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• Publisher: Barrons Educational Services (November 12, 2024)
• Length: 416 pages
• ISBN13: 9781506291918

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PSYC 210: Foundations of Psychology

• Tips for Searching for Articles

What is a literature review?

Conducting a literature review, organizing a literature review, writing a literature review, helpful book.

• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Google Scholar

A  literature review  is a compilation of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works.

• Summarizes and analyzes previous research relevant to a topic
• Includes scholarly books and articles published in academic journals
• Can be an specific scholarly paper or a section in a research paper

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly works relevant to an specific topic

• Help gather ideas or information
• Keep up to date in current trends and findings
• Help develop new questions

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area
• Helps focus your own research questions or problems
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas
• Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic
• Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias
• Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed methodology or theoretical approaches

Source: "What is a Literature Review?", Old Dominion University,  https://guides.lib.odu.edu/c.php?g=966167&p=6980532

1. Choose a topic. Define your research question. 

Your literature review should be guided by a central research question. It represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted, and analyzed by you in a synthesized way. 

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.
• Write down terms that are related to your question for they will be useful for searches later. 

2. Decide on the scope of your review. 

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.
• Consider these things when planning your time for research. 

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches. 

• By Research Guide 

4. Conduct your searches and find the literature. 

• Review the abstracts carefully - this will save you time!
• Many databases will have a search history tab for you to return to for later.
• Use bibliographies and references of research studies to locate others.
• Use citation management software such as Zotero to keep track of your research citations. 

5. Review the literature. 

Some questions to help you analyze the research: 

• What was the research question you are reviewing? What are the authors trying to discover? 
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings? 
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze the literature review, samples and variables used, results, and conclusions. Does the research seem complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise? 
• If there are conflicted studies, why do you think that is? 
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Are they experts or novices? Has the study been cited? 

Source: "Literature Review", University of West Florida,  https://libguides.uwf.edu/c.php?g=215113&p=5139469

A literature review is not a summary of the sources but a synthesis of the sources. It is made up of the topics the sources are discussing. Each section of the review is focused on a topic, and the relevant sources are discussed within the context of that topic. 

1. Select the most relevant material from the sources

• Could be material that answers the question directly
• Extract as a direct quote or paraphrase 

2. Arrange that material so you can focus on it apart from the source text itself

• You are now working with fewer words/passages
• Material is all in one place

3. Group similar points, themes, or topics together and label them 

• The labels describe the points, themes, or topics that are the backbone of your paper’s structure

4. Order those points, themes, or topics as you will discuss them in the paper, and turn the labels into actual assertions

• A sentence that makes a point that is directly related to your research question or thesis 

This is now the outline for your literature review. 

Source: "Organizing a Review of the Literature – The Basics", George Mason University Writing Center,  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/writing-resources/research-based-writing/organizing-literature-reviews-the-basics

• Literature Review Matrix Here is a template on how people tend to organize their thoughts. The matrix template is a good way to write out the key parts of each article and take notes. Downloads as an XLSX file.

The most common way that literature reviews are organized is by theme or author. Find a general pattern of structure for the review. When organizing the review, consider the following: 

• the methodology 
• the quality of the findings or conclusions
• major strengths and weaknesses
• any other important information

Writing Tips: 

• Be selective - Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. It should directly relate to the review's focus.
• Use quotes sparingly.
• Keep your own voice - Your voice (the writer's) should remain front and center. .   
• Aim for one key figure/table per section to illustrate complex content, summarize a large body of relevant data, or describe the order of a process
• Legend below image/figure and above table and always refer to them in text 

Source: "Composing your Literature Review", Florida A&M University,  https://library.famu.edu/c.php?g=577356&p=3982811

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• Last Updated: Aug 21, 2024 3:43 PM
• URL: https://infoguides.pepperdine.edu/PSYC210

Explore. Discover. Create.

Copyright ©  2022  Pepperdine University

Addressing mental health stigma in clinical psychology

• Racism, Bias, and Discrimination
• Mental Health

Essential Science Conversations

• Transcript (PDF, 124KB)
• Related resources (PDF, 46KB)

Mental health stigma reduces the chance that someone will seek help, or receive adequate support, for a mental health condition. Stigma can manifest as negative attitudes, prejudice, and discrimination, which can be detrimental to the well-being and sense of hope of people who experience mental health difficulties. Somewhat paradoxically, psychologists are not immune from holding stigmatizing attitudes, which puts psychologists with lived experience of psychopathology in a precarious position when talking openly about their mental health experiences. Panelists from diverse research areas, clinical interests, and current professional roles will discuss actionable strategies that can address mental illness stigma in the clinic, the lab, the classroom, and the community.

This program does not offer CE credit.

Mitch Prinstein, PhD

Chief Science Officer, APA.

More in this series

The number of publications among graduate school/faculty applicants, or among those applying for tenure and promotion seems to have increased considerably

September 18, 2024 Live Webinar

NIH outlines measures to streamline application reviews, improve identification of promising researchers, and reduce potential bias in the evaluation process.

May 2024 On Demand Webinar

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Discussing AI's impact on psychological research: potential to replace human participants, unintended consequences, peer review challenges, and ethical considerations.

April 2024 On Demand Webinar

• Open access
• Published: 31 August 2024

An examination of the relationship between risk perceptions, cultural-religious beliefs and coping during COVID-19 pandemic control in South Asian countries: a systematic review

• Rakhshi Memon 1 ,
• Ayesha Khaliq 2 ,
• Veronica Ranieri 1 ,
• Muqaddas Asif 2 ,
• Mujeeb Masood Bhatti 3 ,
• Bilal Ahmad Khan 2 ,
• Nasim Chaudhry 2 , 7 ,
• Imran B. Chauhdry 2 , 4 , 5 , 7 ,
• Nusrat Husain 5 , 6 &
• Sarah J. L. Edwards 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  461 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Covid 19 was declared as a public health emergency by the World Health Organisation (WHO) due to its rapid spread and catastrophic effects on health. It affected around 119 M people with mortality rate of 0.27% worldwide, including South-Asians. This review aims to understand the risk perceptions, cultural religious beliefs and the coping mechanisms of South Asians during the Covid 19 pandemic.

We conducted a systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The following search engines were used: Medline, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science. Included studies investigated perceptions and opinions of individuals on knowledge, risk and protective factors, native faith based practices, and attitudes towards the COVID-19 pandemic.

The database search produced 282 articles to screen. The final narrative synthesis included five studies comprising of 13,476 participants from Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Ten studies, comprising 7,893 participants, were eligible and included for meta-analysis. The overall pooled prevalence with maximum heterogeneity for correct knowledge of symptoms, hand washing or use of sanitizers, face masking use of herbal or traditional remedies and physical distancing or avoidance of contact was reported through meta-analysis.

The review brings forth a useful comparison of individual and cultural differences in KAP, risk perceptions and coping strategies. This review highlights the need for and importance of tailored information dissemination, culturally sensitive risk communication, targeted educational interventions, community engagement and empowerment, policy, and infrastructure improvements, as well as continued research and data collection. By addressing these implications, efforts to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 can be more effective and equitable across diverse populations.

Prospero registration

CRD42021246475.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

A novel coronavirus SARS-Cov-2 was first identified as a causal pathogen of COVID-19 disease in humans in December 2019 in Wuhan, China [ 1 ]. COVID-19 spread rapidly around the globe and was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organisation (WHO) on March 11, 2020. Since it was first identified, SARS-CoV-2 has infected more than 119 M individuals around the globe (WHO, 2020) with a mortality rate of 0.27% [ 2 ]. South Asian countries account for 10% of COVID-19 cases around the globe [ 2 ] with a Case Fatality Rate (CFR) of 3.5% which is far less than that of economically developed countries (8.0%) [ 3 , 4 ] owing to the differences in the structure of age group [ 5 ]. Statistical trends indicate that, among South Asian countries, India has the highest number of reported COVID-19 cases and deaths whilst Bhutan has the lowest [ 6 ].

Containment of COVID-19 is heavily dependent on the precautionary measures taken by the masses [ 7 ] which are, in turn, dependent on risk perception [ 8 ] and health beliefs [ 9 ]. Risk perception is a subjective judgement or belief of an individual regarding the severity of potential harm and an important driving factor of protective behavior [ 10 , 11 ]. In addition to risk perception, health beliefs also play an important role in determining attitudes and behaviour towards the pandemic [ 12 ]. As per the Health Belief model, perceived benefits, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived barriers, and cue-to‐action influence such attitudes and behaviour [ 13 ].

In addition to risk perception and health beliefs, the ‘Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice’ (KAP) framework has also been used to identify how knowledge about diseases can affect attitude, practice, and disease burden associated with it [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. In the context of COVID-19, KAP refers to understanding people’s correct knowledge about the virus, their attitudes towards it, and their native faith based practices they adopt to prevent its spread. Knowledge about COVID-19 is relatively high among the general population and they hold a positive attitude towards protective measures such as wearing a mask, washing hands, and using hand sanitizer etc. [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. However, the most common source of knowledge about COVID-19 is social media [ 20 , 21 ]. The KAP has been noted as above average among individuals with higher education, females, and healthcare professionals [ 22 ]. Similarly, females are more inclined towards taking precautionary measures than males [ 19 , 20 ].

High-risk perception and perceived severity of COVID-19 can have a direct impact on the mental health of the individual [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Commonly experienced mental disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic in South Asian countries include nonpsychotic depression, anxiety, insomnia, alcohol-related disorder, and somatic concerns [ 23 , 25 ]. however, due to the strict adherence of most South Asian countries to religion, most inhabitants of these countries tend to turn towards religion and use religious coping mechanisms to deal with major life stressors [ 26 ]. Religiously framed behavioral, emotional, or cognitive responses to stressors are known as religious coping [ 27 ]. In other words, religious coping refers to help-seeking from religion – holy scriptures and therapy from religious leaders – in a stressful situation to reduce distressing thoughts and emotions [ 28 ]. Religious coping during COVID-19 has shown evidence to lower depressive symptoms [ 29 ] and stress [ 30 ], lesser loneliness [ 31 ] improve positive affect and life satisfaction [ 32 ]. Though literature examining risk perceptions, cultural-religious beliefs and coping during the covid-19 pandemic from many countries is available, a combined glance especially through the lens of a multicultural and multi-religious group like South Asia remains understudied to date. For example, a review of pandemic perceptions [ 33 ] found that different religious traditions hold differing beliefs (it’s a religious curse or only religion can save us) regarding infectious diseases. Therefore, the current systematic review aims to find out the KAP of South Asians toward COVID-19 and their coping mechanism for dealing with COVID-19, Which focuses on.

Knowledge: This refers to what South Asians know about COVID-19. It could include their correct understanding of the virus, its transmission, symptoms, preventive measures, available treatments, and vaccination.

Attitudes: This encompasses the beliefs, opinions, and perceptions that South Asians hold about COVID-19. It could include their level of concern, fear, trust in authorities or healthcare systems, perception of risk, and attitudes towards preventive measures such as mask-wearing, social distancing, and vaccination.

Practices: This refers to the actions and behaviors that South Asians adopt in response to COVID-19. It could include their adherence to preventive measures, such as wearing masks, practicing hand hygiene, maintaining social distance, avoiding large gatherings, and seeking healthcare when necessary.

Moreover, the systematic review aims to explore the native faith based practices employed by South Asians to deal with the challenges posed by COVID-19. Coping mechanisms are the strategies individuals use to manage stress, anxiety, and other negative emotions associated with the pandemic. These mechanisms could include seeking social support, engaging in positive activities, practicing mindfulness or relaxation techniques, maintaining routines, and accessing mental health services.

Protocol registration

A systematic review protocol was developed and registered online with PROSPERO (CRD42021246475). This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines [ 34 ].

Databases and search strategy

The following electronic databases (Inception to 1st November 2020): Medline, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science, were searched using four concepts including knowledge and practices, culture, COVID-19, and South Asia. The overall search strings were: (Perception OR Knowledge OR Information OR Attitude* OR Awareness OR Practices OR Opinions OR Beliefs) AND (Religiou*) AND (COVID-19 OR COVID OR Coronavirus OR SARS-CoV-2) AND (Pakistan OR India OR Bangladesh OR Sri Lanka OR Nepal OR Bhutan OR Maldives OR Afghanistan OR South Asia*) ( See Table  1 ). A search update was run from 2nd November 2020 to 28th Feb 2024 in get all other potential eligible articles.

Eligibility criteria and selection of studies

This review looked for studies with any quantitative data including but not limited to cross-sectional, cohort studies, case-control studies, interrupted time series or mixed methods research. No restrictions were placed on participants’ characteristics about age, morbidity, or socio-economic status. Included studies investigating perceptions and opinions of individuals on knowledge, risk and protective factors, practices, cultural traditions, and attitudes towards the COVID-19 pandemic. Studies reporting findings only from South Asian countries in the English language were considered for inclusion. Title/ abstract and full-text screening were performed by two reviewers independently (AK, VR). Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion with third reviewer arbitration (RM).

The following PECO* framework explains the eligibility criteria more precisely.

• PECO* (P = Population, E = Exposure, C = Comparison and O = Outcome)

Data extraction

Extracted data included study details (author, date, study location), study design information (type of design, recruitment method), participant characteristics (target sample, age, gender), measures used, and results of analyses. Studies reporting knowledge or practices in mean or median were not included in quantitative synthesis. Two independent reviewers (AK, MA) carried out the data extraction for each study, and then compared, with discrepancies resolved through discussion.

Risk of bias assessment

The quality of the included studies was evaluated using a Risk of Bias (ROB) assessment of Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) for prevalence data studies tool. This tool assesses ROB over nine domains, including participant recruitment, sample size and calculation, study subjects, measurement tools and appropriateness of analysis methods (see Table  2 ). Ratings were made independently by two reviewers (MA, VR) and any conflicts were resolved through third reviewer arbitration (AK). Funnel plots along with egger test value was reported for potential publication bias. Updated searches were screened and extracted by two independent researchers (BA, AK).

Data synthesis

Narrative synthesis and meta-analysis were utilized for data synthesis. We decided to perform a meta-analysis if at least 3 studies were provided with homogenous characteristics allowing meaningful interpretation of pooled estimates. We set this minimum criterion because our review was based in South Asia, and we wanted to make use of available data. A recent review of the meta-analysis indicated that meta-analysis with three studies is common in medical literature. Studies reporting percentages or observed events were included in the meta-analysis. Overall polled prevalence/ proportions with a 95% confidence interval of knowledge, attitude and practices were generated using double arcsine transformation (Freeman-Tukey transformation) with random effects. To investigate any potential heterogeneity, I 2 statistics were utilised. Studies reporting overall mean, or medians were not included in the meta-analysis and were summarised in the narrative synthesis [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. In addition, the study participants, outcomes, settings, and findings were also summarised in the narrative synthesis. The study’s characteristics are presented in Table  3 .

Study characteristics

A total of 282 articles were retrieved from Medline, Cochrane Library, PsychINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science since inception till 28th Feb, 2024. After duplication removal, 248 articles were included from title and abstract screening, out of which only 18 met the criteria at full length screening. Reference lists of all included articles were also searched for any additional eligible article to be included. 3 articles couldn’t be found in full length as a result a total of 15 articles were included in this review ( See Fig.  1 ).

PRISMA flow chart

The review provided a narrative synthesis and meta-analysis of the included studies, which is in line with PRISMA guidelines for reporting systematic reviews. The paper screened 282 articles and included 10 studies for meta-analysis with a total of 7,893 participants from South Asian countries, demonstrating a systematic approach. Meta-synthesis was conducted on five studies with 13,476 participants, indicating a qualitative synthesis as recommended by PRISMA.

Meta-analysis

Most questionnaires and reported statistics in the studies were heterogenous therefore only ( N  = 10) a few studies were included in the quantitative synthesis of frequency rates and total sample size. However, in all included studies separate rates were given for each item targeting any specific knowledge area or practice hence the overall prevalence of knowledge or practice was either meaningless or not reported.

A total of ten studies reported the prevalence of three or more than three of the following: (i) correct knowledge about symptoms (7 studies), (ii) hand washing or use of sanitizer (9 studies), (iii) use of the face mask (9 studies), (iv) herbal and traditional remedies (3 studies) and (v) physical distancing (10 studies). By combining all ten studies, our meta-analysis is based on a total of 7877 participants. Separate pooled prevalence rates were estimated for knowledge of symptoms, handwashing or sanitizing practices, use of masks, any herbal remedies and physical distancing.

The pooled prevalence for correct knowledge of symptoms and various practices was generally high with a ceiling effect (except for herbal and traditional remedies) along with high heterogeneity. The overall pooled prevalence for (1) correct knowledge of symptoms = 0.86 (95% CI: LLCI = 0.76; ULCI = 0.94) with high heterogeneity (I 2  = 98.75%) ( See Figs.  2 ), (2) hand washing or use of sanitizers = 0.89 (95% CI: LLCI = 0.79; ULCI = 0.97) with maximum heterogeneity (I 2  = 99.34%) ( See Figs.  3 ), (3) Face Masking = 0.85 (95% CI: LLCI = 0.75; ULCI = 0.92) with maximum heterogeneity (I 2  = 99.10%) ( See Figs.  4 ), (4) use of herbal or traditional remedies = 0.20 (95% CI: LLCI = 0.07; ULCI = 0.37) and high heterogeneity (I 2  = 98.90%) ( See Figs.  5 ) and (5) physical distancing or avoidance of contact = 0.80 (95% CI: LLCI = 0.65 ULCI = 0.92) and high heterogeneity (I 2  = 99.56%) ( See Fig.  6 ).

Pooled prevalence of correct knowledge about symptoms

Pooled prevalence of hand washing or use of sanitizers

Pooled prevalence of use of face mask

Pooled prevalence of herbal and traditional remedies

Pooled prevalence of practicing physical distancing or avoiding contact

All pooled prevalence estimates were associated with very high heterogeneity. Given the limited number of studies, subgroup analysis wasn’t appropriate. However, one of the potential reasons for high heterogeneity was the high sample sizes in studies with lower standard error, increasing the power of test statistics to detect heterogeneity.

Additionally, the funnel plot indicated a potential risk of bias by demonstrating a diagonal spread of studies either clustered in the lower right or upper left of the plot indicating asymmetry and a potential risk of publication bias ( see Fig.  7 ). We also conducted sensitivity analysis by removing studies at high risk of bias, however no major effect on estimates was observed.

Funnel plot for reporting publication bias

Narrative synthesis

The narrative synthesis included five studies comprising of 13,476 participants from Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. In general, participants exhibited adequate knowledge of COVID-19, positive attitudes toward combating the pandemic and adopted preventative measures, such as social distancing, to avoid the spread of the virus. Notably, participants mentioned the role of religion and culture in coping with the pandemic in seven out of eleven studies. Participants in several studies reported that religious behaviour such as prayer helped them cope with COVID-19 fear [ 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Moreover, Haque et al. (2021) reported that people would like religious leaders to help them cope with covid-19 [ 38 ]. In addition, several studies reported the use of traditional methods to treat COVID-19 symptoms [ 16 , 37 , 38 ].

People’s KAP towards COVID-19 and their coping strategies

Most studies showed that people were aware of the symptoms and effects of COVID-19, as well as their route of transmission [ 16 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. An average of over 70% of the participants were aware of the correct definition of COVID-19 [ 16 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ], apart from the Mamun et al. (2021) where the average correct knowledge score was 57.4% [ 43 ]. The respondents knew that COVID-19 is a deadly disease but with early and proper treatment, recovery is possible. Haq et al. (2020) found that the urban population was more knowledgeable than the rural residents [ 16 ], whereas Noreen’s (2020) study, reported that females had greater knowledge of COVID-19 compared to males.

The overall attitude towards COVID-19 was optimistic and positive. Participants believed that the disease is combatable, and it would be controlled eventually [ 40 , 41 , 42 ]. In terms of preventing the spread of the virus, a trend towards favouring strict measures was seen [ 37 , 38 , 39 ] Although, attitudes towards the pandemic were generally positive, participants also reported a few negative reactions i.e., not taking COVID-19 as a serious problem. Most participants experienced fear at some point during the pandemic [ 16 , 35 , 36 , 38 , 43 ]. In one study, 63% reported mistrust towards the government in controlling the disease [ 38 ]. The virus brought with it great concern for the public as they were at high risk of being infected [ 38 ]. Strict measures were taken by the government, for example, travelers had to quarantine, and educational institutes switched to online teaching. The use of print and digital media was reported to spread awareness and news about the virus. The majority had a positive attitude, but some studies showed that females were more hopeful that the spread of COVID-19 can be controlled [ 41 , 42 ].

Coping with Covid-19

Different ways and coping strategies were adopted by people to prevent themselves from getting infected by the virus. Maheshwari et al. (2020) found, isolation and treatment were efficient ways to stop the virus from spreading, and that people should isolate for at least two weeks after coming into contact with an infected person [ 39 ]. Most of the studies highlighted that people took greater precautions and hygienic practices such as hand sanitizing/hand washing, face covering and social distancing [ 16 , 39 , 40 , 42 ]. Notably, participants mentioned the role of religion and culture in coping with the pandemic in seven out of eleven studies. It was believed that praying and religious activities are most effective in critical, unpleasant circumstances [ 36 , 41 ]. On the other hand, some believed that there is no specific cure for COVID-19, yet they still turned to medications for recovery [ 37 ].

All studies with the exception of three provided comprehensive details on participants’ recruitment, sample size, study settings, measurements tools, and data analysis and response rate. Three studies (Khan et al., 2020; Bhawaneshwari et al. 2020; Basu et al.2020) lacked details pertaining to recruitment of participants, study settings, psychometric properties of measurement tools and justification for data analysis and were subsequently removed from synthesis (See Table  2 ).

The findings of this systematic review and meta-analysis highlighted a high level of heterogeneity in the true knowledge of COVID-19 among included studies. Despite the observed heterogeneity, the findings demonstrated that most of the participants (over 70% in most cases) from included studies possessed correct knowledge of COVID-19. This finding is supported by a recent meta-analysis in China [ 44 ] and a cross-sectional survey from Ethiopia [ 45 ] that reported over 70% of participants possess adequate knowledgeable about coronavirus. However, it is important to acknowledge the presence of outliers, such as a study [ 43 ] reporting a minimum average knowledge level of 57.4%. Similarly, to previous studies, our review also highlighted that participants in urban settings were more knowledgeable about COVID-19 than those living in rural settings [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. This disparity might be due to various factors including poorer access to electricity, mobile networks and digital literacy in rural settings [ 50 , 51 ]. The limited access to internet connections, digital media platforms and linguistic barriers could be among the factors creating knowledge gap, limiting awareness efforts and impeding the dissemination of information about COVID-19 prevention and treatment in rural areas of South Asia.

Although, information is becoming more accessible online [ 50 ], it is not easily accessible in some rural areas, in part due to different education levels and the non-availability of dialect in the local language [ 51 ]. The lack of access to the internet, television, or other digital media platforms in rural South Asia can contribute to lower knowledge levels about COVID-19. This knowledge gap may result in limited understanding of preventive measures, symptoms, and treatment options for the disease. Consequently, the overall findings of the study may not accurately represent the knowledge levels of the entire population.

The review also revealed significant gender differences in COVID-19 knowledge, with females having greater knowledge of COVID-19. Similarly, Sultana et al. (2022) reported significant gender differences regarding knowledge of COVID-19 where females had more knowledge. Social media use in females [ 52 ] as a significant link between sources of information and knowledge has been highlighted by various studies [ 17 , 53 , 54 ]. Social media platforms became crucial sources of information during the pandemic therefore; this increased exposure may lead to greater engagement with COVID-19 related content leading to increased knowledge levels. Further, in most cultures, women generally have the role of looking after the family and the household. Since women often play a central role in healthcare decisions for their family, this may serve as a motivation to stay informed and seek out reliable information. More time at home may also provide more opportunities for social media use which as a result may raise awareness and better knowledge [ 55 ]. In contrast to this, male participants from a study [ 56 ] conducted in Lebanon scored high on some questions about knowledge of COVID-19 including questions related to the cause and symptoms as compared to females. This can be explained in light of previous research from various countries consistently reporting an advantage of males over females in general knowledge as well as biologically differentiated interests [ 57 ].

Although the review unveiled a positive attitude of participants towards measures to reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2, there were also some instances of negative attitude. Participants reported fear [ 16 , 35 , 36 , 38 , 58 ], and a high risk of being infected [ 38 ]. In a previous study [ 59 ], participants across different cohorts among Asian countries were found to be more fearful. This is important as such fear has been linked to mental health difficulties such as depression, anxiety, and stress [ 1 ]. The review also reported mistrust towards the government in controlling the disease [38] however the role of important predictive factors such as the adoption of health behaviours, prosocial behaviours [ 59 ], education, and media freedom [ 60 ] has not been explored [ 60 ].

Regarding coping strategies, along with preventive measures against COVID-19 [ 16 , 39 , 40 , 42 ] participants also highlighted the role of religious coping such as praying and religious activities to combat COVID-19 [ 36 , 41 ]. Similarly, Bentzen’s study [ 61 ] which used daily searched data records of Google from 95 countries and demonstrated increased Google searches for prayer to the highest ever recorded level during the COVID-19 crisis. Additionally, the study established that more than half of the world population had prayed to end the coronavirus. Many people have strong religious beliefs, providing them an anchor and consequently helping people cope. Religious coping might act as a potential tool for managing stress during illnesses and challenging situations like the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as improving physical and mental health outcomes [ 62 , 63 , 64 ].

The review has several strengths and highlighted differences in KAP among genders as well as differences in information distribution in rural setting and urban settings and different cultures. The review enhanced our understanding of the socio-cultural influences on pandemic responses. The positive attitudes towards measures and use of religious coping strategies across studies indicated that SAs possess a strong societal willingness to engage in preventive measures. These findings could be useful to tailor public health interventions for individuals in diverse settings. However, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of the review such as heterogeneity and potential biases among included studies, which may affect the generalizability of findings. Future research should address these limitations and further explore the socio-cultural determinants of COVID-19 knowledge and behaviour. Addressing these gaps could enhance the effectiveness and cultural sensitivity of preventive interventions.

The insights gained from this review offer valuable guidance for future pandemic preparedness and response efforts. The review emphasizes the complex socio-cultural factors that influence responses to the pandemic, including risk perceptions and coping strategies. Policymakers, healthcare professionals along with other potential stakeholders such as community representatives and gatekeepers can create more effective and targeted interventions to improve community resilience and promote public health and well-being by customizing interventions to address differences in individual and cultural KAP related to the future pandemics.

Data availability

The data and materials used in this systematic review are available upon request by email to the corresponding author [email protected].

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Joe Firth, who provided support throughout the review process.

This systematic review was supported by Pakistan Institute of Living and Learning under PROSPERO registration number CRD42021246475.

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Rakhshi Memon, Veronica Ranieri & Sarah J. L. Edwards

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Ayesha Khaliq, Muqaddas Asif, Bilal Ahmad Khan, Nasim Chaudhry & Imran B. Chauhdry

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RM and SE were involved in conceptualisation, management, supervision, design, and planning of the review and literature searches.VR was involved in screening, data extraction, and quality checking. MA was involved in data extraction, quality checking and write-up. MMB was involved in data synthesis and analysis. AK was involved in screening, data extraction, quality checking, evaluation, and write-up. BA was involved in updating the search and screening the additional articles. NC, IBC, and NH provided scrutiny and edits to the manuscript. All authors reviewed and make significant contributions to the manuscript.Acknowledgements: We would like to acknowledge Mr Joe Firth, who provided support throughout the review process.

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Memon, R., Khaliq, A., Ranieri, V. et al. An examination of the relationship between risk perceptions, cultural-religious beliefs and coping during COVID-19 pandemic control in South Asian countries: a systematic review. BMC Psychol 12 , 461 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01963-8

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Want to fight gender inequality? A review of data from 118 countries shows that development aid works

Professor of Economics, University of Minnesota Duluth

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Gender inequality isn’t just unfair — it’s also a drag on the world economy. Giving women the same economic opportunities as men would add about US$12 trillion to global gross domestic product by 2025, one analysis found. That’s an 11% boost.

The link between women’s empowerment and economic growth is well established. When women are economically empowered, they invest more in their families, creating a cycle of positive outcomes that spans generations . Women’s participation in the workforce leads to greater productivity and brings diverse perspectives that enhance decision-making and drive innovation .

Recognizing these benefits, governments and nongovernmental organizations have increasingly directed aid — funds provided to developing countries to foster economic growth — toward promoting women’s empowerment.

As an economist who studies development , I wanted to know: Does all that money really make a difference? So, in a recent study , my colleagues and I analyzed the impact of gender-related aid on gender inequality using data from 118 countries over a 13-year period, from 2009 to 2022.

What we found was uplifting: Gender-related aid reduced inequality in most countries we studied.

We looked at two types of gender-related aid. The first is funding for projects that tie gender into larger economic goals. Development experts call this “ significant gender-related aid .” There’s also aid funding that narrowly and explicitly targets gender equality. Experts call this “principal gender-related aid.”

We found that the first approach consistently and significantly reduced gender inequality in 115 out of 118 countries we studied. The latter approach had statistically significant effects in 85 countries. It also appeared to be much more effective when paired with the first approach.

Our findings strongly suggest that integrating gender-related aid into broader development efforts is crucial for promoting gender equality. Gender and development are intricately intertwined, a fact often overlooked. Recognizing this connection is crucial for achieving sustainable and inclusive growth.

Women’s empowerment success stories

That might all sound pretty abstract, but our research shows that the world has made progress in real people’s lives over the past decades. Cases from several countries show just how much progress is possible:

Rwanda: Following the 1994 genocide, Rwanda made a concerted effort to rebuild its society with gender equality at its core. Today, women hold 61% of parliamentary seats , the highest percentage in the world . This remarkable achievement is in part a direct result of gender-focused policies and significant investments in women’s political empowerment. Rwanda’s progress illustrates how political will and dedicated gender-related aid can transform a society .

Bangladesh: Despite traditional gender roles, Bangladesh has made significant strides in gender equality , particularly in education and economic participation . Through targeted programs like the Female Secondary School Stipend Program and microfinance initiatives by organizations like the Grameen Bank, Bangladesh has seen substantial improvements in girls’ education and women’s economic empowerment. These initiatives have contributed to a decline in gender disparities and have spurred economic growth.

Ethiopia: In recent decades, Ethiopia has invested heavily in education , particularly for girls. Programs aimed at increasing school enrollment and reducing dropout rates among girls have led to improved literacy rates and better health outcomes. These educational advancements have empowered women economically and socially, reducing gender inequality .

Despite progress made, these achievements aren’t set in stone. Instability can rapidly undo years of progress. Recent policy backsliding in Afghanistan , Brazil and the United States shows the need for vigilance.

Empowering women empowers men, too

Discussions about the importance of reducing gender inequality often revolve around the direct benefits to women and girls. But everyone, including men, stands to win in a more gender-equal society.

First, women’s economic empowerment leads to stronger economies , which benefits everyone. Research shows that gender equality promotes healthier relationships, reduces violence and fosters more cohesive and supportive communities . Similarly, workplaces prioritizing gender equality tend to have better team dynamics, higher employee satisfaction and increased productivity . These are gains for everyone, regardless of gender.

And gender equality has distinct benefits for men. This is because it alleviates the pressures associated with traditional masculinity , which can lead to better mental health. For example, in more gender-equal societies, men report being happier with life and less stressed and depressed .

This shows that the benefits of gender equality aren’t limited to women and girls; they extend to all members of society. Everyone has a stake in helping progress move along.

Research-backed best practices

Governments and aid professionals should follow five steps for success to safeguard the advances made in gender equality and continue progressing:

1. Keep the aid flowing: Continued financial and technical support for gender equality initiatives is vital. Our research suggests policymakers should focus on integrating gender considerations into all development projects.

2. Engage everyone: Involving men and boys in gender equality efforts helps to challenge and change harmful gender norms, fostering a more inclusive society.

3. Tailor strategies: Although aid has an effect across the board, gender equality initiatives must consider each country’s unique sociopolitical and cultural contexts. Tailoring strategies to fit these contexts ensures that interventions are relevant and practical .

4. Strengthen institutions: Effective institutions and governance are crucial for successfully implementing and sustaining gender equality initiatives. Efforts to improve governance and reduce corruption will enhance the impact of aid

5. Promote education: Schools are a powerful tool for promoting gender equality. Investing in educational programs that empower women and girls and raise awareness about gender issues is essential for long-term change .

Gender equality is a cornerstone of a just and prosperous society. The benefits of empowering women extend far beyond the immediate recipients of gender-related aid, fostering economic growth, political stability and social cohesion. Our research shows that efforts to empower women really do pay off — literally and otherwise.

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Americans agree that the 2024 election will be pivotal for democracy, but for different reasons

In a politically polarized nation, both Republican and Democratic voters worry over the state of U.S. democracy and how the outcome of the presidential contest will affect its future; they just disagree over who poses the threat. (Dec. 15) (AP Video/Serkan Gurbuz)

FILE - The White House is seen reflected in a puddle, Saturday, Sept. 3, 2022, in Washington. In a politically polarized nation, Americans seem to agree on one issue underlying the 2024 elections — a worry over the state of democracy and how the outcome of the presidential contest will affect its future. A poll from The Associated Press-NORC Center for Public Affairs Research found that 62% of adults say democracy in the U.S. could be at risk depending on who wins. That view is held by 72% of Democrats and 55% of Republicans, but for different reasons. (AP Photo/Carolyn Kaster, File)

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WASHINGTON (AP) — In a politically polarized nation, Americans seem to agree on one issue underlying the 2024 elections — a worry over the state of democracy and how the outcome of the presidential contest will affect its future.

They just disagree over who poses the threat.

A poll from The Associated Press-NORC Center for Public Affairs Research found that 62% of adults say democracy in the U.S. could be at risk depending on who wins next fall. Majorities of Democrats (72%) and Republicans (55%) feel the same way, but for different reasons.

President Joe Biden has attempted to paint a dystopian future if GOP front-runner and former President Donald Trump returns to the White House after promising to seek retribution against opponents and declining to rule out that he would abuse the powers of the office . The former president has tried to flip the narrative lately, saying the election subversion and documents cases against him show Biden has weaponized the federal government to prosecute a political opponent. He has called Biden the “destroyer of American democracy.”

“I think from the side of the left, it’s pretty obvious that they’re concerned about electing a president who is avowedly authoritarian, someone who clearly wants to reduce checks and balances within the government to strengthen the presidency and to do so in ways that give the executive branch kind of an unprecedented reach across the population and sectors of the government,” said Michael Albertus, political science professor at the University of Chicago.

“From the right, the Republicans think about government overreach, big government, threats to freedom and mandates to act in a certain way or adopt certain policies,” he said.

Against that backdrop, the poll found that about half of U.S. adults, 51%, say democracy is working “not too well” or “not well at all.”

The poll asked about the importance of the coming presidential election for 12 issues and found that the percentage who said the outcome will be very or extremely important to the future of democracy in the U.S. (67%) ranked behind only the economy (75%). It was about equal to the percentage who said that about government spending (67%) and immigration (66%).

Tony Motes, a retired firefighter who lives in Monroe, Georgia, cited a number of reasons he believes “we’re not living in a complete democracy.” That includes what he sees as a deterioration of rights, including parental rights, thieves and other criminals not being held accountable, and a lack of secure borders.

The 59-year-old Republican also said the various criminal cases being brought against Trump undermine the country’s democratic traditions.

“They’re trying to keep him from running because they know he’s going to win,” he said.

The poll’s findings continue a trend of Americans’ lackluster views about how democracy is functioning. They also believe the country’s governing system is not working well to reflect their interests on issues ranging from immigration to abortion to the economy.

Robert Lieberman, a professor of political science at Johns Hopkins University, has studied the fall of democracies elsewhere and the common elements that feed their demise.

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The factors include polarization, growing ethnic or racial antagonism, rising economic inequality and a concentration of power under a country’s executive officeholder.

“For a number of years now, the United States has had all four of these conditions, really for the first time in history,” he said. “So we’re in a period that’s ripe for challenges to democracy.”

Trump is not the cause of the pattern, Lieberman said, but “seems to have an unerring instinct to make things worse, and he certainly has authoritarian impulses and a lot of followers who seem to validate or applaud him.”

The AP-NORC poll found that 87% of Democrats and 54% of independents believe a second Trump term would negatively affect U.S. democracy. For Republicans, 82% believe democracy would be weakened by another Biden win, with 56% of independents agreeing.

About 2 in 10 U.S. adults (19%) say democracy in the U.S. is “already so seriously broken that it doesn’t matter who wins the 2024 presidential election.” Republicans (23%) are more likely than Democrats (10%) to say this, but relatively few in either party think U.S. democracy is resilient enough to withstand the outcome.

Social media platforms and news sites that reinforce biases accelerate the polarization that leads people from different political perspectives to believe the other side is the one representing the gravest threat to the nation’s democracy, said Lilliana Mason, an associate professor of political science at Johns Hopkins.

“I don’t think that people are exaggerating. I think it’s that they actually are living in information environments in which it is true for them that democracy is under threat,” she said.

Mason said one side fears what Trump has said he will do if he wins, while the other is responding to the fear created in a media ecosystem that says the Democrats want to destroy America and turn it into a socialist or communist society.

For some, the danger is more than Trump’s statements and concern over how he might turn toward authoritarianism. It also is what’s happening in the states and courts, where political gerrymandering and threats to voting rights are continuing, as are measures that limit people’s ability to vote easily, such as reducing drop box locations for mail-in ballots and tightening voter identification requirements.

“Look at all the roadblocks that have been put up to keep people, especially people of color, from being able to vote,” said Pamela Williams, 75, of New York City, who identifies as a Democrat. “That isn’t democracy.”

Douglas Kucmerowski, 67, an independent who lives in the Finger Lakes region of New York, is concerned over those state-level actions and the continued use of the Electoral College, which can allow someone to be president even if they lose the popular vote.

He also questions the state of the nation’s democracy when a large proportion of the country supports a candidate facing multiple criminal charges who has spoken about pursuing retribution and using the military domestically, among other things.

Trump also has lied about the outcome of the 2020 election , which has been affirmed by multiple reviews in the battleground states where he disputed his loss , and called his supporters to a Washington rally before they stormed the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021 , in a violent attempt to stop Congress from certifying Joe Biden’s win .

“That candidate, in any other age, probably would have been ruled out. But for some reason, in this society, he’s one of the best choices,” Kucmerowski said. “If this country is that confused that they can’t tell the difference between right and wrong and ex-presidents making statements that on day one he will be a dictator, doesn’t anybody care about day two or three or four when he’s still a dictator?”

The poll of 1,074 adults was conducted Nov. 30 through Dec. 4, 2023, using a sample drawn from NORC’s probability-based AmeriSpeak Panel, which is designed to be representative of the U.S. population. The margin of sampling error for all respondents is plus or minus 4.0 percentage points.

The Associated Press receives support from several private foundations to enhance its explanatory coverage of elections and democracy. See more about AP’s democracy initiative here . The AP is solely responsible for all content.

Samantha Putterman, PolitiFact Samantha Putterman, PolitiFact

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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/fact-checking-warnings-from-democrats-about-project-2025-and-donald-trump

Fact-checking warnings from Democrats about Project 2025 and Donald Trump

This fact check originally appeared on PolitiFact .

Project 2025 has a starring role in this week’s Democratic National Convention.

And it was front and center on Night 1.

WATCH: Hauling large copy of Project 2025, Michigan state Sen. McMorrow speaks at 2024 DNC

“This is Project 2025,” Michigan state Sen. Mallory McMorrow, D-Royal Oak, said as she laid a hardbound copy of the 900-page document on the lectern. “Over the next four nights, you are going to hear a lot about what is in this 900-page document. Why? Because this is the Republican blueprint for a second Trump term.”

Vice President Kamala Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, has warned Americans about “Trump’s Project 2025” agenda — even though former President Donald Trump doesn’t claim the conservative presidential transition document.

“Donald Trump wants to take our country backward,” Harris said July 23 in Milwaukee. “He and his extreme Project 2025 agenda will weaken the middle class. Like, we know we got to take this seriously, and can you believe they put that thing in writing?”

Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, Harris’ running mate, has joined in on the talking point.

“Don’t believe (Trump) when he’s playing dumb about this Project 2025. He knows exactly what it’ll do,” Walz said Aug. 9 in Glendale, Arizona.

Trump’s campaign has worked to build distance from the project, which the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, led with contributions from dozens of conservative groups.

Much of the plan calls for extensive executive-branch overhauls and draws on both long-standing conservative principles, such as tax cuts, and more recent culture war issues. It lays out recommendations for disbanding the Commerce and Education departments, eliminating certain climate protections and consolidating more power to the president.

Project 2025 offers a sweeping vision for a Republican-led executive branch, and some of its policies mirror Trump’s 2024 agenda, But Harris and her presidential campaign have at times gone too far in describing what the project calls for and how closely the plans overlap with Trump’s campaign.

PolitiFact researched Harris’ warnings about how the plan would affect reproductive rights, federal entitlement programs and education, just as we did for President Joe Biden’s Project 2025 rhetoric. Here’s what the project does and doesn’t call for, and how it squares with Trump’s positions.

Are Trump and Project 2025 connected?

To distance himself from Project 2025 amid the Democratic attacks, Trump wrote on Truth Social that he “knows nothing” about it and has “no idea” who is in charge of it. (CNN identified at least 140 former advisers from the Trump administration who have been involved.)

The Heritage Foundation sought contributions from more than 100 conservative organizations for its policy vision for the next Republican presidency, which was published in 2023.

Project 2025 is now winding down some of its policy operations, and director Paul Dans, a former Trump administration official, is stepping down, The Washington Post reported July 30. Trump campaign managers Susie Wiles and Chris LaCivita denounced the document.

WATCH: A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump’s links to its authors

However, Project 2025 contributors include a number of high-ranking officials from Trump’s first administration, including former White House adviser Peter Navarro and former Housing and Urban Development Secretary Ben Carson.

A recently released recording of Russell Vought, a Project 2025 author and the former director of Trump’s Office of Management and Budget, showed Vought saying Trump’s “very supportive of what we do.” He said Trump was only distancing himself because Democrats were making a bogeyman out of the document.

Project 2025 wouldn’t ban abortion outright, but would curtail access

The Harris campaign shared a graphic on X that claimed “Trump’s Project 2025 plan for workers” would “go after birth control and ban abortion nationwide.”

The plan doesn’t call to ban abortion nationwide, though its recommendations could curtail some contraceptives and limit abortion access.

What’s known about Trump’s abortion agenda neither lines up with Harris’ description nor Project 2025’s wish list.

Project 2025 says the Department of Health and Human Services Department should “return to being known as the Department of Life by explicitly rejecting the notion that abortion is health care.”

It recommends that the Food and Drug Administration reverse its 2000 approval of mifepristone, the first pill taken in a two-drug regimen for a medication abortion. Medication is the most common form of abortion in the U.S. — accounting for around 63 percent in 2023.

If mifepristone were to remain approved, Project 2025 recommends new rules, such as cutting its use from 10 weeks into pregnancy to seven. It would have to be provided to patients in person — part of the group’s efforts to limit access to the drug by mail. In June, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a legal challenge to mifepristone’s FDA approval over procedural grounds.

WATCH: Trump’s plans for health care and reproductive rights if he returns to White House The manual also calls for the Justice Department to enforce the 1873 Comstock Act on mifepristone, which bans the mailing of “obscene” materials. Abortion access supporters fear that a strict interpretation of the law could go further to ban mailing the materials used in procedural abortions, such as surgical instruments and equipment.

The plan proposes withholding federal money from states that don’t report to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention how many abortions take place within their borders. The plan also would prohibit abortion providers, such as Planned Parenthood, from receiving Medicaid funds. It also calls for the Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that the training of medical professionals, including doctors and nurses, omits abortion training.

The document says some forms of emergency contraception — particularly Ella, a pill that can be taken within five days of unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy — should be excluded from no-cost coverage. The Affordable Care Act requires most private health insurers to cover recommended preventive services, which involves a range of birth control methods, including emergency contraception.

Trump has recently said states should decide abortion regulations and that he wouldn’t block access to contraceptives. Trump said during his June 27 debate with Biden that he wouldn’t ban mifepristone after the Supreme Court “approved” it. But the court rejected the lawsuit based on standing, not the case’s merits. He has not weighed in on the Comstock Act or said whether he supports it being used to block abortion medication, or other kinds of abortions.

Project 2025 doesn’t call for cutting Social Security, but proposes some changes to Medicare

“When you read (Project 2025),” Harris told a crowd July 23 in Wisconsin, “you will see, Donald Trump intends to cut Social Security and Medicare.”

The Project 2025 document does not call for Social Security cuts. None of its 10 references to Social Security addresses plans for cutting the program.

Harris also misleads about Trump’s Social Security views.

In his earlier campaigns and before he was a politician, Trump said about a half-dozen times that he’s open to major overhauls of Social Security, including cuts and privatization. More recently, in a March 2024 CNBC interview, Trump said of entitlement programs such as Social Security, “There’s a lot you can do in terms of entitlements, in terms of cutting.” However, he quickly walked that statement back, and his CNBC comment stands at odds with essentially everything else Trump has said during the 2024 presidential campaign.

Trump’s campaign website says that not “a single penny” should be cut from Social Security. We rated Harris’ claim that Trump intends to cut Social Security Mostly False.

Project 2025 does propose changes to Medicare, including making Medicare Advantage, the private insurance offering in Medicare, the “default” enrollment option. Unlike Original Medicare, Medicare Advantage plans have provider networks and can also require prior authorization, meaning that the plan can approve or deny certain services. Original Medicare plans don’t have prior authorization requirements.

The manual also calls for repealing health policies enacted under Biden, such as the Inflation Reduction Act. The law enabled Medicare to negotiate with drugmakers for the first time in history, and recently resulted in an agreement with drug companies to lower the prices of 10 expensive prescriptions for Medicare enrollees.

Trump, however, has said repeatedly during the 2024 presidential campaign that he will not cut Medicare.

Project 2025 would eliminate the Education Department, which Trump supports

The Harris campaign said Project 2025 would “eliminate the U.S. Department of Education” — and that’s accurate. Project 2025 says federal education policy “should be limited and, ultimately, the federal Department of Education should be eliminated.” The plan scales back the federal government’s role in education policy and devolves the functions that remain to other agencies.

Aside from eliminating the department, the project also proposes scrapping the Biden administration’s Title IX revision, which prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It also would let states opt out of federal education programs and calls for passing a federal parents’ bill of rights similar to ones passed in some Republican-led state legislatures.

Republicans, including Trump, have pledged to close the department, which gained its status in 1979 within Democratic President Jimmy Carter’s presidential Cabinet.

In one of his Agenda 47 policy videos, Trump promised to close the department and “to send all education work and needs back to the states.” Eliminating the department would have to go through Congress.

What Project 2025, Trump would do on overtime pay

In the graphic, the Harris campaign says Project 2025 allows “employers to stop paying workers for overtime work.”

The plan doesn’t call for banning overtime wages. It recommends changes to some Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, regulations and to overtime rules. Some changes, if enacted, could result in some people losing overtime protections, experts told us.

The document proposes that the Labor Department maintain an overtime threshold “that does not punish businesses in lower-cost regions (e.g., the southeast United States).” This threshold is the amount of money executive, administrative or professional employees need to make for an employer to exempt them from overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

In 2019, the Trump’s administration finalized a rule that expanded overtime pay eligibility to most salaried workers earning less than about $35,568, which it said made about 1.3 million more workers eligible for overtime pay. The Trump-era threshold is high enough to cover most line workers in lower-cost regions, Project 2025 said.

The Biden administration raised that threshold to $43,888 beginning July 1, and that will rise to $58,656 on Jan. 1, 2025. That would grant overtime eligibility to about 4 million workers, the Labor Department said.

It’s unclear how many workers Project 2025’s proposal to return to the Trump-era overtime threshold in some parts of the country would affect, but experts said some would presumably lose the right to overtime wages.

Other overtime proposals in Project 2025’s plan include allowing some workers to choose to accumulate paid time off instead of overtime pay, or to work more hours in one week and fewer in the next, rather than receive overtime.

Trump’s past with overtime pay is complicated. In 2016, the Obama administration said it would raise the overtime to salaried workers earning less than $47,476 a year, about double the exemption level set in 2004 of $23,660 a year.

But when a judge blocked the Obama rule, the Trump administration didn’t challenge the court ruling. Instead it set its own overtime threshold, which raised the amount, but by less than Obama.

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AP® Psychology

The Best AP® Psychology Review Guide for 2024

This post has the best AP® Psychology review guide for 2020’s modified online AP® exams. In it, we answer your questions about the revised format, strategies for taking an online open-book exam successfully, and provide hand-picked practice FRQs for you to study with to help you get a 5.

AP® Psychology FAQ: Everything You Need to Know for 2024

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How to Answer AP® Psychology Free Response Questions

Don’t have the first idea as to how to write an effective AP® Psychology free response question (FRQ)? In this guide, we’ll give you a 5-step strategy to preparing for your AP® Psychology free response section and 20 test taking tips for specifically the concept application and research questions.

AP® Psychology Score Calculator

If you’re looking for an AP® Psychology score calculator, you’ve landed at the right place. Check out how you would do on the AP® Psychology exam by using

The Ultimate List of AP® Psychology Tips

Scoring a 4 or 5 on AP® Psychology can seem daunting. Fortunately, 45.6% of students who sat for the AP® Psychology test scored a 4 or 5 on the exam! That means AP® Psychology is a prime opportunity to boost your confidence and experience in taking AP® exams. Hopefully after reading this list of comprehensive tips, you’ll feel better prepared to rock your AP® Psychology test!

One Month AP® Psychology Study Guide

Can you remember a time when the terms Absolute Threshold and Weber’s Law were meaningless to you? Fast forward to the end of this course and they are now like old friends. You may or may not feel prepared for the AP® Psychology Exam, but the bottom line is, the test date is coming.

Is AP® Psychology Hard?

So, you’re considering taking Advanced Placement Psychology. Maybe you’re an old hand at AP® classes, and you just want an overview of what to expect. Or you’re an AP® newbie, and you want to make sure that you can handle it. Well, this article is just for you! Whether you are avidly interested in AP® Psychology or just want an AP® class that’s different from the normal route of classes, it is an excellent class to have under your belt when you are going to college.

How to Study for AP® Psychology

Through this AP® Psychology study guide, we’ll take you through three super easy steps to make sure that you’ve got all your bases covered on the day of the exam. The steps are: figuring out exactly what content will be covered on the exam, understanding the format of the exam, and finally practicing by testing yourself over and over again.

The Ultimate Guide to the Brain for AP® Psychology

The brain is an immensely complicated and intricate organ, and by far the most complex organ to understand in the human body. Unfortunately for anyone who is taking AP® Psychology, it’s also something that you’re expected to understand for the AP® Psychology Exam.

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Interested in the scientific study of behavior and mental processes? The AP ® Psychology Exam is a college-level exam administered every year in May upon completion of an Advanced Placement Psychology course taken at your high school. If you score high enough, your  AP score  could earn you  college credit !

Check out our AP Psychology Guide for the essential info you need about the exam:

• Exam Overview

Sections & Question Types

• How to Prepare

What's on the AP Psychology Exam?

The College Board requires your AP teacher to cover certain topics in the AP Psychology course. As you complete your Psych review, make sure you are familiar with the following topics:

• Scientific Foundations of Psychology: Introducing Psychology; Research Methods in Psychology; Defining Psychological Science: The Experimental Method; Selecting a Research Method; Statistical Analysis in Psychology; Ethical Guidelines in Psychology
• Biological Bases of Behavior: Interaction of Hereditary and Environment; The Endocrine System; Overview of the Nervous System and the Neuron; Neural Firing; Influence of Drugs on Neural Firing; The Brain; Tools for Examining Brain Structure and Function; The Adaptable Brain; Sleep and Dreaming
• Sensation and Perception: Principles of Sensation; Principles of Perception; Visual Anatomy; Visual Perception; Auditory Sensation and Perception; Chemical Senses; Body Sense
• Learning: Introduction to Learning; Classical Conditioning; Operant Conditioning; Social and Cognitive Factors in Learning
• Cognitive Psychology: Introduction to Memory; Encoding; Storing; Retrieving; Forgetting and Memory Distortion; Biological Bases of Memory; Introduction to Thinking and Problem Solving; Biases and Errors in Thinking; Introduction to Intelligence; Psychometric Principles and Intelligence Testing; Components of Language and Language Acquisition
• Developmental Psychology: The Lifespan and Physical Development in Childhood; Social Development in Childhood; Cognitive Development in Childhood; Adolescent Development; Adulthood and Aging; Moral Development; Gender and Sexual Orientation
• Motivation, Emotion, and Personality: Theories of Motivation; Specific Topics of Motivation; Theories of Emotion; Stress and Coping; Introduction to Personality; Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality; Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theories of Personality; Humanistic Theories of Personality; Trait Theories of Personality; Measuring Personality
• Clinical Psychology: Introduction to Psychological Disorders; Psychological Perspectives and Etiology of Disorders; Neurodevelopmental and Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders; Bipolar, Depressive, Anxiety, and Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders; Trauma- and Stressor- Related, Dissociative, and Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders; Feeding and Eating, Substance and Addictive, and Personality Disorders; Introduction to Treatment of Psychological Disorders; Psychological Perspectives and Treatment of Disorders; Treatment of Disorders from the Biological Perspective; Evaluating Strengths, Weaknesses, and Empirical Support for Treatments of Disorders
• Social Psychology: Attribution Theory and Person Perception; Attitude Formation and Attitude Change; Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience; Group Influences on Behavior and Mental Processes; Bias, Prejudice, and Discrimination; Altruism and Aggression; Interpersonal Attraction

Read More: Review for the exam with our AP Psychology Crash Courses

The AP Psych exam is 2 hours long and has two sections: a multiple-choice section and a a free-response section. 

Multiple-Choice Questions

The AP Psychology multiple-choice questions test the following skills:

• Concept Understanding
• Data Analysis
• Scientific Investigation

Free-Response Questions

The AP Psych FRQs consists of two questions:

• Question 1 is about Concept Application, assessing a student’s ability to explain and apply theories and perspectives in authentic contexts
• Question 2 is about Research Design, assessing a student’s ability to analyze psychological research studies that include quantitative data.

For a comprehensive content review, check out our book,  AP Psychology Premium Prep

What’s a good AP Psychology Score?

AP scores are reported from 1 to 5. Colleges are generally looking for a 4 or 5 on the AP Psychology exam, but some may grant credit for a 3. Here’s how students scored on the May 2020 test:

Source: College Board

How can I prepare?

AP classes are great, but for many students they’re not enough! For a thorough review of AP Psychology content and strategy, pick the  AP prep option  that works best for your goals and learning style. 

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AP Psychology

Click any of the links above for the best AP Psychology practice exams, free response questions, notes, videos, flashcards, and study guides. These online resources include all the information you need to succeed in your AP Psych course.

AP Psychology Exam

This course focuses on the systematic and scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. Psychological principles, facts, and phenomena are covered for each of the major fields of psychology. The primary topics covered are:

1.) History & Approaches 2.) Research Methods 3.) Biological Bases of Behavior 4.) Sensation & Perception 5.) States of Consciousness 6.) Learning 7.) Cognition 8.) Motivation & Emotion 9.) Developmental Psychology 10.) Personality 11.) Testing & Individual Differences 12.) Abnormal Behavior 13.) Treatment of Abnormal Behavior 14.) Social Psychology

The AP Psychology Exam format is:

Multiple-Choice Section : Two-thirds of exam grade. -100 questions (70 minutes)

Free-Response Section : One-third of exam grade. -2 questions (50 minutes)

When is the AP Psychology Exam?

The exam date for the 2022–2023 school year is Tuesday, May 2, 2023 at 12 noon . This test is offered once per year.

AP Psychology | Practice Exams | Free Response | Notes | Flashcards |  Study Guides

AP Psychology Unit 1 Notes: Scientific Foundations

February 12, 2024.

Get ready for the AP Psychology exam with our free AP Psychology study notes. We've compiled concise unit summaries and key terms and people to jumpstart your AP test prep. These AP Psychology study notes should be used to supplement what you’re learning in your AP Psych class. More study strategies and expert tips can be found in our latest AP Psychology Test Prep Book .

[ READ NEXT: AP Psychology Unit 2 Notes: Biological Bases of Behavior   ]

AP Psychology: Unit 1 Summary

This first unit focuses on the historical origins of the science of psychology, current psychological perspectives, and the research methods psychologists use to gather data about human thinking and behavior. 

History of Psychology

One way to think about the history of psychology is to organize the various theorists and theories into “waves,” or schools of thought. Each wave is a way of thinking about human thought and behavior that dominated the field for a certain period of time until a new way of looking at psychology started to dominate the field. There are five ways: Introspection, Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, and Multiple Perspectives.

Different contemporary psychologists look at human thought and behavior from different perspectives. Contemporary perspectives can be placed into eight broad categories: Humanistic, Psychoanalytic, Biopsychology (or Neuroscience), Evolutionary (or Darwinian), Behavioral, Cognitive, Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural), and Biopsychosocial.

Research and Methodology

Psychology is a science, and it is therefore based on research. Though people are often guided effectively by their common intuition, sometimes it leads us astray. People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias. After an event occurs, it is relatively easy to explain why it happened. The goal of scientific research, however, is to predict what will happen in advance.

An understanding of research methods is fundamental to psychology. Because of that, you are more likely to see a free-response (or essay) question on this topic than on any other. Sometimes psychologists conduct research in order to solve practical problems. For instance, psychologists might compare two different methods of teaching children to read in order to determine which method is better or they could design and test the efficacy of a program to help people quit smoking. This type of research is known as applied research because it has clear, practical applications. Other psychologists conduct basic research. Basic research explores questions that are of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications. Examples of basic research would include studying how people form their attitudes about others and how people in different cultures define intelligence.

Get ahead of the AP game! Our flexible, expert-led AP Psychology Review Course will help you build up your score by breaking down the exam.

Ap psychology: unit 1 key terms & people.

Below, we describe some of the Unit 1 key terms and people you should review ahead of the AP Psychology exam.

• Introspection: The examination of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
• Structuralism: The idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations, a theory developed by Wilhelm Wundt.
• Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt psychology tried to examine a person’s total experience because the way we experience the world is more than just an accumulation of various perceptual experiences. Gestalt theorists demonstrated that the whole experience is often more than just the sum of the parts of the experience.
• Sigmund Freud: Freud revolutionized psychology with his psychoanalytic theory. While treating patients for various psychosomatic complaints, Freud believed he discovered the unconscious mind—a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control that determines, in part, how we think and behave
• Repression: Freud believed that this hidden part of ourselves builds up over the years through repression – the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them.
• Behaviorism: Behaviorists maintain that psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior – stimuli (environmental events) and responses (physical reactions) – and not concern themselves with describing elements of consciousness.
• B.F. Skinner: Another behaviorist, B. F. Skinner expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement – environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses.
• Eclectic: Currently, there is no one way of thinking about human thought and behavior that all or even most psychologists share. Many psychologists describe themselves as eclectic – drawing from multiple perspectives.
• Humanist Perspective: Humanists stressed individual choice and free will. They believe that we choose most of our behaviors and these choices are guided by physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs.
• Psychoanalytic Perspective: Psychologists using this perspective believe that the unconscious mind – a part of our mind that we do not have conscious control over or access to – controls much of our thought and action. Psychoanalysts would look for impulses or memories pushed into the unconscious mind through repression. This perspective thinks that to understand human thought and behavior, we must examine our unconscious mind through dream analysis, word association, and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques.
• Biopsychology (or Neuroscience) Perspective: Biopsychologists explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. Human cognition and reactions might be caused by effects of our genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters in the brain or by a combination of all three.
• Evolutionary (or Darwinian) Perspective: Evolutionary psychologists (also sometimes called sociobiologists) examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Some psychological traits might be advantageous for survival, and these traits would be passed down from the parents to the next generation.
• Behavioral Perspective: Behaviorists explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning. Behaviorists look strictly at observable behaviors and human and animal responses to different kinds of stimuli.
• Cognitive Perspective: Cognitive psychologists examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events. In this perspective, the rules that we use to view the world are important to understanding why we think and behave the way we do.
• Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural) Perspective: Social-cultural psychologists look at how our thoughts and behaviors vary between cultures. They emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act. A social-cultural psychologist might explain a person’s tendency to be extroverted by examining his or her culture’s rules about social interaction.
• Biopsychosocial Perspective: This modern perspective acknowledges that human thinking and behavior results from combinations of biological (“bio”), psychological (“psycho”), and social (“social”) factors. Psychologists who emphasize the biopsychosocial perspective view other perspectives as too focused on specific influences on thinking and behavior (sometimes called “being reductionistic”).
• Hindsight bias: People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias.
• Hypothesis: A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables. Variables, by definition, are things that can vary among the participants in the research.
• Theory: A theory aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that support the theory.
• Valid: Good research is both valid and reliable. Research is valid when it measures what the researcher set out to measure; it is accurate.
• Reliable: Research is reliable when it can be replicated; it is consistent. If the researcher conducted the same research in the same way, the researcher would get similar results.
• Sampling: The individuals on which the research will be conducted are called participants (or subjects), and the process by which participants are selected is called sampling.
• Experiment: Psychologists’ preferred method of research is the experiment because only through a carefully controlled experiment can one show a causal relationship. An experiment allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control for confounding variables.
• Correlation: A correlation expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause. Correlations can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other. A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absence of the other.
• Naturalistic observation: Sometimes researchers opt to observe their participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them at all. Such unobtrusive observation is called naturalistic observation. The goal of naturalistic observation is to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants’ behavior. To that end, control is sacrificed.
• Case study method: The case study method is used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants. While case studies allow researchers to get the richest possible picture of what they are studying, the focus on a single individual or small group means that the findings cannot be generalized to a larger population.
• Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics, as the name suggests, simply describe a set of data. For instance, if you were interested in researching what kinds of pets your schoolmates have, you might summarize that data by creating a frequency distribution that would tell you how many students had dogs, cats, zebras, and so on.
• Correlation: A correlation measures the relationship between two variables. Correlations can be either positive or negative.
• Inferential statistics: Whereas descriptive statistics provide a way to summarize information about the sample studied, the purpose of inferential statistics is to determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected.

Next, test your AP Psychology Unit 1 knowledge using our free Key Terms Worksheets!

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AP Psychology: Research Methods Notes

Key Takeaways: Research Methods

• The study of psychology relies on a diverse array of qualitative and quantitative research methods, including observations, case studies, surveys, and controlled experiments.
• Psychological research is carefully designed so that researchers can be confident about using results to draw conclusions about real-life phenomena. This is done by controlling variables, creating representative samples, controlling for internal and external validity, and operationalizing definitions and measurements.
• Researchers use statistics to analyze and make sense of the data gathered in a research study. This involves the use of descriptive statistics like measures of central tendency and dispersion, as well as inferential statistics for making generalizations based on the data.
• Because psychological study often involves the participation of human subjects, researchers must abide by established ethical principles and practices as well as legal guidelines while conducting research.

Research Methods Key Terms

Types of psychological research.

• Quantitative research: Research that uses operational measurements and statistical techniques to reach conclusions on the basis of numerical data, such as correlational studies and experiments.
• Qualitative research: Research that does not rely on numerical representations of data, such as naturalistic observations, unstructured interviews, and case studies.
• Correlation coefficient: A number (symbolized by r ) between −1 and +1, which represents the strength and direction of the correlation between two variables. The closer the coefficient is to −1 or +1, the stronger the correlation between the variables.
• Positive correlation: An r value above 0, which indicates that two variables have a direct relationship: when one variable increases, the other also increases.
• Negative correlation: An r value below 0, which indicates that two variables have an inverse relationship: when one variable increases, the other decreases.
• Naturalistic observation: A research method, typically qualitative in nature and usually covert and undisclosed, that attempts to document behavior as it spontaneously occurs in a real world setting.
• Structured observation: A type of observational research typically conducted in a laboratory setting, where the researcher can control some aspects of the environment.
• Coding: The classification of behaviors into discrete categories, used especially in structured observations to achieve a level of consistency in recording and describing observations.
• Inter-rater reliability: A statistical measure of the degree of agreement between different codings of the same phenomena.
• Participant observation: A mostly qualitative research method in which the researcher becomes a member of a studied group, either overtly or covertly.
• Hawthorne effect: A phenomenon in which research subjects tend to alter their behavior in response to knowledge of being observed.
• Longitudinal study: A research design that examines how individuals develop by studying the same sample over a long period of time.
• Cross-sectional study: A research design conducted at a single point in time, comparing groups of differing ages to arrive at conclusions about development.
• Case study: A research design involving an in-depth and detailed examination of a single subject, or case, usually an individual or a small group.
• Survey: A mostly quantitative research method involving a list of questions filled out by a group of people to assess attitudes or opinions.
• Nonresponse bias: A distortion of data that can occur in surveys with a low response rate.
• Surveyor bias: A distortion of data that can occur when survey questions are written in a way that prompts respondents to answer a certain way.
• Experiments: Deliberately designed procedures used to test research hypotheses.
• Hypothesis: A proposed, testable explanation for a phenomenon, often constructed in the form of a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
• Controlled experiment: A research design for testing a causal hypothesis, in which all aspects of the study are deliberately controlled and only independent variables are manipulated to isolate their effects on dependent variables.
• Field experiment: Experiments conducted out in the real world, with fewer controls than would be found in a lab.

Check out our full Research Methods Notes!

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AP Psychology Revisions for 2024-25

In 2022, the American Psychological Association (APA) released recommendations for introductory psychology course content and skills. To align with these recommendations and with how college and university instructors in the U.S. teach introductory psychology, we’ve revised the AP Psychology course and exam.

The revisions take effect with the 2024-25 school year (May 2025 exam).

What’s Changing?

Course revisions.

We’ve updated the course framework to simplify the course structure and clarify key terms. Visit Course Revisions for details.

Exam Revisions

We’ve also revised the exam design to assess a wider range of skills in more authentic ways. Visit Exam Revisions for details.

Subject Area Update

To allow for more flexibility and opportunities for college credit, we now list AP Psychology as a science course in addition to a social science course.

Colleges and high schools have long classified psychology as a social science or social studies course, and APA now recommends offering psychology as a science course. Teacher licensure should allow for both subject areas.

Teacher Resources

We recognize this revision was announced relatively close to the start of the fall semester and understand that you may be concerned about preparation time.

To support teacher planning and student learning, we’re adding free resources to AP Classroom on a rolling basis. 

• Hundreds of topic questions and progress checks
• Updated AP Daily videos 
• Comprehensive question bank

What to Expect

• March 2024 : The AP Course Audit opened for 2024-25. Learn how to reauthorize your course.  
• June 2024 : AP Summer Institutes (APSIs) began training teachers on the revised course and exam description (CED).  
• July 2024 : We began updating AP Classroom with new progress checks, topic questions, AP Daily videos, and an updated question bank. 
• Fall 2024 : AP Psychology teachers start implementing the revised course framework in their classrooms. 
• May 2025 : Students take AP Psychology Exams that align with the revised course framework. 

Send Us Your Questions

Contact us using this feedback form.

Why did you revise AP Psychology?

The American Psychological Association (APA) recently updated its standards for Introductory Psychology. The revised AP Psychology Course and Exam Description (CED) aligns to the new APA standards.

Will AP Psychology teachers need to resubmit in the AP Course Audit?

Yes. All new and returning AP Psychology teachers need to complete an AP Course Audit form attestation in 2024-25. They can select one of these three submission options: 

• Adopt a sample syllabus or unit guide 
• Claim an identical syllabus to a colleague who has been authorized for the 2024-25 school year
• Submit a new or revised course document

For teachers selecting the third option: The original course document should only outline how the course fulfills the curricular requirements and does not need to be the full syllabus used in the classroom. Teachers should not submit syllabi that include classroom management policies. 

Information about AP Course Audit requirements, updated sample syllabi, and an updated syllabus development guide are available on the AP Psychology Course Audit page on this site.

Will there be new AP Classroom resources for the revised course and exam?

Yes. We’re updating AP Classroom resources, including AP Daily videos, progress checks, topic questions, and an updated question bank. 

Most of the updated resources became available in July 2024. We’ll add more throughout the school year. 

How will AP Classroom align the existing question bank items with the revised content?

We’ve evaluated and revised question bank items as needed to align them to the revised course and exam. We’ve also developed new question bank items to give students opportunities for formative assessment and retrieval practice for each topic in the course and the types of questions that will appear on the AP Psychology Exam. 

What will happen to the questions and quizzes that teachers created in AP Classroom?

Questions and quizzes created by teachers will stay in AP Classroom. We’ll contact teachers with more information about how to retag their questions and quizzes to the new course framework. 

What professional development opportunities will be available to help teachers prepare for the new content?

AP Summer Institutes and other opportunities for learning and collaboration will be available to teachers to help prepare them for the revised course.

Will the textbooks we previously used for AP Psychology work with the revised course?

Yes. Existing textbooks adequately address the material needed for the revised course. 

Textbook requirements have not changed: students should have access to a college-level introductory psychology textbook that has been published in the last 10 years. 

We’ve informed publishers of the changes. They’re working to update their materials to align with the revised course so that schools wishing to purchase textbooks aligned to the changes can do so.

Who was involved in the revisions?

As with all AP courses, a development committee of experienced educators and college faculty was responsible for revising AP Psychology. The AP Psychology Development Committee also worked with high school teachers and higher education faculty reviewers and consultants.

Were universities consulted during the revision process, and will they still have the same credit policies?

Universities were consulted during the revision process, and many faculty members were included on the development committee. Almost 100 college and university faculty participated in a symposium where they shared input on the framework and exam design. We expect these revisions will preserve current credit and placement policies and create opportunities to broaden them.

AP Psychology Course and Exam Description

This is the core document for the course, revised for the 2024-25 school year.

See the Revised Course and Exam Description

Related topics.

• Open Course

AP Psychology Curriculum Guide with Videos

Here you can find a breakdown of all the units and sections of the current (2024) AP Psychology curriculum, with links to relevant tutorial videos for each topic. There isn’t always a one-to-one match with the video content and the AP sections (the AP units don’t match well with most textbooks) but hopefully you can find explanations and examples for any areas you’re struggling with or need to review!

Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

1.1 Introducing Psychology

• What is Psychology? https://youtu.be/ysda8PHQnGY
• Nature vs. Nurture https://youtu.be/EPIlIdgC0rA
• Dualism & Monism https://youtu.be/hTPcxhOdgk0
• What is Phrenology? https://youtu.be/oIw_I2t4bMs
• Structuralism & Functionalism https://youtu.be/laBOrIIfoXA

1.2 Research Methods in Psychology

• Difficulties of Psychological Research https://youtu.be/7UDBjXnk4yA
• The Scientific Mindset: Skepticism & Humility https://youtu.be/OZpLetQbgk0
• Observer Bias: Clever Horses & Dull Rats https://youtu.be/Hhwj_G7b9M4
• Operational Definitions & Construct Validity https://youtu.be/RUPLYxzRU4s
• Case Studies & The Survey Method https://youtu.be/iILdn1l1Pqg
• Populations & Samples https://youtu.be/llYcmCe1bAc
• Real & Illusory Correlations, Scatterplots, & Causation https://youtu.be/H-lOZy6u1js
• The Third Variable Problem https://youtu.be/ZvHyuJBeCyk

1.3 Defining Psychological Science: The Experimental Method

• The Experimental Method https://youtu.be/1MGTkf5eghQ

1.4 Selecting a Research Method

• Internal Validity https://youtu.be/ai8A59WWgpU
• External Validity https://youtu.be/Dd1IuyWyGrY

1.5 Statistical Analysis in Psychology

• Measures of Central Tendency https://youtu.be/m-bjMi2_9hw
• Difference between a Theory & a Hypothesis https://youtu.be/ymPvx3_dy_Y
• Measures of Variance: Range & Standard Deviation https://youtu.be/MwxRzkAz7mA
• Frequency Distributions, Normal Curves, & Skew https://youtu.be/mpY9_qhpUX8
• Understanding Significance & P-values https://youtu.be/3r6qRlVX-hE

1.6 Ethical Guidelines in Psychology

• Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Research https://youtu.be/8ZxFMTNSL_g

Unit 1 Practice Questions Here: History & Approaches Practice Questions

Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

2.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment

• Introduction to Genetics & Shared Genes https://youtu.be/ItpG04gugH0
• What is Heritability? https://youtu.be/wkAG4ovamoo

2.2 The Endocrine System

I don’t have a separate video for this topic but glands & hormones are discussed in these videos:

• Parts of the Brain: Forebrain – Subcortical Structures https://youtu.be/4bIthxzHRYY
• The Stress Response & HPA Axis https://youtu.be/7Yu7KYCR9Pk

2.3 Overview of the Nervous System and the Neuron

• Organization of the Nervous System https://youtu.be/pvYallhmwLY
• Neuron Structure: Parts of a Neuron https://youtu.be/Ply4X4J1-HI

2.4 Neural Firing

• The Action Potential https://youtu.be/V0_K8JO_nrE
• How Neurons Communicate: The Synapse https://youtu.be/BHi7rAQpyzc
• What Happens to Neurotransmitters After Release? https://youtu.be/pXJXV6Z0NN4
• Introduction to Neurotransmitters https://youtu.be/42LWpiat98Q

2.5 Influence of Drugs on Neural Firing

• Influence on Neurotransmitter: Agonist or Antagonist? https://youtu.be/tkGYP3_euuQ

2.6 The Brain

• Parts of the Brain: Hindbrain Structures https://youtu.be/Bv6PD_Zg628
• Parts of the Brain: Midbrain Structures https://youtu.be/DZlZqWwFSgw
• Parts of the Brain: Forebrain – Cerebral Cortex https://youtu.be/0shsEcC9jzw
• Split Brains: What Happens When You Sever the Corpus Callosum? https://youtu.be/ZdzglXVZeQM

2.7 Tools for Examining Brain Structure and Function

• Early Methods of Studying the Brain https://youtu.be/gvEVMT9Q8qg
• Brain Scanning & Imaging Techniques https://youtu.be/Hb8m3NUTrF4

2.8 The Adaptable Brain

• How Do Drugs Influence Neural Communication? https://youtu.be/NPGWfb1hvYQ
• How Are Psychoactive Drugs Classified? https://youtu.be/u8TrlO4mtvQ
• Types of Consciousness https://youtu.be/d0wKP–2Wrc
• Levels of Consciousness https://youtu.be/edDFog2KQC0

2.9 Sleep and Dreaming

• The Circadian Rhythm https://youtu.be/3RUhJP5gG9Q
• Stages of Sleep https://youtu.be/F7x-Q35WYKo
• What Happens When You Don’t Get Enough Sleep? https://youtu.be/joT-xCQqP2o
• Sleep Disorders https://youtu.be/b4dhPJ3APd0
• Dreaming: Freud, Activation-Synthesis, & Information Processing https://youtu.be/h6zQQ3yJa0Q

Unit 2 Practice Questions Here: Biological Bases of Behavior Practice Questions

Unit 3: Sensation and Perception

3.1 Principles of Sensation

• Introduction to Sensation & Perception https://youtu.be/sP3ThMv8p4s
• Psychophysics! https://youtu.be/QZ3ZkhcBfCA
• Signal Detection Theory https://youtu.be/WUjwk92r-ME

3.2 Principles of Perception

• Gestalt Laws of Perception https://youtu.be/lqque_JJRMo
• Perceptual Constancy https://youtu.be/CvvmJh7X0Uw
• Depth Perception https://youtu.be/Qr_yBDMd1Z8
• Culture & Perception https://youtu.be/yWWSmERmUvk

3.3 Visual Anatomy

• Parts of the Eye: How Vision Works https://youtu.be/dGXHIkn0rLM
• Blood Vessels, Floaters, & Blindspots https://youtu.be/2qOcdI5Eev0

3.4 Visual Perception

• Photoreceptors, Receptive Fields, & Lateral Inhibition https://youtu.be/Y4RHUsLKIM0
• Color Vision: Trichromatic & Opponent Process Theories https://youtu.be/qjJmNJd38CY
• Understanding Colorblindness https://youtu.be/57IgxKGA4pI
• Synesthesia: Mingling of the Senses https://youtu.be/xS-vmV9ZjG0

3.5 Auditory Sensation and Perception

• Parts of the Ear: How Hearing Works https://youtu.be/kwKj4Ri03Kg

3.6 Chemical Senses

• Olfaction: Sense of Smell https://youtu.be/Qf-tpC-24KE
• Gustation: Taste Perception https://youtu.be/J_yf9EeIdaM

3.7 Body Senses

• Vestibular Sense: Balance & Orientation https://youtu.be/a_rwZBQeu14
• Touch, Haptic Perception, & the Somatosensory Cortex https://youtu.be/lXO2FRw0-8s
• Pain Perception https://youtu.be/0_OwY5xXTIU

Unit 3 Practice Questions Here: Sensation & Perception Practice Questions

Unit 4: Learning

4.1 Introduction to Learning

• Learning Theory & Classical Conditioning https://youtu.be/E6Qs0Az2au4

4.2 Classical Conditioning

• Extinction, Discrimination, & Generalization https://youtu.be/OSwH175hMoE
• Scared Infants & Sick Rats: Aversive Conditioning https://youtu.be/Zfm8XcCu5mQ

4.3 Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning: Behavior & Consequences https://youtu.be/uszdpFoALQk
• Operant Boxes & Schedules of Reinforcement https://youtu.be/HOB-jaDk8M8
• Chaining, Shaping, & Instinctive Drift https://youtu.be/B5Jiu7-76dg

4.4 Social and Cognitive Factors in Learning

• The Premack Principle https://youtu.be/LjjGSY_T9ss
• The Rescorla-Wagner Model https://youtu.be/pYyUSh1veoo
• Observational Learning: Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study https://youtu.be/XnnzjAnUae8
• Latent Learning & Cognitive Maps https://youtu.be/CoKusFPAp0c
• Abstract Learning & Insight Learning https://youtu.be/E9Wjz2TIix0

Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

5.1 Introduction to Memory

• Introduction to Memory https://youtu.be/mwb2sY_N5AI

5.2 Encoding

• Sensory Memory https://youtu.be/ENg7CvgU1Kw

5.3 Storing

• Short-Term & Working Memory https://youtu.be/rvEe4ADrRu8
• Long-Term Memory https://youtu.be/WK4TeETxwdM

5.4 Retrieving

• Memory Improvement Techniques https://youtu.be/sunnGz6QL4Q
• Memory Improvement Techniques 2 https://youtu.be/-dBUw-QYoiA
• Mnemonic Strategies https://youtu.be/IPhKoqxjMRQ

5.5 Forgetting and Memory Distortion

• Memory Failures: Transience, Absentmindedness, & Blocking https://youtu.be/KSWpPvmoGnU
• Memory Failures 2: Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias, & Persistence https://youtu.be/xKMA2yoz80A
• Emotion & Memory https://youtu.be/TxcyvlSmm68

5.6 Biological Bases of Memory

• Biology of Memory: The Hippocampus https://youtu.be/-CMHMts7kGY
• Long-Term Potentiation https://youtu.be/5hZ0keB0MuA

5.7 Introduction to Thinking and Problem Solving

• Problem Solving https://youtu.be/pL-XpuPbtbY
• Obstacles to Problem Solving https://youtu.be/PGvyIZFKtOM
• Problem Solving: Algorithms vs. Heuristics https://youtu.be/o5lzVg5vGaM

5.8 Biases and Errors in Thinking

• The Availability Heuristic https://youtu.be/1vZDWiK_1t0
• The Representativeness Heuristic https://youtu.be/lhcE5EU-nII
• The Framing Effect https://youtu.be/Ic_0jSPtx_k
• The Sunk-Cost Fallacy https://youtu.be/AkXekud-gu0
• Benefits of Heuristics https://youtu.be/NgkG-NgfKAY

5.9 Introduction to Intelligence

• What is Intelligence? https://youtu.be/niM7P8OdT60
• How Should We Define Intelligence? https://youtu.be/Ta40WaZ-ePo

5.10 Psychometric Principles and Intelligence Testing

• Assessing Intelligence https://youtu.be/ZM6SsbK3eGY
• Assessing Assessments: Types of Validity https://youtu.be/TBYsvOcgL3w
• Reliability of Assessments https://youtu.be/7SYenTExeTE
• History of Intelligence Testing https://youtu.be/zXRvbkUfhIY
• IQ Variation & Distribution https://youtu.be/h8X0hyHFpy4
• What Causes IQ Differences? https://youtu.be/YS_2JTp0KhI
• The Flynn Effect & Environmental Factors on IQ https://youtu.be/HN0fB-bYwGQ

5.11 Components of Language and Language Acquisition

• Language Acquisition: Skinner vs. Chomsky https://youtu.be/QAgdPDvMTGU
• Introduction to Linguistics https://youtu.be/NnQvFXmRd6o
• Universal Grammar https://youtu.be/reYP-kKRhTk
• Language Development https://youtu.be/DMeIv1hSk_k
• The Interactionist Approach to Language Acquisition https://youtu.be/KF-B3-evNJs
• How Does Language Influence Thought? https://youtu.be/iaO2_U5ok9M
• Category Recognition https://youtu.be/5KCeIfKF-YQ

Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

6.1 The Lifespan and Physical Development in Childhood

• Developmental Psychology & Erikson’s 8 Ages of Man https://youtu.be/OgKht4cu1HI
• Prenatal Development https://youtu.be/jmQBIcOBsh4
• Infancy Stage: Motor & Perceptual Development https://youtu.be/T9riKxH2Hh4
• Brain Development https://youtu.be/b9uivRacjMc

6.2 Social Development in Childhood

• Attachment & Bonding https://youtu.be/UxRHQSqAlwA
• Baumrind’s Parenting Styles https://youtu.be/Hljt9xSlYsc

6.3 Cognitive Development in Childhood

• Piaget: Assimilation & Accommodation https://youtu.be/aDDb6wn216E
• Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage https://youtu.be/f1MJ_ojQFpw
• Piaget: Preoperational Stage https://youtu.be/sq1vMELzJZA
• Piaget: Concrete & Formal Operational Stages https://youtu.be/GtGeACXo5ek
• Lev Vygotsky & The Zone of Proximal Development https://youtu.be/kDlkb4UESpE

6.4 Adolescent Development

• Puberty & Adolescence https://youtu.be/A95zvqZLQ_Q

6.5 Adulthood and Aging

• Adulthood & Aging https://youtu.be/66-dixH4Flw

6.6 Moral Development

• Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development https://youtu.be/aTaElbqVKL4

6.7 Gender and Sexual Orientation

• Development of Sexual Orientation https://youtu.be/YX0MQdto23E

Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

7.1 Theories of Motivation

• Theories of Motivation: Instincts & Drives https://youtu.be/uxYaXt9PWbQ
• Drive Reduction Theory https://youtu.be/IwGfSaWZ5u0
• Arousal Theory, Yerkes-Dodson Law, & Flow https://youtu.be/_SiDTZAtVe8
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs https://youtu.be/zRR5Sr-vgVo
• Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivations https://youtu.be/PVUXbSJdSmc
• Delay of Gratification & Ironic Effects of Punishment https://youtu.be/NeFXit8pygs
• Conscious & Unconscious: Approach & Avoidance Motivations https://youtu.be/fbuHLgMj4Ck

7.2 Specific Topics in Motivation

• Hunger Signaling https://youtu.be/P47xxTYJZn8
• Introduction to Eating Disorders https://youtu.be/tENwRW2w8WM
• Understanding Obesity https://youtu.be/u169kDHH8wc
• Sexual Motivation https://youtu.be/4nyQVKxm9uA
• Masters & Johnson’s Human Sexual Response Cycle https://youtu.be/4q_-D-pifiw

7.3 Theories of Emotion

• What is an Emotion? https://youtu.be/5rkJzgEGfBY
• How Do Emotions Happen? https://youtu.be/sGDVVNDZV70
• Misattribution of Arousal https://youtu.be/ibp81Gj9BMY
• Emotions in the Brain https://youtu.be/9K3UqZ7_9Vs
• Emotion Pathways in the Brain https://youtu.be/NeEfb6ccBrE
• The Frontal Lobotomy https://youtu.be/fXGemkaTllw
• Emotional Regulation https://youtu.be/JIxLJ2DH7FM
• The Expression of Emotions https://youtu.be/qC24iDRC4gs
• Emotional Expression & Social Interaction https://youtu.be/x-LlA4DOWUY
• Why Do We Have Emotions? https://youtu.be/yINaDGPGG0w

7.4 Stress and Coping

• Introduction to Health Psychology https://youtu.be/YsTs36zK32M
• What is Stress? https://youtu.be/CATd9WaQ1co
• General Adaptation Syndrome https://youtu.be/gOWDJf9iguk
• Stress & The Immune System https://youtu.be/LLN7ADt1_jc
• Psychological Stressors & Health https://youtu.be/bO4DGKWzL2w
• Stress, Personality, & Heart Disease https://youtu.be/F5rM2Y2ZmQA
• Perceived Control & Learned Helplessness https://youtu.be/IU3IpxOqNhk
• Stress & Social Hierarchy https://youtu.be/acIBafRwTmE
• Control, Choice, Blame, & Stress https://youtu.be/QO23LaCCXk4
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder PTSD https://youtu.be/I-tMBogw6VU
• Coping, Resilience, & Post-Traumatic Growth https://youtu.be/eX86iwfOggw
• Stress Management & Physical Exercise https://youtu.be/ORVWJmdZLpY
• Stress, Social Support, & The Faith Factor https://youtu.be/5gnvGMp_QFg

7.5 Introduction to Personality

• What is Personality? https://youtu.be/gP4DaRMKOAQ

7.6 Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

• Psychoanalysis & Freudian Personality Structure: Id, Ego, Superego https://youtu.be/tRDUlxc6VDw
• Freud’s Psychosexual Stages https://youtu.be/ubhs-R63I1c
• Freudian Defense Mechanisms https://youtu.be/jfOGC-8KndQ
• Psychodynamic Theorists: Adler, Horney, Jung https://youtu.be/GrjJyvNpQ3I

7.7 Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theories of Personality

• The Socio-Cognitive Approach to Personality https://youtu.be/nhiny1quzVU
• Existential Psychology https://youtu.be/wrWsUaFo-Xo
• The Self & Reciprocal Determinism https://youtu.be/K3-VC-VH45A
• Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, & Self-Perception https://youtu.be/lywFMVsZvNE

7.8 Humanistic Theories of Personality

• Humanistic Psychology: Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers https://youtu.be/K3-VC-VH45A

7.9 Trait Theories of Personality

• Which Personality Traits Matter? https://youtu.be/4NoyAXStA9A
• The Five-Factor Model or Big Five https://youtu.be/NAJHRQOmjv8
• Traits & Behavior https://youtu.be/MWs_V7wJafM
• What Causes Trait Differences? https://youtu.be/4P4m5TqH2zs
• Genes & Personality https://youtu.be/Pz59yC5jA2U

7.10 Measuring Personality

• Projective Techniques: The Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT https://youtu.be/xok-Wh1awSc
• Trait-Based Assessment of Personality https://youtu.be/GaxUBStXQ9c
• The Forer Effect or Barnum Effect https://youtu.be/NQnUvKZlXVQ
• The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory MMPI https://youtu.be/4NoyAXStA9A
• The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator MBTI https://youtu.be/Y5VBtdVUBfA

Unit 8: Clinical Psychology

8.1 Introduction to Psychological Disorders

• What is Normal? https://youtu.be/H3mKXpVvW6k

8.2 Psychological Perspectives and Etiology of Disorders

• Deviance, Dysfunction, Distress, & Disorders https://youtu.be/2t-3Ej-7cGg
• On Being Sane in Insane Places: The Rosenhan Study https://youtu.be/4LHOcEXJ8Hc
• The DSM-5 https://youtu.be/AwSBSK7So7s
• The Diathesis-Stress Model https://youtu.be/yuMi50PrwIM
• Culture & Mental Illness https://youtu.be/SR3jI6NK0Jw
• DSM-5 Disorders & Diagnoses https://youtu.be/TF54latlNxo

8.3 Neurodevelopmental and Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders

• Neurodevelopmental Disorders https://youtu.be/gb3wcEtswFg
• Schizophrenia Spectrum & Other Psychotic Disorders https://youtu.be/NQAK2ZcsTdM

8.4 Bipolar, Depressive, Anxiety, and Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

• Bipolar & Related Disorders https://youtu.be/j3pC5460zMw
• Depressive Disorders https://youtu.be/GL3YuBnpy-4
• Anxiety Disorders https://youtu.be/09lKvKnvV0U
• Obsessive-Compulsive & Related Disorders https://youtu.be/Kw4WiaMWCkQ

8.5 Trauma- and Stressor-Related, Dissociative, and Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

• Trauma & Stressor-Related Disorders https://youtu.be/ECku-zTo1_s
• Dissociative Disorders https://youtu.be/xNA8Vf0Kpa8
• Somatic Symptom & Related Disorders https://youtu.be/iYifHEfeHXQ

8.6 Feeding and Eating, Substance and Addictive, and Personality Disorders

• Feeding & Eating Disorders https://youtu.be/jTkRiVkpK_A
• Personality Disorders https://youtu.be/VnUfEeI6PYU

8.7 Introduction to Treatment of Psychological Disorders

• Treatment of Mental Illness https://youtu.be/IxJXIc4FfKQ

8.8 Psychological Perspectives and Treatment of Disorders

• Types of Treatment: Psychoanalytic, Humanistic, & Behavioral https://youtu.be/0n8nyv9Qhc8
• Cognitive Therapy, CBT, & Group Approaches https://youtu.be/A2_NN1Q7Rfg

8.9 Treatment of Disorders from the Biological Perspective

• Biomedical Approaches: Psychopharmacology https://youtu.be/Tkyss-9k3jk

8.10 Evaluating Strengths, Weaknesses, and Empirical Support for Treatments of Disorders

• Evaluating Medications & Other Biomedical Interventions https://youtu.be/YeBt0qwBC-c
• Comparing Effectiveness & Lifestyle Factors https://youtu.be/sIlJBDEmRn4

Unit 9: Social Psychology

9.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception

• Introduction to Social Psychology https://youtu.be/ogShznxyfao
• The Self & Others https://youtu.be/ILzgbNH2GFw
• Situation, Disposition, & The Fundamental Attribution Error https://youtu.be/K3Tq6wvZUwM
• Culture & Cultural Dimensions https://youtu.be/H8xDkn84fYc

9.2 Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

• Impression Formation https://youtu.be/W1j3C4j1oXo
• Attitudes, Behavior, & Cognitive Dissonance https://youtu.be/mAfWvS5idsg

9.3 Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience

• Conformity https://youtu.be/zXWy730NKLw
• Compliance & Persuasion https://youtu.be/y2I8Jy22Q1M
• Obedience & The Milgram Study https://youtu.be/QXMBu28CbIE

9.4 Group Influences on Behavior and Mental Processes

• The Presence of Others: Social Facilitation & Social Loafing https://youtu.be/synOTW6h-9A
• Group Polarization & Groupthink https://youtu.be/Q48cY_R6ER4
• Crowd Behavior & Deindividuation https://youtu.be/f4npPVuujA4
• The Stanford Prison Study https://youtu.be/tCizIqBJ–I

9.5 Bias, Prejudice, and Discrimination

• Stereotypes, Prejudice, & Discrimination https://youtu.be/1eMyoktq09c
• The Robbers’ Cave Study: Improving Group Relations https://youtu.be/YOA4j05cTjk
• The Implicit Association Test: IAT https://youtu.be/Qn6YdJpuejg

9.6 Altruism and Aggression

• The Bystander Effect https://youtu.be/2hUkYg4TEHY
• Altruism & Prosocial Behavior https://youtu.be/8qfDET08gaA

9.7 Interpersonal Attraction

• Attraction & Relationship Formation https://youtu.be/pTDZybrrdZ0
• Attractiveness https://youtu.be/gvEleLiSd4U

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2024 AP Psychology Exam Guide

10 min read • june 18, 2024

Your Guide to the 2024 AP Psychology Exam

We know that studying for your AP exams can be stressful, but Fiveable has your back! We created a study plan to help you crush your AP Psychology exam. This guide will continue to update with information about the 2024 exams, as well as helpful resources to help you do your best on test day.  Unlock Cram Mode  for access to our cram events—students who have successfully passed their AP exams will answer your questions and guide your last-minute studying LIVE! And don't miss out on unlimited access to our database of thousands of practice questions. 

Format of the 2024 AP Psychology Exam

This year, all AP exams will cover all units and essay types. The 2024 exam format will be:

Section 1: Multiple Choice

You will have 70 minutes to answer 100 questions.

This section counts as 66.7% of your total exam score. Section II: Free Response

You will have 50 minutes to answer two FRQs.

• This section counts as the remaining 33.3% of your total exam score.

When is the 2024 AP Psychology Exam and How Do I Take It?

** The exam is on Thursday, May 9, 2024, at 12:00 PM your local time—this will be a paper test at your school.  **

How Should I Prepare for the Exam?

• First, download the  AP Psychology Cheatsheet PDF - a single sheet that covers everything you need to know at a high level. Take note of your strengths and weaknesses!
• We've put together the study plan found below to help you study between now and May. This will cover all of the units and essay types to prepare you for your exam. Pay special attention to the units that you need the most improvement in.
• Study, practice, and review for test day with other students during our live cram sessions via  Cram Mode . Cram live streams will teach, review, and practice important topics from AP courses, college admission tests, and college admission topics. These streams are hosted by experienced students who know what you need to succeed.

Pre-Work: Set Up Your Study Environment

Before you begin studying, take some time to get organized.

🖥 Create a study space.

Make sure you have a designated place at home to study. Somewhere you can keep all of your materials, where you can focus on learning, and where you are comfortable. Spend some time prepping the space with everything you need and you can even let others in the family know that this is your study space. 

📚 Organize your study materials.

Get your notebook, textbook, prep books, or whatever other physical materials you have. Also, create a space for you to keep track of review. Start a new section in your notebook to take notes or start a Google Doc to keep track of your notes. Get yourself set up!

📅 Plan designated times for studying.

The hardest part about studying from home is sticking to a routine. Decide on one hour every day that you can dedicate to studying. This can be any time of the day, whatever works best for you. Set a timer on your phone for that time and really try to stick to it. The routine will help you stay on track.

🏆 Decide on an accountability plan.

How will you hold yourself accountable to this study plan? You may or may not have a teacher or rules set up to help you stay on track, so you need to set some for yourself. First, set your goal. This could be studying for x number of hours or getting through a unit. Then, create a reward for yourself. If you reach your goal, then x. This will help stay focused!

AP Psych 2024 Study plan

🔎unit 1: scientific foundations of psychology.

According to the College Board, Unit 1 is about the basis of psychological theory as the study of human and animal behavior and mental processes and how psychologists design and conduct research. 

Topics that are included in this unit are:

• Major historical figures in psychology
• Theoretical approaches to describing the behavior
• Branches of psychology
• A variety of research methods used by psychologists
• The application of research design and statistical analysis in psychology
• Ethical guidelines

Definitely check these out:

📚 Read these study guides:

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• [object Object] If you have more time or want to dig deeper:

💻  Learn about the best resources so you can start studying early:

🧠Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

Unit 2 of the AP Psychology exam covers behaviors and mental processes from a biological perspective and the effects of the interaction between human biology and our environment. This has to do with the large nature vs nurture debate! 

• The interaction of inherited traits, environment, and evolution in shaping behavior
• Structures and functions of biological systems, including the endocrine system and nervous system
• Brain function, neural firing, and the influence of medication
• The study of the brain and research techniques for studying its structure and function
• States of consciousness, including sleeping and dreaming
• Addiction and drug dependence

💻  Here are the best AP Psych Quizlet Decks!

👀Unit 3: Sensation and Perception

Unit three is all about how we perceive and process our environment on a daily basis through our senses. You will learn all about how we convert those observations into perceptions that influence how we think and behave.

• Basic principles of how humans experience and process stimuli
• The role of experience and culture in perception
• The mechanisms of the 5 senses and sensory disorders

💻  Here are some AP Psych Self-Studying and Homeschooling tips to check out:

📚Unit 4: Learning

Unit 4 of AP Psych is all about the field of psychology that studies how humans and other animals learn as well as how learning changes over a lifetime. You will learn all about classical and operant conditioning and how incentives affect our learning! You’ll probably even learn a thing or two that could help you adjust your studying habits!

• Influential researchers and theories of learning
• Results of famous learning experiments
• Types of learning
• Types of conditioning and their effects
• Social and cognitive factors in learning

🤔Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

According to the College Board, in this unit, you will examine the complex nature of how memory, intelligence, and other mental processes impact human behavior.

• The cognitive and physiological processes that make up memory
• Forgetting and typical memory errors
• The biological basis of short- and long-term memory
• Creative thinking and problem-solving strategies
• Biases and errors in thinking
• Defining and measuring intelligence
• The processes of learning and using language

💻  Here are some steps to succeed on the AP Psych Multiple Choice Questions!

👶Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

This unit is all about developmental psychology, which studies how physical and social changes over humans’ lifespans can influence behavior and mental processes. You will learn about several theories in this unit regarding our development in childhood, as teenagers, and as adults.

• Physical and social development in childhood
• Theories of cognitive development in childhood
• Adolescent development and challenges
• Adulthood and aging
• Theories of moral development
• Gender and sexual orientation
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💻  Here are some tips on how to succeed on the AP Psych FRQ Questions!

🤪Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

According to the College Board, in this unit, you will study personality through the lens of behavior and mental processes and how these processes interact to produce an individual’s personality. You will also dive deep into the different theories of motivation and why we, as humans, do certain things. Additionally, you will study stress and emotion in this unit and several theories regarding them as well.

Topics that are in this unit:

• Theories of the motivation behind human and animal behavior
• Major theories of emotion
• The effects of stress
• Conceptions of personality, including behaviorist, social cognitive, humanistic, and trait theories
• Research and assessments to measure personality
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💻  Here are some AP Psych note taking tips!

🤪Unit 8: Clinical Psychology

Unit 8 is all about how psychologists evaluate, study, and treat a range of psychological disorders.

• Standards for diagnosing and approaches to explaining psychological disorders
• Neurodevelopmental and schizophrenic spectrum disorders
• Bipolar, depressive, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders
• Dissociative, somatic, and trauma- and stress-related disorders
• Substance abuse, eating disorders, personality disorders, and related conditions
• Historical developments in psychological treatment
• Modern treatment options and methods

💻  Here are some common misconceptions in psychology that are good to review for May!

👫Unit 9: Social Psychology

Congrats, you made it to the final AP Psychology unit! In this last unit, you’ll study how humans interact in groups and social situations, as well as how others can affect an individual’s behavior and mental processes. You will probably learn a lot of the psychology behind some historical events in this unit too.

Topics that are in this unit include:

• How social and cultural categories like gender and race can impact self-concept and behavior
• The factors that lead people to form and change attitudes
• Group dynamics, including conformity, compliance, and obedience to authority
• Types of behavior caused by the presence of others
• Bias, prejudice, and discrimination
• Altruism and aggression
• The variables that contribute to attraction

💻  Here are some time management and study tips!  [object Object]  

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The Best AP Psychology Notes to Study With

Advanced Placement (AP)

Note-taking can be tricky, even for the most conscientious high school students. It's hard to sort through a whole year's worth of material, especially in an AP class that covers a wide range of topics and theories.

This article is intended to serve as a one-stop shop for comprehensive notes on all the major topics covered in AP Psychology. Whether you lost your class notes on cognition or just want an easier way to see everything in one place, the links in this article will help make your study process more focused and less stressful!

How to Use These AP Psychology Notes

You can use these notes as study aids for in-class tests or to review for the final AP exam . Supplement them with resources you've gotten from your teacher in class and other notes you've taken throughout the year. If you know that there's an especially great explanation of a certain concept in your textbook, use that to help you review as well.

You might also consider buying a review book if you're looking for more guidance in planning out your studying.

If you're studying for the AP test as a whole , take a diagnostic practice test before diving into these notes . That way you can see where you're making the most mistakes and focus your studying on the appropriate areas. Taking practice tests at regular intervals throughout the study process will give you a better idea of whether or not you're absorbing the material.

Real-time practice tests will also help you get used to managing your time effectively so that you're prepared for the way the final exam is structured. You'll be answering 100 multiple-choice questions in 70 minutes, so appropriate pacing is critical!

In the next section, I'll go through a list of all the topics that are covered in AP Psychology and provide links to online notes for each .

AP Psychology Notes to Use in Your Prep

These are the easiest-to-follow online notes I could find for the material covered in AP Psychology. For each topic area, I've included three types of links :

• Regular notes (including section-specific overviews and more general topic outlines)
• Notes accompanied by video resources
• PowerPoint presentations that show the information in a slightly different form

The WikiNotes links are the most detailed , so you should go over those first. The PowerPoints and general topic outlines provide more of a brief overview of concepts and can serve as a quick review tool. If you think you'd benefit from videos, take a look at those resources as well.

It's likely that your AP Psychology course will be structured roughly in the same order as the topics presented here , so it should be easy to find the information you need to study for in-class tests throughout the year. (Note that the Psych topics  changed slightly in 2020 , so the titles of some of the notes you click on may be different than the unit titles, but they still cover the information you need to know.)

Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

• General Topic Outline
• Notes With Video Resources

Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

• Neural Processing and the Endocrine System
• Genetics, Evolutionary Psychology, and Behavior

Unit 3: Sensation and Perception

Unit 4: learning, unit 5: cognitive psychology.

• Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language
• Notes With Video Resources ( Part 2 )

Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

Unit 7: motivation, emotion, and personality.

• Emotions, Stress, and Health

Unit 8: Clinical Psychology

• WikiNotes 1
• PowerPoint ( Part 1 and Part 2 )
• General Topic Outline 1
• WikiNotes 2
• PowerPoint 2
• General Topic Outline 2
• Notes With Video Resources ( Part 2)

Unit 9: Social Psychology

Overall ap psychology review sheets.

• Full Test Review
• List of Terms and People to Remember
• Interactive Glossary
• AP Psych Cram Sheet
• Psych Review Packet
• AP Psychology Short Review Packet
• AP Psychology Essential Review Sheet

3 Essential AP Psychology Study Strategies

Learning all this information might be tough if you don't have a game plan. Here are some tips for getting the most out of your AP Psychology prep.

#1: Make Friends With Flashcards

To succeed in AP Psychology, you must have excellent recall of a large library of terms. Some of these are constants of human behavior that you didn't know had official names, and others are more obscure terms for the biological components of psychological responses.

It's critical to be fluent in the terminology surrounding every concept if you want to end up with a high score on the AP exam. You should also know the names of prominent psychologists and understand their contributions to the field.

Quizzing yourself with flashcards is the best way to ensure you're prepared. I 'd recommend Quizlet as a starting point (after you read through the notes and refresh your memory) because it offers many sets of online flashcards you can use for practice.

Of course, you can always write out your own physical flashcards if you prefer to do things the old-fashioned way! This might be more effective since writing down definitions helps to reinforce your memory.

#2: Relate Psych Concepts to Everyday Life

The concepts in the AP Psychology course will show up in your daily life when you make decisions, interact socially, get stressed about schoolwork (very meta!), or really do anything.

As you read the notes, try to think of personal examples that relate to what you're learning. Besides helping you memorize the material, doing this can give you some interesting insight into why you've made certain decisions in your life (or why other people you know might have made certain decisions).

Even outside of your active study time, if you notice a particular behavior, try to relate it to something you've learned in AP Psychology. You probably won't forget a term or concept if you anchor it to a real experience.

#3: Give Yourself Regular Checkups

Don't go over a section of AP Psych notes once, quiz yourself, and then decide you're done with it forever. Every few topic areas, circle back and do a holistic review of everything you've learned so far. Make a point of constantly refreshing your memory so that nothing gets lost in the shuffle. You can use the complete AP Psychology review sheets I've linked at the end of the notes section as resources for these review sessions.

Conclusion: Getting the Most Out of AP Psych Notes

These notes and strategies should help you get started on your AP Psychology review. You can even use the notes on a unit-by-unit basis if you're just studying for a short quiz or test. Just remember to take practice tests to keep yourself on track, and continue consulting any resources you've accumulated throughout the year in class.

I recommend also taking advantage of the information in our other AP Psychology guides, such as our ultimate guide and in-depth review , to get more advice on how to structure your studying and to ensure you earn a high score on the final exam!

What's Next?

Are you concerned about the AP Psychology test? Read this article to decide whether it will be especially challenging for you .

What is Stockholm Syndrome, and how is it viewed in psychology circles? Learn more about this condition and its debated legitimacy in this article .

It's not easy to decide which AP classes to take in high school. Depending on how many options you have, you could structure your schedule in vastly different ways. Check out this guide to learn how many AP classes you should take in high school based on your goals and individual circumstances.

If you want to avoid overwhelming yourself with a ridiculous schedule, it's a good idea to be aware of which AP classes test the most challenging material. Read our article on the hardest AP classes here .

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Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

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