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Business Growth

Construction case studies: Project management, financials, materials and more

By Debbie Trecek •

Published May 11, 2023, updated Feb 29, 2024

To stay competitive, construction businesses should stay on top of the latest trends and best practices in the industry. One of the best ways to do this is by studying real-life examples of construction projects, processes and businesses.

Construction case studies provide valuable insights into what works – and what doesn’t – in the construction industry, helping companies identify potential problems, develop best practices and improve their operations.

Why should construction companies research case studies?

Saving thousands of dollars with change orders [sneller custom homes & remodeling], nonprofit impacts 200 local families with the help of construction software [habitat for humanity of omaha], using email marketing tools to connect with clients and maintain a personal touch [todd whittaker drywall], seamlessly connecting field and office with a construction mobile app [cove builders], converting prospects to clients with construction proposals [high street homes], quickbooks 2-way sync makes managing finances a breeze [risinger build], outdoor living company benefits from construction file management [vaughan + co], nonprofit uses scheduling software to build 40+ homes per year for veterans [building homes for heroes], enhancing the client experience with construction software [tri-pups, inc], how this minnesota builder is making green building affordable [greenhalo builds], onsite consulting helps builder adopt time-saving features [shelter solutions llc], assessing the health of any job in a few clicks with construction reporting software [lexar homes].

What are construction case studies?

Construction case studies are detailed examinations of construction businesses, processes or projects. The goal of completing a case study is to help identify potential problems, measure results and develop best practices for repeated success. 

Why are construction case studies important?

Research is one of the most common steps people take before making a purchase or investment. This is especially true in construction, as a home is typically the largest single purchase people make in their lifetime .

Construction case studies help provide research to your prospective clients. By using these materials to measure the challenges, solutions and results of a construction project, you can help prove the value of your services.

Why should construction businesses create case studies?

Creating and marketing case studies of your recent construction projects can help your sales process by:

• Supplying examples of real-life work
• Gaining referrals
• Providing measurable results
• Improving brand reputation

These materials can also help your construction business improve internal processes. By analyzing case studies of your own projects, you can:

• Identify patterns of homeowner pain points and requests
• Capture areas where your company provides the most value to clients
• Segment audiences to target for future sales efforts

All of these efforts can be used to help you maximize profits and win more business in the future.

Just as case studies can be used to help you win more contracts, they can also be used as a tool to help you recognize business opportunities.

In the construction industry, businesses must constantly be looking for ways to improve operations and stay competitive in the market. That means looking for opportunities to streamline operations, reduce waste and improve efficiencies in a way that can improve profit margins.

One of the best ways to achieve these goals is through construction company software . As with any purchase, though, making an investment in a software tool should be supported by research.

That’s why Buildertrend provides insights and industry trends through our own library of construction management case studies. Within this archive, we highlight stories of construction companies just like yours that are tackling real-world obstacles using Buildertrend software.

As you browse case studies in construction materials, be sure to consider your own unique business challenges. These might include questions such as:

• How can you improve my construction project?
• What are the benefits of software in construction?
• How can you increase leads in construction?
• How can I be a good team leader in construction?
• How do you win a bid proposal?
• How do you financially manage a construction company?
• How can my document management system be improved?
• How can I improve my construction schedule?
• How to improve customer satisfaction in the construction industry?
• How can construction companies be more sustainable?
• How can I continually improve my construction company?
• How can I get more value from reporting?

Apply these proven industry results to your own business strategy.

Project management

Procuring $10 million in work per year [hasler homes].

Hasler Homes, a top-tier custom home builder on Vancouver’s North Shore, needed a better way to organize projects – particularly the work being done by its construction teams and subcontractors.

After implementing Buildertrend, Hasler Homes began to identify even more areas to tighten up its project management. Hasler Homes was able to scale and procure over $10 million in projects each year with Buildertrend’s real-time communication, collaboration and organization features.

Increasing scale of work as a home remodeler [HDR Remodeling]

HDR Remodeling is a California-based residential design-build remodeling contractor that has been providing quality remodeling services for over 30 years.

By utilizing Buildertrend’s features, the company was able to increase its scale of work – without compromising quality of service.

Keeping projects organized with construction daily logs [BrightLeaf]

BrightLeaf Homes, a custom home builder and remodeler based in Chicago, has seen significant improvements in project management since adopting Buildertrend’s construction management software platform.

Initially seeking a scheduling tool to manage its growing team and project list, BrightLeaf quickly realized the value of incorporating Buildertrend into every aspect of the business to enhance project management, including tracking job timelines, improving communication and documenting progress.

Builder saves 40 hours each week on setting up new projects [Chris Ledet Homes]

Louisiana-based Chris Ledet Homes is a custom home builder that has been in business for almost four decades. The company prides itself on its commitment to integrity, experience and commitment to quality.

Using Buildertrend to modernize processes, the feature saved the company 40 hours per week setting up new projects . With these savings, Chris Ledet Homes was able to complete an additional five projects in a single year.

Templates help builder complete 2,000 outdoor projects [Decksouth]

Decksouth is a Marietta, Georgia-based outdoor living design-build firm that uses Buildertrend to manage every stage of the construction process.

Decksouth’s CEO, John Lea, chose Buildertrend to help the company become more process-focused and efficient. While using the construction management software’s templates feature to save time creating project schedules, daily logs and sales proposals, the company has experienced a seven-figure profit gain.

Doubling home construction projects [Brett Lott Homes]

Brett Lott Homes is a home builder in Washington state that builds customizable and speculative homes. After facing logistical challenges in managing multiple projects at the same time, the company decided to implement Buildertrend to help improve project management. Although initial milestones included improvements using Scheduling, Warranty, File Management, Messaging and Change Order features, Buildertrend also helped Brett Lott Homes improve communication between construction teams and subcontractors. This increased accountability and on-time work completion, which led to more than doubling their home builds .

1,000% growth in projects leads to need for a project management solution [Beyond Build Constructions]

Beyond Build Constructions is a custom home building company in Sydney that experienced 1,000% growth in projects from 2016-2019. As the company grew, its project management tools, such as Excel and daily emails, were no longer effective.

To ensure consistency in communication and quality, the company sought out a more advanced project management solution and found Buildertrend. Using the software, the company is able to predict timelines, manage workload and gain real-time insights into all the jobs that team members are working on. Now, they’ve been able to double the number of jobs they take on and have even integrated the software into their marketing efforts.

Sneller Custom Homes & Remodeling is a general contractor company based in Houston that has been using Buildertrend  project management software  to manage its growing business.

Sneller Custom Homes uses Buildertrend’s Change Orders feature to document any client requests for changes and track the impact on timelines, budget or scope. The results? Tens of thousands of dollars saved just by better tracking project changes and ensuring additional work is included in the final bill.

Construction software

Doubling sales in 3 years with the help of construction crm software [the bridge group].

The Bridge Group Construction, a commercial contractor based in Texas servicing senior living facilities, experienced growth and improved efficiency by using Buildertrend’s CRM tool.

Using the tool to streamline leads and manage projects, The Bridge Group has gained the ability to track the status of leads, increasing visibility and better planning for resources and materials. In doing so, The Bridge Group was able to double its sales in three years using construction software.

How one home builder uses construction tech for drafting and interior design [Haven Builders]

Haven Builders is a Canadian luxury design home builder that has been using Buildertrend to streamline processes and handle administrative duties – leaving more time to focus on design and projects – since its founding in 2010.

Using features like Scheduling, Messaging and Daily Logs, team members at Haven Builders efficiently create timelines, customize calendars, keep detailed notes, centralize information and communication and track costs. All correspondence with clients happens through Buildertrend, making communication easier and keeping everyone in the loop.

Spending 50% less time on HR management with construction software [CRC Builders]

CRC Builders, a California-based custom homes construction company, has been using Buildertrend construction software to handle rapid growth and centralize workflow.

By combining this construction software with a ready-made payroll service integration, CRC Builders was also able to simplify HR management. That includes payroll, direct deposits, W2 reporting, time-off tracking, automatic tax filing, hiring and onboarding. Now, the company is able to spend 50% less time on HR management , allowing the team to focus on completing quality projects.

Lessening the load of administrative duties with construction tech [Selvig Development]

Selvig Development, a boutique design and build firm in San Anselmo, California, was looking for a construction management software that would help it spend less time on job production and more time on jobs .

Buildertrend helped employees streamline their scheduling and timekeeping while ensuring detailed job tracking. The software allowed Selvig Development to establish a system of record for of all activities, enabling them to house all project information one place. As a result, Selvig Development saw efficiency and communication between its team and clients improve.

Taking on larger, more complex projects with construction tech [Owen Homes]

Owen Homes is a successful design-build firm in Kansas City, Missouri, that specializes in custom homes, remodels and exterior projects. Prior to using construction scheduling software, the company faced challenges with project data management and collaboration between team members, which led to internal inefficiencies, miscommunication and decreased employee morale.

With the help of Buildertrend, Owen Homes was able to centralize information for current projects, streamline collaboration and increase construction efficiency . This resulted in improved profitability, project forecasts and team morale. The platform’s real-time visibility into project schedules helped the company take on larger, more complex jobs and complete over 150 projects to date.

Enhancing the client experience with construction software [Spruce Homes]

Spruce Homes, a residential construction firm in Saskatchewan, Canada, has successfully implemented construction software to support its business growth.

Spruce Homes uses Buildertrend to integrate all core areas of its business: scheduling, financials, estimates, job costing, purchase orders and client management. In particular, employees’ use of the Customer Portal feature has enabled them to provide homeowners with real-time project updates. Now, they credit Buildertrend for their increased organization and efficiency, which enables them to take on more projects while maintaining superior client satisfaction .

Remodeler sees 300% growth in revenue with construction software [McManus Kitchen and Bath]

McManus Kitchen and Bath, a residential remodeling company based in Tallahassee, Florida, saw a 300% increase in revenue thanks to the adoption of an all-in-one construction software .

Prior to Buildertrend, team members managed projects using Google Sheets and a separate CRM tool. Buildertrend helped them to manage projects from start to finish, enabling them to complete nearly 150 renovation projects to date. They also saved $1,800 per year on CRM and time tracking tools and provided clients with instant access to the latest information on their renovation in real time.

How construction tech saved this landscaper from legal disputes [Allstate Landscape]

Allstate Landscape is a commercial landscape and maintenance contractor located in Dallas. The company relies heavily on documentation as it operates as a subcontractor specializing in living products. If those products – trees, bushes, plants, grass – aren’t maintained properly, profits can plummet fast.

So Allstate Landscape turned to Buildertrend’s construction management software. Using features like Daily Logs and To-Do’s, the company was able to document and organize imagery of project work. Now, the company is better protected from legal disputes and warranty claims if products are damaged. Ultimately, better project organization has saved thousands of dollars.

Prior to Buildertrend, Habitat for Humanity of Omaha, a nonprofit organization that provides affordable housing, struggled with a disjointed approach to project management and communication.

By incrementally integrating construction software into their processes, team members were able to manage projects, keep track of to-do lists and schedule all of their construction and home repair workflows. Now, they’ve established processes to help them build 56 homes and update 150 more – benefiting 200 local families –  in a single year .  

Lead generation and client management

Leveling up your construction website can generate more leads [knez homes].

Prior to implementing Buildertrend, home builder Knez Homes in Cleveland, had an outdated website that frequently experienced performance issues. They needed a modern website that reflected their business values and could help them reach potential clients. Working with Buildertrend’s Pro Websites, they were able to build a customized website with ongoing support. Within two months, hundreds of pages of content were moved over to their new, secure website, improving lead generation . 

Phoenix-based remodeler Todd Whittaker Drywall Inc., which began as a small drywall repair firm in 1996, used Buildertrend to improve its customer service and expand its range of services while maintaining a personal touch .

Buildertrend offered an online scheduling tool, which allowed clients to stay informed about job milestones, and a customer portan that let clients keep tabs on a project’s progress, even if they were not present. Buildertrend Payment Processing enabled Todd Whittaker Drywall to offer clients flexible payment options, making transactions simpler and more efficient. Additionally, they used email marketing to generate leads and foster a relationship with clients.

Team management

Improving construction team communication [wamhoff design|build].

Wamhoff Design|Build, a design and build company based in Tomball, Texas, used Buildertrend’s construction software to improve communication with their team, clients and subcontractors.

By connecting operations, communication and document management in a central solution, they were able to create a hub for information to help keep everyone aligned. This meant bringing together a customer portal and in-platform communication for better overall team management. Using Buildertrend, the Wamhoff team was able to clearly organize their processes and improve communications .

Simplifying communication between subs and business owners [Scroggs Construction Services]

Scroggs Construction Services, a design-build company in North Carolina, started using Buildertrend construction company software just six months after its founding in 2016.

Using the software as a tool to ensure efficient team management, they complete as many as 50 projects a year. One of the benefits, according to Scroggs Construction Services, is the way the platform allows for better sub management through tools like Purchase Orders and Change Orders. And subcontractors prefer to work with Scroggs because of the simplicity and effectiveness of the Buildertrend platform.

Cove Builders is a Minnesota-based home building and renovation company that has revolutionized itself from being primarily focused on remodeling and custom building to being a leader in developmental builds. To better manage their leads and scheduling, they began using Buildertrend with the goal of tightening financial processes, streamlining workflows and improving team communication – all while managing multiple projects at once.

Through Buildertrend’s mobile app, the team has been able to access job details and scheduling. The app also improved subcontractor management . Now, Cove Builders forecasts $10 million in revenue.  

Building accurate proposals in half the time with takeoff software [Color Houses]

Color Houses, a historic renovation company in Houston, was struggling with disorganization and losing money due to a lack of financial management. Using Buildertrend’s construction software, they were able to create a more organized process for financial stability.

Specifically, Buildertrend Takeoff – a digital estimating solution that’s part of the Buildertrend platform – helped create accurate proposals in half the time . It also helps ensure they have the correct data to explain to clients why prices have changed during the project. With Buildertrend, they have streamlined project planning, enhanced estimates and contracts, improving overall financial management.

High Street Homes, a custom home design-build company based in Fort Worth, Texas, implemented Buildertrend’s construction software platform to simplify their project management – beginning with proposals.

They began using the proposals and scheduling features to improve their estimates and budgeting, as well as to manage daily logs and to-do lists, ultimately saving time and money. The platform allowed them to see all of their data and project information in one place. This helps keep their jobs organized and their communication clear. By setting up their own Cost Catalog, they can now easily prepare proposals and estimates – meaning thousands of dollars in time saved. Plus, they’re able to turn potential clients into active contracts even faster.

Financial management

How this builder saves up to five hours per week on financial management [dmj restorations and dmj design build].

DMJ operates with two distinct business arms: DMJ Restorations and DMJ Design Build. With two separate cash flows, managing financials was complicated – until they started using Buildertrend financial management software.

By improving construction budgeting , enhanced estimates and contract management, DMJ was able to improve how they managed multiple financial processes by establishing a single source of truth for both arms of the business. Now, DMJ budgets a remodeling job in about 30 minutes – a great improvement compared to how long it had previously taken. They also streamlined the way they’re paying subcontractors and are being paid by clients. Overall, they’re saving up to five hours a week on financial management .

Giving clients control of their budget with selections [Cardinal Crest Homes]

Cardinal Crest Homes, a custom home builder based in Kansas City, Missouri, was struggling with how to organize and track budgets in real time.

That’s before they found their solution in Buildertrend. Buildertrend’s robust Selections feature is now one of the most-used tools for their team. This feature enables users to create and manage customized selection sheets for their clients. With it, contractors and builders can offer clients an easy way to choose and approve specific products, materials and finishes for their project depending on how those items fit in their estimated budget. This helps Cardinal Crest Homes’ clients gain control over their own budgets by allowing them to track their spending and see their selections updated in real time.

Saving time and $8,000+ with QuickBooks construction integration [Roma Homes]

Roma Homes, a construction company in Charlotte, North Carolina, was in need of a way to save time when tracking and managing financials, while ensuring data accuracy. Now, they use Buildertrend’s budget tool to manage finances and track important job costs such as labor, bills and purchase orders.

Roma Homes even connected Buildertrend with QuickBooks using a ready-made integration, enabling the company to seamlessly transfer financial data from the project management side of their operations to their accounting software. Business owner Bill Katsaros credits Buildertrend with their ability to organize finances past the limitations of Excel spreadsheets for better long-term financial health. Plus, the integration has saved them an estimated $8,000 per year in bookkeeping costs .  

Growing project profits with construction financing options for clients [RWK Construction]

RWK Construction, a Utah-based basement design and finishing company, has leveraged Buildertrend’s construction technology platform to streamline office needs, without taking away from their superior customer service. This included implementing Buildertrend’s Payment Processing for faster invoicing and payment fulfillment alongside general process improvements.

After seeing success with construction software, they decided to continue to explore how technology could help them improve client experiences. So, they turned to Buildertrend partner GreenSky®. GreenSky® offers construction company clients financing options to help make construction projects more achievable. As one of the few Utah-based renovators offering financing options, RWK Construction was able to see an overall increase in growth and sales. 

Boosting efficiency by 25% with online payments [Krueger Brothers Construction]

Krueger Brothers Construction is a family-owned and -operated general contracting business based in Colorado Springs, specializing in residential and commercial exteriors. As their services expanded and company growth ensued, Krueger Brothers turned to Buildertrend to better manage their broadening list of projects.

The company has seen success with the use of online payment processing and real-time communication, leading to 25% boost in efficiency . Krueger Brothers has also benefited from using change orders, daily logs and selections available through Buildertrend, enabling them to streamline their financial processes and strengthen their business.

How this builder saves time and money paying subs with construction invoicing [Arrow Lift]

Arrow Lift, a company that specializes in accessibility lift and home elevator installations, uses Buildertrend’s construction software to save time and money on their operations .  

As a subcontractor doing point-to-point communication with other organizations, Arrow Lift is able to use Buildertrend’s invoicing and communication features to improve working relationships with home builders and contractors. As notifications are initiated by builders, they’re able to move jobs forward without delay, which speeds up payment for everyone involved. Their use of Buildertrend has made them more marketable to builders that use the software, too, which helps them maintain a competitive market edge.

Accurately track construction labor costs with a time tracking app [Tankersley Construction Inc.]

Tankersley Construction is a family-owned residential and midsized commercial contractor based in Sacramento, California. After decades of experience managing large-scale construction projects, the company’s president and owner, Steven Tankersley, founded the company with his wife in 2017 to apply the same principles to smaller projects.

In order to manage their building and finance operations in one software system, the company began using Buildertrend. The company initially adopted the platform’s Time Clock feature, which helped to track their workers’ labor costs and timecards . Then they adopted other features of the platform, including Scheduling and To-Do’s, which enabled them to better manage their work schedules and task lists. By learning the system one feature at a time, Tankersley Construction was able to improve their financial management and overall organization.

Easily managing cash flow with construction tech and online payments [Otto Remodeling]

Otto Remodeling, a construction company located in Edwardsville, Kansas, improved its financial management using Buildertrend’s payment processing and online payments feature .

With Buildertrend, Otto Remodeling was able to handle more significant projects and volume year-over-year while maintaining efficient processes. The online payment system is a big selling point for the company and helps keep clients informed of upcoming costs. Clients can see live invoices, pay them on the same day and be held accountable for what they owe. Plus, the company is experiencing time and money savings by eliminating manual check pickups from multiple projects.

Saving thousands per project with construction budgeting software [Casey Construction Company]

Casey Construction Company is a construction business in Lago Vista, Texas, that focuses on high-end custom homes and light commercial building projects. The company switched from inaccurate Excel spreadsheeting to Buildertrend’s software to streamline its financial management processes and save time and money.

Buildertrend’s financial tools helped Casey Construction Company simplify its financial processes by offering cost code auditing, effective estimating and reporting capabilities and QuickBooks integration. The company’s owners were pleased with the personalized training they received from Buildertrend’s customer success team, which helped them streamline and understand the accounting side. The company saved thousands of dollars per construction project , simplifying its day-to-day processes and improving its efficiency.

Risinger Build, a Texas-based construction company that specializes in architecturally driven homes, was facing challenges managing complex and growing projects. The team found it difficult to keep track of every detail and penny spent. They already had a project management software in place but it didn’t have the capability to handle finances the way they needed, especially as the media side of the business began to expand.

After exploring different solutions, they adopted Buildertrend, which provided an all-in-one system for project and financial management. After integrating Buildertrend with QuickBooks, Risinger Build was able to take advantage of a 2-way sync, allowing them to report on every nickel spent on a project and to create line-item invoices. This allowed Risinger Build to streamline their financial processes, increase profitability and minimize risks.

File management

Vaughan + Co., a home remodeling and outdoor living company based in Powell, Ohio, was able to improve its file management system using Buildertrend’s construction file management software.

Before turning to Buildertrend, the company printed and laminated project plans and documents. Instead, the company wanted to keep track of its margins, track job expenses per contract and manage construction financials and files all in one place – without the manual work. The team now uses Buildertrend’s file management system to store all documentation in one centralized hub . The mobile app allows the ability to access files from mobile phones, making it easier to track change orders , approvals and other documents with the press of a button. 

Streamlining pool construction schedules for this specialty contractor [Cronulla Pools]

Cronulla Pools constructs concrete swimming pools in Sydney. Although the company started small, their use of Buildertrend construction scheduling software helped them expand to manage 70 projects at one time.

This growth was achieved through the use of improved scheduling . The company gained the ability to link files, notes and other details to schedules to simplify and streamline necessary information for workers. This includes daily logs and to-do lists, as well as a subcontractor and customer portal to help keep information organized for better project outcomes.

Managing hundreds of projects with construction scheduling [NOVUS Building Services]

NOVUS Building Services, a commercial contractor specializing in countertops for apartment complexes, operates across hundreds of properties and remodeling projects at any given time. As such, the company was in need of a way to connect everyone across projects, states and roles.

Before Buildertrend, NOVUS leadership spent hours every day hand-writing schedules on paper and whiteboards, or else individually sending text messages and emails to every employee. Now, it’s all done through Buildertrend’s Schedule tool and app. This improved communication has helped reduce the number of questions they receive from their contractors in the field by as many as 100 calls a day.

Building 50 homes a year with construction scheduling software [Sidar Builders]

Sidar Builders is a production home builder in Tyler, Texas, that builds roughly 50 homes a year . To sustain their growth, they needed a management system that could keep up with their volume. They found the solution in Buildertrend’s construction scheduling software.

Buildertrend’s communication features – specifically scheduling, to-do lists and daily logs – have allowed the Sidar Builders team to efficiently and effectively scale their business. The scheduling feature helps them keep track of countless tasks with individual requirements for communication and documentation with trade partners and clients. This has helped them to maintain a market share of roughly 80% of new construction homes in their ZIP code.

Building Homes for Heroes is a national nonprofit organization that gifts homes to wounded veterans mortgage-free. The organization found Buildertrend after identifying a need for a tool that assists with scheduling and project management.

Now, Building Homes for Heroes uses Buildertrend’s Daily Logs feature, documents and photo tools to keep veterans updated about project development. With the versatility of the software, they’re also tracking new constructions, scheduling speaking engagements and events and even managing content for the organization’s social media channels. By implementing Buildertrend, Building Homes for Heroes has improved its construction scheduling process, supporting the building and renovation of over 40 homes a year for wounded veterans .

Client experience

Custom builder delivers a superior client experience [tass construction].

Tass Construction is a Sydney-based custom home builder that has grown from one or two projects at a time with price points starting at $500,000, to up to eight projects simultaneously with price points in the $800,000-plus range. The company was able to achieve this growth by guaranteeing clients their projects will be done on time, in good quality and without hidden costs.

To ensure they’re able to provide this superior client experience , Tass Construction Group implemented Buildertrend, which helps them track job information, eliminate delays and minimize overruns.  

Empowering clients through selections on historic home remodels [Emergent Construction]

Client satisfaction is of the utmost importance to Emergent Construction, an Indianapolis-based construction company specializing in historic home remodels. As the nature of historic remodels is complex and nuanced , there are many opportunities for communication to go awry, ruining a client’s experience. Using Buildertrend construction software, Emergent Construction has been able to provide transparency to its clients and improve their overall experience.

Using the Buildertrend platform to manage their job processes and communicate with clients, they’re able to provide better customer service. Features such as Daily Logs and Selections have been helpful for the team to store information, catch errors and improve communication with clients.

How one luxury home builder uses tech to win clients’ trust [City Homes]

City Homes, a luxury home builder in Edina, Minnesota, uses Buildertrend’s construction management software to ensure transparency and open communication with clients. The company started using Buildertrend for managing work with subcontractors and later discovered that it could be used to improve customer experience.

With Buildertrend, City Homes allows its clients to have full access to their project information within the Customer Portal, including selections, budget and schedule. Weekly meetings are held and clients are allowed to view their selections and change orders before signing off. The software enables transparency, open communication and documentation, which are essential for completing projects over several months. By building trust and ensuring customer satisfaction , City Homes has increased the chances of getting referrals.

How online payment processing led to a better client experience [Waunakee Remodeling]

Waunakee Remodeling, a premier remodeling company in south-central Wisconsin, centralized its operations into one simple system using Buildertrend construction company software.

With hundreds of projects open at any given moment, they needed a system that would save the team time. After integrating Buildertrend Payment Processing, they were able to provide their clients with a convenient payment option while keeping their financials organized. With a faster cash flow, they could take on more projects and make successful business decisions, knowing client experience had improved as it became easier to pay for the company’s services.

Remodeler focuses on a superior client relationship [TruNORTH]

TruNORTH, a remodeling company based in South Windsor, Connecticut, prioritizes creating and sustaining lasting, meaningful client relationships . That’s why TruNORTH uses Buildertrend’s Customer Portal to communicate with its clients and keep them updated on their remodeling projects through daily updates, progress photos, budget tracking and more.

The portal is also a selling point and has helped TruNORTH to land jobs. TruNORTH continues to build on its success, finishing an average of 65 projects per year.

How construction photo storage updates clients [RDC Fine Homes]

RDC Fine Homes is a custom home building and renovation leader in Whistler, British Columbia. The company focuses on sustainable construction , net zero emissions and other initiatives that create low environmental impacts. Even so, they’d experienced challenges tracking and managing projects, which led to delays and cost overruns. Recognizing a need for a more efficient and effective project management system, owner and President Bob Deeks turned to Buildertrend.

With total buy-in from the team, RDC Fine Homes centralized communication, began sending real-time updates on project progress and provided mobile access to their construction site workers. Immediately, they saw improved communication processes for their subs and clients. Client relationships have improved, too, with use of Buildertrend’s Customer Portal. There, clients can see the progress of projects without physically visiting sites – reading project notes, photos and updates .

Builder sees improved client communication with project management software [Kemp Construction Management]

Kemp Construction Management, a general contracting company in British Columbia, implemented Buildertrend to improve client communication and document organization. The company’s owner, Steve Kemp, was frustrated with email-based processes and sought to invest in a better solution.

Buildertrend’s Change Order function was a significant improvement, allowing them to create change orders on-site and notify customers immediately. The software’s real-time updates feature has improved client satisfaction, providing clients with the ability to track the project’s progress remotely . Kemp Construction Management’s successful use of Buildertrend has added a level of professionalism and comfort for prospective and current clients.

Tri-Pups, Inc., a small construction company in Southfield, Michigan, implemented an all-in-one project management platform, Buildertrend, to enhance customer experience . Daily logs and the ability to upload photos from every job site were used to ensure that pertinent information was visible to the team and clients.

Communication with clients improved tenfold, and the cloud-based platform allowed the team to use smartphones to update clients on their project’s progress. By previewing Buildertrend when meeting with potential clients, Tri-Pups was able to secure jobs as it differentiated itself from other remodeling companies.

Sustainability

GreenHalo Builds is a home building company based in Stillwater, Minnesota, that specializes in sustainable and eco-friendly homes. The company’s goal is to make green building affordable while still offering custom design elements.

Buildertrend helps GreenHalo Builds make green building more affordable by providing digital construction estimates and bids through its software platform. The Estimates feature allows GreenHalo to project the costs of building new net-zero homes and check them against their desired price point. Bid Requests efficiently push out packages to find the best vendors for the eco-friendly and healthy materials they need. These features allow GreenHalo to offer affordable and energy-efficient homes to their clients while maintaining profitability. Additionally, Buildertrend allows GreenHalo to keep track of their projects, schedule tasks, manage their finances and communicate with their team, making their operations more efficient and streamlined.

Unlocking more of Buildertrend’s capabilities with Onsite Consulting [Renovations by Garman]

Renovations by Garman, a Pennsylvania-based remodeling company, increased their use of Buildertrend software from 35% to 90% in days through the help of Buildertrend Onsite Consulting.

The company had been using Buildertrend since 2014 but hadn’t fully realized its potential until they decided to integrate financials with project management. Using Buildertrend’s Onsite Consulting, they were able to develop new procedures and processes to help break down each department’s needs to make the influx of information more manageable. Through this process, the company received a custom chart that showed how to handle a job in Buildertrend, which helped them to streamline their workflows and achieve significant efficiency improvements.

Shelter Solutions LLC, an ADU design and build firm in Portland, Oregon, sought to be more efficient and profitable. The company used Buildertrend software since 2015 but wanted to maximize the software’s potential.

The company used Onsite Consulting from Buildertrend to improve their use of the software’s new features and save more time, resulting in 40 hours saved per week on setting up new projects and five extra projects completed in a year. Their success came from using Buildertrend as a construction estimate software and not just as a project management tool.

Lexar Homes is a franchise home builder that operates in four states, constructing energy-efficient custom homes. To ensure that their operations remain consistent and adhere to their promise of high-quality homes, Lexar Homes required an upgraded construction software that would align all their offices with tools for every step of the construction process.

They opted for Buildertrend, a construction project management software that is constantly developing new tools. Functionalities in the Buildertrend software, such as Work in Progress reporting and Client Portal management, empower franchise owners to assess the financial health of any project, forecast future cashflow and maintain good communication with clients. The reporting tools in Buildertrend have helped Lexar Homes forecast revenue, properly budget projects and make informed decisions to adapt to an ever-changing market.

How Buildertrend can help you

This archive of construction case studies proves that every business has its own specific needs when implementing construction software. Though these goals can vary from financial management improvements to client experience, they clearly demonstrate how Buildertrend’s software can help achieve a wide range of goals.

Using these case study materials as a guide, you can see how your peers in the industry are overcoming challenges that align with yours. You can also use this list as an example of the different types of case studies you can create and market to your potential clients.

It’s also important to continually add recent success stories to your own case study materials. To stay updated on Buildertrend’s updated resources, be sure to check out our case study materials often.

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About The Author

Debbie Trecek Debbie Trecek is a freelance copywriter for Buildertrend.

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Customers share their honest feedback live with our product team.

Tune in as customers answered questions and gave their honest feedback about Buildertrend’s construction management software in front of our Product and Engineering team.

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A new way to work: why strong project management systems aren’t enough anymore.

Project management systems aren’t enough anymore. They need to be integrated with financial management to truly drive success in the construction industry.

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What is inefficient project management costing your construction business.

Discover how good project planning can lead to rapid growth, efficient job sites and better relationships with clients, vendors and your construction team.

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Case Studies  

Below you will find case studies that demonstrate the 'whole building' process in facility design, construction and maintenance. Click on any arrow in a column to arrange the list in ascending or descending order.

Many case studies on the WBDG are past winners Beyond Green™ High-Performance Building and Community Awards sponsored by the National Institute of Building Sciences.

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101 Case Studies in Construction Management

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This book provides 101 real-life construction management case studies from an author with over 40 years’ experience in the construction industry and as a lecturer in construction management. Over 14 chapters, Len Holm has included case studies from real jobsites that cover organization, procurement, estimating, scheduling, subcontractors, communications, quality and cost control, change orders, claims and disputes, safety, and close-outs. Other hot topics covered include BIM, sustainability, and lean.

Each case is written in straightforward language and designed to test the reader’s independent and critical thinking skills to develop their real-world problem-solving ability. The cases are open to interpretation, and students will need to develop their own opinions of what’s presented to them in order to reach a satisfactory solution.

The cases are ideal for use in the classroom or flipped classroom, for individual or group exercises, and to encourage research, writing, and presenting skills in all manner of applied construction management situations. Such a broad and useful selection of cases studies cannot be found anywhere else. While there is often no "right" answer, the author has provided model solutions to instructors through the online eResource.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 | 11  pages, construction organizations, chapter 2 | 18  pages, procurement, chapter 3 | 19  pages, construction contracts, chapter 4 | 7  pages, chapter 5 | 6  pages, schedules and schedule control, chapter 6 | 14  pages, subcontractors and suppliers, chapter 7 | 9  pages, chapter 8 | 7  pages, communications, chapter 9 | 7  pages, pay requests, chapter 10 | 7  pages, cost control, chapter 11 | 13  pages, quality and safety controls, chapter 12 | 9  pages, change orders, chapter 13 | 10  pages, chapter 14 | 10  pages, advanced topics.

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case Studies in Construction Materials provides a forum for the rapid publication of short, structured Case Studies on construction materials and related Short Communications, specialising in actual case studies involving real construction projects. CSCM provides an essential compendium of case …

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Editor-in-chief, professor kosmas sideris, professor,.

Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Civil Engineering, Xanthi, Greece

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Cases in Contemporary Construction

As the final component in the required sequence of technology courses, this professionally-oriented course develops an integral understanding of the design and construction of buildings and their related technologies: structural, constructional, and environmental. Building on fundamentals covered in GSD 6123: Construction Systems, the course looks in detail at examples of innovative construction techniques in wood, steel, and concrete structures. Building design and construction will be evaluated within the context in which technological innovation takes place by exploring the relationship of the principal project participants, such as designers, contractors, building product manufacturers, and the owner(s). On this, the course will introduce the fundamentals of managing design and construction projects as well as the principal project delivery methods and scheduling techniques. Aspects such as risk management and environmental and social impacts on projects will be introduced, as well as topics related to facilitating innovation and developing talent.

Class meetings concentrate on case studies of recent buildings, which students are expected to study prior to class meetings. Each main course theme will be introduced by a lecture, and certain cases may have participants from the project team as guest speakers. Detail drawings as well as issues of project and construction management are introduced for discussion. Computer applications on structures, construction, environmental control systems, and techniques and decision-making frameworks on managing projects and teams are an integral part of the course.

Prerequisites: GSD 6123, 6125, and 6229, or equivalent.

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The Constructor

3 important cases of building collapse due to poor construction management.

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Construction is perhaps the most critical stage in the life cycle of structures, mainly because of the danger of failure and the high chances of underestimating construction loads.

A report developed by the American Society of Civil Engineers, based on their study of around 600 failed structures, found that around 40% of the structures failed during the construction stage, 36% of the structures failed during the pre-construction stage due to flawed designs, and 24% failed during their operational stage.

The failure of a structure is described as the propagation of local collapse from one segment to another segment, eventually resulting in the failure of an entire building or its lopsided part. It could be a product of natural disasters, for example, seismic tremors, floods, or coincidental acts such as an explosion in the service system or terrorist bombings.

Analyzing the reasons for explicit structural failures and proposing measures to relieve their effects is a successful measure to lessen risks and improve the safety of structures. Therefore, this article discusses the failure of some major structures, their root causes, and the lessons learned. 

1. The Skyline Plaza Apartment Building, Virginia, US

The design plan of the Skyline Plaza complex included six office buildings, eight apartment buildings, shops, and one hotel. The project was a $200 million residential-commercial complex and was situated in Fairfax County, Virginia. During the construction of the skyline plaza complex, one of the apartment buildings under construction collapsed. A total of 15 labors were killed, and 40 were injured.

Design drawings of the collapsed building included the construction of 26 stories, a penthouse, and a four-story storm basement for parking. The building design was of a reinforced concrete flat plate with a 200 mm thick concrete slab. The height between each story was 2.7 m. 

1.1 Investigation Findings 

On 2 nd March 1973, some portion of the apartment building collapsed during construction. The collapse began on the 23 rd floor when the slab of the 24 th floor was being cast. On the 23 rd floor, the slab started showing cracks and the failure of the building occurred vertically along the full height of the building, including the basement levels. Also, the adjacent post-tensioned reinforced concrete car parking structure collapsed. 

Specialists concurred that the concrete had not acquired sufficient strength to carry the construction loads applied during the construction process. Investigators confirmed that the original design plan had no deficiencies. The most probable reason for the collapse of the building was the punching shear failure on the 23 rd floor of the building.  

After the collapse, a team from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) came to the site and started an investigation. Further, a detailed investigation was conducted by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). 

NBS and OSHA mentioned in their reports that the collapse of the building was directly related to poorly managed construction processes. The court found that the contractor and the site engineer were guilty of negligence as the contractor didn't follow the building code requirement and the site engineer didn't inspect the work properly. 

1.2 Lessons Learned

After the collapse of the Skyline Plaza apartment building, a series of changes were made in the building code related to the progressive collapse failure. Special inspection procedures were added in the inspection section of the building codes. Design criteria were also changed for effective planning to reduce the possibility of failure due to progressive collapse. The following points describe the violations of specified construction requirements and standard practices: 

• Violation of prerequisites to completely shore the two stories underneath the floor being cast. 
• Failure to permit legitimate curing time before removing shoring. 
• Failure to conduct curing test on the concrete specimen in the field. 
• Use of out-of-plumb shoring. 
• Improper inspection during casting and formwork removal to check the strength of concrete.  
• Improper installation of the climbing crane. 

2. Ronan Point Tower, Canning Town ,   London

The need to give substitution lodging to homes destroyed in World War-II encouraged European engineers to develop innovative pre-assembled construction strategies. One such plan included the construction of high-rise buildings using pre-stressed concrete components made in factories.

The structural framework included the construction of load-bearing walls and each floor was directly stacked onto the walls. Grouted bearing surfaces were used to construct the joint between the wall and the floor. This process of construction was termed as system building. A skyscraper at Ronan Point, Canning Town, UK, was built using this system building technique. 

On 16 th May 1968, a blast occurred due to gas leakage in the kitchen of a house on the 18 th floor. Just after the blast, the kitchen walls collapsed, and in-turn, the walls above the 18 th floor caved in. This impacted the floors beneath and obliterated the entire corner of the structure. A total of 14 people were injured and three were killed. 

2.1 Investigation Findings 

The investigation team revealed that the building collapsed due to the non-availability of an alternative load path when one portion of the external wall collapsed. After the demolition of the building, it was also revealed that the quality of the grouted bearing surface for the joints between floors and the walls was poor.

Because of the unprecedented collapse, the government examined the safety of other buildings constructed using the same concept as the Ronan Point Tower. Many buildings were demolished well ahead of their life span. 

The concept of progressive collapse of structures was not much known to the engineers before the failure of the Ronan Point Tower. In such collapses, a local failure is followed by widespread collapse through a chain reaction. What was irregular on account of the failure of the Ronan Point Tower was that a minor gas blast set off the collapse of a huge portion of a finished structure.

2.2 Lessons Learned

The experience due to the failure of Ronan Point Tower re-emphasized the following points: 

• Progressive failure can also occur in fully constructed structures.
• A structure should have redundancies to reduce the possibility of progressive failure. 
• Quality control should strictly be followed in the construction processes. 

3. 2000 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, US

On 25 th January 1971, a two-third portion of a 16-story residential building known as 2000-Commonwealth Avenue in Boston collapsed during construction, leading to the death of four workers. The building was under construction for more than six years. The collapse of the building generated approximately 8000 tons of debris. Luckily, the failure of the building was gradual, giving the workers some time to escape from the building site. 

The building was designed as a reinforced concrete structure and flat slabs were used for the roofing system with an elevator shaft provided in the center. This type of structural design is mainly famous for multi-story construction as it reduces the thickness of the slab and overall height between the floors. The thickness of flat slabs was between 160-190 mm for all the building areas except near the elevator core where it was 230 mm thick. The arrangement of the structural component constituted a height of 2.7 m for all the floors.    

The building, situated at 2000 Commonwealth Avenue, was intended to be 16 stories high with a mechanical room of height 1.5 m for the working of the lift at the rooftop. The plan area of the structure was 56 x 21 m 2 . The building additionally had underground parking of two levels. A pool, auxiliary spaces, and one flat were situated on the first floor, and a total of 132 flats were on the second through sixteen floors. At first, these flats were to be leased. However, the proprietors later chose to advertise them as apartment suites. 

At the hour of the collapse of the building, construction work was almost completed. The brickwork was finished up to the sixteenth floor, and the structure was generally encased from the second to the fifteenth floor. Heating, plumbing, and ventilation frameworks were introduced all through different floors of the structure. The interior work had also started on the lower floors. A temporary lift was constructed to help in moving equipment to various floors. It was assessed that 100 individuals were working in or around the structure at the hour of the collapse. 

The collapse of the building occurred in three stages. These stages were, failure due to punching shear in the rooftop at section E5, the failure of the slab, and in the end, the progressive failure of the structure. 

3.1 Investigation Findings 

The civic chairman of Boston appointed a commission to inquire about the collapse of the building. The commission discovered the following critical observations: 

• There was no signature of an architect or engineer found on a single drawing of the building. 
• The design engineer didn't give the computations supporting his structural drawings to the commission. No head or representative of the team of contractors held a building construction license of Boston city. 
• Ownership of the venture changed a few times, with changes in planners and architects. This scenario added to the general disarray and contributed to the abnormalities referred above. 
• The general contractual worker just had a solitary representative on location. Most subcontracts were given directly by the owner to the subcontractors and bypassed the general contractor. A total of seven subcontractors were involved in the construction. 
• The subcontractor, who was assigned to conduct the cold weather protection work on the structural concrete didn't carry out the assigned work. However, the structural engineer had indicated these measures. 
• There was no proof of any inspection of the work by a specialist despite the fact that the project particulars needed this. 
• The quality of construction material and quality inspections were poor. 
• The collapse of the building occurred due to the development of punching shear mechanism around column E5. Punching shear developed the flexural cracks around the roof slab located near the elevator core. Thus, the slab collapsed due to flexural yielding. 
• The design manual indicated a 28-day strength of 25 MPa. However, at the failure time, 47 days after casting work, the concrete couldn't seem to attain the necessary 28-day strength. 
• The most critical inadequacies were an absence of shoring under the slab at the roof and the quality of the concrete.

3.2 Lessons Learned

The following key factors describe the collapse of the multi-story building situated at 2000 Commonwealth Avenue: 

• Authorized design engineers should be chosen for the development of working drawings for construction. 
• Engineers and architects should be responsible for all the design-related calculations and their design work must be examined by the experts in that field from a government organization. 
• Ownership of a project should not change multiple times to reduce the confusion between the previous engineer and the newly appointed engineer. 
• Inspection at the construction site should be conducted regularly by government organizations, especially for cold weather work.  
• The quality of concrete work should be monitored throughout the project. 
• The construction work should conform to design documents and construction procedures.

The collapse of a building is characterized as the propagation of an initial local collapse from component to component, ultimately resulting in the collapse of a whole structure or a disproportionately large portion of it.

Construction is one of the most critical phases in the life cycle of buildings due to the risk of failure and the possibility of underestimating construction loads.

The structural framework included the construction of load-bearing walls and each floor was directly stacked on the walls. Grouted bearing surfaces were used to construct the joint between the wall and the floor. This process of construction was termed system building.

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Case studies

Worker engagement initiative, managing occupational health risks in construction, falls from vehicles.

These case demonstrate different aspects of good practice in worker engagement in health and safety in the construction industry.

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• COH01 Reduce bending to materials
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These case studies give examples of good practice from industry. They show how companies have tried to reduce injuries due to falls from vehicles through sensible management of health and safety risks in the workplace. Even if they don't show the type of vehicle you use, the good ideas others have found may be adapted to your situation.

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• Published: 10 July 2024

Assessing land-use changes and carbon storage: a case study of the Jialing River Basin, China

• Shuai Yang 1 ,
• Liqin Li 2 ,
• Renhuan Zhu 3 , 4 ,
• Chao Luo 5 ,
• Xiong Lu 6 ,
• Mili Sun 2 &
• Benchuan Xu 7  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  15984 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental sciences

Land-use change is the main driver of carbon storage change in terrestrial ecosystems. Currently, domestic and international studies mainly focus on the impact of carbon storage changes on climate, while studies on the impact of land-use changes on carbon storage in complex terrestrial ecosystems are few. The Jialing River Basin (JRB), with a total area of ~ 160,000 km 2 , diverse topography, and elevation differences exceeding 5 km, is an ideal case for understanding the complex interactions between land-use change and carbon storage dynamics. Taking the JRB as our study area, we analyzed land-use changes from 2000 to 2020. Subsequently, we simulated land-use patterns for business-as-usual (BAU), cropland protection (CP), and ecological priority (EP) scenarios in 2035 using the PLUS model. Additionally, we assessed carbon storage using the InVEST model. This approach helps us to accurately understand the carbon change processes in regional complex terrestrial ecosystems and to formulate scientifically informed land-use policies. The results revealed the following: (1) Cropland was the most dominant land-use type (LUT) in the region, and it was the only LUT experiencing net reduction, with 92.22% of newly designated construction land originating from cropland. (2) In the JRB, total carbon storage steadily decreased after 2005, with significant spatial heterogeneity. This pattern was marked by higher carbon storage levels in the north and lower levels in the south, with a distinct demarcation line. The conversion of cropland to construction land is the main factor driving the reduction in carbon storage. (3) Compared with the BAU and EP scenarios, the CP scenario demonstrated a smaller reduction in cropland area, a smaller addition to construction land area, and a lower depletion in the JRB total carbon storage from 2020 to 2035. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of the PLUS and InVEST models in analyzing complex ecosystems and offers data support for quantitatively assessing regional ecosystem services. Strict adherence to the cropland replenishment task mandated by the Chinese government is crucial to increase cropland areas in the JRB and consequently enhance the carbon sequestration capacity of its ecosystem. Such efforts are vital for ensuring the food and ecological security of the JRB, particularly in the pursuit of the “dual-carbon” objective.

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Introduction.

Land, as the primary arena for human activities, has undergone drastic changes owing to accelerating socioeconomic development, urbanization processes, and natural transformations by human beings 1 , 2 . Land-use change forms the foundation of the study of carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems, as it directly impacts the original pattern, process, function, and structure of terrestrial ecosystems, thereby altering their carbon storage 3 , 4 . This directly affects climate change predictions, greenhouse gas emissions, and reduction efforts 4 . In the context of the overall spatial planning of the national territory, basins are open and composite systems and the basic unit of a complete ecosystem; moreover, the natural, economic, social, and cultural elements within basins are closely interconnected. Furthermore, basins are characterized by diverse natural landscapes, clear hierarchical structures, and holistic characteristics 2 . Taking a basin as a research area breaks traditional administrative boundaries. This approach allows for seeking optimal solutions for basin development that balance food production, ecology, environment, and other objectives, contributing to national ecological security construction 5 . Therefore, analyzing land-use changes in basins, predicting future land-use patterns, and quantitatively assessing ecosystem carbon storage are essential for achieving balanced development with multiple objectives in regions characterized by basins 6 .

Land-use simulation models are essential tools for studying future land-use dynamics. These models include quantitative models such as Markov 7 , linear prediction 8 , system dynamics 9 , gray prediction 10 models, and spatial models such as patch-generating land use simulation (PLUS) 11 , future land use simulation (FLUS) 12 , cellular automaton (CA) 7 , and conversion of land use and its effects at small regional extent (CLUE-S) 13 . The PLUS model compensates for the shortcomings of the CA and CLUE-S models by effectively identifying the driving factors of land-use change and capturing the evolutionary patterns of various patch types. The model enhances the roulette wheel competition process and adaptive inertia within the FLUS model. Moreover, the integrated random forest algorithm of the model can effectively handle spatial autocorrelation and multicollinearity among the driving factors 11 , 14 . Consequently, the PLUS model can more accurately simulate various future land use scenarios and is extensively utilized 11 , 15 . The Markov model is widely used to predict future land-use demand by calculating the conversion probability between different land-use types (LUTs) over time 16 , 17 , 18 . Among all carbon storage assessment methods, the ecosystem functional state assessment and analysis model represented by Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Service and Tradeoffs (InVEST) is highly regarded by scholars owing to the easy access to driving data, simple and convenient operation, high precision in quantitative assessment, and clear spatial representation of the assessment process and results 19 , 20 . The integration of PLUS, Markov, and InVEST models can enable the optimization of spatial layout, the quantitative structure of regional land-use, and the exploration of future carbon storage changing rules in terrestrial ecosystems.

The Jialing River Basin (JRB) connects the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration and the Lanxi urban agglomeration in the north and the Chengdu–Chongqing urban agglomeration in the south. It holds a crucial position in the Yangtze River Economic Belt and the Silk Road Economic Belt. As one of China’s most important grain-producing regions, the JRB is densely cultivated. The JRB is an essential part of the ecological barrier, a significant water source region, and a key area for biodiversity protection in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China. However, it is significantly affected by economic development and urbanization under the national macro-policy, leading to drastic land-use changes in the JRB. These changes bring about a series of challenges to food production and ecological security 21 , 22 , 23 . Carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems plays a crucial role as carbon sinks. However, changes in carbon storage are primarily influenced by LUT conversion. The carbon sequestration function of terrestrial complex ecosystems has been consistently strengthened through the regulation of LUT conversion, which will aid China in realizing its “dual-carbon” goals. Studying the JRB land-use changes and their impact on carbon storage is vital. Although there have been numerous studies on the effects of land-use/cover changes or human activities on hydrological conditions 24 , soil erosion 25 , biodiversity 26 , and environmental pollution 23 in the JRB, there is a lack of up-to-date studies on historical land-use or carbon storage changes and future land-use simulations or carbon storage assessments.

With the JRB as our research area, our objectives are as follows: (1) reveal the changing patterns of land use at the basin scale; (2) predict land-use status under business-as-usual (BAU), cropland protection (CP), and ecological priority (EP) scenarios in 2035 using the PLUS and Markov models; (3) assess carbon storage from 2000 to 2020 and in 2035 under different scenarios using the InVEST model; and (4) investigate carbon storage distribution and aggregation characteristics from 2000 to 2020 through global spatial autocorrelation analysis (Moran’s I), clustering and outlier analysis (Anselin Local Moran’s I), and cold-hotspot analysis (Getis-Ord G i *). This research aims to provide essential data support for achieving sustainable development in the JRB. Our study revealed that cropland, being the most prominent and the only LUT transferred out of the JRB, is in direct competition with construction land. To realize the coordinated ecological, social, and economic development of the JRB, it is imperative to implement CP policies, increase afforestation and grass-planting efforts, and strictly enforce urban development boundaries.

Materials and methods

The Jialing River is a primary tributary of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River on the left bank, with a total length of 1,345 km. Its water system has a dendritic shape, and most of it flows through the eastern part of the Sichuan Basin, eventually joining the Yangtze River at Chaotianmen in the Yuzhong District of Chongqing Municipality 25 , 27 . Covering a total area of ~ 160,000 km 2 , the JRB (longitude 102° 31′ 51″–109° 16′ 34″, latitude 29° 17′ 29″–34° 31′ 44″) constitutes ~ 9% of the Yangtze River Basin. It spans Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, and Chongqing (Fig.  1 ) 28 .

Location and terrain of the study area.

The JRB is situated in the transition zone from the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau to China’s second-tier terrain, characterized by complex and varied topography. It encompasses the plateau region, mountainous region, hilly region, and basin region, displaying distinct geographic zoning characteristics. The JRB terrain tilts roughly from northwest to southeast, exhibiting a significant gradient change. The elevation difference across the entire JRB exceeds 5 km, resulting in dramatic topographical variations. The river course aligns with the terrain, leading to an elevation difference in the river of ~ 2.3 km and an average drop ratio of 2.05‰ 29 . The JRB traverses multiple climate zones, including the Tibetan Plateau, temperate monsoon, and subtropical monsoon regions. These climate zones exhibit distinct characteristics, with hot and rainy summers and warm and humid winters. The multi-year average daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the JRB are 19.4 °C and 4.3 °C, respectively 30 . Precipitation in the JRB follows a spatial distribution pattern that decreases from southeast to northwest. The multi-year average, maximum, and minimum precipitation levels are 935 mm, 1,283 mm, and 643 mm, respectively 28 , 29 .

Data sources

Land-use data and its driving factors.

The standard Chinese map with the approval number of GS(2024)0650 No. was obtained from the National Platform for Common GeoSpatial Information Services ( https://www.tianditu.gov.cn/ ). Data for the Jialing River, Yangtze River, and their respective basins were provided by the National Cryosphere Desert Data Center ( https://www.ncdc.ac.cn ). Land-use data were obtained from the Resource and Environment Science and Data Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences ( https://www.resdc.cn ). This dataset includes six primary land classes, such as cropland and forestland, and 24 secondary land classes, including paddy fields and dry land. Using ArcGIS 10.3 software, we cropped the data according to the vector range of the JRB and reclassified them into six LUTs: cropland, forestland, grassland, water, construction land, and unused land. Subsequently, we generated five land-use raster maps of the JRB for years 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020. Drawing upon relevant studies 1 , 16 , 31 , 32 , we selected 19 driving factors encompassing both natural environmental and socioeconomic aspects. Among these, average annual temperature, average annual precipitation, total phosphorus, total potassium, total nitrogen, and soil organic matter were obtained from the National Tibetan Plateau Data Center ( https://data.tpdc.ac.cn ) and the National Earth System Science Data Center ( https://www.geodata.cn ). Digital elevation model (DEM) data were sourced from the Geospatial Data Cloud ( https://www.gscloud.cn ), while slope data were calculated from the DEM data using ArcGIS 10.3 software. Gross domestic product, population density, and nighttime lighting data were retrieved from the Resource and Environment Science and Data Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences ( https://www.resdc.cn ). County (city and district) governmental location data were obtained from OpenStreetMap ( https://www.openstreetmap.org ), and data related to railways, Class I–IV roads, rivers, and settlements were acquired from the National Catalogue Service For Geographic Information ( https://www.webmap.cn ). Using ArcGIS 10.3 software, the projection coordinate system of the land-use data and data on the natural environment and socioeconomic factors were standardized to CGCS2000_GK_Zone_18. Subsequently, the data on roads, rivers, settlements, and county (city and district) governmental sites were subjected to Euclidean distance analysis. All data were converted into raster data (.tif) with a spatial resolution of 30 m × 30 m.

Carbon density data

According to the methodologies outlined by Li et al. 33 , Zhang et al. 34 , Wang et al. 35 , and Xiang et al. 36 for determining carbon density, we collated four datasets on carbon density: Dataset 1 comprised experimentally determined carbon density data on the JRB and its neighboring regions. A dataset on carbon density in Chinese terrestrial ecosystems (2010s) 37 obtained from the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research of the Chinese Academy of Sciences was processed in ArcGIS 10.3 to extract carbon density measurements in the study area and its surroundings. In addition, we utilized carbon density data obtained by Xia et al. 38 and Xia et al. 39 . Dataset 2 comprised carbon density data on the JRB, and it was collected from Zhang et al. 40 . Dataset 3 comprised carbon density data on the surrounding areas of the JRB, and it was collected from Xiang et al. 36 . The data were corrected for carbon density using the mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation correction models 41 . Dataset 4 comprised carbon density data on the climatic zone of the study area, and it was collected from Liu et al. 42 . Finally, we analyzed the collected carbon density data to remove outliers, and then took the average of the carbon density of each component for each LUT as the carbon pool data for the InVEST model (Table 1 ).

The research flowchart of the simulation and assessment of land-use changes and carbon storage in this paper is shown in Fig.  2 .

The research framework of this study.

Multi-scenario setting

According to policy documents such as the Territorial Spatial Plan (2021–2035) of Shaanxi Province, Gansu Province, Sichuan Province, and Chongqing Municipality (municipalities directly under the central government) where the JRB is situated, we established the simulation timeframe for future land use in the JRB as the year 2035. The JRB, an important ecological reserve and grain-producing region in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, predominantly consists of cropland, forestland, and grassland as its land use types. Drawing on the land use scenario simulation studies conducted by Zhang et al. 40 within the JRB and by Yang et al. 43 in the surrounding areas, we established the BAU, CP, and EP scenarios for the future land use of the JRB. The specifics of these scenarios are described as follows:

The BAU scenario was constructed based on land-use change ratios, socioeconomic factors, and natural environmental drivers from 2015 to 2020, without considering policy planning constraints. The Markov model was employed to predict the future demand for various LUTs, and the LUT demand served as a parameter for land-use demand in the PLUS model 2 . This scenario formed the basis for setting other scenarios.

The CP scenario was built upon the BAU scenario according to the setup parameters presented in Li et al. 19 , Wang et al. 44 , and Li et al. 45 . In this scenario, the Markov transfer probability matrix was adjusted. The conversion probability of cropland to construction land was reduced by 65% to rigorously enforce CP policies.

The EP scenario was developed based on the BAU scenario according to the setup parameters presented in Li et al. 16 , Wang et al. 44 , and Li et al. 45 . In this scenario, through the modification of the Markov transfer probability matrix, the conversion probabilities of forestland and grassland to construction land were 50% lower than that in the BAU scenario, while the conversion probability of water to construction land was 30% lower. Additionally, the ecological capacity of cropland was weaker than that of forestland. Therefore, the probability of cropland being converted into construction land was 25% lower than that in the BAU scenario.

Markov model

The Markov model, based on the Markov chain process, is a statistical method for predicting future probability, and it is characterized by the non-aftereffect property, stochasticity, discreteness, and stationarity 16 , 46 . It predicts future land-use change trends using initial state and transfer probability matrices 19 . The formula for the model is as follows:

where \({S}_{t}\) and \({S}_{t+1}\) are the land-use states at \(t\) and \(t+1\) , respectively; \({P}_{ij}\) is the transfer probability of LUT \(i\) to \(j\) during the study period.

To minimize errors generated by the Markov model in long time series, in this study, the LUT demand under each scenario was predicted sequentially at five-year intervals, that is, for 2025, 2030, and 2035.

PLUS model, key parameter setting, model validation

The PLUS model enables the generation of land-use change simulations using raster data patches, allowing for the exploration of causal factors influencing various LUT changes and the simulation of changes at the patch level 11 . This model comprises two modules: a rule-mining framework based on a land expansion analysis strategy (LEAS) and a CA model based on multi-type random patch seeds (CARS) 11 . The LEAS module can extract and sample land-use expansion between two periods of land-use change, employing the random forest algorithm to mine and acquire development probabilities and the contribution ratios of drivers for various LUTs 47 . Under the constraints of development probabilities, the CARS module simulates the automatic generation of patches by combining randomly generated seeds and employing decreasing threshold mechanisms 48 .

Neighborhood weight setting

Neighborhood weight indicates the expansion capacity of various LUTs, with values ranging from 0 to 1 19 . This study determined the parameters for neighborhood weights for different scenarios according to the expansion area share of various LUTs 49 , combined with insights from related studies (see Table 2 ) 33 , 50 .

Cost matrix setting

A cost matrix represents the conversion rules between various LUTs. A matrix value of 0 is assigned when one LUT cannot be converted into another, and a matrix value of 1 is assigned when the opposite is true. Table 3 presents the cost matrices for different scenarios.

Restricted region setting

In different scenarios, the river water surface was transformed into a binary image, with 0 indicating the non-transformable region and 1 indicating the transformable region. These images were then input into the PLUS model as restricted factors.

PLUS model validation

To assess the accuracy of land-use simulation results, overall accuracy (OA), and the figure of merit (FoM) coefficient were employed. An OA approaching 1 indicates higher simulation accuracy, with an OA value of > 0.75 indicating a reliable simulation 48 , while a smaller FoM value indicates higher simulation accuracy 51 . The formula for FoM is as follows 52 :

where Misses is the area of error due to reference change simulated as persistence; Hits is the area correctly identified as change resulting from reference change; Wrong Hits is the area of error due to reference change simulated as change to the wrong category; False Alarms is the area of error due to reference persistence simulated as change.

Consequently, based on land-use data from 2015, the simulation data for 2020 generated by the PLUS model prediction were compared with the actual data. The results revealed an OA of 0.9961, and an FoM coefficient of 0.0232, indicating that the model can accurately simulate future land-use changes in the JRB.

• Carbon storage
• InVEST model

The carbon module of the InVEST model assumes that various LUTs correspond to total carbon density, which consists of belowground carbon density, aboveground carbon density, dead organic matter carbon density, and soil organic matter carbon density. The model considers the carbon density of various LUTs to be constant 53 . The calculation formula is as follows:

In formulas ( 3 ) and ( 4 ), \(i\) denotes the i -th LUT; \({C}_{i}\) is the total carbon density of LUT I ; \({C}_{i-above}\) , \({C}_{i-below}\) , \({C}_{i-dead}\) , and \({C}_{i-soil}\) are the aboveground, belowground, dead organic matter, and soil organic matter carbon densities of LUT I , respectively; \({C}_{i-total}\) is the total carbon storage of LUT I ; n is the total number of LUTs; and \({S}_{i}\) is the area of LUT I .

Spatial correlation analysis

Spatial autocorrelation is a common method used to test whether the attribute values of elements are spatially correlated and the degree of spatial relevance 49 . This measure helps identify the extent to which attributes are clustered or dispersed. According to previous studies 49 , 54 , 55 , to account for the actual conditions in the JRB and the complexity of data processing, a grid of 9 km × 9 km was generated, along with grid points within the study area, using ArcGIS 10.3. Carbon storage data were linked with the grid to obtain the carbon storage value for each grid point. At the grid scale, global autocorrelation results were derived by calculating the spatial autocorrelation Global Moran’s I index. Subsequently, outlier or clustering location maps (i.e., local indicators of spatial association [LISA] clustering maps) were generated through clustering and outlier analysis. Finally, cold-hotspot analysis was employed to study the spatial distribution pattern of high-value and low-value carbon storage clusters in the JRB, aiding in the detection of unusual events. Detailed formulas and additional information on spatial autocorrelation analysis can be found in the literature 56 , 57 .

Land-use changes, 2000–2020

From 2000 to 2020, the JRB was primarily composed of cropland, forestland, and grassland, accounting for more than 43%, 32%, and 21% of the total basin area, respectively (Table 4 ). The remaining LUTs covered smaller areas, each accounting for less than 2% of the total basin area. Each LUT area underwent varying degrees of change, with the most significant change occurring in cropland areas, which continued to decrease, resulting in a total reduction of 1536.98 km 2 or 2.16%. Conversely, the water and construction land areas continued to increase, with additional values of 107.24 and 1087.94 km 2 , representing increases of 6.77% and 66.40%, respectively. The areas of forestland, grassland, and unused land also generally increased, with additional values of 239.89, 49.10, and 52.81 km 2 , corresponding to increases of 0.46%, 0.14%, and 11.10%, respectively. These changes were primarily due to rapid urbanization in the JRB, leading to significant encroachment of construction land on cropland. Additionally, the national policy of “returning cropland to forest for grass” resulted in the conversion of cropland to forestland and grassland. Moreover, the state’s comprehensive promotion of ecological restoration and protection in the Yangtze River Basin played a crucial role in increasing the water area.

Cropland was mainly concentrated in the Sichuan Basin in the south of JRB, and it was also distributed in the eastern, northern, and central regions (Fig.  3 ). Forestland was predominantly situated in the mountainous areas surrounding the Sichuan Basin, as well as in the middle and upper reaches of the JRB. Grassland was mainly found in the middle and upper reaches of the JRB. Construction land was primarily located on both sides of the river in the middle and lower reaches of the JRB, while unused land was situated at higher elevations in the northwest of the basin.

Land-use spatiotemporal distribution in the JRB from 2000 to 2020.

A total of 1673.27 km 2 of cropland in the JRB underwent changes from 2000 to 2020, with 61.11% of cropland being converted into construction land, while 136.29 km 2 was transformed into cropland (Fig.  4 ). Forest land experienced an addition of 451.75 km 2 and a loss of 211.86 km 2 . Grassland experienced an addition of 377.70 km 2 and a loss of 328.59 km 2 . Water area experienced an addition of 116.82 km 2 and a loss of 9.58 km 2 . Construction land experienced an addition of 1108.84 km 2 , of which 92.22% was from cropland, and a loss of 20.91 km 2 . The net increase in the areas of forestland, grassland, water, and construction land accounted for 15.61%, 3.19%, 6.98%, and 70.78% of the total net increase in area, respectively. This indicates that the significant decrease in cropland area was primarily due to its conversion into construction land. The conversion of forestland and grassland into cropland also contributed to the decrease in cropland area.

Sankey map of land-use transfer for the JRB, 2000–2020 (km 2 ).

Carbon storage spatiotemporal changes, 2000–2020

Carbon storage in the JRB first increased and then decreased over the years from 2000 to 2020, reaching its peak in 2005 (Table 5 ). The carbon storage values in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 (i.e., five-year intervals) were 2,231.06, 2,232.98, 2,232.10, 2,228.94, and 2,227.18 × 10 6 t, respectively. This represents a total decrease of 3.88 × 10 6 t, with an average decrease of 0.17%. Carbon storage changes differed among various LUTs. Cropland, forestland, and grassland were the most essential carbon pools in the JRB, each accounting for more than 30% of the total carbon storage. Together, they comprised over 98% of the total carbon storage, and their combined values continued to decrease over time. The combined highest and lowest carbon storage values of these three LUTs were 2,197.85 × 10 6 (in 2000) and 2,186.85 × 10 6 t (in 2020), representing 98.51% and 98.19% of the total, respectively. Cropland carbon storage decreased by 2.16% from 2000 to 2020, while water and construction land carbon storage increased by 6.77% and 66.40%, respectively, from 2000 to 2020. The carbon storage of forestland, grassland, and unused land initially increased and then decreased over the years from 2000 to 2020, with overall increases of 0.46%, 0.14%, and 11.10%, respectively.

The distribution of carbon storage was strongly correlated with LUT (Fig.  5 ), with higher carbon storage values in the north and lower values in the south. High-value regions were predominantly located in the northwestern and northern mountainous regions, while low-value regions were mostly situated in the hilly areas of the Sichuan Basin.

Spatiotemporal distribution of carbon storage in the JRB from 2000 to 2020.

Different LUT conversions impacted carbon storage owing to the effects of various LUT transfers and differences in carbon density (Fig.  6 ). Among these, the carbon storage changes in cropland, forestland, grassland, water, and construction land accounted for 71.70%, 8.79%, 17.90%, 0.32%, and 1.02% of the total changes, respectively. Carbon storage changes in cropland from 2000 to 2020 primarily reflected the conversion of cropland into construction land, grassland, and forestland. Carbon storage changes in forestland mainly resulted from the conversion of forestland into construction land, cropland, and grassland. Carbon storage changes in grassland were mainly driven by the conversion of grassland into forestland, cropland, and construction land. Carbon storage changes in water mainly stemmed from the conversion of water into construction land and grassland. Carbon storage changes in construction land were primarily due to conversions into cropland, forestland, and water.

( a ) Proportions of carbon storage variation and ( b ) carbon storage variations in the conversions of different LUTs in the JRB, 2000–2020.

Carbon storage spatial correlation analysis from 2000 to 2020

Global spatial autocorrelation analysis of the JRB carbon storage was conducted to obtain the Global Moran’s I index for the five time points from 2000 to 2020 (Table 6 ). Under a 0.01 significance test level, the Z -score values for 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 were all greater than the test threshold value of 2.58, indicating a highly significant result. The Global Moran’s I index values of 0.9076, 0.9078, 0.9089, 0.9081, and 0.9094 for 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 were > 0, indicating that the spatial distribution of the JRB carbon storage exhibited apparent aggregation. The Global Moran’s I index gradually increased over time, reaching extremely high values in 2010 and 2020, suggesting that the spatial distribution of carbon storage in the JRB showed fluctuating but overall strengthening agglomeration trends.

To further analyze the spatial clustering patterns of carbon storage distribution in the JRB, a spatial LISA clustering map was constructed using local autocorrelation analysis (Fig.  7 ). The clustering of carbon storage was characterized by high levels in the north and low levels in the south. The “high–high” clustering region was relatively scattered, mainly distributed in JRB’s northwestern area. The “low–low” clustering region was more concentrated, mainly in JRB’s middle and lower reaches. Neither the “high–high” nor the “low–low” clustering regions changed significantly over time.

LISA agglomeration diagram of carbon storage in the JRB, 2000–2020.

To further investigate the spatial location and degree of high-value and low-value clusters of carbon storage in the JRB, a cold-hotspot analysis was conducted (Fig.  8 ). The results indicated that the cold spots and hot spots of carbon storage in the JRB were clustered with significant cold-hotspot effects and had a high degree of spatial differentiation. No transformation occurred between cold spots and hot spots. Carbon storage hot spots were distributed relatively scatteredly, mainly in JRB’s upper and northwestern regions. This distribution was primarily due to forestland and grassland dominating the region, with significant terrain undulations, high elevation, relatively low temperature, and precipitation. The state vigorously implemented ecosystem protection and restoration measures in the region, resulting in a rich and high coverage of vegetation types. Carbon storage cold spots were concentrated and stable, distributed in JRB’s middle and lower reaches in a centralized manner. This concentration was attributed to the region’s flat terrain and the presence of extensive agricultural lands in the Chengdu–Chongqing economic circle in southwest China. Strong human activities and rapid urban development in the region led to the spread of urban living space, directly encroaching upon cropland, which served certain ecological functions, and forestland, grassland, and other ecological lands.

Cold-spot and hot-spot distribution of carbon storage in the JRB from 2000 to 2020.

Land use and carbon storage changes under various scenarios

A study of land use and carbon storage in the JRB from 2020 to 2035 revealed (Figs. 9 and 10 ) that under different scenarios, the area of water and construction land and their carbon storage increased, while that of the remaining LUTs decreased. These changes mostly occurred in the hilly regions of the Sichuan Basin in JRB’s middle and lower reaches, and the spatial distribution of LUTs and carbon storage generally remained the same.

Changes in land-use area and carbon storage under various scenarios in the JRB, 2020–2035. ( a ) LUT area change; ( b ) percentage of LUT area change; ( c ) carbon storage change.

Land-use and carbon storage spatial distribution of the JRB in 2035 under various scenarios. ( a ), ( b ), and ( c ) were land-use spatial distribution under the BAU scenario, the CP scenario, and the EP scenario, respectively; ( d ), ( e ), and ( f ) were carbon storage spatial distribution under the BAU scenario, the CP scenario, and the EP scenario, respectively.

Under the BAU scenario, the area of construction land increased by 769.38 km 2 (or 28.22%) over time from 2020 to 2035, while cropland, forestland, and grassland areas decreased by 637.18, 164.05, and 17.09 km 2 , or 0.91%, 0.32%, and 0.05%, respectively (Fig.  9 a,b). Carbon storage reduction driven by the conversion from cropland and forestland into other LUTs was 6.44 × 10 6 and 2.40 × 10 6 t, respectively (Fig.  9 c). Carbon storage increased by only 3.53 × 10 6 t owing to construction land expansion, and JRB’s total carbon storage decreased by 5.18 × 10 6 t. Without any policy constraints, construction land expansion was mainly based on the status quo of the original distribution, and construction land continued to extend along the river bank (Figs. 3 e and 10 a), mainly occupying cropland, forestland, and other LUTs with ecological functions to meet socioeconomic development needs. Cropland and forestland became the main areas converted into other LUTs, posing risks to food production and ecological security.

Under the CP scenario, construction land area increased by 275.21 km 2 (or 10.09%) compared with construction land area in 2020, while cropland, forestland, and grassland area decreased by 142.46, 164.56, and 17.15 km 2 , or 0.20%, 0.32%, and 0.05%, respectively (Fig.  9 a,b). Carbon storage decreased by 2.41 × 10 6  and 1.44 × 10 6 t owing to the loss of forestland and cropland, respectively, and increased by 1.26 × 10 6 t owing to an increase in construction land (Fig.  9 c). The total decrease in carbon storage in the JRB (2.45 × 10 6 t) was smaller than those of other scenarios. Most basin cropland was in direct spatial competition with construction land because they were distributed close to each other (Figs. 3 e and 10 b). Therefore, cropland protection corresponded to constrained construction land development. Overall, the CP scenario slowed down cropland conversion while having positive effects on ecological protection.

Under the EP scenario, forestland and grassland areas decreased by 141.71 km 2 (or 0.27%) and 7.88 km 2 (or 0.02%), respectively, over time from 2020 to 2035 (Fig.  9 a,b). Although construction land expansion was pronounced, the expansion rate decreased significantly from 28.22% (the BAU scenario) to 20.03%. Cropland area still decreased, but its decrease amount dropped from 0.91% (the BAU scenario) to 0.64%. The conversions of cropland and forestland resulted in carbon storage reductions of 4.52 × 10 6 and 2.08 × 10 6 t, respectively, while construction land expansion resulted in a carbon storage increase of 2.51 × 10 6 t (Fig.  9 c). Compared with the BAU scenario, the basin’s carbon storage value impairment was lower, at 3.74 × 10 6 t. From the spatial development pattern of LUTs, the decrease in cropland area mainly occurred near construction land (Figs. 3 e and 10 c). In general, under the EP scenario, the conversion of ecological land such as forestland and grassland was somewhat restricted; consequently, cropland was the main type of land that experienced conversion, while reducing construction land encroachment on ecological land contributed to the preservation of the JRB ecological security.

Land-use changes

This paper shows that JRB’s land-use spatial distribution is characterized by evident differentiation. Forestland and grassland are mainly found in JRB’s upper and middle reaches, while cropland and construction land are mostly distributed in JRB’s middle and lower reaches. Similar findings were reported by Xiao et al. 58 for the Yellow River Basin (Henan section) and Wang et al. 59 for the Taihang Mountains. The JRB spans several complex topographic and geomorphic regions, including plateaus, mountains, hills, and basins, with temperature and precipitation gradually increasing from northwest to southeast. Elevation gradually decreases as the river flows. The JRB middle and lower reaches are located in the Sichuan Basin hilly regions, where the terrain is relatively flat, facilitating agricultural and economic activities.

The study found that cropland was the only LUT that decreased in area. Previous studies have suggested that cropland was the LUT that experienced an increase, while only LUTs experienced a decrease, including forestland and unused land 1 , 17 , 41 . The main reason for this trend in the JRB, an important water source and ecological barrier in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, is the systematic implementation of ecological fallowing measures by the government since 1999. These measures include converting cropland to forests, grasslands, and water bodies. Additionally, the development of transportation infrastructure and towns, the expansion of rural residential areas, and the continuous growth of garden land have all contributed to the reduction of cropland area.

Currently, scholars are in dispute over the results of land-use simulations under various scenarios. For example, Wei et al. 17 estimated that in the Ebinur Lake Basin, China, cropland and construction land areas increased significantly over time from 2020 to 2030 under the BAU scenario, while forestland decreased. Conversely, under the EP scenario, cropland and construction land areas decreased, while forestland area increased considerably. Wang et al. 44 estimated that in the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area, under the BAU scenario, cropland and forestland areas decreased over time from 2020 to 2030, while construction land and grassland areas increased, and under the CP scenario, cropland, grassland, and construction land areas increased. Yang et al. 43 estimated that in Xi’an City, China, under the EP scenario, cropland area decreased over time from 2015 to 2030, while construction land, forestland, and grassland areas increased, and under the CP scenario, construction land area increased, while cropland, forestland, and grassland areas decreased. Our study results show that cropland, forestland, and grassland areas decreased under different scenarios, while construction land area increased significantly, with the smallest amplification in construction land under the CP scenario. A comparison of these studies reveals differences in policies related to territorial spatial planning, economic and social development, and ecological conservation in various study areas. These differences affect the setting of land-use transfer probabilities. Substantial variations in the initial land-use patterns and land-use transfer probabilities in the different study areas lead to differences in land-use simulation results under different scenarios.

Carbon storage changes

Carbon storage in the JRB initially increased and then decreased over time from 2000 to 2020, a trend that aligns with the findings of Gong et al. 4 and Chen et al. 60 . This pattern is primarily attributed to the policy implementation of returning farmland to forests since 2003, resulting in the conversion of cropland to forestland and an increase in carbon storage. However, as urbanization accelerates, rural populations migrate to towns and cities, leading to the expansion of urban boundaries and the constant encroachment into ecologically functional lands around towns and cities. The urban boundaries encroach into a large area of cropland and small areas of forestland and grassland. This ultimately results in a continuous decline in carbon storage.

Our study results show that JRB’s carbon storage was aggregated and generally increased over time; however, the JRB featured no “high–low” or “low–high” clustering region, whereas scholars 32 , 33 , 61 , 62 reported “high–low” and “low–high” clustering patterns for different study regions. Carbon storage high-value and low-value clustering reveal clear distribution boundaries between cold spots and hot spots according to their spatial distribution pattern. These findings differ from those of previous research; for example, Li et al. 33 reported spatial aggregation of carbon storage in Kunming City with fluctuating changes over time. Liang et al. 7 found that cold spots and hot spots in carbon storage on the Loess Plateau represented a small percentage of the total. The cold spots and hot spots exhibited a mosaic and decentralized distribution 7 , 33 . Lin et al. 61 found that the spatial distribution of carbon storage in Guangdong exhibited clustering phenomena, with the degree of agglomeration initially increasing and then decreasing over time. However, the distribution of cold spots and hot spots was scattered, and distinct demarcation lines were lacking. The topography in the northwest of the region is higher, while the southeast of JRB features lower terrain. In the upper reaches of the Jialing River, the landscape consists of meandering courses with deep valleys, whereas the middle reaches exhibit flatter terrain, transitioning from deep hilly regions to shallower hilly areas. In the lower reaches, the main river runs parallel to the eastern part of the Sichuan Basin, forming canyon extensions. The lower basin rises to mountainous terrain. Consequently, the middle and lower reaches of the JRB are characterized by frequent human activities, primarily cropland, leading to lower and patchy carbon storage distribution. In contrast, the topography in the middle and upper reaches of the JRB is dominated by mountainous terrain, including some plateau landforms. These areas feature higher elevations and lower temperatures and precipitation, resulting in a landscape dominated by forestland and grassland. The distribution of forestland and grassland is mosaic-like, which prevents the concentration of high carbon storage regions in a patchy manner. The marginal mountain region of the Sichuan Basin forms a strongly ascending fold belt with significant relative elevation differences. This region exhibits a clear transition from the hilly areas of the JRB, leading to a distinct boundary between high and low carbon storage value distributions.

Impact of land-use changes on carbon storage dynamics

From 2000 to 2020, the change in carbon storage caused by the conversion of cropland to other LUTs accounted for 71.70% of the total change in carbon storage in the JRB. The reduction in carbon storage due to the conversion of various LUTs to construction land was 1.72 times the total reduction in carbon storage in the JRB. Specifically, the reduction of carbon storage caused by the conversion of cropland to construction land was 1.45 times the total reduction in carbon storage in the JRB. Therefore, the conversion of cropland to construction land between 2000 and 2020 was the main factor driving the reduction in carbon storage in the JRB. This finding is consistent with the results of Ren et al. 63 on the impact of land-use change on carbon storage in Gansu Province. However, Zhang et al. 64 found that the conversion of cropland to other LUTs generally led to an increase in carbon storage. In the JRB, carbon storage decreased owing to the following two factors: (1) cropland area experienced a net loss, as 61.11% of the converted cropland area was transformed into construction land; (2) the total carbon density of construction land was only 45.45% of that of cropland.

Studies have yielded varying results regarding the impact of land-use changes on carbon storage under different scenarios. For instance, Li et al. 45 demonstrated that in the northeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau, carbon storage decreased over time from 2020 to 2030 under the BAU scenario, and the carbon storage increase in the EP scenario exceeded that of the CP scenario. In a study of Changchun City conducted by Li et al. 19 , carbon storage was projected to decrease over time from 2020 to 2030 under the BAU scenario, with less value impairment in the CP scenario compared with the BAU scenario, and an increase was observed under the EP scenario. Liu et al. 48 found that carbon storage increased over time from 2020 to 2035 under the BAU, CP, and EP scenarios in the Loess Plateau. In contrast, carbon storage in the JRB decreased under different scenarios, with the least value impairment occurring under the CP scenario and the most significant value impairment occurring under the BAU scenario. An examination of historical land-use changes in the JRB reveals that most of the newly added construction land originated from cropland, resulting in intense competition between these two land types. Construction land area increased substantially in different scenarios, while forestland and cropland with ecological functions decreased significantly. This directly leads to a decrease in carbon storage under different scenarios. The implementation of CP policies minimizes the encroachment of cropland and, consequently, reduces construction land expansion. Therefore, in the future, following the Chinese government’s requirements for replenishing cropland, the JRB should increase the cropland area through the reclamation and remediation of unused land suitable for cultivation and the construction of high-standard farmland. This will enhance the carbon sequestration function of the JRB ecosystem, thereby ensuring food and ecological security in the region and the realization of the “dual-carbon” goals.

Limitations and directions for future work

The three future scenarios for the JRB presented in this paper, established using Markov and PLUS models, may not comprehensively represent all potential future land-use scenarios for the region. Given that JRB encompasses various topographic and geomorphic zones, including plateaus, mountains, hills, and basins, there exist significant disparities in both natural environments and human geography. Therefore, future studies should consider dividing the JRB into distinct regions according to topography and geomorphology, allowing for more precise investigations of land-use changes and carbon storage estimations in each region. Additionally, the study identified 19 driving factors solely for simulating future scenarios, without analyzing in detail the driving forces behind land-use changes in the JRB. To comprehensively elucidate these factors, their impact on land-use changes should be further explored through methods such as geodetector models. Moreover, although this paper elucidates the changing patterns of land use in the JRB, it does not extensively explore the competitive relationships between various LUTs and the strategic decisions in the development and utilization of land resources. Therefore, future research should comprehensively analyze land-use conflicts within the JRB.

Conclusions

This paper explored the evolving dynamics of land use and carbon storage within the JRB between 2000 and 2020. Utilizing land-use data from 2020 as a foundation, a coupled PLUS–InVEST model was applied to simulate and predict land-use and carbon storage patterns for 2035 under varying scenarios. The study also investigated the ramifications of land-use alterations on carbon storage, resulting in the following key findings and principal conclusions:

The PLUS–InVEST coupled model demonstrated strong applicability within the JRB. Model validation yielded an OA of 0.9961, and an FoM coefficient of 0.0232, signifying a high level of simulation accuracy. These results demonstrate the PLUS–InVEST model effectiveness in forecasting future land-use patterns within the JRB.

Cropland was the predominant LUT in the JRB, encompassing over 43% of the total land area. It was primarily distributed in the middle and lower reaches of JRB, specifically within the hilly regions of the Sichuan Basin. Moreover, cropland was the only LUT that experienced a decrease in area; the decrease amounted to 1,673.27 km 2 , of which 61.11% was converted into construction land. This indicates the existence of a contradiction between human needs and available land resources in the JRB. This situation necessitates the scientific formulation of land-use policies in the JRB and calls for the exploration of new pathways for the coordinated development of regional urbanization and food and ecological security.

The three most substantial carbon reservoirs in the JRB—cropland, forestland, and grassland—collectively accounted for over 98% of the total carbon storage in 2000–2020, a sum which decreased over time. The conversion of cropland to construction land between 2000 and 2020 was the primary factor driving the reduction in carbon storage in the JRB. This resulted in an overall weakening of the carbon sequestration capacity of the ecosystem in the JRB. Carbon storage exhibits a clear spatial aggregation and stabilization within the JRB, with higher levels observed in the northern regions and lower levels in the southern areas. Potential strategies to address these trends and promote ecological security include implementing more afforestation and grass-planting initiatives in the middle and upper reaches of the JRB. Additionally, efforts to decelerate urbanization in the middle and lower reaches of the JRB could mitigate ecological risks.

Across different scenarios, there was a consistent pattern of increasing water and construction land areas, along with corresponding carbon storage expansion. Conversely, the areas and carbon storage of other LUTs decreased over time from 2020 to 2035, with these shifts predominantly occurring in the middle and lower reaches of the JRB. An examination of the period from 2020 to 2035 under the CP scenario revealed that cropland area exhibited a minimal decline of only 0.20%, significantly less than the 0.91% decrease in the BAU scenario and the 0.64% decrease in the EP scenario. Moreover, the CP-scenario carbon storage value impairment amounted to 2.45 × 10 6 t, which was 47.42% of the carbon storage value impairment in the BAU scenario and 65.56% of that in the EP scenario. Therefore, under the scenarios outlined in this paper, although the CP policy can effectively control the rate of cropland area reduction, it cannot prevent the reduction of cropland area, and the carbon sequestration function of the ecosystem in the JRB will still be weakened. Therefore, strict adherence to the task of replenishing cropland mandated by the Chinese government is imperative. Increasing cropland area through land remediation and high-standard farmland construction is crucial for enhancing the carbon sequestration function of the JRB ecosystem. This approach will positively contribute to ensuring the food and ecological security of the JRB and achieving the “dual-carbon” goals.

Data availability

All data presented in this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Nanchong Vocational College of Culture and Tourism of Research Fund Program (Grant No. NC23B042). We would like to thank the editors and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions to improve our manuscript.

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Yang, S., Li, L., Zhu, R. et al. Assessing land-use changes and carbon storage: a case study of the Jialing River Basin, China. Sci Rep 14 , 15984 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66742-2

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Lifecycle assessment on construction and demolition waste management-an Indian case study

• Shanmugapriya, S.

Generation of construction & demolition (C&D) waste is increasing while management of it is a global issue. This study presents the case of Coimbatore, a city in India which lacks C&D waste processing facilities. Lifecycle assessment (LCA) being a crucial tool for analyzing and making decisions pertaining to environmental issues, LCA is employed to assess the environmental impacts of C&D waste management practices in the chosen study area and find alternate solutions. Thus, various scenarios are developed: S1-Current Scenario (present and future case), S2-Recycling scenario and S3-Recycling along with inclusion of transfer station and environmental impacts are assessed. LCA results show that scenario S3- Recycling along with transfer station is the most appropriate case for handling C&D waste in the study region. Impact reduction of around 220-158% are observed with respect to "human health and ecosystem quality" categories respectively along with 165% reduction in "climate change" and 134% reduction in "resources depletion" when compared to current landfilling scenario. Sensitivity analysis is also done by varying parameters like transportation distances, electricity and diesel consumption, results showed that the transportation distance has more influence on the outcome. Thus, inclusion of transfer station and construction of C&D waste recycling plant is highly recommended in the study area for proper C&D waste management.

• Lifecycle assessment;
• Construction and demolition waste;
• C&D waste recycling plant;
• Sensitivity analysis;
• Environmental impacts;
• Waste management

• The Three G’s: Geology, Groundwater, and Geometry in Origin & Cause Analyses

[authors: Sharkey Bowers , Scott Hollingsworth , and Richard Stahl ]

Introduction

Geotechnical practitioners are often focused on the “Three G’s”—namely geology, groundwater, and geometry. The interconnectedness of the Three G’s is responsible for fundamental aspects of the Earth’s composition and hydrological processes. Understanding the relationships between the Three G’s is crucial for various fields, including environmental science, engineering and infrastructure development, and resource management. From historically influencing where and how human settlements develop to controlling the engineering design and construction of new developments, failure to respect the Three G’s can occur at peril.

The foundations of all human construction and developments rest upon the earth beneath our feet. The Geology, behavior of groundwater, and the geometry of the surface and subsurface conditions must be understood before humankind embarks to build upon, build through, excavate within, retain, or support the ground. Geologic conditions will control how we design and build foundations, the machinery needed to excavate for construction, and in some instances, the locations that we decide to develop. Likewise, the geometry of both the landscape and subsurface soil and rock layers will have considerable influence on the design and cost to develop a site. Finally, understanding the groundwater conditions is essential whether the intent is to develop a source of water supply, prevent pollution and protect environmental systems, or to effectively design and construct buildings and/or infrastructure.

In this article, we discuss examples of how the Three G’s have dictated human development; creative solutions that show how the Three G’s can be used for human benefit; and, to the contrary, how the Three G’s can cause multi-million-dollar property damage, delays on construction sites, and/or injury and loss of life if they are not adequately considered. The following information may be of particular interest to property owners, developers, engineers, architects, property insurance professionals, and attorneys working in the field of construction defects.

Venice Lagoon – A Case Study in Human Adaptation to Geologic Conditions

The lagoon of Venice, Italy is one example of how the Three G’s have shaped the world we live in today. The present Venice lagoon, interspersed with channels and canals that are used as a primary mode of transportation, is mainly the result of human development following glacial retreat and resulting coastline development some 6,000 to 7,000 years ago. Dating back to Ancient Rome, the Venetians understood early on the strategic importance of the lagoon. Surrounded by water, it served as a natural barrier from invading enemies and a hub for maritime trade.

Figure 1 - Aerial view of modern-day Venice.

However, the geology of the area presented a challenge to construction and development. The area was primarily a wetland comprised of mud flats, salt marshes, and tidal shallows with a minority portion of the lagoon covered by open water or dry land. The shallow soils in the area consisted primarily of peat, which is an organic material that is not suitable for foundation support, due to its high compressibility or settlement under load and potential to decay with time. To prevent damage to their buildings, the Venetians developed a method to install deep foundations that are similar to modern-day timber piles. They would harvest tall trees from nearby forests and drive them down into the ground to the depth of the hard clay layer that underlies the organic peat. The hard clay layer would help support the piles through end bearing and frictional resistance. Horizontal layers of timbers were laid on top of the vertical piles, then limestone was placed on top of the timbers to create a building pad.

There are a variety of soils that remain a challenge for engineers and contractors alike, and organic soils are no exception. Failure to identify organic soils before construction can result in cost increases, often with both the design and schedule experiencing change. If organic soils are not identified until after construction is complete and settlement-induced damage has occurred, then repair costs and schedule impacts will dominate the project. A thorough geotechnical investigation program, coupled with the development of a geotechnical baseline or model, is essential to prevent these types of issues from detrimentally affecting a project. The cost of a comprehensive geotechnical investigation and baseline model development is inexpensive when compared to the cost to remediate these types of issues during or after construction.

Figure 2 – Historical depiction showing timber pile installation for foundations in poor shallow soil conditions (Source: https://theconstructor.org/case-study/venice-foundation-details/224185/).

Sinkhole Formation and Remediation

Organic soils are only one of many geologic conditions that can cause complications for construction. Sinkholes are another geological feature that commonly can cause expensive settlement-related damage to buildings, or costly construction delays. They are prevalent in areas that have carbonate bedrock such as limestone and dolostone. Sinkholes develop through groundwater migration and dissolution of the bedrock over time. The dissolution causes the formation of voids, which commonly remain undiscovered if the overlying soil has sufficient strength and thickness to bridge over the void. However, if the void in the bedrock is sufficiently large, and/or the thickness of overlying soils is relatively thin, sinkholes develop as the overburden soils ravel or collapse into the void; this can cause depressions or holes in the ground surface. Structures that rely upon the underlying soil or rock for support can be impacted.

Sinkholes can cause damage to existing residential, commercial, and industrial buildings, and have also been known to cause damage or significant delays on construction sites. Often, development can trigger sinkhole activity due to the concentration of water in an isolated area, such as a stormwater pond or underground water detention facility, or due to modifications to the groundwater table due to dewatering. Proper investigations and planning before construction can limit the potential for sinkholes to detrimentally affect a construction project.

Figure 3 - Overview photograph of a sinkhole that developed near a residence in Central Florida.

Remediation of sinkholes can be achieved via grouting or an inverted rock filter, whereby the ground is excavated down to the depth of bedrock then backfilled with boulders, cobbles, and gravel, in a carefully engineered sequence with geosynthetic filter fabric to bridge over remaining voids, avoiding migration of soils due to gravity and groundwater. This type of remediation can only be performed if the sinkhole is identified before construction.

Post-construction settlement damage to buildings caused by sinkholes is typically addressed by grouting and/or underpin installations. Grouting involves installing steel casing to the depth of bedrock and injecting compaction grout in the overlying soils as the casing is withdrawn to improve any raveled or loosened soils. Underpinning involves the direct transfer of the structural loads to the competent bedrock . It typically involves the installation of small-diameter steel piles that are drilled or pushed into the ground then attached to foundations of the building.

Los Angeles Basin – Historical Development & Groundwater Conditions

Los Angeles, California, settled in the late 1700s, serves as another historical development that was shaped by the geometry of the natural landscape as well as geology and groundwater conditions. Because it is in a semi-arid coastal plain, rainwater could not be relied upon to consistently supply fresh water. The Los Angeles River was known for flooding during periods of heavy rain, but precipitation would reduce to a mere trickle during other times of the year. To meet fresh water needs, early settlers turned their attention underground. Farmers discovered multiple natural aquifers by drilling wells from which a seemingly endless supply of fresh water could be obtained.

By drilling wells into the ground, farmers were able to access fresh water from aquifers (underground layers of permeable rock or soil which contain or transmit water). Wells drilled down into the sand and bedrock aquifers would produce artesian conditions, where the groundwater is under sufficient pressure—fed by geometry or elevation differences—to cause the water to exit the wells without the need for pumping. The subsurface water pressure forces water up through the ground surface when the confining layer is breached, such as by a well. See Figure 4 for an illustration of an artesian well.

Figure 4 - Graphic depicting artesian conditions. Note that the groundwater level in the confined aquifer is higher than ground level at the well.

While artesian conditions were beneficial for the early farmers in Los Angeles, as well as many other locations throughout the world, these conditions can create challenges during design and construction of subsurface features, and potentially significant damages if not identified and accounted for in advance. Piping and erosion of soil, slope or braced or tied back excavation failure, and disturbance of more competent soils include some of the mechanisms that can transpire if artesian conditions are not properly considered in advance of design, tendering, or construction – not to mention the additional dewatering costs that will be required to prevent a flooded construction site. Investing in a comprehensive site investigation program, including geotechnical and hydrogeological studies, can help avoid significant increases in costs of construction and other ancillary costs including business interruption, legal, and expert costs that may result if artesian conditions are not identified before construction begins.

Dewatering in Construction

When constructing foundations or utilities below the groundwater table, contractors are commonly required to dewater the site to construct in dry conditions. Dewatering involves drawing down the water table with the use of pumps. If only limited dewatering is required, a sump pit can be excavated, and a pump can be placed in the sump pit to pump the water out. With the pump running, water will flow from the surrounding area through the soil into the sump pit, or the water can be diverted to the sump pit via berms and ditches. If deeper dewatering is necessary, dewatering wells are usually required to lower the water table.

If the construction site being dewatered has homogenous sandy or gravelly soil conditions, dewatering can be relatively straightforward with some exceptions. Sands and gravels have larger connected void spaces than silts and clays and can be dewatered through pumping in a shorter period. The challenge with such soils is the volume and flow rate of pumping required to achieve effective dewatering and depressurization. It is often more challenging to dewater finer-grained soils such as silts and clays, or silts and clays that are sequenced between sand and gravels, with greater time required to achieve effective dewatering. In these types of soil deposits, the average groundwater flow rate in the vertical direction will be as slow as the slowest-draining soil. In the horizontal direction, the groundwater, on average, will flow as fast as the fastest draining soil. This is because low-permeable soil layers such as clay will function as a confining layer, slowing or prohibiting the downward flow of water. The groundwater will “perch” and flow laterally on top of the silt and clay layer. In all cases, dewatering a construction site can also influence the water table off‑site. Consideration needs to be applied to third party facilities which may rely upon the groundwater for water supply, or which may be negatively impacted through dewatering-induced soil consolidation and settlement.

Los Angeles Aqueduct – A Case Study in the Use of Landscape Geometry to Human Advantage

By the early 1900s, groundwater from the rivers and aquifers alone was not sufficient to supply the growing population of Los Angeles. Fresh water became a scarce commodity, and the city engineer developed a plan to construct an aqueduct that provided fresh water from Owens River, located 233 miles away in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The aqueduct consists of a series of dams, reservoirs, siphons, tunnels, canals, and conduit. The topographic relief across the aqueduct is approximately 3,500 feet, meaning that the aqueduct relies on ground topography and gravity, allowing for the water to flow downhill from the mountains to Los Angeles. It is this same topographical relief that helped pressurize or feed the aquifer and artesian wells as discussed above.

Constructing The Los Angeles Aqueduct is considered by many to be one of the greatest engineering feats of our time. It is a robust, yet simple system that relies on the geometry of the surrounding landscape to provide fresh water supply from hundreds of miles away to the city.

Figure 5 - Water flows down the Los Angeles Aqueduct, relying on the geometry of the landscape to gravity flow down toward the City of Los Angeles (Photo by Dean Musgrove, Los Angeles Daily News/SCNG; Source: https://www.dailynews.com/2022/11/04/proposal-to-place-solar-panels-over-la-aqueduct-advances//).

While the Los Angeles Aqueduct is an example of using the geometry of the ground surface to the advantage of human development, slopes and hilly terrains can also provide challenges that must be properly accounted for to successfully develop these types of landscapes.

Slopes in Hilly Terrain

Finally, along with geology and groundwater, site geometry plays a significant role in urban development. Although there may be aesthetic benefits in constructing on sloping ground versus flat ground, the challenges and costs can be greater. A good understanding of the foundations is required to ensure that the soils can provide an adequate bearing capacity. Depending upon the size of the development and slope angle of the ground, cut and fill slopes may be required. Developments may also be at the top or bottom of slopes, which introduces certain risks. There are many towns and cities across the globe where constructing on or nearby steep, hilly terrain is the norm, with Hong Kong being one of the most famous examples.

Rapid population growth and substantial economic expansion in Hong Kong since the 1960s have been accompanied by extensive civil engineering and building works. To house the now approximately 7.4 million people within an approximately 680 square miles (1100 km 2 ) land mass that has over 140 mountains or peaks that rise over 980 feet (300 m) above sea level, with ten (10) over 2,300 feet (700 m) above sea level, a considerable number of man-made slopes and retaining walls were required over very hilly territory. However, dating back to the 1960s, there was limited geotechnical control of slope design and permitting, resulting in questionable construction and stability of many of these slopes and retaining walls. The vulnerabilities of these slopes and retaining walls became exposed through increasing development, steepening of existing terrain, and severe rainstorms.

As development and population increased, landslides and fatalities were taking place at increasing levels. Catastrophic landslides in 1972 and 1976 as portrayed in Figure 6 ultimately led to the development of the government’s Geotechnical Control Office (GCO) in 1977, which was renamed in 1991 to the Geotechnical Engineering Office (GEO) (Wong, 2017).

Figure 6 - 1972 Po Shan Road Landslide in Mid-Levels of Hong Kong that toppled a 12-story building and caused 67 fatalities (Source: https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/2098525/deadly-1972-twin-landslides-hong-kong-claimed).

Figure 7 shows how the number of landslide failures and associated fatalities increased then lessened following establishment of the GEO. The decrease in landslide fatalities is attributed to the introduction and establishment of a more rigorous approach to cataloging existing man-made slopes and retaining walls (now about 60,000 within the region), conducting thorough investigations to characterize the soils, carrying out groundwater assessment, and then either remediating existing slopes, or designing and constructing new slopes, using robust designs.

Figure 7 - History of landslide fatalities in Hong Kong from 1948 to 2016 (Morgenstern 2021)

These implementations and others, including the development of quantitative risk assessment to slopes that also factor in climate change and changing (increasing) precipitation loads in Hong Kong, have all led to the near elimination of fatalities due to landslides in Hong Kong. The authors have had the opportunity to investigate, design, and construct slope stabilization projects in Hong Kong, as well as investigate slope instability defense barriers as part of a QRA initiative, in situations where natural slopes extend tens to hundreds of meters upslope from a development.

The interplay of the Three G’s has shaped the world that we live in today and has unavoidable impacts on human construction activities occurring all over the globe. Understanding the relationships between geology, groundwater, and geometry is crucial when undertaking projects both new and old. It is particularly important to bear these factors in mind to avoid unnecessary and costly complications during or after the construction of buildings. When taking on new projects, especially those in areas with complex ground soil/rock formations, unusual or unpredictable water tables, challenging slopes, and so on, stakeholders should consider enlisting the help of expert engineers and geologists who can provide relevant, valuable insight and guidance.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank w. sharkey bowers, pe, scott hollingsworth, pg, and richard stahl for providing insights and expertise that greatly assisted in this research..

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