a group of people moderated by a facilitator (the researcher or researcher’s assistant). Focus groups explicitly use group interaction to assist in the data collection. They are best used to collect data on a specific topic that is non-personal and shared among the group. For example, asking a group of college students about a common experience such as taking classes by remote delivery during the pandemic year of 2020. Chapter 12 covers the basics of focus groups: when to use them, how to create interview guides for them, and how to run them effectively.

Chapter 13 moves away from interviewing to the second major form of data collection unique to qualitative researchers – observation . Qualitative research that employs observation can best be understood as falling on a continuum of “fly on the wall” observation (e.g., observing how strangers interact in a doctor’s waiting room) to “participant” observation, where the researcher is also an active participant of the activity being observed. For example, an activist in the Black Lives Matter movement might want to study the movement, using her inside position to gain access to observe key meetings and interactions. Chapter 13 covers the basics of participant observation studies: advantages and disadvantages, gaining access, ethical concerns related to insider/outsider status and entanglement, and recording techniques.

Chapter 14 takes a closer look at “deep ethnography” – immersion in the field of a particularly long duration for the purpose of gaining a deeper understanding and appreciation of a particular culture or social world. Clifford Geertz called this “deep hanging out.” Whereas participant observation is often combined with semistructured interview techniques, deep ethnography’s commitment to “living the life” or experiencing the situation as it really is demands more conversational and natural interactions with people. These interactions and conversations may take place over months or even years. As can be expected, there are some costs to this technique, as well as some very large rewards when done competently. Chapter 14 provides some examples of deep ethnographies that will inspire some beginning researchers and intimidate others.

Chapter 15 moves in the opposite direction of deep ethnography, a technique that is the least positivist of all those discussed here, to mixed methods , a set of techniques that is arguably the most positivist . A mixed methods approach combines both qualitative data collection and quantitative data collection, commonly by combining a survey that is analyzed statistically (e.g., cross-tabs or regression analyses of large number probability samples) with semi-structured interviews. Although it is somewhat unconventional to discuss mixed methods in textbooks on qualitative research, I think it is important to recognize this often-employed approach here. There are several advantages and some disadvantages to taking this route. Chapter 16 will describe those advantages and disadvantages and provide some particular guidance on how to design a mixed methods study for maximum effectiveness.

Chapter 16 covers data collection that does not involve live human subjects at all – archival and historical research (chapter 17 will also cover data that does not involve interacting with human subjects). Sometimes people are unavailable to us, either because they do not wish to be interviewed or observed (as is the case with many “elites”) or because they are too far away, in both place and time. Fortunately, humans leave many traces and we can often answer questions we have by examining those traces. Special collections and archives can be goldmines for social science research. This chapter will explain how to access these places, for what purposes, and how to begin to make sense of what you find.

Chapter 17 covers another data collection area that does not involve face-to-face interaction with humans: content analysis . Although content analysis may be understood more properly as a data analysis technique, the term is often used for the entire approach, which will be the case here. Content analysis involves interpreting meaning from a body of text. This body of text might be something found in historical records (see chapter 16) or something collected by the researcher, as in the case of comment posts on a popular blog post. I once used the stories told by student loan debtors on the website studentloanjustice.org as the content I analyzed. Content analysis is particularly useful when attempting to define and understand prevalent stories or communication about a topic of interest. In other words, when we are less interested in what particular people (our defined sample) are doing or believing and more interested in what general narratives exist about a particular topic or issue. This chapter will explore different approaches to content analysis and provide helpful tips on how to collect data, how to turn that data into codes for analysis, and how to go about presenting what is found through analysis.

Where chapter 17 has pushed us towards data analysis, chapters 18 and 19 are all about what to do with the data collected, whether that data be in the form of interview transcripts or fieldnotes from observations. Chapter 18 introduces the basics of coding , the iterative process of assigning meaning to the data in order to both simplify and identify patterns. What is a code and how does it work? What are the different ways of coding data, and when should you use them? What is a codebook, and why do you need one? What does the process of data analysis look like?

Chapter 19 goes further into detail on codes and how to use them, particularly the later stages of coding in which our codes are refined, simplified, combined, and organized. These later rounds of coding are essential to getting the most out of the data we’ve collected. As students are often overwhelmed with the amount of data (a corpus of interview transcripts typically runs into the hundreds of pages; fieldnotes can easily top that), this chapter will also address time management and provide suggestions for dealing with chaos and reminders that feeling overwhelmed at the analysis stage is part of the process. By the end of the chapter, you should understand how “findings” are actually found.

The book concludes with a chapter dedicated to the effective presentation of data results. Chapter 20 covers the many ways that researchers communicate their studies to various audiences (academic, personal, political), what elements must be included in these various publications, and the hallmarks of excellent qualitative research that various audiences will be expecting. Because qualitative researchers are motivated by understanding and conveying meaning , effective communication is not only an essential skill but a fundamental facet of the entire research project. Ethnographers must be able to convey a certain sense of verisimilitude , the appearance of true reality. Those employing interviews must faithfully depict the key meanings of the people they interviewed in a way that rings true to those people, even if the end result surprises them. And all researchers must strive for clarity in their publications so that various audiences can understand what was found and why it is important.

The book concludes with a short chapter ( chapter 21 ) discussing the value of qualitative research. At the very end of this book, you will find a glossary of terms. I recommend you make frequent use of the glossary and add to each entry as you find examples. Although the entries are meant to be simple and clear, you may also want to paraphrase the definition—make it “make sense” to you, in other words. In addition to the standard reference list (all works cited here), you will find various recommendations for further reading at the end of many chapters. Some of these recommendations will be examples of excellent qualitative research, indicated with an asterisk (*) at the end of the entry. As they say, a picture is worth a thousand words. A good example of qualitative research can teach you more about conducting research than any textbook can (this one included). I highly recommend you select one to three examples from these lists and read them along with the textbook.

A final note on the choice of examples – you will note that many of the examples used in the text come from research on college students. This is for two reasons. First, as most of my research falls in this area, I am most familiar with this literature and have contacts with those who do research here and can call upon them to share their stories with you. Second, and more importantly, my hope is that this textbook reaches a wide audience of beginning researchers who study widely and deeply across the range of what can be known about the social world (from marine resources management to public policy to nursing to political science to sexuality studies and beyond). It is sometimes difficult to find examples that speak to all those research interests, however. A focus on college students is something that all readers can understand and, hopefully, appreciate, as we are all now or have been at some point a college student.

Patton’s Ten Suggestions for Doing Qualitative Research

The following ten suggestions were made by Michael Quinn Patton in his massive textbooks Qualitative Research and Evaluations Methods . This book is highly recommended for those of you who want more than an introduction to qualitative methods. It is the book I relied on heavily when I was a graduate student, although it is much easier to “dip into” when necessary than to read through as a whole. Patton is asked for “just one bit of advice” for a graduate student considering using qualitative research methods for their dissertation. Here are his top ten responses, in short form, heavily paraphrased, and with additional comments and emphases from me:

Make sure that a qualitative approach fits the research question. The following are the kinds of questions that call out for qualitative methods or where qualitative methods are particularly appropriate: questions about people’s experiences or how they make sense of those experiences; studying a person in their natural environment; researching a phenomenon so unknown that it would be impossible to study it with standardized instruments or other forms of quantitative data collection.
Study qualitative research by going to the original sources for the design and analysis appropriate to the particular approach you want to take (e.g., read Glaser and Straus if you are using grounded theory )
Find a dissertation adviser who understands or at least who will support your use of qualitative research methods. You are asking for trouble if your entire committee is populated by quantitative researchers, even if they are all very knowledgeable about the subject or focus of your study (maybe even more so if they are!)
Really work on design. Doing qualitative research effectively takes a lot of planning. Even if things are more flexible than in quantitative research, a good design is absolutely essential when starting out.
Practice data collection techniques, particularly interviewing and observing. There is definitely a set of learned skills here! Do not expect your first interview to be perfect. You will continue to grow as a researcher the more interviews you conduct, and you will probably come to understand yourself a bit more in the process, too. This is not easy, despite what others who don’t work with qualitative methods may assume (and tell you!)
Have a plan for analysis before you begin data collection. This is often a requirement in IRB protocols , although you can get away with writing something fairly simple. And even if you are taking an approach, such as grounded theory, that pushes you to remain fairly open-minded during the data collection process, you still want to know what you will be doing with all the data collected – creating a codebook? Writing analytical memos? Comparing cases? Having a plan in hand will also help prevent you from collecting too much extraneous data.
Be prepared to confront controversies both within the qualitative research community and between qualitative research and quantitative research. Don’t be naïve about this – qualitative research, particularly some approaches, will be derided by many more “positivist” researchers and audiences. For example, is an “n” of 1 really sufficient? Yes! But not everyone will agree.
Do not make the mistake of using qualitative research methods because someone told you it was easier, or because you are intimidated by the math required of statistical analyses. Qualitative research is difficult in its own way (and many would claim much more time-consuming than quantitative research). Do it because you are convinced it is right for your goals, aims, and research questions.
Find a good support network. This could be a research mentor, or it could be a group of friends or colleagues who are also using qualitative research, or it could be just someone who will listen to you work through all of the issues you will confront out in the field and during the writing process. Even though qualitative research often involves human subjects, it can be pretty lonely. A lot of times you will feel like you are working without a net. You have to create one for yourself. Take care of yourself.
And, finally, in the words of Patton, “Prepare to be changed. Looking deeply at other people’s lives will force you to look deeply at yourself.”
We will actually spend an entire chapter ( chapter 3 ) looking at this question in much more detail! ↵
Note that this might have been news to Europeans at the time, but many other societies around the world had also come to this conclusion through observation. There is often a tendency to equate “the scientific revolution” with the European world in which it took place, but this is somewhat misleading. ↵
Historians are a special case here. Historians have scrupulously and rigorously investigated the social world, but not for the purpose of understanding general laws about how things work, which is the point of scientific empirical research. History is often referred to as an idiographic field of study, meaning that it studies things that happened or are happening in themselves and not for general observations or conclusions. ↵
Don’t worry, we’ll spend more time later in this book unpacking the meaning of ethnography and other terms that are important here. Note the available glossary ↵

An approach to research that is “multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials – case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives." ( Denzin and Lincoln 2005:2 ). Contrast with quantitative research .

In contrast to methodology, methods are more simply the practices and tools used to collect and analyze data. Examples of common methods in qualitative research are interviews , observations , and documentary analysis . One’s methodology should connect to one’s choice of methods, of course, but they are distinguishable terms. See also methodology .

A proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation. The positing of a hypothesis is often the first step in quantitative research but not in qualitative research. Even when qualitative researchers offer possible explanations in advance of conducting research, they will tend to not use the word “hypothesis” as it conjures up the kind of positivist research they are not conducting.

The foundational question to be addressed by the research study. This will form the anchor of the research design, collection, and analysis. Note that in qualitative research, the research question may, and probably will, alter or develop during the course of the research.

An approach to research that collects and analyzes numerical data for the purpose of finding patterns and averages, making predictions, testing causal relationships, and generalizing results to wider populations. Contrast with qualitative research .

Data collection that takes place in real-world settings, referred to as “the field;” a key component of much Grounded Theory and ethnographic research. Patton ( 2002 ) calls fieldwork “the central activity of qualitative inquiry” where “‘going into the field’ means having direct and personal contact with people under study in their own environments – getting close to people and situations being studied to personally understand the realities of minutiae of daily life” (48).

The people who are the subjects of a qualitative study. In interview-based studies, they may be the respondents to the interviewer; for purposes of IRBs, they are often referred to as the human subjects of the research.

The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. For researchers, it is important to recognize and adopt one of the many distinguishing epistemological perspectives as part of our understanding of what questions research can address or fully answer. See, e.g., constructivism , subjectivism, and objectivism .

An approach that refutes the possibility of neutrality in social science research. All research is “guided by a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied” (Denzin and Lincoln 2005: 13). In contrast to positivism , interpretivism recognizes the social constructedness of reality, and researchers adopting this approach focus on capturing interpretations and understandings people have about the world rather than “the world” as it is (which is a chimera).

The cluster of data-collection tools and techniques that involve observing interactions between people, the behaviors, and practices of individuals (sometimes in contrast to what they say about how they act and behave), and cultures in context. Observational methods are the key tools employed by ethnographers and Grounded Theory .

Research based on data collected and analyzed by the research (in contrast to secondary “library” research).

The process of selecting people or other units of analysis to represent a larger population. In quantitative research, this representation is taken quite literally, as statistically representative. In qualitative research, in contrast, sample selection is often made based on potential to generate insight about a particular topic or phenomenon.

A method of data collection in which the researcher asks the participant questions; the answers to these questions are often recorded and transcribed verbatim. There are many different kinds of interviews - see also semistructured interview , structured interview , and unstructured interview .

The specific group of individuals that you will collect data from. Contrast population.

The practice of being conscious of and reflective upon one’s own social location and presence when conducting research. Because qualitative research often requires interaction with live humans, failing to take into account how one’s presence and prior expectations and social location affect the data collected and how analyzed may limit the reliability of the findings. This remains true even when dealing with historical archives and other content. Who we are matters when asking questions about how people experience the world because we, too, are a part of that world.

The science and practice of right conduct; in research, it is also the delineation of moral obligations towards research participants, communities to which we belong, and communities in which we conduct our research.

An administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the institution with which it is affiliated. The IRB is charged with the responsibility of reviewing all research involving human participants. The IRB is concerned with protecting the welfare, rights, and privacy of human subjects. The IRB has the authority to approve, disapprove, monitor, and require modifications in all research activities that fall within its jurisdiction as specified by both the federal regulations and institutional policy.

Research, according to US federal guidelines, that involves “a living individual about whom an investigator (whether professional or student) conducting research: (1) Obtains information or biospecimens through intervention or interaction with the individual, and uses, studies, or analyzes the information or biospecimens; or (2) Obtains, uses, studies, analyzes, or generates identifiable private information or identifiable biospecimens.”

One of the primary methodological traditions of inquiry in qualitative research, ethnography is the study of a group or group culture, largely through observational fieldwork supplemented by interviews. It is a form of fieldwork that may include participant-observation data collection. See chapter 14 for a discussion of deep ethnography.

A form of interview that follows a standard guide of questions asked, although the order of the questions may change to match the particular needs of each individual interview subject, and probing “follow-up” questions are often added during the course of the interview. The semi-structured interview is the primary form of interviewing used by qualitative researchers in the social sciences. It is sometimes referred to as an “in-depth” interview. See also interview and interview guide .

A method of observational data collection taking place in a natural setting; a form of fieldwork . The term encompasses a continuum of relative participation by the researcher (from full participant to “fly-on-the-wall” observer). This is also sometimes referred to as ethnography , although the latter is characterized by a greater focus on the culture under observation.

A research design that employs both quantitative and qualitative methods, as in the case of a survey supplemented by interviews.

An epistemological perspective that posits the existence of reality through sensory experience similar to empiricism but goes further in denying any non-sensory basis of thought or consciousness. In the social sciences, the term has roots in the proto-sociologist August Comte, who believed he could discern “laws” of society similar to the laws of natural science (e.g., gravity). The term has come to mean the kinds of measurable and verifiable science conducted by quantitative researchers and is thus used pejoratively by some qualitative researchers interested in interpretation, consciousness, and human understanding. Calling someone a “positivist” is often intended as an insult. See also empiricism and objectivism.

A place or collection containing records, documents, or other materials of historical interest; most universities have an archive of material related to the university’s history, as well as other “special collections” that may be of interest to members of the community.

A method of both data collection and data analysis in which a given content (textual, visual, graphic) is examined systematically and rigorously to identify meanings, themes, patterns and assumptions. Qualitative content analysis (QCA) is concerned with gathering and interpreting an existing body of material.

A word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data (Saldaña 2021:5).

Usually a verbatim written record of an interview or focus group discussion.

The primary form of data for fieldwork , participant observation , and ethnography . These notes, taken by the researcher either during the course of fieldwork or at day’s end, should include as many details as possible on what was observed and what was said. They should include clear identifiers of date, time, setting, and names (or identifying characteristics) of participants.

The process of labeling and organizing qualitative data to identify different themes and the relationships between them; a way of simplifying data to allow better management and retrieval of key themes and illustrative passages. See coding frame and codebook.

A methodological tradition of inquiry and approach to analyzing qualitative data in which theories emerge from a rigorous and systematic process of induction. This approach was pioneered by the sociologists Glaser and Strauss (1967). The elements of theory generated from comparative analysis of data are, first, conceptual categories and their properties and, second, hypotheses or generalized relations among the categories and their properties – “The constant comparing of many groups draws the [researcher’s] attention to their many similarities and differences. Considering these leads [the researcher] to generate abstract categories and their properties, which, since they emerge from the data, will clearly be important to a theory explaining the kind of behavior under observation.” (36).

A detailed description of any proposed research that involves human subjects for review by IRB. The protocol serves as the recipe for the conduct of the research activity. It includes the scientific rationale to justify the conduct of the study, the information necessary to conduct the study, the plan for managing and analyzing the data, and a discussion of the research ethical issues relevant to the research. Protocols for qualitative research often include interview guides, all documents related to recruitment, informed consent forms, very clear guidelines on the safekeeping of materials collected, and plans for de-identifying transcripts or other data that include personal identifying information.

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What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
How is anxiety experienced around the world?
How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analysing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

Prepare and organise your data.
Review and explore your data.
Develop a data coding system.
Assign codes to the data.
Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle

Qualitative research paradigm.

I am amazed how often we hear qualitative researchers applying their standards to quantitative research or quantitative researchers applying their standards to qualitative research. Each functions within different assumptions. Finding fault with one approach with the standards of another does little to promote understanding. Each approach should be judges on its theoretical basis.

The Assumptions of Qualitative Designs

Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process , rather than outcomes or products.
Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning: how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world.
The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
Qualitative research involves fieldwork . The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting.
Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures.
The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.

…..Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

….. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Arguments Supporting Qualitative Inquiry

Human behavior is significantly influenced by the setting in which it occurs; thus one must study that behavior in situations. The physical setting (e.g., schedules, space, pay, and rewards) and the internalized notions of norms, traditions, roles, and values are crucial contextual variables. Research must be conducted in the setting where all the contextual variables are operating.
Past researchers have not been able to derive meaning…from experimental research.
The research techniques themselves, in experimental research, [can]…affect the findings. The lab, the questionnaire, and so on, [can]…become artifacts. Subjects [can become]…either suspicious and wary, or they [can become]…aware of what the researchers want and try to please them. Additionally, subjects sometimes do not know their feelings, interactions, and behaviors, so they cannot articulate them to respond to a questionnaire.
One cannot understand human behavior without understanding the framework within which subjects interpret their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Researchers need to understand the framework. In fact, the “objective ” scientist, by coding and standardizing, may destroy valuable data while imposing her world on the subjects.
Field study research can explore the processes and meanings of events.

…..Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (1980). Designing qualitative research . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Predispositions of Quantitative and Qualitative Modes of Inquiry

Although some social science researchers (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Schwandt, 1989) perceive qualitative and quantitative approaches as incompatible, others (Patton, 1990; Reichardt & Cook, 1979) believe that the skilled researcher can successfully combine approaches. The argument usually becomes muddled because one party argues from the underlying philosophical nature of each paradigm, and the other focuses on the apparent compatibility of the research methods, enjoying the rewards of both numbers and words. Because the positivist and the interpretivist paradigms rest on different assumptions about the nature of the world, they require different instruments and procedures to find the type of data desired. This does not mean, however, that the positivist never uses interviews nor that the interpretivist never uses a survey. They may, but such methods are supplementary, not dominant….Different approaches allow us to know and understand different things about the world….Nonetheless, people tend to adhere to the methodology that is most consonant with their socialized worldview. (p. 9)

….. Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Contrasting Positivist and Naturalist Axioms (Beliefs and Assumptions)

….. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

….. Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

Five popular types of Qualitative Research are

Ethnography
Phenomenological
Grounded Theory

Del Siegle, Ph.D [email protected] www.delsiegle.info

Qualitative Research Questions: Gain Powerful Insights + 25 Examples

We review the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, how to craft them effectively, & 25 example questions.

Einstein was many things—a physicist, a philosopher, and, undoubtedly, a mastermind. He also had an incredible way with words. His quote, "Everything that can be counted does not necessarily count; everything that counts cannot necessarily be counted," is particularly poignant when it comes to research.

Some inquiries call for a quantitative approach, for counting and measuring data in order to arrive at general conclusions. Other investigations, like qualitative research, rely on deep exploration and understanding of individual cases in order to develop a greater understanding of the whole. That’s what we’re going to focus on today.

Qualitative research questions focus on the "how" and "why" of things, rather than the "what". They ask about people's experiences and perceptions , and can be used to explore a wide range of topics.

The following article will discuss the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, and how to craft them effectively. You'll also find 25 examples of effective qualitative research questions you can use as inspiration for your own studies.

Let’s get started!

What are qualitative research questions, and when are they used?

When researchers set out to conduct a study on a certain topic, their research is chiefly directed by an overarching question . This question provides focus for the study and helps determine what kind of data will be collected.

By starting with a question, we gain parameters and objectives for our line of research. What are we studying? For what purpose? How will we know when we’ve achieved our goals?

Of course, some of these questions can be described as quantitative in nature. When a research question is quantitative, it usually seeks to measure or calculate something in a systematic way.

For example:

How many people in our town use the library?
What is the average income of families in our city?
How much does the average person weigh?

Other research questions, however—and the ones we will be focusing on in this article—are qualitative in nature. Qualitative research questions are open-ended and seek to explore a given topic in-depth.

According to the Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , “Qualitative research aims to address questions concerned with developing an understanding of the meaning and experience dimensions of humans’ lives and social worlds.”

This type of research can be used to gain a better understanding of people’s thoughts, feelings and experiences by “addressing questions beyond ‘what works’, towards ‘what works for whom when, how and why, and focusing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation,” states one paper in Neurological Research and Practice .

Qualitative questions often produce rich data that can help researchers develop hypotheses for further quantitative study.

What are people’s thoughts on the new library?
How does it feel to be a first-generation student at our school?
How do people feel about the changes taking place in our town?

As stated by a paper in Human Reproduction , “...‘qualitative’ methods are used to answer questions about experience, meaning, and perspective, most often from the standpoint of the participant. These data are usually not amenable to counting or measuring.”

Both quantitative and qualitative questions have their uses; in fact, they often complement each other. A well-designed research study will include a mix of both types of questions in order to gain a fuller understanding of the topic at hand.

If you would like to recruit unlimited participants for qualitative research for free and only pay for the interview you conduct, try using Respondent today.

Crafting qualitative research questions for powerful insights

Now that we have a basic understanding of what qualitative research questions are and when they are used, let’s take a look at how you can begin crafting your own.

According to a study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, there is a certain process researchers should follow when crafting their questions, which we’ll explore in more depth.

1. Beginning the process

Start with a point of interest or curiosity, and pose a draft question or ‘self-question’. What do you want to know about the topic at hand? What is your specific curiosity? You may find it helpful to begin by writing several questions.

For example, if you’re interested in understanding how your customer base feels about a recent change to your product, you might ask:

What made you decide to try the new product?
How do you feel about the change?
What do you think of the new design/functionality?
What benefits do you see in the change?

2. Create one overarching, guiding question

At this point, narrow down the draft questions into one specific question. “Sometimes, these broader research questions are not stated as questions, but rather as goals for the study.”

As an example of this, you might narrow down these three questions:

into the following question:

What are our customers’ thoughts on the recent change to our product?

3. Theoretical framing

As you read the relevant literature and apply theory to your research, the question should be altered to achieve better outcomes. Experts agree that pursuing a qualitative line of inquiry should open up the possibility for questioning your original theories and altering the conceptual framework with which the research began.

If we continue with the current example, it’s possible you may uncover new data that informs your research and changes your question. For instance, you may discover that customers’ feelings about the change are not just a reaction to the change itself, but also to how it was implemented. In this case, your question would need to reflect this new information:

How did customers react to the process of the change, as well as the change itself?

4. Ethical considerations

A study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education stresses that ethics are “a central issue when a researcher proposes to study the lives of others, especially marginalized populations.” Consider how your question or inquiry will affect the people it relates to—their lives and their safety. Shape your question to avoid physical, emotional, or mental upset for the focus group.

In analyzing your question from this perspective, if you feel that it may cause harm, you should consider changing the question or ending your research project. Perhaps you’ve discovered that your question encourages harmful or invasive questioning, in which case you should reformulate it.

5. Writing the question

The actual process of writing the question comes only after considering the above points. The purpose of crafting your research questions is to delve into what your study is specifically about” Remember that qualitative research questions are not trying to find the cause of an effect, but rather to explore the effect itself.

Your questions should be clear, concise, and understandable to those outside of your field. In addition, they should generate rich data. The questions you choose will also depend on the type of research you are conducting:

If you’re doing a phenomenological study, your questions might be open-ended, in order to allow participants to share their experiences in their own words.
If you’re doing a grounded-theory study, your questions might be focused on generating a list of categories or themes.
If you’re doing ethnography, your questions might be about understanding the culture you’re studying.

Whenyou have well-written questions, it is much easier to develop your research design and collect data that accurately reflects your inquiry.

In writing your questions, it may help you to refer to this simple flowchart process for constructing questions:

qualitative research examples in education

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25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions

It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions.

Let's begin with five questions. We'll show you the question, explain why it's considered qualitative, and then give you an example of how it can be used in research.

1. What is the customer's perception of our company's brand?

Qualitative research questions are often open-ended and invite respondents to share their thoughts and feelings on a subject. This question is qualitative because it seeks customer feedback on the company's brand.

This question can be used in research to understand how customers feel about the company's branding, what they like and don't like about it, and whether they would recommend it to others.

2. Why do customers buy our product?

This question is also qualitative because it seeks to understand the customer's motivations for purchasing a product. It can be used in research to identify the reasons customers buy a certain product, what needs or desires the product fulfills for them, and how they feel about the purchase after using the product.

3. How do our customers interact with our products?

Again, this question is qualitative because it seeks to understand customer behavior. In this case, it can be used in research to see how customers use the product, how they interact with it, and what emotions or thoughts the product evokes in them.

4. What are our customers' biggest frustrations with our products?

By seeking to understand customer frustrations, this question is qualitative and can provide valuable insights. It can be used in research to help identify areas in which the company needs to make improvements with its products.

5. How do our customers feel about our customer service?

Rather than asking why customers like or dislike something, this question asks how they feel. This qualitative question can provide insights into customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a company.

This type of question can be used in research to understand what customers think of the company's customer service and whether they feel it meets their needs.

20 more examples to refer to when writing your question

Now that you’re aware of what makes certain questions qualitative, let's move into 20 more examples of qualitative research questions:

How do your customers react when updates are made to your app interface?
How do customers feel when they complete their purchase through your ecommerce site?
What are your customers' main frustrations with your service?
How do people feel about the quality of your products compared to those of your competitors?
What motivates customers to refer their friends and family members to your product or service?
What are the main benefits your customers receive from using your product or service?
How do people feel when they finish a purchase on your website?
What are the main motivations behind customer loyalty to your brand?
How does your app make people feel emotionally?
For younger generations using your app, how does it make them feel about themselves?
What reputation do people associate with your brand?
How inclusive do people find your app?
In what ways are your customers' experiences unique to them?
What are the main areas of improvement your customers would like to see in your product or service?
How do people feel about their interactions with your tech team?
What are the top five reasons people use your online marketplace?
How does using your app make people feel in terms of connectedness?
What emotions do people experience when they're using your product or service?
Aside from the features of your product, what else about it attracts customers?
How does your company culture make people feel?

As you can see, these kinds of questions are completely open-ended. In a way, they allow the research and discoveries made along the way to direct the research. The questions are merely a starting point from which to explore.

This video offers tips on how to write good qualitative research questions, produced by Qualitative Research Expert, Kimberly Baker.

Wrap-up: crafting your own qualitative research questions.

Over the course of this article, we've explored what qualitative research questions are, why they matter, and how they should be written. Hopefully you now have a clear understanding of how to craft your own.

Remember, qualitative research questions should always be designed to explore a certain experience or phenomena in-depth, in order to generate powerful insights. As you write your questions, be sure to keep the following in mind:

Are you being inclusive of all relevant perspectives?
Are your questions specific enough to generate clear answers?
Will your questions allow for an in-depth exploration of the topic at hand?
Do the questions reflect your research goals and objectives?

If you can answer "yes" to all of the questions above, and you've followed the tips for writing qualitative research questions we shared in this article, then you're well on your way to crafting powerful queries that will yield valuable insights.

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Published: 20 February 2015

Qualitative Research in Early Childhood Education and Care Implementation

Wendy K. Jarvie 1

International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy volume 6 , pages 35–43 ( 2012 ) Cite this article

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Governments around the world have boosted their early childhood education and care (ECEC) engagement and investment on the basis of evidence from neurological studies and quantitative social science research. The role of qualitative research is less understood and under-valued. At the same time the hard evidence is only of limited use in helping public servants and governments design policies that work on the ground. The paper argues that some of the key challenges in ECEC today require a focus on implementation. For this a range of qualitative research is required, including knowledge of organisational and parent behaviour, and strategies for generating support for change. This is particularly true of policies and programs aimed at ethnic minority children. It concludes that there is a need for a more systematic approach to analysing and reporting ECEC implementation, along the lines of “implementation science” developed in the health area.

Introduction

Research conducted over the last 15 years has been fundamental to generating support for ECEC policy reform and has led to increased government investments and intervention in ECEC around the world. While neurological evidence has been a powerful influence on ECEC policy practitioners, quantitative research has also been persuasive, particularly randomised trials and longitudinal studies providing evidence (1) on the impact of early childhood development experiences to school success, and to adult income and productivity, and (2) that properly constructed government intervention, particularly for the most disadvantaged children, can make a significant difference to those adult outcomes. At the same time the increased focus on evidence-informed policy has meant experimental/quantitative design studies have become the “gold standard” for producing knowledge (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005 ), and pressures for improved reporting and accountability have meant systematic research effort by government has tended to focus more on data collection and monitoring, than on qualitative research (Bink, 2007 ). In this environment the role of qualitative research has been less valued by senior government officials.

Qualitative Research-WhatIs It?

The term qualitative research means different things to different people (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005 ). For some researchers it is a way of addressing social justice issues and thus is part of radical politics to give power to the marginalised. Others see it simply as another research method that complements quantitative methodologies, without any overt political function. Whatever the definition of qualitative research, or its role, a qualitative study usually:

Features an in depth analysis of an issue, event, entity, or process. This includes literature reviews and meta studies that draw together findings from a number of studies.

Is an attempt to explain a highly complex and/or dynamic issue or process that is unsuited to experimental or quantitative analysis.

Includes a record of the views and behaviours of the players — it studies the world from the perspective of the participating individual.

Cuts across disciplines, fields and subject matter.

Uses a range of methods in one study, such as participant observation; in depth interviewing of participants, key stakeholders, and focus groups; literature review; and document analysis.

High quality qualitative research requires high levels of skill and judgement. Sometimes it requires pulling together information from a mosaic of data sources and can include quantitative data (the latter is sometimes called mixed mode studies). From a public official perspective, the weaknesses of qualitative research can include (a) the cost-it can be very expensive to undertake case studies if there are a large number of participants and issues, (b) the complexity — the reports can be highly detailed, contextually specific examples of implementation experience that while useful for service delivery and front line officials are of limited use for national policy development, (c) difficultyin generalising from poor quality and liable to researcher bias, and (d) focus, at times, more on political agendas of child rights than the most cost-effective policies to support the economic and social development of a nation. It has proved hard for qualitative research to deliver conclusions that are as powerful as those from quantitative research. Educational research too, has suffered from the view that education academics have over-used qualitative research and expert judgement, with little rigorous or quantitative verification (Cook & Gorard, 2007 ).

Qualitative Research and Early Childhood Education and Care

In fact, the strengths of qualitative ECEC research are many, and their importance for government, considerable. Qualitative research has been done in all aspects of ECEC operations and policies, from coordinating mechanisms at a national level (OECD, 2006 ), curriculum frameworks (Office for Children and Early Childhood Development, 2008 ), and determining the critical elements of preschool quality (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2003 ), to developing services at a community level including effective outreach practices and governance arrangements. Qualitative research underpins best practice guides and regulations (Bink, 2007 ). Cross country comparative studies on policies and programs rely heavily on qualitative research methods.

For public officials qualitative components of program evaluations are essential to understanding how a program has worked, and to what extent variation in outcomes and impacts from those expected, or between communities, are the result of local or national implementation issues or policy flaws. In addition, the public/participant engagement in qualitative components of evaluations can reinforce public trust in public officials and in government more broadly.

In many ways the contrast between quantitative and qualitative research is a false dichotomy and an unproductive comparison. Qualitative research complements quantitative research, for example, through provision of background material and identification of research questions. Much quantitative research relies on qualitative research to define terms, and to identify what needs to be measured. For example, the Effective Provision of PreSchool Education (EPPE) studies, which have been very influential and is a mine of information for policy makers, rely on initial qualitative work on what is quality in a kindergarten, and how can it be assessed systematically (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2003 ). Qualitative research too can elucidate the “how” of a quantitative result. For example, quantitative research indicates that staff qualifications are strongly associated with better child outcomes, but it is qualitative work that shows that it is not the qualification per se that has an impact on child outcomes-rather it is the ability of staff to create a high quality pedagogic environment (OECD, 2012 ).

Challenges of Early Childhood Education and Care

Systematic qualitative research focused on the design and implementation of government programs is essential for governments today.

Consider some of the big challenges facing governments in early childhood development (note this is not a complete list):

Creating coordinated national agendas for early childhood development that bring together education, health, family and community policies and programs, at national, provincial and local levels (The Lancet, 2011 ).

Building parent and community engagement in ECEC/Early Childhood Development (ECD), including increasing parental awareness of the importance of early childhood services. In highly disadvantaged or dysfunctional communities this also includes increasing their skills and abilities to provide a healthy, stimulating and supportive environment for young children, through for example parenting programs (Naudeau, Kataoka, Valerio, Neuman & Elder, 2011 ; The Lancet, 2011 ; OECD, 2012 ).

Strategies and action focused on ethnic minority children, such as outreach, ethnic minority teachers and teaching assistants and informal as well as formal programs.

Enhancing workforce quality, including reducing turnover, and improved practice (OECD, 2012 ).

Building momentum and advocacy to persuade governments to invest in the more “invisible” components of quality such as workforce professional development and community liaison infrastructure; and to maintain investment over significant periods of time (Jarvie, 2011 ).

Driving a radical change in the way health/education/familyservicepro fessions and their agencies understand each other and to work together. Effectively integrated services focused on parents, children and communities can only be achieved when professions and agencies step outside their silos (Lancet, 2011 ). This would include redesign of initial training and professional development, and fostering collaborations in research, policy design and implementation.

There are also the ongoing needs for,

Identifying and developing effective parenting programs that work in tandem with formal ECEC provision.

Experiments to determine if there are lower cost ways of delivering quality and outcomes for disadvantaged children, including the merits of adding targeted services for these children on the base of universal services.

Figuring out how to scale up from successful trials (Grunewald & Rolnick, 2007 ; Engle et al., 2011 ).

Working out how to make more effective transitions between preschool and primary school.

Making research literature more accessible to public officials (OECD, 2012 ).

Indeed it can be argued that some of the most critical policy and program imperatives are in areas where quantitative research is of little help. In particular, qualitative research on effective strategies for ethnic minority children, their parents and their communities, is urgently needed. In most countries it is the ethnic minority children who are educationally and economically the most disadvantaged, and different strategies are required to engage their parents and communities. This is an area where governments struggle for effectiveness, and public officials have poor skills and capacities. This issue is common across many developed and developing countries, including countries with indigenous children such as Australia, China, Vietnam, Chile, Canada and European countries with migrant minorities (OECD, 2006 ; COAG, 2008 ; World Bank, 2011 ). Research that is systematic and persuasive to governments is needed on for example, the relative effectiveness of having bilingual environments and ethnic minority teachers and teaching assistants in ECEC centres, compared to the simpler community outreach strategies, and how to build parent and community leadership.

Many countries are acknowledging that parental and community engagement is a critical element of effective child development outcomes (OECD, 2012 ). Yet public officials, many siloed in education and child care ministries delivering formal ECEC services, are remote from research on raising parent awareness and parenting programs. They do not see raising parental skills and awareness as core to their policy and program responsibilities. Improving parenting skills is particularly important for very young children (say 0–3) where the impact on brain development is so critical. It has been argued there needs to be a more systematic approach to parenting coach/support programs, to develop a menu of options that we know will work, to explore how informal programs can work with formal programs, and how health programs aimed young mothers or pregnant women can be enriched with education messages (The Lancet, 2011 ).

Other areas where qualitative research could assist are shown in Table 1 (see p. 40).

Implementation Science in Early Childhood Education and Care

Much of the suggested qualitative research in Table 1 is around program design and implementation . It is well-known that policies often fail because program design has not foreseen implementation issues or implementation has inadequate risk management. Early childhood programs are a classic example of the “paradox of non-evidence-based implementation of evidence-based practice” (Drake, Gorman & Torrey, 2005). Governments recognise that implementation is a serious issue: there may be a lot of general knowledge about “what works”, but there is minimal systematic information about how things actually work . One difficulty is that there is a lack of a common language and conceptual framework to describe ECEC implementation. For example, the word “consult” can describe a number of different processes, from public officials holding a one hour meeting with available parents in alocation,to ongoing structures set up which ensureall communityelementsare involved and reflect thespectrum of community views, and tocontinue tobuild up community awareness and engagement over time.

There is a need to derive robust findingsof generic value to public officials, for program design. In the health sciences, there is a developing literature on implementation, including a National implementation Research Network based in the USA, and a Journal of Implementation Science (Fixsen, Naoom, Blasé, Friedman & Wallace, 2005 ). While much of the health science literature is focused on professional practice, some of the concepts they have developed are useful for other fields, such as the concept of “fidelity” of implementation which describes the extent to which a program or service has been implemented as designed. Education program implementation is sometimes included in these fora, however, there is no equivalent significant movement in early childhood education and care.

A priority in qualitative research for ECEC of value to public officials would then appear to be a systematic focus on implementation studies, which would include developing a conceptual framework and possibly a language for systematic description of implementation, as well as, meta-studies. This need not start from scratch-much of the implementation science literature in health is relevant, especially the components around how to influence practitioners to incorporate latest evidence-based research into their practice, and the notions of fidelity of implementation. It could provide an opportunity to engage providers and ECE professionals in research, where historically ECEC research has been weak.

Essential to this would be collaborative relationships between government agencies, providers and research institutions, so that there is a flow of information and findings between all parties.

Quantitative social science research, together with studies of brain development, has successfully made the case for greater investment in the early years.There has been less emphasis on investigating what works on the ground especially for the most disadvantaged groups, and bringing findings together to inform government action. Yet many of the ECEC challenges facing governments are in implementation, and in ensuring that interventions are high quality. This is particularly true of interventions to assist ethnic minority children, who in many countries are the most marginalised and disadvantaged. Without studies that can improve the quality of ECEC implementation, governments, and other bodies implementing ECEC strategies, are at risk of not delivering the expected returns on early childhood investment. This could, over time, undermine the case for sustained government support.

It is time for a rebalancing of government research activity towards qualitative research, complemented by scaled up collaborations with ECEC providers and research institutions. A significant element of this research activity could usefully be in developing a more systematic approach to analysing and reporting implementation, and linking implementation to outcomes. This has been done quite effectively in the health sciences. An investment in developing an ECEC ‘implementation science’ would thus appear to be a worthy of focus for future work.

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This paper was originally prepared for the OECD Early Childhood Education and Care Network Meeting, 24 January 2012, Oslo, Norway.

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Introduction

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. [1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a standalone study, purely relying on qualitative data, or part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. This review introduces the readers to some basic concepts, definitions, terminology, and applications of qualitative research.

Qualitative research, at its core, asks open-ended questions whose answers are not easily put into numbers, such as "how" and "why." [2] Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions, qualitative research design is often not linear like quantitative design. [2] One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human behavior that can be difficult to quantify. [3] Phenomena such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors can be complex to capture accurately and quantitatively. In contrast, a qualitative approach allows participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and experiencing at a particular time or during an event of interest. Quantifying qualitative data certainly is possible, but at its core, qualitative data is looking for themes and patterns that can be difficult to quantify, and it is essential to ensure that the context and narrative of qualitative work are not lost by trying to quantify something that is not meant to be quantified.

However, while qualitative research is sometimes placed in opposition to quantitative research, where they are necessarily opposites and therefore "compete" against each other and the philosophical paradigms associated with each other, qualitative and quantitative work are neither necessarily opposites, nor are they incompatible. [4] While qualitative and quantitative approaches are different, they are not necessarily opposites and certainly not mutually exclusive. For instance, qualitative research can help expand and deepen understanding of data or results obtained from quantitative analysis. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? This dual-focus scenario shows one way in which qualitative and quantitative research could be integrated.

Qualitative Research Approaches

Ethnography

Ethnography as a research design originates in social and cultural anthropology and involves the researcher being directly immersed in the participant’s environment. [2] Through this immersion, the ethnographer can use a variety of data collection techniques to produce a comprehensive account of the social phenomena that occurred during the research period. [2] That is to say, the researcher’s aim with ethnography is to immerse themselves into the research population and come out of it with accounts of actions, behaviors, events, etc, through the eyes of someone involved in the population. Direct involvement of the researcher with the target population is one benefit of ethnographic research because it can then be possible to find data that is otherwise very difficult to extract and record.

Grounded theory

Grounded Theory is the "generation of a theoretical model through the experience of observing a study population and developing a comparative analysis of their speech and behavior." [5] Unlike quantitative research, which is deductive and tests or verifies an existing theory, grounded theory research is inductive and, therefore, lends itself to research aimed at social interactions or experiences. [3] [2] In essence, Grounded Theory’s goal is to explain how and why an event occurs or how and why people might behave a certain way. Through observing the population, a researcher using the Grounded Theory approach can then develop a theory to explain the phenomena of interest.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is the "study of the meaning of phenomena or the study of the particular.” [5] At first glance, it might seem that Grounded Theory and Phenomenology are pretty similar, but the differences can be seen upon careful examination. At its core, phenomenology looks to investigate experiences from the individual's perspective. [2] Phenomenology is essentially looking into the "lived experiences" of the participants and aims to examine how and why participants behaved a certain way from their perspective. Herein lies one of the main differences between Grounded Theory and Phenomenology. Grounded Theory aims to develop a theory for social phenomena through an examination of various data sources. In contrast, Phenomenology focuses on describing and explaining an event or phenomenon from the perspective of those who have experienced it.

Narrative research

One of qualitative research’s strengths lies in its ability to tell a story, often from the perspective of those directly involved in it. Reporting on qualitative research involves including details and descriptions of the setting involved and quotes from participants. This detail is called a "thick" or "rich" description and is a strength of qualitative research. Narrative research is rife with the possibilities of "thick" description as this approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one or two individuals, hoping to create a cohesive story or narrative. [2] While it might seem like a waste of time to focus on such a specific, individual level, understanding one or two people’s narratives for an event or phenomenon can help to inform researchers about the influences that helped shape that narrative. The tension or conflict of differing narratives can be "opportunities for innovation." [2]

Research Paradigm

Research paradigms are the assumptions, norms, and standards underpinning different research approaches. Essentially, research paradigms are the "worldviews" that inform research. [4] It is valuable for qualitative and quantitative researchers to understand what paradigm they are working within because understanding the theoretical basis of research paradigms allows researchers to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the approach being used and adjust accordingly. Different paradigms have different ontologies and epistemologies. Ontology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of reality,” whereas epistemology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of knowledge" that inform researchers' work. [2] It is essential to understand the ontological and epistemological foundations of the research paradigm researchers are working within to allow for a complete understanding of the approach being used and the assumptions that underpin the approach as a whole. Further, researchers must understand their own ontological and epistemological assumptions about the world in general because their assumptions about the world will necessarily impact how they interact with research. A discussion of the research paradigm is not complete without describing positivist, postpositivist, and constructivist philosophies.

Positivist versus postpositivist

To further understand qualitative research, we must discuss positivist and postpositivist frameworks. Positivism is a philosophy that the scientific method can and should be applied to social and natural sciences. [4] Essentially, positivist thinking insists that the social sciences should use natural science methods in their research. It stems from positivist ontology, that there is an objective reality that exists that is wholly independent of our perception of the world as individuals. Quantitative research is rooted in positivist philosophy, which can be seen in the value it places on concepts such as causality, generalizability, and replicability.

Conversely, postpositivists argue that social reality can never be one hundred percent explained, but could be approximated. [4] Indeed, qualitative researchers have been insisting that there are “fundamental limits to the extent to which the methods and procedures of the natural sciences could be applied to the social world,” and therefore, postpositivist philosophy is often associated with qualitative research. [4] An example of positivist versus postpositivist values in research might be that positivist philosophies value hypothesis-testing, whereas postpositivist philosophies value the ability to formulate a substantive theory.

Constructivist

Constructivism is a subcategory of postpositivism. Most researchers invested in postpositivist research are also constructivist, meaning they think there is no objective external reality that exists but instead that reality is constructed. Constructivism is a theoretical lens that emphasizes the dynamic nature of our world. "Constructivism contends that individuals' views are directly influenced by their experiences, and it is these individual experiences and views that shape their perspective of reality.” [6] constructivist thought focuses on how "reality" is not a fixed certainty and how experiences, interactions, and backgrounds give people a unique view of the world. Constructivism contends, unlike positivist views, that there is not necessarily an "objective"reality we all experience. This is the ‘relativist’ ontological view that reality and our world are dynamic and socially constructed. Therefore, qualitative scientific knowledge can be inductive as well as deductive.” [4]

So why is it important to understand the differences in assumptions that different philosophies and approaches to research have? Fundamentally, the assumptions underpinning the research tools a researcher selects provide an overall base for the assumptions the rest of the research will have. It can even change the role of the researchers. [2] For example, is the researcher an "objective" observer, such as in positivist quantitative work? Or is the researcher an active participant in the research, as in postpositivist qualitative work? Understanding the philosophical base of the study undertaken allows researchers to fully understand the implications of their work and their role within the research and reflect on their positionality and bias as it pertains to the research they are conducting.

Data Sampling

The better the sample represents the intended study population, the more likely the researcher is to encompass the varying factors. The following are examples of participant sampling and selection: [7]

Purposive sampling- selection based on the researcher’s rationale for being the most informative.
Criterion sampling selection based on pre-identified factors.
Convenience sampling- selection based on availability.
Snowball sampling- the selection is by referral from other participants or people who know potential participants.
Extreme case sampling- targeted selection of rare cases.
Typical case sampling selection based on regular or average participants.

Data Collection and Analysis

Qualitative research uses several techniques, including interviews, focus groups, and observation. [1] [2] [3] Interviews may be unstructured, with open-ended questions on a topic, and the interviewer adapts to the responses. Structured interviews have a predetermined number of questions that every participant is asked. It is usually one-on-one and appropriate for sensitive topics or topics needing an in-depth exploration. Focus groups are often held with 8-12 target participants and are used when group dynamics and collective views on a topic are desired. Researchers can be participant-observers to share the experiences of the subject or non-participants or detached observers.

While quantitative research design prescribes a controlled environment for data collection, qualitative data collection may be in a central location or the participants' environment, depending on the study goals and design. Qualitative research could amount to a large amount of data. Data is transcribed, which may then be coded manually or using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software or CAQDAS such as ATLAS.ti or NVivo. [8] [9] [10]

After the coding process, qualitative research results could be in various formats. It could be a synthesis and interpretation presented with excerpts from the data. [11] Results could also be in the form of themes and theory or model development.

Dissemination

The healthcare team can use two reporting standards to standardize and facilitate the dissemination of qualitative research outcomes. The Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research or COREQ is a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. [12] The Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) is a checklist covering a more comprehensive range of qualitative research. [13]

Applications

Many times, a research question will start with qualitative research. The qualitative research will help generate the research hypothesis, which can be tested with quantitative methods. After the data is collected and analyzed with quantitative methods, a set of qualitative methods can be used to dive deeper into the data to better understand what the numbers truly mean and their implications. The qualitative techniques can then help clarify the quantitative data and also help refine the hypothesis for future research. Furthermore, with qualitative research, researchers can explore poorly studied subjects with quantitative methods. These include opinions, individual actions, and social science research.

An excellent qualitative study design starts with a goal or objective. This should be clearly defined or stated. The target population needs to be specified. A method for obtaining information from the study population must be carefully detailed to ensure no omissions of part of the target population. A proper collection method should be selected that will help obtain the desired information without overly limiting the collected data because, often, the information sought is not well categorized or obtained. Finally, the design should ensure adequate methods for analyzing the data. An example may help better clarify some of the various aspects of qualitative research.

A researcher wants to decrease the number of teenagers who smoke in their community. The researcher could begin by asking current teen smokers why they started smoking through structured or unstructured interviews (qualitative research). The researcher can also get together a group of current teenage smokers and conduct a focus group to help brainstorm factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke (qualitative research).

In this example, the researcher has used qualitative research methods (interviews and focus groups) to generate a list of ideas of why teens start to smoke and factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke. Next, the researcher compiles this data. The research found that, hypothetically, peer pressure, health issues, cost, being considered "cool," and rebellious behavior all might increase or decrease the likelihood of teens starting to smoke.

The researcher creates a survey asking teen participants to rank how important each of the above factors is in either starting smoking (for current smokers) or not smoking (for current nonsmokers). This survey provides specific numbers (ranked importance of each factor) and is thus a quantitative research tool.

The researcher can use the survey results to focus efforts on the one or two highest-ranked factors. Let us say the researcher found that health was the primary factor that keeps teens from starting to smoke, and peer pressure was the primary factor that contributed to teens starting smoking. The researcher can go back to qualitative research methods to dive deeper into these for more information. The researcher wants to focus on keeping teens from starting to smoke, so they focus on the peer pressure aspect.

The researcher can conduct interviews and focus groups (qualitative research) about what types and forms of peer pressure are commonly encountered, where the peer pressure comes from, and where smoking starts. The researcher hypothetically finds that peer pressure often occurs after school at the local teen hangouts, mostly in the local park. The researcher also hypothetically finds that peer pressure comes from older, current smokers who provide the cigarettes.

The researcher could further explore this observation made at the local teen hangouts (qualitative research) and take notes regarding who is smoking, who is not, and what observable factors are at play for peer pressure to smoke. The researcher finds a local park where many local teenagers hang out and sees that the smokers tend to hang out in a shady, overgrown area of the park. The researcher notes that smoking teenagers buy their cigarettes from a local convenience store adjacent to the park, where the clerk does not check identification before selling cigarettes. These observations fall under qualitative research.

If the researcher returns to the park and counts how many individuals smoke in each region, this numerical data would be quantitative research. Based on the researcher's efforts thus far, they conclude that local teen smoking and teenagers who start to smoke may decrease if there are fewer overgrown areas of the park and the local convenience store does not sell cigarettes to underage individuals.

The researcher could try to have the parks department reassess the shady areas to make them less conducive to smokers or identify how to limit the sales of cigarettes to underage individuals by the convenience store. The researcher would then cycle back to qualitative methods of asking at-risk populations their perceptions of the changes and what factors are still at play, and quantitative research that includes teen smoking rates in the community and the incidence of new teen smokers, among others. [14] [15]

Qualitative research functions as a standalone research design or combined with quantitative research to enhance our understanding of the world. Qualitative research uses techniques including structured and unstructured interviews, focus groups, and participant observation not only to help generate hypotheses that can be more rigorously tested with quantitative research but also to help researchers delve deeper into the quantitative research numbers, understand what they mean, and understand what the implications are. Qualitative research allows researchers to understand what is going on, especially when things are not easily categorized. [16]

Issues of Concern

As discussed in the sections above, quantitative and qualitative work differ in many ways, including the evaluation criteria. There are four well-established criteria for evaluating quantitative data: internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity. Credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability are the correlating concepts in qualitative research. [4] [11] The corresponding quantitative and qualitative concepts can be seen below, with the quantitative concept on the left and the qualitative concept on the right:

Internal validity: Credibility
External validity: Transferability
Reliability: Dependability
Objectivity: Confirmability

In conducting qualitative research, ensuring these concepts are satisfied and well thought out can mitigate potential issues from arising. For example, just as a researcher will ensure that their quantitative study is internally valid, qualitative researchers should ensure that their work has credibility.

Indicators such as triangulation and peer examination can help evaluate the credibility of qualitative work.

Triangulation: Triangulation involves using multiple data collection methods to increase the likelihood of getting a reliable and accurate result. In our above magic example, the result would be more reliable if we interviewed the magician, backstage hand, and the person who "vanished." In qualitative research, triangulation can include telephone surveys, in-person surveys, focus groups, and interviews and surveying an adequate cross-section of the target demographic.
Peer examination: A peer can review results to ensure the data is consistent with the findings.

A "thick" or "rich" description can be used to evaluate the transferability of qualitative research, whereas an indicator such as an audit trail might help evaluate the dependability and confirmability.

Thick or rich description: This is a detailed and thorough description of details, the setting, and quotes from participants in the research. [5] Thick descriptions will include a detailed explanation of how the study was conducted. Thick descriptions are detailed enough to allow readers to draw conclusions and interpret the data, which can help with transferability and replicability.
Audit trail: An audit trail provides a documented set of steps of how the participants were selected and the data was collected. The original information records should also be kept (eg, surveys, notes, recordings).

One issue of concern that qualitative researchers should consider is observation bias. Here are a few examples:

Hawthorne effect: The effect is the change in participant behavior when they know they are being observed. Suppose a researcher wanted to identify factors that contribute to employee theft and tell the employees they will watch them to see what factors affect employee theft. In that case, one would suspect employee behavior would change when they know they are being protected.
Observer-expectancy effect: Some participants change their behavior or responses to satisfy the researcher's desired effect. This happens unconsciously for the participant, so it is essential to eliminate or limit the transmission of the researcher's views.
Artificial scenario effect: Some qualitative research occurs in contrived scenarios with preset goals. In such situations, the information may not be accurate because of the artificial nature of the scenario. The preset goals may limit the qualitative information obtained.
Clinical Significance

Qualitative or quantitative research helps healthcare providers understand patients and the impact and challenges of the care they deliver. Qualitative research provides an opportunity to generate and refine hypotheses and delve deeper into the data generated by quantitative research. Qualitative research is not an island apart from quantitative research but an integral part of research methods to understand the world around us. [17]

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Qualitative research is essential for all healthcare team members as all are affected by qualitative research. Qualitative research may help develop a theory or a model for health research that can be further explored by quantitative research. Much of the qualitative research data acquisition is completed by numerous team members, including social workers, scientists, nurses, etc. Within each area of the medical field, there is copious ongoing qualitative research, including physician-patient interactions, nursing-patient interactions, patient-environment interactions, healthcare team function, patient information delivery, etc.

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Disclosure: Steven Tenny declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Janelle Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Grace Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

Cite this Page Tenny S, Brannan JM, Brannan GD. Qualitative Study. [Updated 2022 Sep 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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Published: 21 May 2024

Effect of authentic leadership and mindfulness educational program on nursing managers' competencies: a quasi-experimental study

Warda Mohammed Elsayed Shurab 1 ,
Sanaa Abd Elazim Ibrahim 1 ,
Marwa Mohamed Abdelaalem 1 ,
Samar Atiya Abosaleh Gabal 1 &
Takwa Rashwan Mohamed Abdelhady 1

BMC Nursing volume 23 , Article number: 342 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Authentic leadership is an emerging perspective in leadership that focuses on leaders' values and beliefs. while the mindfulness perspective permits nurse managers to be fully present, aware of themselves and their impact on others, and aware of their reactions in stressful situations. so, authentic leadership and mindfulness if combined create nurse managers who have clearer, more focused thinking, and a growth mindset that help subordinates improve and grow. as well as mindfulness-based interventions help them to improve interpersonal relationships with patients and colleagues, and to take better care of themselves and others.

The present study aims to; explore the effect of authentic leadership and mindfulness educational program on nursing managers' competencies in hospital.

A quasi-experimental design (Quantitative pre-, post-, and follow-up design) was used to conduct the study at Shirbeen General Hospital, Egypt. The study subjects consist of a purposive sample of 70 nurse managers and 226 nurses. Three tools used for data collection consisted of; the authentic leadership questionnaire, the five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, and the managerial competencies of Nurse Managers. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 20, Qualitative categorical variables were compared using the chi-square test. A significant level value was considered when the p -value ≤ 0.05, and Cohen's d was used to measure the effect size which indicated there was a large effect of educational program on post and follow-up knowledge, authentic leadership, mindfulness, and managerial competencies scores.

The current study revealed that there were significant differences between nurse managers’ knowledge, authentic leadership, mindfulness, and managerial competencies ( P = 0.001) pre-, post-, and after 3 months of the program. As determined by Cohen’s d test, there was a large effect of educational program on post and follow-up knowledge, authentic leadership, mindfulness, and managerial competencies scores.

The educational program about authentic leadership and mindfulness had a positive effect on nurse managers’ managerial competencies.

Trial registration number (TRN)

The study protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Nursing, Port Said University, Egypt (code number: NUR 13/3/2022–11).

Peer Review reports

Authentic leadership (AL) has become one of the most important leadership approaches in light of recent societal changes globally. Modern organizations require leaders who: possess high ethical standards, are aware of their abilities, and are fair in their decision-making process by creating integrity in the workplace [ 1 , 2 ]. Authentic leadership defined as a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with subordinates, fostering positive self-development [ 3 ].

Zhang et al. [ 4 ] classified authentic leadership outcomes as: 1. Follower attitudinal outcomes: positively related to subordinates' psychological empowerment, work engagement, psychological capital, psychological safety, job autonomy, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. On another hand, authentic leadership is negatively related to stress, emotional exhaustion, and cynicism [ 2 ]. 2. Follower behavioral outcomes: authentic leadership has an effect on two key work behaviors: increasing organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) “which refers to individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system”. And decreasing counterproductive work behaviors (CWB) “which refers to behavior that has a detrimental effect on organizations and their members”. 3. Leader-related outcomes: authentic leadership enhances the ability of leaders to perform their duties (leader effectiveness) and the quality of their exchange relationship with subordinates.

Authentic leaders are characterized by openness, integrity and have positive psychological traits such as trust, optimism and high morality. Additionally, authentic leaders effectively handle change and help employees cope [ 5 ]. On another hand, Frasier [ 6 ] describes authentic leaders as positive, ethical, values-driven, and collaborative, and in displaying these behaviors, they earn the trust and respect of their followers and influence follower performance.

Fry and Kriger [ 7 ] suggest that the greatest obstacle to experiencing reality authentic leadership is over-emphasis on the thinking mind, which creates an opaque screen of concepts, labels, judgments and definitions that blocks all true relationship, and that this over-emphasis decreases when attention is focused on the present. These characteristics suggest that mindfulness – which consists of putting aside personal filters to establish direct contact with experience and responding to that experience in a less-automatic, more-flexible way [ 8 ]. According to Nübold et al. [ 9 ] one factor that has been theorized to show a strong conceptual link to authentic leadership is mindfulness, and treat mindfulness as a personal antecedent to and a holistic means of training authentic leadership. Mindfulness promotes authenticity by allowing self-discovery and self-awareness, leading to more self-concordant goal setting.

Theoretically, Mindfulness-based interventions and authentic leadership are connected in that both emphasize self-awareness [ 10 , 11 ]. Increased self-awareness of thoughts, emotions, and values developed through participating in Mindfulness-based interventions can foster a greater sense of autonomy in the leader, ultimately resulting in a more unified and self-determined, authentic sense of self [ 12 , 13 ]. Pérez et al. [ 14 ] defined mindfulness as an approach to experiencing everyday life by directing attention and awareness to the present moment without judgment. Mindfulness is often associated with meditation, the practice of focusing on a chosen object of attention such as breath; however, the conceptualization of mindfulness practice extends beyond meditation or breathing techniques [ 15 , 16 ].

According to Goestjahjanti et al. [ 3 ] the benefits achieved by practicing mindfulness leadership are: 1. self-awareness: knowing internal status, preferences, resources, and intuitions. 2. self-management: turning compulsion into a choice, managing, impulses, resources, and intuitions. 3. motivation: knowing what is important to self, aligning with leader values, cultivating resilience. 4. empathy: awareness of the feelings of others, cultivating connection and trust. 5. Social skills: cultivating communication skills especially listening, engaging skillfully with conflict, and leading with compassion.

As a leader, nursing managers (also called Head Nurses) are responsible for maintaining the link between an institution's administrative mission and the nurses who provide nursing care in the clinical unit, as well as being in charge of efficient patient care activities by ensuring that subordinate nurses are qualified for the tasks allocated to them. This is one of the reasons why their roles are considered the most complex in healthcare institutions [ 17 ]. To do their duties, they must promote the growth of mindset, adhere to a code of ethics, be open, transparent, and honest in their interactions, be genuine, and instill a work culture of personal growth, clarity, accountability, and innovation [ 18 ].

Competencies are attributes underpinning behavior, which at the individual level are a combination of knowledge, skills, and abilities where skills are outcomes of continuous learning and practice supported by a person’s abilities [ 19 ]. In the same context, managerial competence is described as a combination of knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviors that an employee uses in an organization [ 20 ]. Ofei, Paarima, and Barnes [ 21 ] classified the managerial competencies as technical, conceptual, and human relationship competencies.

As a result of increased self-awareness, nurse managers reported success in transforming organizational culture, improvement in emotional intelligence, better managerial competencies, minimized psychological and physical impairment due to stress [ 16 ]. In this context, the current study aimed to examine the effect of implementing an educational program about authentic leadership and mindfulness on nurse managers' competencies, and determine if there was a positive relation between developing a mindful authentic leader and improving their technical, conceptual, and human relationship competencies.

Significant of the study

Authentic leadership and mindfulness practices if combined together create head nurses that have clearer, extra focused thinking, and growth mindset that help subordinates improve and grow. Furthermore, the concept of authentic leadership style and mindfulness practice has strong impact on head nurses’ self-evaluation [ 18 ]. As well as, Ali et al. [ 22 ] asserted that authentic leadership educational program should be recognized and implemented for all head nurses and whom in a management position in the nursing field.

In Egypt, A study conducted by Elmawla et al. [ 14 ] found that the implementation of an educational program about authentic leadership and mindfulness increased head nurses’ authentic leadership to 65.7% post-program compared with pre-program implementation (50%) and Pre-program low percent 8.6% of the head nurse had a high level of total mindfulness level improved to be 98.6% immediately post program., also the program was effect positively on head nurses self-evaluation.

Another study by Aboelenein, and Mostafa [ 23 ] found that head nurses' authentic leadership style levels were low pre-program implementation (14.8%) while they had higher scores (85.2%) with statistically significant differences post-program implementation ( p -value < 0.001), also found that staff nurses' resilience and innovation score were increased post-program implementation. Therefore, the present study was conducted to design and implement an educational program about authentic leadership and mindfulness practices and evaluate the effect of the educational program on nursing managers' managerial competencies.

The study aimed to explore the effect of authentic leadership and mindfulness educational program on nursing managers' competencies in hospital. And find the relation between authentic leadership, mindfulness, and managerial competencies of nurse managers.

PICOT research question was:

In nurse managers what is the impact of authentic leadership and mindfulness educational program on their managerial competencies compared with pre-program within five months?

The study hypothesized that the educational program about authentic leadership and mindfulness will improve nursing managers' competencies.

Study design

A quasi-experimental study design was utilized to achieve the aim of this study [ 24 ]. Non-randomized comparative trial was used (comparison one group at pre-, post-, follow-up of the program) following the Guidelines for Reporting Non-Randomized Studies [ 25 ], and the Template for Intervention Description and Replication (TIDieR) checklist [ 26 ].

Study setting

The present study was conducted at Shirbeen General Hospital which is affiliated to the Egyptian Ministry of Health—Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt. The hospital specializes in providing tertiary medical services for cases in Shirbeen City. The hospital’s capacity is 184 beds. The hospital includes 27 departments. The total nurse force is 714 nurses (204 B.Cs., 265 nursing technical institute, and 245 technical deplume 3 years).

Study subjects

Consists of two groups, the first group consists of a purposive sample nurse manager. The study sample includes nurse managers working morning and afternoon shifts with a number of 70 from the total of (81 nurse managers). The study sample includes the nurse manager’s office, head nurses, assistant head nurse, charge nurse (alternative head nurse in only afternoon shifts), nurses’ supervisors, and hospital supervision teams (infection control team, quality team, training team, occupational health and safety team, and surveillance team) all are nurse specialists.

Inclusion criteria of nurse managers : Had at least one year of experience in their current position.

Exclusion criteria of nurse managers: who worked only in the night shift.

The second group consists of (226) staff nurses from a total of (644 staff nurses) who work as subordinates for the studied nurse managers. The sample size of staff nurses was calculated according to the following Eq. [ 27 ]:

Where, n = sample size; N, studied total population; d = error percentage (= 0.05); P = prevalence or proportion of event of interest for the study; Zα/2 =1.96 (for 5% level of significance). Therefore,

Accordingly, the sample size required is 226.

Data collection tools

Three tools were used for data collection:

Tool (1): authentic leadership scale: That consisted of two parts as follow.

Part (I): Authentic leadership knowledge questionnaire:

This part included self-reported questionnaire that was developed by the researcher into Arabic language, based on literature review as (Small, 2021; Wiewiora & Kowalkiewicz, 2019; Stedham & Skaar, 2019) to assess nurse managers' knowledge regarding authentic leadership before and after the program implementation. It consisted of 40 questions answered by (2 = yes, 1 = no, and 0 = I don’t know).

Part (II): Self-reported questionnaire about authentic leadership:

This tool was adapted from Walumbwa et al. [ 28 ] to assess head nurses’ authentic leadership practice, it consists of a 16-items that measured four factors of authentic leadership: self-awareness four items, internalized moral perspective four items, balanced processing three items, and relational transparency five items. Items were rated on a five-point Likert scale (1- almost never, 2- never, 3- Sometimes, 4- always, 5- almost always). The estimated internal consistency alphas (Cronbach’s alpha) for each of the measures were also at acceptable levels: self-awareness, 0.79; relational transparency, 0.72; internalized moral perspective, 0.73; and balanced processing, 0.76 Walumbwa et al. [ 28 ]. Levels of authentic leadership were presented as: High level of authentic leadership > 64—80% = 52—64 scores, Moderate level of authentic leadership > 48—64% = 39—51 scores, Low level of authentic leadership > 32—48% = 26—38 scores.

Tool 2: five facet mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ)

The scale was developed by Baer et al. [ 29 ] and modified by the researcher to assess nurse managers’ mindfulness practice and translated into Arabic language by the researcher. The questionnaire consists of 39 items and was composed of five subscales: observing (8 items), describing (8 items), acting with awareness (8 items), non-judging of inner experience (8 items), and non-reactivity to inner experience (7 items). Alpha coefficients for Observe, Describe, Act with Awareness, and Accept Without Judgment were 0.91, 0.84, 0.83, and 0.87, respectively. Baer et al. [ 29 ]. Items were rated on a five-point metric of frequency (1- almost never, 2- never, 3- Sometimes, 4- always, 5- almost always). Levels of mindfulness were presented as: High level of mindfulness > 64—80% = 125—156 scores, Moderate level of mindfulness > 48—64% = 94—124 scores, Low level of mindfulness > 32—48% = 62—93 scores.

Tool 3: The management competencies of nurse manager:

An adapted tool was developed by Ofei, Paarima, and Barnes [ 21 ] and was translated into Arabic language by the researcher. This tool consists of 27 items to assess nurse managers’ managerial competencies by their subordinates (staff nurses). Items were grouped according to the management competencies proposed by the Katz model (technical items, human relationship items, and conceptual items). Items were on a five-point Likert scale (1- not at all, 2- to a small extent, 3- to some extent, 4- to a large extent, and 5- to a very large extent). The questionnaire was validated through a pilot survey and expert advice, the overall Cronbach’s alpha of the questionnaire was 0.845 which is considered acceptable Ofei, et al. [ 21 ]. Levels of managerial competencies represented as: High level of managerial competencies > 64 - 80% = 100 - 125 scores, Moderate level of managerial competencies > 48 - 64% = 70 - 99 scores, Low level of managerial competencies >32 - 48 % = 48 - 69 scores.

In addition to personal and work-related data

It was developed by the researcher in Arabic language and included personnel and work characteristics of nurse managers such as age, gender, level of education, job title, marital status, years of experience, and previous attendance of an educational program in the scope of the study.

Tool validity

The study tools were translated into the Arabic language by a language expert and then retranslated into the English language again before examining its validity. Content Validity of the translated tools was ascertained by a panel of experts consisting of 14 experts (seven experts from the nursing Administration department and seven experts from the psychiatric nursing department). Professors reviewed the three instruments for Arabic language translation clarity, relevance, comprehensiveness, and understanding applicability. The average proportion of Content Validity Index (CVI) for items judged relevant across the fourteen experts = 0.80. Comments and suggestions of the jury were considered and necessary modifications of items Arabic translation were done accordingly.

Tool reliability

The reliability of tools used in this study by the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient test to assess the internal consistency of the study tools. The internal consistency reliability for the authentic leadership knowledge tool was (0.85), and for the authentic leadership questioner was (0.73). The internal consistency reliability for the five-facet mindfulness questionnaire was (0.96). While the overall Cronbach’s alpha of the management competencies of nurse managers was (0.85).

Pilot study

Before entering the actual study, face validity was carried out by a pilot study on 10% (7 nurse managers and 26 nurses) of the sample to assess the clarity, practicability, and feasibility of the tool and to estimate the proper time required for the interview [ 30 ]. Appropriate modifications were made according to the results of the pilot study. Nurse managers and nurses who participated in the pilot study were excluded from the study subjects.

Ethical considerations

The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee (REC), Faculty of Nursing/ Port Said University with (code number: NUR 13/3/2022–11) based on the standard of the committee, Faculty of Nursing/ Por Said University. An official letter containing the title and the aim of the study was sent from the Dean of the Faculty of Nursing—Port Said University to the director of each setting to obtain approval from the hospital administrator for data collection in the abovementioned settings. Furthermore, written consent for participation in the study was obtained from nurse managers and staff nurses after clearing out all aspects of the study.

A field study was conducted for five months from the beginning of January (2023) to the end of May (2023). The study was carried out through the following phases:

Phase I (Assessment phase): In this stage obtaining official permissions to carry out the study, the researcher visited the study settings and arranged with the nursing director for the actual implementation of the study. Then, the process of recruitment of nurse managers and their subordinates (staff nurses). Non-randomized comparative trial was used (comparison one group at pre-, post-, follow-up of the program) following the Guidelines for Reporting Non-Randomized Studies [ 25 ], and the Template for Intervention Description and Replication (TIDieR) checklist [ 26 ]. Participants who satisfied the inclusion criteria were invited to participate in this study and signed a written informed consent form. The researcher clarified the sheets of the three tools (knowledge questionnaire, authentic leadership questionnaire, and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire) to each nurse manager and the fourth tool (managerial competencies questionnaire) to staff nurse and asked them to complete them before conducting the educational sessions. Each tool was filled in about 15 minutes to 30 minutes.

Phase II (Planning): The educational program was designed based on the assessment data collected in Phase I. The educational program was aimed to enhance nursing managers' competencies regarding authentic leadership and their mindfulness practices. The educational program was designed to cover information that contributes to developing the studied nurse managers’ knowledge about authentic leadership and mindfulness practices. The handout includes theoretical content and procedures of fits caring was prepared to facilitate remembering knowledge about authentic leadership and mindfulness practices. The program covers the following two parts: the first part was about authentic leadership (definition, components, dimensions, and outcomes from implementing authentic leadership). The second part was about mindfulness (definition, purpose, importance, principles, dimensions, components, effect of mindfulness on leadership, characteristics of mindfulness leader, mindfulness-based training, and mindfulness exercises).

Phase III (The educational program implementation ) : At the beginning, the researcher met with each nurse manager individually, explained the aim and procedures of the study, and invited them to participate. The participated nurse managers distributed into three groups each group include 23 nurse managers. The educational sessions conducted as two days per week for each group as the following table:

The training sessions were carried out by the researcher in the hospital's training class, each session lasted 60 minutes. A copy of the handout was given to each nurse manager to facilitate remembering the knowledge and practices during the explanations of the theoretical part. The program conducted by the Arabic language to avoid misunderstanding and presented in clear and concise form using different teaching methods while discussing with them the rationale and the precaution for each step as small discussions, lectures, demonstrations, and re-demonstrations and appropriate teaching media as audiovisual material and real objects. The nurse managers were introduced to the concepts and given practical training on authentic leadership behaviors and mindfulness exercises as (Body scan, Mindful eating, and Breath awareness). The training sessions also included guidance on incorporating mindfulness into daily life, emotion regulation strategies, and cultivating positive states of mind through self-awareness. Moreover, the educational program focused on deliberately reflecting on how the nurse managers could apply mindfulness approaches to their work.

At the end of the researcher's demonstrations nurse managers were asked about any unclear steps which needed repetitions or explanation before re-demonstration. The researcher emphasized that this session was done for teaching purposes not for evaluation, so mistakes and forgetting were allowed and were corrected immediately by the researcher.

Phase IV ( Evaluation phase ): The program outcomes was evaluated by using the study’s three tools (knowledge questionnaire, authentic leadership questionnaire, and Five Facet Mindfulness questionnaire) immediately after program implementation and after three months of the program. As well as, the fourth tool (managerial competencies questionnaire) revaluated by staff nurses to assess the progress of nurse managers competencies post-program and after three months.

Statistical analysis

The collected data were organized, tabulated, and statistically analyzed using SPSS for Windows version 20.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL). The reliability (internal consistency) test for the questionnaires used in the study was calculated by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient test. Continuous data were normally distributed and are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Categorical data are expressed numbers and percentages. The chi-square test (or Fisher’s exact test when applicable) was used for comparison of variables with categorical data. Pearson’s correlation (r) coefficient was adopted to analyze the correlations among key study variables. A significant level value was considered when the p -value ≤ 0.05. Cohen's d used to measure the effect size was considered small effect size at <0.5, medium effect size at 0.5<0.8, and large effect size at>0.8.

Personal characteristics of the study subjects

Table 1 illustrates the personal characteristics of studied nurse managers, indicating that 68.6% of studied nurse managers were their age ranged from 35 to 40 years old. While 44.3% of them were single. Also, 41.4% of them had a diploma degree, and 61.4% had 10 to 15 years of experience. Furthermore, 52.9% of studied nurse managers were working as nurse managers for less than 5 years.

As well as, Table 2 illustrates the personal characteristics of the studied nurse staff, indicating that 40.7% of them were aged ranged less than 35 years old with a mean of 38.32 ±4.89, and 66.4% of them were single. Regarding their qualifications, 50.4% of them had a nursing technical institute. Furthermore, 46.9% had from 5 to 10 years of experience with a mean of 9.45 ±2.07.

Nurse managers’ knowledge regarding authentic leadership and mindfulness

Table 3 illustrates the studied nurse managers’ knowledge, 67.1% of the studied nurse managers had low knowledge regarding authentic leadership pre-educational program implementation, which improved to 72.9% had good knowledge post-program and slightly decreased to 61.4% after three months of program implementation with statistically significant differences between the program three phases’ scores (pre, post, and follow-up program implementation) ( P <0.001). In addition, there was a large effect of the educational program on knowledge scores immediately post-program and after 3 months.

Nurse managers’ authentic leadership level

Table 4 clarifies the studied nurse managers’ authentic leadership levels, 47.1% of the studied nurse managers had low authentic leadership regarding balanced treatment domain pre implementation of the program which improved to (60%) of them had high level post-program, and (50%) of them had high level after 3 months of implementation the program. Also, 45.7% of them had low authentic leadership regarding the relationship transparency domain pre-implementation of the program which improved to (61.4%) of them had high level post-program, and (45.7%) of them had high level after 3 months of the program implementation. Moreover, there were significant statistical differences between the program three phases’ scores (pre, post, and follow-up program implementation) ( P <0.001). In addition, as shown by Cohen’s d test there was a large effect of the educational program on authentic leadership scores immediately post-program and after 3 months.

Nurse managers’ mindfulness levels

Table 5 elaborates level of the studied nurse managers’ mindfulness, the studied nurse managers had low mindfulness pre-implementation of the program regarding observation facet (44.3%) and action awareness facet (41.4%), which improved to (71.4%, and 72.9%) had high mindfulness post-program and (54.3%, and 57.1%) after 3 months post-program. Moreover, there were statistically significant differences between the program three phases’ scores (pre, post, and follow-up program implementation) at all domains (P <0.001). In addition, as shown by Cohen’s d test there was a large effect of the educational program on mindfulness scores immediately post-program and after 3 months.

Nurse managers’ managerial competencies as perceived by staff nurses

Table 6 shows the studied nurse manager’ total managerial competencies level, the studied nurse managers had low managerial competencies pre-implementation of the program regarding technical skills (75.2%), conceptual skills (73.9%), and human relationship skills (73%) which improved to (87.2%, 88.5%, 89.8%) had high managerial competencies post-program, and (79.6%, 83.6%, 81.4%) after 3 months post-program. Moreover, there were statistically significant differences between the program three phases’ scores (pre, post, and follow-up program implementation) in the three skills ( P <0.001). In addition, as shown by Cohen’s d test there was large effect of educational program on managerial competencies scores immediately post-program and after 3 months.

Relation between study variables

Table 7 revealed that there was a significant statistical relation between the studied nurse managers’ authentic leadership level and their mindfulness and competencies immediately post-program and after three months of implementation the educational program.

The current study was directed to explore the effect of an educational program about authentic leadership and mindfulness on nursing managers' competencies in the hospital. According to the present study findings, there was statistically significant positive relation between the educational program with the nurse managers’ scores of authentic leadership, mindfulness, and managerial competencies immediately post-program and after three months of the program implementation. In fact, the program helped those nurse managers in performing their leadership skills effectively, and providing them the opportunity to engage in open conversations, evaluate and value different points of view, share their experiences with others, and learning from others’ stories. According to Elmawla et al. [ 18 ] being authentic nurse manager is hard work and takes years of experience in leadership roles. Training program will shorten the period of nurse managers developing authentic leadership by connecting them with truth, creative ideas, journey of self-discovery and sharing experiences. Along the same line, Ali et al. [ 22 ] studied the effect of an authentic leadership educational program for head nurses on staff nurses' organizational commitment among 32 nurse managers at Benha University Hospital and found that a statistically significant improvement in the studied head nurses’ mean score regarding their attitude toward authentic leadership thorough program phases. The improvement included the dimensions of self-awareness, internalized moral perspective, balanced processing, relational transparency post-program, and follow-up after the program compared to pre-program scores as reported by head nurses. Also, Dietl and Reb [ 31 ] found that a short mindfulness practice (i.e., a 10-minute focused breathing exercise) increased leaders’ felt authenticity, and that leader trait mindfulness was positively related to follower-rated authentic leadership.

Concerning nurse managers’ knowledge regarding authentic leadership and mindfulness , the findings of the current study demonstrated that there were highly statistically significant differences between scores of the studied nurse managers’ knowledge regarding authentic leadership and mindfulness in the three study phases. In the pre-program phase, the highest percent of the studied nurse managers had a poor level of authentic leadership which improved to good level immediately post- and after 3 months of the program implementation. This may be due to the most of nurse managers did not attend previous training programs about authentic leadership style and don't recognize the importance of authentic leadership. Although almost all participants' knowledge scores improved after the program was implemented; most head nurses demonstrated a high level of authentic leadership practice. It's possible due to their active involvement and interest in the program sessions and frequent review of their knowledge. As asserted by Ali et al. [ 22 ]; and Aboelenein, and Mostafa [ 23 ] the training programs regarding authentic leadership were considered a new trend in Egyptian nurses' culture.

This result agreed with Aboelenein, and Mostafa [ 23 ] who studied the effect of an educational program about authentic leadership for head nurses on staff nurses' resilience and innovation behavior among 54 nurse managers at the Tanta International Teaching Hospital and found that the studied nurse managers' knowledge and authentic leadership style levels were low pre-program implementation while, they had higher scores with statistically significant differences post-program implementation. Also, Hassan et al. [ 32 ] studied the effect of an authentic leadership training program of head nurses on creativity and motivation of nurse staff among 36 nurse managers at Mansoura University hospital and revealed that there were highly statistically significant differences in a total of head nurses about authentic leadership style knowledge at the three times of the program (pre-test, immediately post-, and three months after the program implementation).

Regarding the studied nurse managers’ authentic leadership levels , the current study results elaborated that there were statistically significant differences between authentic leadership levels among the studied nurse managers at the three phases of the program. As noticed, the highest percent of nurse managers had low authentic leadership level preprogram regarding self-conscious domain improved to two thirds of them had high level immediately post and half of them had high level after three months of the program implementation. This result explains how the present leadership educational program based on mindfulness effected positively on the studied nurse managers’ self-awareness which increase knowledge of one’s strengths, weaknesses, values, beliefs and emotions, as well as their impact on others [ 33 ].

Moreover, the present study findings revealed that there was statistically significant variation in authentic leadership levels regarding domains of balanced treatment of information at the three phases of the program (pre, immediately and, three months post the program implemented), which reflects improvement in the nurse managers’ dealing with others by unbiased openness to differing perspectives on oneself and questioning of one’s positions [ 8 ]. This result was supported by Nübold et al. [ 9 ] who concluded that by reducing negatively biased cognition, leadership training based on mindfulness may enhance balanced processing of the studied managers. Also, it was observed that there was significant improvement regarding relationship transparency domain, the study findings revealed increased nurse managers’ capacity for displaying empathy and more ability to build more supportive relationships through an improved understanding of others. This result indicates the enhancement in the studied nurse managers’ revealing information, thoughts and sincere emotions to others through engagement in the current program activity. The study conducted by Dietl, & Reb [ 31 ] found that managers’ who participated in authentic leadership training based on mindfulness practices were showed increasing in their ethical perspective and relational transparency.

The current study's findings also revealed that there was statistically significant improvement in nurse managers’ ethical perspective scores immediately post and after three months of the program implementation. This result indicted that the educational program increased nurse managers internalized moral perspective, i.e., a process of self-regulation guided by moral values and standards forming the basis for decision making and undertaking action [ 9 ]. This finding in the same line with Tan, Peters, & Reb [ 12 ] who described that the mindfulness-based leadership training (MBLT) can support leaders in developing clarity regarding their values and purpose in life and enable them to act according to their personal beliefs and truth, supporting ethical perspective.

Regarding nurse managers’ mindfulness levels , the present results revealed that the highest percent of the studied nurse managers had low mindfulness pre-implementation of the program regarding observation and action awareness facets, which improved to more than two-thirds of them having high level of mindfulness post-program and more than a half of them had high level after three months post-program. From the researcher’s point of view, these results may be because the mindfulness training program improved nurse managers’ knowledge and provided them with practical methods for enhancing attention and awareness about mindfulness techniques such as breathing and meditation. Actually, they trained for making pausing and paying attention to notice beauty in the environment, transportation, office, and home. Also, most of the studied nurse managers became have the desire to develop themselves rather than pre-program by learning and acquiring new applicable knowledge. Most probably by practicing mindfulness they reduced their stress and enhanced their awareness.

These Findings are consistent with results reported by Elmawla et al. [ 14 ] who studied the effect of an educational program about authentic leadership and mindfulness factors on head nurses practice self–evaluation among 70 nurse managers at Elmenshawy General Hospital and Kafer El sheikh General Hospital, and indicated that there was a statistically significant improvement of total practice of mindfulness and each of observing, describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, and nonreactivity to inner experience factors immediate and three months post program than preprogram. And clarifies that, nurse managers’ training in mindfulness practice and meditation techniques improved their ability to focus and concentrate on any task at hand and improved their functioning with subordinates and patients, as well as had a positive effect on their physical and mental workability.

Regarding managerial competencies of the studied nurse managers as perceived by staff nurses as followers , teasing apart leaders’ and followers’ perceptions is essential in order to determine whether a behavioral or attributional perspective of authentic leadership is more valid. Thus, in order to fully capture and understand the role of mindfulness for authentic leadership, it would be desirable to consider both followers’ and leaders’ perspectives of authentic leadership simultaneously [ 9 ], also, as a positive outcome of the present study, the participation of staff nurses in assessing nurse managers' competencies pre- and post-authentic leadership program indirectly affected nurses’ perceptions of interpersonal justice via authentic leadership.

The present findings indicated that nearly three-quarters of the studied nurse managers had low managerial competencies preprogram in all tested skills as perceived by their staff nurses. The lowest percentage was regarding technical skills followed by conceptual skills. This finding further strengthens the fact that nurse managers in Egypt are not appointed based on clinical proficiencies of each specialty but based on educational certificates only, without testing their technical skills in each department. This would increase conflict and emotional stress during work, which negatively affects nurse managers’ mindfulness. According to Ofei, Paarima, and Barnes [ 21 ] technical skills are needed by nurse managers for supportive supervision to ensure that things are done right, and the right thing is done through the transfer of adequate knowledge, skills, and attitude or competencies. Another rationale for these findings may be that they had a higher responsibility and were loaded during the morning shift. However, it might be a lack of confidence in their ability and a lack of self-belief. Also, these results were supported by Abd-Elmoghith, and Abd-Elhady [ 34 ] Who assessed nurse managers' competencies and their relation to their leadership styles among 65 nurse managers at the Oncology Center -Mansoura University, and revealed that slightly less than half of nursing managers had a low level of competency.

The results of the current study indicated there were statistically significant variations in nurse managers’ managerial competencies scores regarding human relationship skills as perceived by staff nurses in the three study phases. It was noticed that preprogram the most of staff nurses reported that the nurse manager has small extent the ability to market care and urges teamwork, which improved post-program and after three months of the program to the most of them reported that the nurse director has large extent the ability to market care and urges teamwork. In this context, authentic leadership can serve as a positive role model for subordinates in the workplace. Before making a decision, authentic leaders prefer to encourage employees' independent thinking and expressive behavior. On the other hand, authentic leadership fosters trust and personal support among employees, boosting self-efficacy and meeting competency requirements [ 35 ]. In the same direction with the current results Mashavira, & Chipunza [ 36 ] who found that there was strongly positive effect of authentic leadership training on managers’ skills regarding building constructive relation with their subordinate especially improve teamwork and supporting their self-efficacy.

Furthermore, the current results presented that there were statistically significant differences in nurse managers’ scores regarding conceptual skills as perceived by staff nurses at the study three phases. As evidence, pre-program about three quarters of staff nurses reported that the nurse manager has small extent the ability to analyze effectively and plan strategically, which improved post and after three months of the program to the most of them reported that the nurse director has large extent the ability to analyze effectively and plan strategically. These findings agreed with Gunawan et al. [ 37 ] who concluded that there was statistically significant improvement in the managers conceptual competencies after refining of their managerial core competencies through implementation of authentic leadership training.

Relation between study variables , the present results there was a significant statistical relation between the studied nurse managers’ authentic leadership level and their mindfulness and competencies immediately post-program and after three months of implementation the educational program. This result can be positively extended to nurses’ work attitudes via authentic leadership. Along the same line, Elmawla et al. [ 18 ] found a positive relation between nurse managers’ mindfulness and their knowledge, while there was a positive relation non-significant relation between nurse managers’ authentic leadership and their knowledge. Also, Nübold et al. [ 9 ] confirmed a positive relation between leaders’ trait mindfulness and authentic leadership as rated by both followers and leaders, and showed that the intervention increased authentic leadership via gains in leaders’ mindfulness.

Based on the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that

The educational program about authentic leadership and mindfulness was effective in enhancing nurse managers’ managerial competencies. Through the evaluation of nurse managers immediately post the program and after 3 months follow-up, it was found that the participants showed a good level of knowledge and attitude regarding authentic leadership, such as relationship transparency and balanced treatment. also, they experienced high perception regarding mindfulness practices and the effect of these practices on their managerial competencies, especially conceptual skills. The study recommended conducting periodical training programs about authentic leadership to update nurse managers’ essential knowledge. And periodically training regarding mindfulness practices to increase nurse managers’ observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience and non-reactivity to inner experience to reduce work stress and turnover.

Implications for practice and future directions

The findings provide multiple fields of study relating to nursing leadership development that may benefit from a better understanding of how to improve nurse managers’ training through the addition of mindfulness practice. The studied nurse managers and staff nurses reported improved workplace interaction, also linking mindfulness practice with more prosocial behavior especially increased attentive listening and more response to others. The study findings also revealed increased nurse managers’ capacity for displaying empathy and more ability to build more supportive relationships through an improved understanding of others. The researcher recommends further research examining the effect of that training programs based on mindfulness and authentic leadership on nurses’ productivity and empowerment of nurses in health organizations. As well as, it recommended to develop various trainings and workshop about authentic leadership for whom in a nursing managerial position to increase their knowledge and competencies regarding their authentic leadership. The researcher also recommends further research in healthcare organizations to utilize the findings regarding authentic leadership and mindfulness and implications of this study to determine ways to overcome work-life balance issues that cause undue stress to nurse managers in various leadership roles. This will allow nurse managers to advance into more senior-level or higher leadership roles while providing them with the confidence and abilities to manage stress knowing that their career trajectories are attainable.

Limitations of the study

There are certain limitations to this study. First, the rating of knowledge and attitude toward authentic leadership were measured by nurse managers themselves; hence the responses of nurse managers can be overvalued as a result of a tendency of them to report what a researcher expects to hear, and/or what may reflect positively on them. Second, it was not possible to use randomization or a control group in this study, and this issue can be affected by personal bias. To address this issue, several procedural remedies were applied by improving the scale items’ clarity by pilot testing with nurses who had the same inclusion criteria. Also, the participation of the staff nurses in the observation of the effect of the educational program on nurse managers’ competencies was to overcome the concern of bias.

Availability of data and materials

Due to confidentiality concerns, the data and materials used in the current study cannot be made publicly available. However, they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank and appreciate all nurse managers and staff nurses who participated in this study.

Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB). Open access funding is provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB). The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) and The Egyptian Knowledge Bank provide open-access funding (EKB). This study was not supported by any public, private, or nonprofit funding organization.

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Warda Mohammed Elsayed Shurab, Sanaa Abd Elazim Ibrahim, Marwa Mohamed Abdelaalem, Samar Atiya Abosaleh Gabal & Takwa Rashwan Mohamed Abdelhady

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WM planned the study and prepared the manuscript, Writing the original and final manuscript drafts, educational program training, and administration. SI Supervised, reviewed and interpreted data and the manuscript. MA Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation. SA reviewed and interpreted of the manuscript. TA reviewed and interpreted of data and the manuscript. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Warda Mohammed Elsayed Shurab .

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All methods and procedures pertaining to this study were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee (REC), Faculty of Nursing/ Port Said University with (code number: NUR 13/3/2022–11) based on the standard of the committee, Faculty of Nursing/ Por Said University and adhered to the declaration of Helinski. An official letter containing the title and the aim of the study was sent from the Dean of the Faculty of Nursing—Port Said University to the director of the study setting to obtain approval from the hospital administrator for data collection in the abovementioned setting. Informed consent for participation in the study was obtained from nurse managers and staff nurses after clearing out all aspects of the study. The study did not directly or indirectly expose nurse managers and staff nurses to any diagnosis or treatment.

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The Media and Sexual Violence Among Adolescents: Findings from a Qualitative Study of Educators Across Vietnam

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Published: 10 May 2024

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Katherine M. Anderson ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9675-3653 1 ,
Alicia Macler 1 ,
Irina Bergenfeld ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2601-2854 2 ,
Quach Thu Trang 3 &
Kathryn M. Yount ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1917-1574 2 , 4

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Growing access to technology and media has presented new avenues of influence on youth attitudes and norms regarding sexuality and sexual violence, as well as new technological pathways through which to perpetrate sexual violence. The aim of this research was to understand contextual influences on and needs for scale-up of sexual violence prevention programming in the media-violence context of Vietnam. We conducted 45 interviews with high school teachers ( n = 15), university lecturers ( n = 15), and affiliates from youth-focused community service organizations ( n = 15) from across Vietnam. Additionally, we conducted four sector-specific focus groups with a sub-sample of interview participants ( k = 4, n = 22). Media and technology were brought up consistently in relation to sexual violence prevention and sexual health information. Key informants noted that, in Vietnam, generational differences in acceptability of sex and lack of comprehensive sexuality education intersect with new technological opportunities for exposure to sexual information and media. This creates a complex landscape that can promote sexual violence through priming processes, instigate mimicry of violent media, and presents new opportunities for the perpetration of sexual violence though technology. Development of comprehensive sexual education, including violence prevention education, is imperative, with consideration of age-specific needs for Vietnamese youth.

A Rights-Based Approach to Youth Sexting: Challenging Risk, Shame, and the Denial of Rights to Bodily and Sexual Expression Within Youth Digital Sexual Culture

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Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence Perpetration and Victimization Among Adolescents: A Network Analysis

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Introduction

Prevalence of sexual violence globally in asia/pacific and in vietnam.

Sexual violence, defined as a sexual act committed or attempted in the absence of freely given consent, is a worldwide public health challenge (Basile et al., 2014 ). Sexual violence includes contact-based acts, such as non-consensual sexual intercourse, and non-contact-based acts, such as sexual harassment, unwanted exposure to sexual situations, and non-consensual filming and/or dissemination of explicit photographs (Basile et al., 2014 ). Globally, at least 35.6 percent of all women ages 15 years or older have reported experiencing sexual violence (World Health Organization (WHO), 2021 ). Men also may experience sexual violence; however, the global prevalence of exposure to sexual violence for men is much lower than for women (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation [IHME], 2017 ). Moreover, men are shown to perpetrate the majority of instances of sexual violence (James-Hawkins et al., 2019 ). Survivors of sexual violence are at heightened risk of experiencing immediate and long-term negative physical and mental health outcomes, as well as adverse social outcomes, such as diminished academic achievement (Amar & Gennaro, 2005 ; Fielding-Miller et al., 2021 ; Gonzales et al., 2005 ).

Southeast Asia has a high lifetime prevalence of physical or sexual violence by a partner or sexual violence by a non-partner; over 34% of women ages 15 to 49 in Southeast Asia report at least one of these experiences (WHO, 2021 ). In select countries of the Asia–Pacific region, 24.3% of men reported ever perpetrating sexual partner violence, and 10.9% of men had perpetrated non-partner rape in their lifetime (Fulu et al., 2013 ). Of men who reported non-partner rape, 57.6% reported perpetrating rape more than one time (Fulu et al., 2013 ). In Vietnam, sexual violence remains understudied and likely under-reported, though the available data suggest that sexual violence victimization is widespread (Pham, 2015 ; Winzer et al., 2019 ). According to the 2019 Vietnam survey of violence against women, 13.3% of women reported ever experiencing sexual violence by a husband or partner, and 9.0% reported ever experiencing sexual violence by a non-partner (MOLISA & UNFPA, 2020 ). However, other estimates gauge sexual violence victimization as more pervasive, with almost 20% of women 20 to 24 years reporting sexual violence victimization since the age of 15 (Le et al., 2019 ). Across age groups, adolescent women 15–19 years and young women 20–24 years are reported to experience the highest and second highest rates of non-partner sexual violence since age 15, at 24% and 17%, respectively (MOLISA & UNFPA, 2020 ).

Theories of Media and Violence

Several theories exist to explain how media influences cognition and behavior (Valkenburg et al., 2016 ), with variation by context, modality of the media, and predisposing personal factors. These include routine activity theory, which posits that individuals can be motivated to enact violence or another crime when an available victim, an offender, and the absence of a protective force or guardian for the potential victim converge (Aizenkot, 2022 ; Kumar et al., 2021 ; Madero-Hernandez & Fisher, 2012 ; Räsänen et al., 2016 ; Van Ouytsel et al., 2018 ) and social ecology theory, which emphasizes the role of the social environment (Lou et al., 2012 ; Stokols, 1992 ).

For purposes of the current analysis, we are informed by a combination of theories that conceptually overlap and build upon each other, including mimicry, sexual script theory, social cognitive theory, and cultivation theory. In the immediate aftermath of media exposure to violence, enacted violence is thought to operate through priming processes, arousal processes, and mimicking behaviors (Huesmann, 2007 ). The third of these, mimicry, is the imitation of behaviors seen in media (Huesmann, 2007 ), and is a common theme in theories of violence. Sexual script theory embraces the concept of mimicry by asserting that individuals model their sexual expectations, norms, desires, and decisions after portrayals of sex in their culture, such as in media (Wiederman, 2015 ), while social cognitive theory and social learning theory employ the similar concept of observational learning (Bandura, 2001 ; Bandura & Walters, 1977 ). Both social cognitive theory and social learning theory have been applied to the context of media, sexual activity, and violence (Brem et al., 2021 ; Hedrick, 2021 ; Hust et al., 2019 ; Marshall et al., 2021 ; Sun et al., 2016 ; Walker, 2021 ). Youth employ observational learning regularly as part of development (Fryling et al., 2011 ), including in cases of observed violence (Flannery et al., 2007 ). Observational learning typically occurs over time (Bandura, 2008 ), with replication of observed behaviors lasting well beyond the observed event (Fryling et al., 2011 ). According to cultivation theory, which also has been applied to media-violence research (Hedrick, 2021 ; Moorman, 2022 ), greater and repeated use of media is associated with greater acceptance of the norms and beliefs conveyed by that media (Morgan et al., 2014 ). Compounding this, repeated observation of arousing content can, in turn, cause desensitization, in which negative reactions to events like violence can become dampened over time, allowing viewing or participation in violence without negative affect (Huesmann, 2007 ). Notably, these theories lack significant consideration of youth as critical thinkers, with the assumption that they absorb witnessed behaviors with limited processing prior to reenactment. Literature supports more complex processes, such as emotion regulation and rumination (Brimmel et al., 2023 ; Felix et al., 2022 ; McComb & Mills, 2021 ), which we acknowledge and consider in our theoretical approach.

Pathways to Sexual Knowledge and Violence: Media Exposure and Use

Paradoxically, the global rise of technological connectivity has created new pathways to access sexual information and to execute sexual violence, the impacts of which may not be fully captured by existing data. Technology increasingly is used to access mass media sources, including informational media, such as news and informational websites, social media, such as social networking sites, or entertainment media, such as films. Most adolescents and young adults use the internet for health information-seeking (Buhi et al., 2009 ; Santor et al., 2007 ), with sexual health searched more often than any other health topic (Buhi et al., 2009 ). For many, the internet is the primary source of information, even with recognition that schools and medical professions may be better sources of information (Shih et al., 2015 ).

In Southeast Asia, an estimated 17% of individuals have used media to learn about sex (Gesselman et al., 2020 ). This gathering of information may lead to positive, neutral, or negative information about sex, to the extent that informational media and entertainment media may contribute indirectly to sexually violent behaviors, wherein content may reinforce harmful normative beliefs about sexual violence and may normalize or even promote contact- and non-contact forms of sexually violent behavior. This is aligned with theory of priming processes, wherein associations made in media are impressed upon viewers. Mobile sex-tech is technology used to enhance sexuality through information and connections with other people, such as through dating apps, among other activities (Gesselman et al., 2020 ). Sex-tech can be used for finding dating or sexual partners, and sending sexual images, videos, or message to others, known as sexting. In one study, an estimated 28.3% of individuals in Southeast Asia reported ever using sex-tech to find a sexual partner, and 60.1% had engaged in sexting, with approximately 45% having sent images and 28% having send videos (Gesselman et al., 2020 ). The anonymity of some of these platforms, as well as the independence with which they can be accessed by youth may lead to circumstances described by routine action theory, in which a lack of authority represents an opportunity for unhealthy action.

The rapid proliferation of internet and phone access also has vastly increased access to media that may contain biased framing of sexual violence, or sexually explicitly material (SEM), media demonstrating sexual acts, but not necessarily violent sexual acts (Owens et al., 2012 ; Peter & Valkenburg, 2016 ). An analysis of representation of sexual violence in German online news media found the perpetuation of rape myths and the portrayal of victims as weak and passive women (Schwark, 2017 ). In a study of English-language news articles from Pakistan, India, and the UK, it was found that gender-based violence messaging focused on rape, rather than sexual violence more broadly (Manzoor et al., 2023 ). Both studies demonstrate how prevailing ideologies normalizing sexual violence and minimizing different types of sexual violence may be perpetuated. While estimates of adolescent exposure to SEM vary globally (Peter & Valkenburg, 2016 ), studies in urban Vietnam confirm that large majorities of adolescents and emerging adults access SEM. A recent national study found that 84% of adolescents 15–18 years had ever been exposed to SEM (Nguyen et al., 2021 ), and a study of first-year male University students in Hanoi found that 41% had been exposed to media-based violent SEM in the prior 6 months (Bergenfeld et al., 2022a ). Direct viewing of this content may provoke mimicry of violence by viewers, in alignment with sexual script theory. Notably, exposure to SEM may occur through passive intake or through active seeking of explicit materials. A 2011 analysis demonstrated that 83% of the top 20 Nielsen-rated adolescent television shows contained SEM (Neilsen Company, 2011 ), while a more recent content analysis of popular Western television shows watched by teens and young adults reached similar conclusions about the common nature of sexual violence and sexual abuse (Kinsler et al., 2019 ). Other avenues for passive exposure to SEM include video games, music, music videos, and films (Peter & Valkenburg, 2016 ). In studies of pornography, which is inherently explicit and often actively sought out, 88% of videos included physical aggression or violence towards women (Bridges et al., 2010 ; Foubert et al., 2011 ). These represent additional opportunities for priming of the association of sex with violence, with cultivation theory suggesting that repeated use increases the likelihood of adopting the beliefs presented in media.

Some of these paths of exposure to media on sexual violence also are tools for sexually violent behavior. Initially consensual sexting may quickly transition to unwanted exposure to sexual images or videos if one party does not seek consent. Informational and social media forums to share comments can become a vehicle for written sexual harassment of an individual. Images or videos shared consensually with a partner can be harnessed for blackmail or nonconsensual sharing via media. These direct, non-contact forms of sexually violent behavior are known as Technology Facilitated Sexual Violence (TFSV). They may include the distribution of explicit photographs and videos without consent, the sharing of unsolicited explicit content, and the use of online platforms for sexual harassment (Powell & Henry, 2019 ). In some western countries, lifetime TFSV exposure may be as high as 17% (Patel & Roesch, 2022 ), with higher prevalence among youth (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2015 ; Powell & Henry, 2019 ). Moreover, social media provides opportunities to facilitate in-person contact and non-contact sexual violence. Conversations on social media, both anonymous and not, may become an opportunity to convince someone to have an in-person meeting, either consensually or through manipulation of power dynamics; one party may have the intent of perpetrating sexual violence, physically, through nonconsensual documentation of sexual behavior, or through other means.

Harms of Media/Technology on Violent Attitudes and Behavior

A growing body of evidence supports the harmful outcomes related to sexual material in media/technology, including the perpetuation of inequitable gender roles, rape mythology, negative self-worth, and sexually violent behavior. Several harmful outcomes also are associated with TFSV victimization, including technology use related to sex generally, such as sexting. In a Hong Kong-based study, individuals who took part in sexting had higher levels of body surveillance and shame than those who did not (Liong & Cheng, 2019 ); in some settings, youth may frame TFSV in dating relationships, such as demands to engage in sexting, as requests for “proof of love” (Fernet et al., 2023 ). Sexting itself has been associated with risky sexual behavior, substance use, depression (Gesselman et al., 2020 ) and self-harm among adolescents (Wachs et al., 2021 ).

In Western countries, exposure to SEM and especially violent SEM has been associated with more accepting attitudes about sexual violence and with sexually violent behavior (Rodenhizer & Edwards, 2019 ). In the global West and Asia, such exposure is associated with permissive sexual attitudes and gender-stereotypical sexual beliefs among adolescents (Peter & Valkenburg, 2016 ). Across studies, male study participants’ attitudes and behaviors regarding sexual and domestic violence were more strongly affected by exposure than females’ (Rodenhizer & Edwards, 2019 ). A recent meta-analysis found that greater overall media consumption was associated with higher rape myth acceptance (Hedrick, 2021 ), with general pornography, violent pornography, and sports media accounting for most of this association. In a recent longitudinal study in Vietnam, a dose–response relationship was observed between the frequency of exposure to violent SEM with non-contact and contact sexually violent (Bergenfeld et al., 2022a ).

Benefits of Media/Technology for Violence Prevention

Conversely, access and exposure to information on safe sexual behavior and the prevention of sexual violence can lead to positive outcomes among adolescents. Qualitative studies of women in the USA, Canada, and India have suggested that women who access non-violent sexual content associated this exposure with positive sexual exploration and development of sexual identity, opportunities for sex-positive education and exploration of readiness for sex, improved sexual connectedness in relationships, normalization of sexual desires, and improved acceptance of their bodies and sexualities (Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015 ; Attwood et al., 2018 ; Chowkhani, 2016 ; McKeown et al., 2018 ). Two qualitative studies conducted in urban Thailand and Vietnam found that adolescent girls use social media to develop their sexuality, express desires, and exercise sexual agency in settings where female expressions of sexuality are restricted and access to accurate sexual information is limited (Boonmongkon et al., 2013 ; Fongkaew & Fongkaew, 2016 ; Ngo et al., 2008 ). In a Hong Kong-based study, individuals who had participated in sexting had more comfort with nudity (Fernet et al., 2023 ), and sexting generally may contribute to increased emotional connection and satisfaction in relationships as well as freedom of sexual expression (Gesselman et al., 2020 ).

Social media also may provide a space for people to share sexual experiences and to seek support. In Hong Kong, “confessional” social media pages have enabled users to ask questions, seek advice around sex from peers, and receive peer support (Yeo & Chu, 2017 ). Social support, in turn, may indirectly reduce the risk of sexual violence victimization (Ybarra et al., 2015 ). In recent years, social media has been used strategically to disclose experiences of sexual violence and to provide social support to survivors (Alaggia & Wang, 2020 ), though some studies find that survivors of sexual violence do not reap the same benefits of public sharing of experiences as much as individuals who experienced less stigmatized trauma, such as a natural disaster (Delker et al., 2020 ). Also, the survivors of sexual violence may interpret and identify their experiences differently based on prevalence of sexual violence cases in the media (Newins et al., 2021 ).

Various forms of media have served as a tool to disseminate widely accurate and relevant information about sex and sexual violence to teen audiences (Todaro et al., 2018 ). Young people have cited increased comfort accessing information about sex online compared to other mediums (Lim et al., 2014 ), and reduced embarrassment for adolescents who are uncomfortable discussing sex with their parents (Lou et al., 2012 ). Qualitative research in Vietnam has found that parents would like accessible information about sex on the internet (Do et al., 2017 ). Numerous technology-based interventions relating to sexual violence exist, however, only a portion include content relating to violence prevention, rather than identification or survivor support, and those that do are largely focused on North America (Huang et al., 2022 ). In one systematic review of mobile sex-tech, which included 15 articles of technology-related interventions with sexual violence information, only 27% contained content on sexual violence prevention, and none contained information on the impacts of sexual violence (Huang et al., 2016 ). Nevertheless, two systematic reviews of tech-based interventions for intimate partner violence (IPV) found that IPV prevention in combination with access to telehealth services showed promise to reduce the risk of violence victimization (Anderson et al., 2021 ; El Morr & Layal, 2020 ), while a third did not identify any significant effects (Linde et al., 2020 ). Notably, the reviewed studies focused on interventions with women as potential victims, rather than men as potential perpetrators (Huang et al., 2022 ). While careful development is essential to prevent unintended consequences, such as increasing adherence to rape myths (Nicolla & Lazard, 2023 ), online programming in the U.S. and Vietnam have been successful in decreasing sexually violent behavior among university men (Yount et al., 2023b ; Salazar et al., 2014 ; Yount et al., 2020 ). In a randomized controlled trial of an “edutainment” program to reduce sexual violence, program participants had increased knowledge of the illegality of sexual violence and increased victim empathy (Yount et al., 2022 ), through which Vietnamese men had lower odds of past-year sexually violence behavior after program participation (Yount et al., 2023b ; Yount et al., 2020 ). This may demonstrate a pathway to reduced sexually violent behavior through the effective use of media with young people.

The aim of this paper is to elucidate the state of media usage relating to sexual violence among Vietnamese youth, according to educational and programmatic partners across Vietnam, using the research question “What is the perceived influence of social media on sexual violence among youth according to educators in Vietnam?” Further, we seek to describe the implications of media usage relating to sex and sexual violence, both positive and negative, and identify lessons and pathways to improve sexual health and sexual violence programming for Vietnamese youth. While literature is available on media, sex, and sexual violence globally and broadly in Southeast Asia, little of this research focuses on Vietnam specifically, and little from the perspective and framing of implementation of sexual violence prevention. This information may allow for effective, targeted programming and/or engagement in media to reduce sexual violence and promote gender equitable attitudes among youth.

Vietnam, located in Southeast Asia, is home to 96 million people, and 13.70% of the population are aged 15 to 24 years (General Statistical Office [GSO] of Vietnam, 2020 ). Fifty-four recognized ethnic groups are represented within the population of Vietnam, with 85% of individuals self-identifying as Kinh (Hiwasaki & Minh, 2022 ). Currently classified as a lower middle-income country, Vietnam’s population typically still resides in rural areas (70%) (World Bank, 2022 ); however, Vietnam has seen steady economic growth and diversification over the past 20 years, alongside declines in poverty (Do et al., 2021 ; Nguyen et al., 2020 ). Literacy is almost universal, and the gender gap in number of years of schooling is relatively narrow (United Nations Development Program [UNDP], 2022 ) though women less often participate in the workforce than men (69% v. 79%), and working women earn substantially less than their male counterparts (United Nations Development Program [UNDP]), 2022 ).

Nearly all individuals in urban and rural settings have access to electricity, and most (70%) of the Vietnamese population has access to the internet (Mobile Marketing Association, 2019 ). In 2019, there were 141 phone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, and nearly all internet users are estimated to own a smartphone, such that over 80% of the population over age 15 is connected to online content (Mobile Marketing Association, 2019 ). Approximately 68% of the rural population own a smartphone, and as of 2019, was connected to the internet an average of 3 hours per day; of which 40% was spent on messaging apps in communication with others (Mobile Marketing Association, 2019 ).

As of 2019, 90% of young adults (18–29 years old) in Vietnam were using smartphones (Silver et al., 2019 ), while 72 million people (accounting for 73.7% of the population) use social media in Vietnam. Between January 2020 and January 2021 alone, the number of Vietnam’s social media users increased approximately by 10.8% (2021). Approximately 65% of Vietnamese youth (aged 16–30, N = 1200) use the internet daily; a study of social media use among Vietnamese youth engage with social media for an average of 4.3 hours a day and primarily use it to talk with friends and receive updated news (Doan et al., 2022 ). Commonly used applications include Facebook, YouTube, and Zalo, with interactivity on YouTube and Zalo being highest with news and entertainment accounts (Doan et al., 2022 ; Hanns Seidel Foundation, 2021 ).

Social media in Vietnam is currently regulated under the Law on Cyber Security (National Assembly of Vietnam, 2018 ), and the Decision 874/QD-BTTTT (2021) on the Code of Conduct on social media, to protect “the national security,” relating to “moral values, culture, and traditions of Vietnamese people” (Ministry of Information & Communications, 2021 ; My, 2022 ) While no specific definition of these terms is provided, Decree 15/2020/ND-CP outlines financial punishment of 10 million VND to 20 million VND ($500—$1,000) for violation of regulations on use of social media, including “promoting bad customs, superstition, lustful materials which are not suitable for the nation’s fine customs and traditions.” In sum, access to smartphones, online media, and networking apps are widespread in Vietnam, particularly among youth, and laws regulating access to online content are nascent.

Participants

Recruitment strategies are described elsewhere (Yount et al., 2023a ). In brief, a multi-pronged approach was used to identify key informants from universities, high schools, and civil society organizations (CSOs) who conduct programs related to sexual and reproductive health and rights. Once initial potential participants were contacted, the research team employed snowball sampling to diversify the participant pool, with consideration to institutional setting (university, high school, CSO), region of Vietnam in which the institution was located (North, Central, South), and gender.

Participants were invited via email to complete interviews until a total sample of 45 was achieved, with an even distribution of 15 participants each from university, high school, and CSO settings. Of 45 interviewed participants, 32 were invited to participate in focus groups, based on their knowledge of sexual violence programming. A total of 22 individuals agreed to participate in focus group discussions, resulting in four focus groups: one with high school teachers ( n = 7), two with university lecturers ( n = 6 and n = 3), and one with key informants from CSOs ( n = 6).

Measures and Procedure

We conducted a qualitative study of key informants from high schools, universities, and civil society organizations (CSOs) across all regions of Vietnam, which included in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, a mixed-methods approach which is useful for research that has multiple objectives (Hennink et al., 2020 ). Overarching findings from the parent study are presented elsewhere (Yount et al., 2023a ). This analysis focuses on narrative segments related to the media, which was identified as a highly salient theme worthy of a separate, in-depth analysis.

In the parent qualitative study, the binational research team developed three guides for data collection. A semi-structured key informant interview guide contained open-ended questions about sexual violence among youth populations; gender and sexual norms among youth populations; causes, effects, and strategies to prevent sexual violence among youth; and factors influencing sexual violence prevention programming. Interviews were chosen to reduce social desirability bias, as recommended when discussing sensitive topics (Hennink et al., 2020 ). Two guides were developed for use in focus group discussions. Focus groups were selected for this objective as they allow for the identification of a range of perspectives and facilitate the justification of ideas (Hennink et al., 2020 ). First, a viewing guide elicited opinions and responses to the web-based sexual violence prevention program, GlobalConsent (Yount et al., 2022 ). The guide asked participants to rate on a five-point scale the feasibility and acceptability of program elements, and to elaborate upon their reasoning for the rating. The focus group facilitator collected the completed guides and used them in combination with a focus group guide to prompt discussion during the focus groups. The focus group guide aligned with the domains of the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) (Damschroder et al., 2009 ). Questions were open-ended and assessed facilitators and barriers to sexual violence prevention programming, with prompts drawn from feedback in the viewing guide. This method was used to ascertain consensus, when possible. Of note, none of the data collection guides contained direct questions about social media, internet use, or technology-based sexual violence information dissemination other than reference to GlobalConsent. When participants raised these topics, facilitators asked follow-up questions to elucidate their opinions and experiences. All data collection forms have been previously published and are publicly available (Yount et al., 2023a ).

All data were collected using audio calls through the Zoom videoconferencing system. Two research staff members trained in qualitative research methods from the Center for Creative Initiatives in Health and Population completed data collection. At the beginning of each interview or focus group, the staff members explained the purpose of the study and reminded participants that they would not be asking for any private or potentially sensitive personal information. All interviews and focus groups were recorded using the Zoom videoconference platform. Interviews lasted 45–90 min, and focus groups lasted 120–150 min. Upon completion of data collection, interview participants were compensated with $20 USD. Focus group participants were compensated $30 USD for viewing GlobalConsent and completing the viewing guide materials, and $20 USD for participating in the focus group discussion.

Data Analysis

Data collectors saved digital recordings on a password-protected cloud-based research drive, and a professional transcription service transcribed all recordings verbatim. The research team verified random sections of the Vietnamese transcriptions against the original recordings. Verified Vietnamese transcripts then were translated into English, and a research team member proficient in the Vietnamese and English languages and cultures checked random segments of the English transcripts against the Vietnamese transcripts for accuracy of the translation and its meaning as intended in the original Vietnamese. Audio recordings were destroyed following quality checks of the written transcripts and translations.

Study team members analyzed the English transcripts using deductive and inductive techniques to identify initial themes and media-related sub-themes. Two doctoral-level study team members developed a codebook based on the interview guides and CFIR domains, inclusive of definitions, and revised it iteratively following repeated readings by other study team members. Team-based coding was used to code each transcript in MaxQDA.

All content related to media originally was coded using a single broad inductive code in the first round of coding. For this analysis, all coded segments related to media then were extracted and saved in a single document. Two graduate-level trained researchers independently reviewed this document to identify inductive sub-themes applicable to the data. The researchers then met to discuss the inductive sub-themes, reconcile discrepancies through inter-coder agreement, and to review the need for further theme identification. This latter step ultimately was not taken due to the high level of concurrence between the initially identified inductive subthemes. Inter-coder reliability was not calculated to avoid implied objectivity or undue precision (O’Connor & Joffe, 2020 ).

Finally, the coders created a salience matrix to visualize the presence or absence of each theme within each transcript, in order to qualitatively and quantitatively represent the salience of each them across all transcripts. Representative quotes for each sub-theme were identified to contextualize the findings with sector and gender of interview participants, and sector only for focus group participants, as statements were not individually identifiable in the focus groups. Participant characteristics are reported in Table 1 .

Accessibility and Quality of Information about Sex and Sexual Relationships

Many community partners, including more than half of participants employed as university lecturers or CSO affiliates, noted that media is highly accessible to young people in Vietnam, particularly through the internet, such that information about sex and sexual relationships can be easily found. Further, according to many participants, students seek out information independently, rather than rely upon schools to provide information. According to one participant, “Young people now have access to information easily, so they can learn things themselves. When we …distribute free condoms to advocate for safe sex, it comes to my surprise that students actually know about condoms” (University Lecturer, Woman). Another participant clarified that easy access to information about sex was generally a benefit of media access, specifically for young women, “ … nowadays, I think with the age of technology development, it would be easy for [young people] to look for information to help protect themselves [from unwanted pregnancy]” (University Lecturer, Woman).

A few participants described this high general access to information about sex as empowering for young people in Vietnam. One participant stated, for example, that “When they [the youth] need information, they are very proactive and find it very quickly themselves” (University Lecturer, Woman). However, several participants, and particularly participants affiliated with CSOs, expressed concern that the quality of available information on sex and sexual relationships is variable, and some “unregulated” available content may be inaccurate and may lack the comprehensiveness that adolescents need. One participant shared, “In recent years, access to the internet makes it easy for people to retrieve a lot of information, including unregulated ones, especially for adolescents and youth. People are not fully informed” (CSO Affiliate, Woman). Elaborating on this potential for youth to gain incomplete knowledge through internet sources, another participant noted, “…I can see that the young generation has learnt on their own via the internet … even though the young have somewhat an understanding about safer sex, their source of information is not adequate and they still lack orientation” (University Lecturer, Woman). This lack of orientation was seen as an important barrier to the practice of safe and consensual sex.

A few participants expressed additional concern about the volume and appropriateness of information available online, given the lack of formal sex/sexuality education, and given the willingness of students to actively see information themselves: “…sometimes the information is too much for them. …there really isn't anyone to teach them the skills to say no. So really they mostly depend on their instinct or information that they find out on their own rather than having orientation” (University Lecturer, Woman). When the information availabe online is “too much,” according to some participants, students may experience potentially harmful outcomes. Participants discussed how the abundance of ostensibly tempting, unregulated, and confusing information could overwhelm youth seeking information, with one participant explaining, “[online] we also receive many opinions, different kinds of feedback, even some pages, organizations, and activists …. I think it [creates] a rather chaotic environment …[Youth] can feel confused since they don't know which side to take, they are not sure which side is the right one” (CSO Affiliate, Woman).

About one third of participants from high school and university settings attributed this confusion to the lack of up-to-date “official” information, with one lecturer noting, “they have too much information and couldn’t find any official information,” calling the available official sources of information “extremely limited and old school” (University Lecturer, Woman). Many paricipants believed such official information was vital to provide young people with accurate information about sex. A CSO-affiliated participant shared,

Now it's easy, everyone has a smartphone. Google does not charge, so just google it. ... However, [youth] are not sure which document is official and standard. What they need the most is the most up-to-date materials with information and knowledge constantly updated. The source of information must be official and in accordance with the standards. (CSO Affiliate, Woman )

Despite substantial agreement across participants that youth needed more access to “official” information about sex, the meaning of “official” in the context of information on sex in the media varied. One participant distinguished information from medical sources and that from the government and schools, with the latter sources being indicated as preferrable, while medical sources, such as hospitals, may contribute to the potentially overwhelming, “unregulated” information online: “There are also many video clips or guideline on other social networks… Some hospitals also post these contents, both foreign and Vietnamese. [It’s] available, but maybe there’re too many, with no sources from the Government or schools.” (CSO Affiliate, Woman)

Other participants echoed the idea of “official” sources originating with the government, with one stating, “…online, I have not seen much. Besides, I think there is no official training program [on this topic] by the Ministry of Education yet” (CSO Affiliate, Woman). The absence of an official training program complicated the role of schools and universities, who were noted as potentially playing a significant role in the dissemination of information, but only once it exists: “And when the information is official, it will be shared by the school, the university, or the student community. It is also considered an official channel” (CSO Affiliate, Woman). Only one participant discussed non-governmental organizations as a source for “official” information: “If we talk about official sources of information, it is definitely the type of absolutely official sources like UNWOMEN or …multinational organizations working on gender. They provide much more credible information” (CSO Affiliate, Woman).

Media Depictions of Sexual Activity and Normalization of Sexual Violence

Some participants noted the lack of official information regarding sex and sexual relationships as intersecting meaningfully with narrow, sensational depictions of sexual violence and the normalization of sexual coercion, non-consent, and sugar-daddy relationships in the media. These depictions were described as occurring in the news media, television, and in online media content, including but not limited to pornography. One participant shared that the news media was not adept at conveying the complex nuances of sexual consent, arguing that this source of information was “unable to distinguish at a more delicate level, that things may start out as consensual, but could become non-consensual later” (University Lecturer, Woman). Only extreme cases of sexual violence were cited as worth covering by news media, masking other forms of sexual violence. As a focus-group discussion participant explained, “[the news media] only care about the major events … if there is a case where the students …make a girl to drink and it leads to a rape, and that spreads among students… [the media] will immediately jump in to investigate and interview” (University Lecturer). Further, according to another participant, the news media’s presentation of information on cases of sexual violence often ignore the voices and experiences of women and experts in the field.

Some participants also described the silencing of women’s experiences relating to sex and sexual violence as common in the movies. Some participants described movies from Southeast Asia as reinforcing rigid gender stereotypes, including women’s passivity and submission to masculine coercion, as well as the normalization of non-consent. A CSO affiliate shared, “…for example, in Chinese and Korean dramas, we may see scenes where the female character doesn't like it, but the male keeps kissing, and then, in the end, those two have a sweet night. I feel such things are injected into girls’ heads” (CSO Affiliate, Woman). One high-school teacher corroborated the above depiction of sex in Southeast Asian movies in this way:

…in Korean/Chinese movies or love novels that the young usually read and watch, the main characters typically force their partner into having unwanted sex or physical contacts, such as hugs or kisses. Consequently, the readers form a notion that it is okay for the male to force such activities, and the female does like it. (High School Teacher, Woman)

Reinforcing the normalization of sexual violence and non-consent in mainstream movies available to Vietnamese youth, some participants, particularly university lecturers, discussed how pornography contains harmful depictions of sexual activity that they believe drives a desire among men to imitate, including violent behaviors or behaviors that would make female partners uncomfortable. As demonstrated by the experiences of one university lecturer, exposure to pornographic material was expansive, and occurred from a young age:

…men from old to young have seen this type of [sexually explicit] film and are influenced by the erotic and sadistic elements in the film. These factors often stimulate the curiosity of men and make them want to try more. Young people are especially curious about this issue. I once did a project to provide computers for elementary schools …after 6 months of operation, when I accessed the search history, there were many pornographic websites in it. The 5th graders at that school watched sex movies. Even though they did not type the right words, they still watched and even discussed the contents of the movies. (University Lecturer, Man)

Some participants believed that youth generally were not aware that violent actions portrayed in such movies would be considered sexual violence, but rather normal sexual encounters that should be used as a guide. One university lecturer stated, “…young people think that if they do the same thing [as pornography], they will be professional, and this mindset causes young people to commit acts of sexual violence that they themselves do not know,” (University Lecturer, Woman). Several participants emphasized that the risk of imitating sexually explicit material, and at times violent sexually explicit material, was heightened because official information about healthy sexual relationships was lacking and so could not counter adolescents’ interpretations of SEM as normal forms of sexual interaction.

Concurrently, some participants, and particularly high school teachers, perceived a rise in portrayals of transactional sex in online media that capitalize on gender-stereotypical roles and economic power imbalances, particularly manifesting in “sugar-daddy” relationships among young people. One CSO affiliate shared, “… the most current trend [on dating apps] is sugar-daddy and sugar-mommy, which is why people nowadays joke that formerly, you could only purchase a single ticket for one-night stands, but now you can purchase a multiple-round ticket.” (CSO Affiliate, Woman). According to one high school teacher’s experience, sugar-daddy and sugar-mommy relationships were normalized in online media: “Last year, for example, there were so many cases of sugar babies—sugar daddies. They even made short clips to gain views and likes and created videos to post on YouTube to make money.” (High School Teacher, Woman). Another participant from a CSO contrasted her own personal experiences with those of youth only a few years younger: “My age is pretty close to them [but] when I was their age, those types of [transactional] relationships weren’t that common around me and not on the media either. Now it’s much more popular in the media…. These things are normalized because it’s common among young people” (CSO Affiliate, Woman).

Mixed Consequences and Opportunities from Young People’s Engagement with Media

To many focus group and interview participants, including many of high school teachers and university lecturers, increased access to and interaction with media, the lack of reliable information on sexual relationships and sexual violence, and media portrayals and normalization of non-consensual and violent relationships led to increased risk of sexual violence victimization among youth. The accessibility of communication with unknown persons provided by internet access was viewed as facilitating these cases of violence by providing opportunities for youth to be taken advantage of. A CSO affiliate spoke to this point, saying, “They [youth] often use communication apps to date or have sex (slang). Even those children of 15, 16 age… showed their bodies online as requested by older men” (CSO Affiliate, Man).

Several participants elaborated that youth they were familiar with also were at risk of non-consensual recording and distribution of content. Over one-third of high school teachers discussed these risks, and a participant who worked with a youth-centered CSO detailed them, saying, “…some people lure students into the toilet to secretly film them. … [some are] paying students to go to their living space to perform sex, then record clips…. On paid sex viewing websites, many videos with private sex scenes are posted to get money" (CSO Affiliate, Man). This non-consensual sharing of explicit sexual material was not limited to circumstances of non-consensual recording but could also originate in the consensual sharing of videos or images among youth, or between youth and adults. This content was described as potential material for blackmail and manipulation: “Four cases that I handled last year had to do with online erotic messaging via Zalo or text messages: boys and girls, they exchanged erotic images, but the boy saved those images and used them to blackmail the girl." (University Lecturer, Man) According to some participants, they didn’t believe youth understood the risks of content sharing, even to a single person: “The images uploaded on the Internet can be viewed by millions of people. People do not think of it as a danger to themselves. There are cases where private pictures/videos are spread out right in the school. Students did not think that it could be able to be exposed.” (CSO Affiliate, Man).

Conversely, some participants acknowledged benefits to increased access and exposure to media. The internet provides forums where youth who had experienced sexual violence could connect with other survivors, fostering social support: “Nowadays, the young can share their story with some groups or forums on the Internet. …though talking about their situations on the Internet didn’t get them the professional support they needed, they did receive a certain level of empathy and emotional support” (CSO Affiliate, Woman). Another participant noted that the internet provided a layer of privacy that could not be achieved through in-person contact, easing feelings of embarrassment or discomfort in seeking support: “I think they would talk to their friends… [but] talking [in person] could be embarrassing, and they would be afraid that someone might overhear them, so I think they would send messages over Zalo, Facebook.” (University Lecturer, Woman)

Furthermore, social forums on the internet were seen by some participants as providing space for young people to ask questions, to be exposed to different opinions, and to gather a variety of perspectives to inform themselves better: “In this era, information is very accessible. However, what really helps is a space where they feel safe to share their views on this topic. And after sharing, they can also listen to other people's opinions to conclude what is right, what is reasonable, what is not reasonable, and what is needed to be changed?” (University Lecturer, Woman).

Media as a Tool for Sexual Education and Sexual Violence Prevention

Despite participants’ perceptions of the mixed outcomes related to high accessibility of heterogeneous information about sex and sexual relationships and the high use by young people of media for this information, many participants noted that media was a powerful and important tool for disseminating information about sex and sexual violence and for engaging youth. One high school teacher shared, “…with the advance of technology in today's society, we can create websites, Facebook pages, or TikTok channels…to share information about sexual violence and ways to prevent it. I think this is a way for the young to access reliable sources of information more easily” (High School Teacher, Woman). How information is presented in media also was discussed, with some participants highlighting that media can be a tailored medium of information to youth. The flexibility of media as a medium, and particularly online media was noted as a major facilitator or tailoring information. An CSO-based participant shared: “We can run several media projects that propagate sex education content such as talk shows, minigames, etc.… There are certain levels of flexibility for communicating with students of this age, especially in a time when sex education is still something we are aiming at" (CSO Affiliate, Woman). Finally, some participants, particularly those affiliated with CSOs, noted a key feature of media as a potentially effective tool was the ability to reach large populations:

The biggest advantage of youth groups like us, or young NGOs working in the social field, we know about social media, and we use it quite proficiently… Hence, I feel that is our huge advantage, especially if we want to spread the knowledge about sexual violence on the media and social networks. That's quite true because, among our 150,000 followers, 78 - 80% of them are young people aged from 18-20 years old. (CSO Affiliate, Woman)

Other participants echoed these sentiments, with one university lecturer suggesting that existing institutional resources could be leveraged, saying, “I think the best method would be using websites, the ones that are familiar to students, or pages of the student community " (University Lecturer, Woman). This strategy was cited as providing the sense of an “official” channel of information, and more clearly delineating between “official” and “unofficial.” Other partnerships also were discussed, including working with media channels: “I think we can also use the help of media news channels and authorities to spread more awareness and attract attention to the topic of sexual violence.… By doing this, the young do not have to actively learn about it … their mindset about sexual violence can be formed unconsciously" (High School Teacher, Woman). By these means, participants recognized media as potentially facilitating norms change through the efforts of activists and educators, underscoring the perceived power of media as a tool, “…not just to inform people, but also advocate for public opinions.” (University Lecturer).

Despite the numerous positive features of media as an educational tool, a few participants noted limitations. One participant shared, “I can't force them to visit only this page, go to that page, or tell them that they can only read materials related to learning and mustn’t watch movies. That is very difficult" (High School Teacher, Woman). Another participant pointed out that, despite the accessibility of information on the internet, neither access to nor use of the internet to seek out information were universal, potentially leaving vulnerable populations out of media-based programming:

Not everyone can have access to social media, or to the internet. Not everyone has time…. For me, the people who don't … have the conditions to do it are the people we need to approach most. Because those people are people who don't have much access to the mass media, to both information and knowledge sources on gender and sexual violence. (CSO Affiliate, Woman)

Even with these limitations, several of participants acknowledged that media already has shifted norms in Vietnam. One participant said of the youth with whom they work, “With the influence of social media such as YouTube, Tiktok, or Facebook, young people view sexual intercourse at this age as something normal. They think it is no longer a shame as in older times; they even openly share about it instead of keeping it a secret as before" (CSO Affiliate, Woman). Another key informant shared the impact of media on independent decision-making among youth, stating that media has given youth freedom through access to information. Finally, one participant commented on the increasing globalization allowed by media, and the profound impacts of exposure to different ideas:

I believe that the power of media and other means of connecting people, such as social networks, is quite large… There is also the openness of social media, where Vietnamese adolescents are more exposed to Western culture through concepts like freedom of expression and self-expression. Furthermore, girls are no longer constrained by the old concept of virginity. Boys, on the other hand, have more opportunities to study abroad and interact with people from different cultures, resulting in more cultural exchange. There are also an increasing number of reality shows on television about love and romance. As a result, they have a wealth of resources at their disposal to learn more about sex. (CSO Affiliate, Woman)

Leveraging of these resources, participants agreed, could be used to promote sexual health and decrease sexual violence among Vietnamese youth, empowering adolescents to shift social norms and promote increased gender equity.

Summary and Interpretation of Findings

In interviews and focus groups regarding sexual violence prevention among adolescents in Vietnam, high school teachers, university lectures, and affiliates of youth-focused CSOs expansively discussed the role of media and technology in the context of sexual violence and sexual education for Vietnamese youth. Primarily, interview and focus group participants expounded upon the high availability of access to media through technology, and particularly media relating to sex. However, the information presented in this media varies widely, according to participants, with some media that is incorrect or inappropriate for youth, and few available sources of information that were classified as “official.” Respondents shared that the available media—including news media, informational websites, social networking platforms, video streaming platforms, and mobile applications—depict sexual activity that is coercive or violent, normalize transactional sex, reinforce normative beliefs about inequitable gender roles, and prompt mimicry of sexual violence.

Given the high prevalence of youth information-seeking about sex through media (Buhi et al., 2009 ; Santor et al., 2007 ), including in Southeast Asia (Gesselman et al., 2020 ; Ngo et al., 2008 ; Nguyen, 2007 ) and Vietnam, specifically, the availability of accurate and appropriate information on sex and sexual violence is imperative to the education of youth globally. In line with behavioral health theories that integrate mimicry and observational or social learning, such as sexual script theory (Wiederman, 2015 ) and social cognitive/social learning theory (Bandura, 2001 ; Bandura & Walters, 1977 ), participants stated that youth they were familiar with imitated the sexual situations and actions they viewed in media, including violent sexual acts without the consent of their partner. This echoes previous findings of the role of observational learning in the contexts of media, violence, and sexual activity, previously identified associations between exposure to SEM, sexual attitudes, and gender-stereotypical sexual beliefs in the global West and Asia (Gesselman et al., 2020 ; Peter & Valkenburg, 2016 ), and recent findings on a dose–response relationship between SEM and sexually violent behavior among young men in Vietnam (Bergenfeld et al., 2022a ). Participants stated that non-consent was normalized in movies and television, passively reinforcing the violent and coercive sexual behaviors, while news media both sensationalized and neglected to portray the nuances of sexual violence and consent. According to cultivation theory, repeated exposure to portrayals and normalization of sexual violence may promote greater acceptance of and desensitization to violence (Morgan et al., 2014 ), which may provide insight into why some participants reported that youth did not know that nonconsensual sexual acts were in fact sexual violence.

Participants also discussed the implications of this increased access to media relating to sex, with both negative and positive outcomes delineated. Media was cited as increasing opportunities for sexual violence in two main ways. First, youth were put at risk through connecting with unknown people via messaging or networking sites, leading to vulnerable in-person meetings. Indeed, almost 30% of individuals in Southeast Asia are thought to have used sex-tech for finding sexual partners (Gesselman et al., 2020 ), indicating willingness to put oneself in situations that may be conducive to sexual violence. Second, youth were put at risk through the sharing of their own sexually explicit media with others, either privately or publicly. An estimated 60.1% of individuals in Southeast Asia report sending sexually explicit messages, including images and videos (Gesselman et al., 2020 ), which have the potential to then be shared beyond the original recipient without consent. Non-sexually explicit photos posted on social media were also described as a pathway for sexual harassment or TFSV.

By contrast, media also provided forums for learning, exploration, and social support, which participants noted is promising for sexual education and prevention of sexual violence. Social media and blogs were cited as potential sources of diverse opinions and experiences, corroborating previous findings of young women in Southeast Asia using the internet to explore and develop sexual identities and gain accurate information about sex (Boonmongkon et al., 2013 ; Fongkaew & Fongkaew, 2016 ; Ngo et al., 2008 ), and seek advice and social support about sex and sexual violence (Alaggia & Wang, 2020 ; Yeo & Chu, 2017 ). The significant portion of Vietnamese young adults on social media (Silver et al., 2019 ) also marks this as an ideal pathway for education and prevention of sexual violence, as identified by interview and focus group participants.

Interestingly, while participants recognized the diversity of the sources of information on the internet and the impossibility of "forcing" students to view "official” channels, they did not discuss the importance of media literacy education, which may help students to identify the useful/good vs. harmful information. It may be important to emphasize students as agents for change—once they are equipped with the knowledge and skills to analyze media sources with discernment and more accurate knowledge of sexual violence and consent. Media literacy education in high school and university contexts may offer a normatively acceptable pathway to increased critical analysis of sexual and sexually violent content in media, and may not face the same barriers that have been outlined to implementing sexual violence prevention education in Vietnam (Yount et al., 2023a ). This strategy may complement ongoing violence prevention efforts, particularly in high schools given that average educational attainment is projected to exceed 12 years in Vietnam among children of school-entry age (United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 2022 ). Such programs that have been successfully implemented in the United States may be appropriate for adaptation to the context of Vietnam (Scull et al., 2018 , 2022 ).

Limitations and Strengths of Analysis

Some limitations and several strengths of this analysis are notable. First, qualitative research is not generalizable but generates salient themes that may be explored more systematically in future surveys involving representative samples of young people. Second, the data are perceptions of the behavior of young people from high-school teachers, university lecturers, and CSO affiliates and should not be interpreted as the actual behavior of young people. Relatedly, there is a possibility of polysemy in interpretation of media, wherein messaging may be interpreted semantically differently by different individuals (Ewoldsen et al., 2022 ), with implications for processing and actions taken following viewing. Educators may not only interpret media they see differently from their students, but students in one cultural group, class, or educational environment may view or interpret media differently from others, limiting the interpretations educators may be privy to. Only comprehensive inclusion of diverse educators—for the circumstances of this analysis—or youth can capture these multiple interpretations. While significant efforts were made to engage educators from across geographic regions and genders, these efforts may not be sufficient to capture all educator interpretations, let alone those of youth. Despite these caveats, the sample of participants is highly diverse, representing men and women living in urban and rural areas and key informants from diverse youth-serving institutions across all regions of Vietnam. Moreover, the participants in the study, because of their profession and high degree of interaction with young people, are important key informants to query, as knowledgeable adults from their own vantage point. Finally, the team used theory on media and violence to inform a nuanced interpretation of the data and its alignment with results from prior empirical research. The findings provide important insights about possible next steps to understand and to address young people’s use of the media and the diverse and sometimes countervailing ways in which it may help or harm young people’s encounters with sexual violence.

Implications for Research and Sexual Violence Prevention Programming

The findings from this analysis are a strong call for more research among youth in Vietnam, especially surrounding the needs for comprehensive sex education and TFSV. The increased prevalence of TFSV also warrants including this outcome in measures of sexual violence, such as those used in population-based surveys. Thus, large-scale surveys among high-school studies and university studies to document in representative school-based samples the various ways in which media and violence intersect, and at what developmental ages, would provide critical groundwork for developing educational programming that meets the most salient needs at each developmental stage. Expanded research is needed on youth media literacy and the needs of educational systems to facilitate implementation of sexual violence programming (Yount et al., 2023a ). Finally, given increasing access among youth globally to media-related technology and the internet, more work is needed to understand the implications of this access for sexual violence and sexual health, particularly among youth in low- and middle-income countries.

From the perspective of sexual health and sexual violence programming, the findings from this analysis are suggestive of some common and some age-specific needs of young people in Vietnam. First, there is a clear call for official, science-based curricula on sex and sexual violence that is developmentally tailored to high school and university students. A stronger need may exist for comprehensive sexuality education at the high-school level, including education on healthy relationships and media literacy. It may be beneficial to incorporate international standards, such as those suggested in the UNESCO Comprehensive Sexuality Education Implementation Toolkit (UNESCO, 2023 ), into newly developed curricula. Existing effective programs delivered through technology to university students (Yount et al., 2022 ) may be adaptable for the context of high school students, facilitating continuous sexual health and sexual violence education through high school and university. At the university level, there may be a more salient need for sexual violence prevention programming that educates adult students about the nature and scope of sexual violence, the importance of obtaining active consent for sex, the role of (media disseminated) gender norms in perpetuating myths about rape, masculine privilege, and ideas that are harmful to healthy sexual relationships (Bergenfeld et al., 2022b , 2022c ). Notably, peers themselves are an important source of norms about sexual violence alongside media; as such, comprehensive sexual violence prevention programming must address both media- and peer-related risk factors for sexually violent behavior (Yount et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, there is a need for education at both the high-school and university levels about the safety of online dating and social networking so that students are better informed about the risks at the outset of their engagement with online social-network and dating aps. Finally, there is a need for comprehensive education about the types of sexually explicit material that may heighten risks of sexually violent behavior for both groups, given the high prevalence of exposure at a young age in Vietnam (Bergenfeld et al., 2022a ).

Conclusions

The rise in availability and exposure to media among youth globally and in Vietnam has raised new educational needs on sexual violence prevention and sexual health information. New and adapted curricula, with age-specific programmatic elements, may help to mediate the impacts of media on perpetration of violence.

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We would like to thank the participants who generously contributed their time and thoughts to this research, as well as Dr. Minh Tran Hung, the site principal investigator for this research.

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Anderson, K.M., Macler, A., Bergenfeld, I. et al. The Media and Sexual Violence Among Adolescents: Findings from a Qualitative Study of Educators Across Vietnam. Arch Sex Behav (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-024-02869-7

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Not all data are created equal; some are structured, but most of them are unstructured. Structured and unstructured data are sourced, collected and scaled in different ways and each one resides in a different type of database.

In this article, we will take a deep dive into both types so that you can get the most out of your data.

Structured data—typically categorized as quantitative data—is highly organized and easily decipherable by machine learning algorithms . Developed by IBM® in 1974 , structured query language (SQL) is the programming language used to manage structured data. By using a relational (SQL) database , business users can quickly input, search and manipulate structured data.

Examples of structured data include dates, names, addresses, credit card numbers, among others. Their benefits are tied to ease of use and access, while liabilities revolve around data inflexibility:

Easily used by machine learning (ML) algorithms: The specific and organized architecture of structured data eases the manipulation and querying of ML data.
Easily used by business users: Structured data do not require an in-depth understanding of different types of data and how they function. With a basic understanding of the topic relative to the data, users can easily access and interpret the data.
Accessible by more tools: Since structured data predates unstructured data, there are more tools available for using and analyzing structured data.
Limited usage: Data with a predefined structure can only be used for its intended purpose, which limits its flexibility and usability.
Limited storage options: Structured data are usually stored in data storage systems with rigid schemas (for example, “ data warehouses ”). Therefore, changes in data requirements necessitate an update of all structured data, which leads to a massive expenditure of time and resources.
OLAP : Performs high-speed, multidimensional data analysis from unified, centralized data stores.
SQLite : (link resides outside ibm.com) Implements a self-contained, serverless , zero-configuration, transactional relational database engine.
MySQL : Embeds data into mass-deployed software, particularly mission-critical, heavy-load production system.
PostgreSQL : Supports SQL and JSON querying as well as high-tier programming languages (C/C+, Java, Python , among others.).
Customer relationship management (CRM): CRM software runs structured data through analytical tools to create datasets that reveal customer behavior patterns and trends.
Online booking: Hotel and ticket reservation data (for example, dates, prices, destinations, among others.) fits the “rows and columns” format indicative of the pre-defined data model.
Accounting: Accounting firms or departments use structured data to process and record financial transactions.

Unstructured data, typically categorized as qualitative data, cannot be processed and analyzed through conventional data tools and methods. Since unstructured data does not have a predefined data model, it is best managed in non-relational (NoSQL) databases . Another way to manage unstructured data is to use data lakes to preserve it in raw form.

The importance of unstructured data is rapidly increasing. Recent projections (link resides outside ibm.com) indicate that unstructured data is over 80% of all enterprise data, while 95% of businesses prioritize unstructured data management.

Examples of unstructured data include text, mobile activity, social media posts, Internet of Things (IoT) sensor data, among others. Their benefits involve advantages in format, speed and storage, while liabilities revolve around expertise and available resources:

Native format: Unstructured data, stored in its native format, remains undefined until needed. Its adaptability increases file formats in the database, which widens the data pool and enables data scientists to prepare and analyze only the data they need.
Fast accumulation rates: Since there is no need to predefine the data, it can be collected quickly and easily.
Data lake storage: Allows for massive storage and pay-as-you-use pricing, which cuts costs and eases scalability.
Requires expertise: Due to its undefined or non-formatted nature, data science expertise is required to prepare and analyze unstructured data. This is beneficial to data analysts but alienates unspecialized business users who might not fully understand specialized data topics or how to utilize their data.
Specialized tools: Specialized tools are required to manipulate unstructured data, which limits product choices for data managers.
MongoDB : Uses flexible documents to process data for cross-platform applications and services.
DynamoDB : (link resides outside ibm.com) Delivers single-digit millisecond performance at any scale through built-in security, in-memory caching and backup and restore.
Hadoop : Provides distributed processing of large data sets using simple programming models and no formatting requirements.
Azure : Enables agile cloud computing for creating and managing apps through Microsoft’s data centers.
Data mining : Enables businesses to use unstructured data to identify consumer behavior, product sentiment and purchasing patterns to better accommodate their customer base.
Predictive data analytics : Alert businesses of important activity ahead of time so they can properly plan and accordingly adjust to significant market shifts.
Chatbots : Perform text analysis to route customer questions to the appropriate answer sources.

While structured (quantitative) data gives a “birds-eye view” of customers, unstructured (qualitative) data provides a deeper understanding of customer behavior and intent. Let’s explore some of the key areas of difference and their implications:

Sources: Structured data is sourced from GPS sensors, online forms, network logs, web server logs, OLTP systems , among others; whereas unstructured data sources include email messages, word-processing documents, PDF files, and others.
Forms: Structured data consists of numbers and values, whereas unstructured data consists of sensors, text files, audio and video files, among others.
Models: Structured data has a predefined data model and is formatted to a set data structure before being placed in data storage (for example, schema-on-write), whereas unstructured data is stored in its native format and not processed until it is used (for example, schema-on-read).
Storage: Structured data is stored in tabular formats (for example, excel sheets or SQL databases) that require less storage space. It can be stored in data warehouses, which makes it highly scalable. Unstructured data, on the other hand, is stored as media files or NoSQL databases, which require more space. It can be stored in data lakes, which makes it difficult to scale.
Uses: Structured data is used in machine learning (ML) and drives its algorithms, whereas unstructured data is used in natural language processing (NLP) and text mining.

Semi-structured data (for example, JSON, CSV, XML) is the “bridge” between structured and unstructured data. It does not have a predefined data model and is more complex than structured data, yet easier to store than unstructured data.

Semi-structured data uses “metadata” (for example, tags and semantic markers) to identify specific data characteristics and scale data into records and preset fields. Metadata ultimately enables semi-structured data to be better cataloged, searched and analyzed than unstructured data.

Example of metadata usage: An online article displays a headline, a snippet, a featured image, image alt-text, slug, among others, which helps differentiate one piece of web content from similar pieces.
Example of semi-structured data vs. structured data: A tab-delimited file containing customer data versus a database containing CRM tables.
Example of semi-structured data vs. unstructured data: A tab-delimited file versus a list of comments from a customer’s Instagram.

Recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are driving the future wave of data, which is enhancing business intelligence and advancing industrial innovation. In particular, the data formats and models that are covered in this article are helping business users to do the following:

Analyze digital communications for compliance: Pattern recognition and email threading analysis software that can search email and chat data for potential noncompliance.
Track high-volume customer conversations in social media: Text analytics and sentiment analysis that enables monitoring of marketing campaign results and identifying online threats.
Gain new marketing intelligence: ML analytics tools that can quickly cover massive amounts of data to help businesses analyze customer behavior.

Furthermore, smart and efficient usage of data formats and models can help you with the following:

Understand customer needs at a deeper level to better serve them
Create more focused and targeted marketing campaigns
Track current metrics and create new ones
Create better product opportunities and offerings
Reduce operational costs

Whether you are a seasoned data expert or a novice business owner, being able to handle all forms of data is conducive to your success. By using structured, semi-structured and unstructured data options, you can perform optimal data management that will ultimately benefit your mission.

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Qualitative Research: Definition, Types, Methods and Examples
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Collaborative Qualitative Research as a Learning Tool in Nursing

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Understanding the Case Study Approach in Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research Reporting Standards: How are qualitative articles different from quantitative?
Qualitative and Quantitative Research design
What is qualitative research?
Understanding Research Methods in Education

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PDF Students' Perceptions towards the Quality of Online Education: A
Yi Yang Linda F. Cornelius Mississippi State University. Abstract. How to ensure the quality of online learning in institutions of higher education has been a growing concern during the past several years. While several studies have focused on the perceptions of faculty and administrators, there has been a paucity of research conducted on ...
A Qualitative Case Study of Students' Perceptions of Their Experiences
qualitative research professor. I was positive that I would design a quantitative research study but the qualitative courses in the program highlighted the merits of qualitative research. Dr. Cozza and Ms. Rosaria Cimino, thanks for the advisement support. To all the Ed.D. candidates that I encountered on my academic journey, especially my
Full article: A qualitative study of primary teachers' classroom
In this small scale, qualitative study, the small sample size, of course, limits the transferability of these findings. Nonetheless, possible future research on a larger scale should include teachers at other school levels as well as teachers from different countries. Another important limitation is that the findings do not provide information ...
What Is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis. Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc. Qualitative research question examples
Qualitative Research
The term qualitative research is used as an umbrella term to refer to several research strategies. Five common types of qualitative research are grounded theory, ethnographic, narrative research, case studies, and phenomenology. It is unfair to judge qualitative research by a quantitative research paradigm, just as it is unfair to judge ...
PDF Guidance Note on Qualitative Research in Education
Note on Qualitative Research in Education: Considerations for Best Practice. London, England: United Kingdom. ... For example, in the education sector, quantifiable differences in children's household economic situation or parental attitudes regarding secondary school completion reveal only one part of a
Planning Qualitative Research: Design and Decision Making for New
While many books and articles guide various qualitative research methods and analyses, there is currently no concise resource that explains and differentiates among the most common qualitative approaches. We believe novice qualitative researchers, students planning the design of a qualitative study or taking an introductory qualitative research course, and faculty teaching such courses can ...
Qualitative research in education : Background information
Sara Delamont (Ed.) Publication Date: 2020. This updated second edition extends the discussions surrounding the key qualitative methods used in contemporary educational research. Featuring comprehensive coverage of research across all stages of education, it provides sophisticated and concise discussions on both the building blocks of the field ...
International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education
Black women's indispensable conceptualizations of mothering for theorizing and researching DisCrit. Article | Published online: 14 May 2024. Explore the current issue of International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, Volume 37, Issue 4, 2024.
Qualitative Research in Education
The fourth edition of this reader-friendly book offers an accessible introduction to conducting qualitative research in education. The text begins with an introduction to the history, context, and traditions of qualitative research, and then walks readers step-by-step through the research process. Lichtman outlines research planning and design ...
Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods
Examples of Qualitative Research. You have probably seen examples of qualitative research before, but you might not have paid particular attention to how they were produced or realized that the accounts you were reading were the result of hours, months, even years of research "in the field." A good qualitative researcher will present the ...
PDF Student Engagement: a Qualitative Study of Extracurricular Activities
The Research Questions This study has investigated how - in one high school - students have engaged in sport and citizenship clubs. The major research question is: How are students engaged in the clubs? This research enquired into the following subsidiary questions: 1. How do students develop relationships, skills, and leadership in the ...
Qualitative Research Methods for Science Education
In qualitative research, analysis is a boot-strapping operation in which, reflexively, assertions and questions are generated on the basis of evidence, and evidence is defined in relation to assertions and questions. Data analysis, informal and formal, begins as one is negotiating entry to the research site.
Qualitative Research on Science Education in Schools
The best-known strategy in qualitative research is the step-by-step delineation of the sample by theoretical sampling according to Glaser and Strauss (), which is connected to grounded theory (Sect. 17.4).This approach describes a step-by-step sequence of selection decisions aligned with a theory developed in parallel with the research.
Qualitative Comparative Analysis in Education Research: Its Current
Qualitative comparative analysis (QCA), a set-theoretic configurational approach based on Boolean algebra, was initially introduced more than 30 years ago and has since been developed largely through the work of Charles Ragin (1987, 2000, 2008).QCA constitutes one of the few genuine methodological innovations in the social sciences over the past decades (Gerring, 2001), and its potential has ...
PDF Qualitative Research in Education: Interaction and Practice
The classic book, Qualitative Research in Education: Interac - tion and Practice (2003) published by Sage is one of the pioneering publications in the area of educational research, written by ...
Grounded Theory Approaches Used in Educational Research Journals
Grounded theory has become one of the most commonly used qualitative research methodologies (Birks & Mills, 2015; Bryant & Charmaz, 2007; Morse, 2009; Timmermans & Tavory, 2007).While it shares a number of characteristics with other qualitative approaches (e.g., coding, categorization, and inductive analysis), grounded theory is distinct as it aims to generate theory that is grounded in data.
A Qualitative Study of the Impact of Experiences of Students With
coach was the focus of this study. The purpose of this qualitative research was to gauge the extent of pressures, the social and emotional impact, and the advantages and/or disadvantages individuals felt when they were a student having a parent in a position of authority at their school. The findings from the research study substantiated the
What Is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis. Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history. Qualitative research question examples
Qualitative Research Paradigm
The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior ...
Criteria for Good Qualitative Research: A Comprehensive Review
This review aims to synthesize a published set of evaluative criteria for good qualitative research. The aim is to shed light on existing standards for assessing the rigor of qualitative research encompassing a range of epistemological and ontological standpoints. Using a systematic search strategy, published journal articles that deliberate criteria for rigorous research were identified. Then ...
Qualitative Research Questions: Gain Powerful Insights + 25 Examples
25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions. It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions. Let's begin with five questions.
Qualitative Research in Early Childhood Education and Care
Governments around the world have boosted their early childhood education and care (ECEC) engagement and investment on the basis of evidence from neurological studies and quantitative social science research. The role of qualitative research is less understood and under-valued. At the same time the hard evidence is only of limited use in helping public servants and governments design policies ...
Qualitative Research Journal
Book review: Qualitative research in education: a review for physics education and other sub-sciences. Abd Aziz Ardiansyah. Pages 337-340. Read the latest articles of Qualitative Research Journal at ScienceDirect.com, Elsevier's leading platform of peer-reviewed scholarly literature.
Qualitative Study
Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems.[1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences ...
Using Qualitative Questionnaires in Medical Education Research
It is demonstrated how qualitative questionnaires can produce rich and meaningful findings when they (1) prioritise qualitative research values, and (2) follow a rigorous design process when the questionnaire is developed. Most students in Health Profession Education courses are new to the world of qualitative research. Faced with the challenge of designing a research project, they are often ...
Effect of authentic leadership and mindfulness educational program on
Thorogood N, Green J. Qualitative methods for health research (4 th ed.). Qualitative methods for health research. 2018. p. 56-67. Google Scholar Reeves BC, Gaus W. Guidelines for reporting non-randomised studies. Complementary Medicine Research. 2004;11(Suppl. 1):46-52. Article Google Scholar
The Media and Sexual Violence Among Adolescents: Findings ...
First, qualitative research is not generalizable but generates salient themes that may be explored more systematically in future surveys involving representative samples of young people. Second, the data are perceptions of the behavior of young people from high-school teachers, university lecturers, and CSO affiliates and should not be ...
Structured vs. unstructured data: What's the difference?
Example of metadata usage: An online article displays a headline, a snippet, a featured image, image alt-text, slug, among others, which helps differentiate one piece of web content from similar pieces. Example of semi-structured data vs. structured data: A tab-delimited file containing customer data versus a database containing CRM tables.

Qualitative research in education : Background information

Chapter 1. Introduction

Why an Open Access Textbook on Qualitative Research Methods?

What is Research?

What is Qualitative Research?

Examples of Qualitative Research

Example 1 : The End Game (ethnography + interviews)

Example 2: Racing for Innocence (Interviews + Content Analysis + Fictional Stories)

Example 3: Amplified Advantage (Mixed Methods: Survey Interviews + Focus Groups + Archives)

How Is This Book Organized?

Chapter Descriptions

Recommended Reading: Other Qualitative Research Textbooks

Patton’s Ten Suggestions for Doing Qualitative Research

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What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

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Qualitative Research Questions: Gain Powerful Insights + 25 Examples

What are qualitative research questions, and when are they used?

Crafting qualitative research questions for powerful insights

1. Beginning the process

2. Create one overarching, guiding question

3. Theoretical framing

4. Ethical considerations

5. Writing the question

25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions

1. What is the customer's perception of our company's brand?

2. Why do customers buy our product?

3. How do our customers interact with our products?

4. What are our customers' biggest frustrations with our products?

5. How do our customers feel about our customer service?

20 more examples to refer to when writing your question

This video offers tips on how to write good qualitative research questions, produced by Qualitative Research Expert, Kimberly Baker.

50 Powerful User Interview Questions You Should Consider Asking

How To ​​Unleash Your Extra Income Potential With Respondent

Understanding Why High-Quality Research Needs High-Quality Participants

Qualitative Research in Early Childhood Education and Care Implementation

Introduction

Qualitative Research-WhatIs It?

Qualitative Research and Early Childhood Education and Care

Challenges of Early Childhood Education and Care

Implementation Science in Early Childhood Education and Care

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Effect of authentic leadership and mindfulness educational program on nursing managers' competencies: a quasi-experimental study

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Tool 3: The management competencies of nurse manager:

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