online classes during lockdown speech in english

2 Minute Speech On Online Classes During Lockdown In English

Good morning to everyone in this room. I would like to thank the principal, the teachers, and my dear friends for allowing me to speak to you today about online classes during lockdown. Online lessons were substituted for teacher-led lectures when the school was under lockdown.

Students could access online study materials, participate in virtual lectures, ask lecturers questions, interact with other students, administer virtual tests, and do a lot more. Students would receive a high-quality education from home while simultaneously preventing the spread of viruses thanks to online classrooms.

Everything in online classes was prewritten. It was devoid of feelings like joy, enthusiasm, or rage. Thus, online education has both benefits and drawbacks, but in those days with curfews, it was incredibly beneficial in ensuring uninterrupted study. Thank you.

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English teaching and learning during the covid crisis, english teaching and learning during the covid crisis: online classes and upskilling teachers.

Graeme Harrison explores how English language teachers can help students learn in online classes by combining digital resources with existing skills.

Since many countries have imposed a lockdown on movement, and many schools have subsequently closed their doors, vast numbers of previously tech-shy teachers are having to learn very quickly how to teach using online resources. This might be through delivering lessons using virtual classrooms or providing online self-study material for students, both of which may be new modes of lesson delivery for many.

Since the rise of the internet in the 1990s, English language (EL) teachers have had what might be described as a difficult relationship with technology. Initial teacher education has been slow to embrace digital ways of teaching and learning, meaning that many EL teachers feel that they have been poorly prepared to use technology in their teaching (Clark, 2018). Consequently, many EL teachers have been resistant to the digital wave which has revolutionised other areas of our lives.  Understandably, there are a number of worries which teachers have regarding introducing technology into teaching.  Three of the most common are:

• Technology is isolating – learner interaction is limited, and dissimilar to the kind of ways that they will be required to use language in the real world.
• Teachers are being deskilled, and the essence of teaching is being lost.
• The rise of technology, particularly Artificial Intelligence (AI), will soon mean that teachers are made redundant.

To deal with these one at a time:

Is technology isolating for teachers?

In many situations, technology can actually facilitate interaction. We only need think of how many of us now use our phones and social media such as WhatsApp or Facebook to communicate. This can be equally true of interaction in a virtual learning environment – if managed correctly, opportunities for language use can be optimised and students will have plenty of interaction with each other.  And, whether we like it or not, these forms of interaction, mediated through digital channels, now account for a high percentage of interactions in the ‘real world’.

Are EL teachers being deskilled?

EL teaching has long since stopped being a static discipline, in which teachers are primarily conveyors of declarative knowledge, i.e. facts or information. Nowadays, English teachers are better conceptualised as facilitators of learning who provide learning opportunities for their students, and give feedback to support improvement. The essence of teaching is not therefore something fixed but rather dynamic, adapting to the context and situation in which each teacher finds themselves. The facilitation of learning through technology is a highly skilled endeavour, and in many contexts can offer a really useful support to the classroom, providing students with the chance to learn in new and interesting ways.

The impact of artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence is a 21st century spectre which haunts many professions. However, a study into which jobs are likely to be replaced by AI in the future (Frey & Osborne, 2013) found that the chances of the profession of school teacher disappearing was around 0.007, i.e.  very low indeed, especially when compared with jobs such as Library Assistants (0.95), Real Estate Brokers (0.97) and Telemarketers (0.99).

This is because teaching is a complex job, requiring a range of skills, such as subject knowledge, classroom management, motivational skills, delivering feedback, differentiating learning, problem solving, emotional intelligence, counselling, etc. – the list is almost endless.

This contrasts with the current state of AI, which can be described as ‘domain specific’, i.e. highly skilled but in one particular area, e.g. playing chess, driving a car, recognising human faces or speech.  The ‘domain general’ skills which a teacher possesses, and the complex interaction between those, is not going to be matched by machines anytime soon.

How Cambridge English is helping

Part of the reason that EL teaching has been slow to adopt new ways of teaching through technology has been because in many contexts, schools lack motivation and/or resources to implement tech solutions in and around the classroom, and therefore, the demand for skilled digital teachers has been weak. That is clearly changing, fuelled by the need of our education systems to keep students learning through these challenging times.

There is therefore a clear and immediate necessity for professional development in teaching through technology for many teachers around the world, and Cambridge English is trying to support this need through a number of initiatives:

• Firstly, a free Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) - Teaching English Online - has been launched to help teachers acquire the skills needed to teach online.  The first iteration of the course attracted over 50,000 participants.
• Next, a series of webinars has begun to help teachers who are working virtually. These include titles such as ‘Resilience: teaching in tough times’ and ‘Managing interaction and feedback in the virtual classroom’.  See Webinars for teachers page for more details and to sign up.
• We have also produced a special web page called Supporting Every Teacher which brings together a series of useful teaching resources such as lesson plans, online activities, and our flagship Write & Improve resource, which allows students to get immediate feedback on their writing through our innovative AI algorithm. 
• Finally, for those of you involved in preparing students for the A2 Key for Schools exam, Exam Lift is a new free app available from the Google Play and Apple Stores which provides engaging and motivating practice material for students to self-study.

We are also continuing to provide our services to ministries of education during this time. A collection of materials, including those mentioned above, from us and our sister organisation the Cambridge University Press are available.

We appreciate that these are difficult times, but hope that this training and these resources can help in a small way to support teachers who are delivering virtual classes or producing online resources, perhaps for the first time. It is said that every cloud has a silver lining, and perhaps when this is all over, we will see online learning, with the pedagogical advantages it offers, becoming a more integral part of teaching around the world.

Clark, T. (2018). Key Challenges and Pedagogical Implications: International Teacher Perspectives. Cambridge English internal report.

Frey, B. K. and Osborne, M. A. (2013). The future of employment: how susceptible are jobs to computerisation?

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COVID-19: A Framework for Effective Delivering of Online Classes During Lockdown

• Arena of Pandemic
• Published: 30 January 2021
• Volume 5 , pages 322–336, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Digvijay Pandey   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0353-174X 1 ,
• Gabriel A. Ogunmola 2 ,
• Wegayehu Enbeyle 3 ,
• Marzuk Abdullahi 4 ,
• Binay Kumar Pandey 5 &
• Sabyasachi Pramanik 6  

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A Correction to this article was published on 12 May 2021

This article has been updated

The world as we know it has changed over a short period of time, with the rise and spread of the deadly novel Corona virus known as COVID-19, the world will never be the same again. This study explores the devastating effects of the novel virus pandemic, the resulting lockdown, thus the need to transform the offline classroom into an online classroom. It explores and describes the numerous online teaching platforms, study materials, techniques, and technologies’ being used to ensure that educating the students does not stop. Furthermore, it identifies the platforms, technologies which can be used to conduct online examination in a safe environment devoid of cheating. Additionally, it explores the challenges facing the deployment of online teaching methods. On the basis of literature review, a framework was proposed to deliver superior online class room experience for the students, so that online classroom is as effective as or even better than offline classrooms. The identified variables were empirically tested with the aid of a structured questionnaire; there were 487(according to Craitier and Morgan)150 number of respondents who were purposefully sampled. The results indicate that students prefer the multimedia means of studies. As a result of binary logistic regression, poor internet connection, awareness on COVID-19, enough sources of materials, recommends massive open online course, favourite online methods, and satisfaction with online study are significant in the model or attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic at 5% level of significance. The study recommends online teaching methods, but finally, the study concludes that satisfaction with online study is significant in the model or attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic at 5% level of significance.

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• Artificial Intelligence

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

The Corona virus pandemic is a strange viral infection that is highly transmittable especially from person to person. The COVID-19 infectivity that is caused by a completely unique mental strain of corona virus was first detected in Wuhan, China, in the last week of December 2019 and acknowledged a world health emergency of international concern by the World Health Organization on January 30, 2020. The World Health Organization has confirmed the fast-moving coronavirus outbreak in China, a “world health emergency of worldwide concern” ( https://doi.org/10.1021/cen-09805-buscon4 ). Eventually, the disease continues to spread across the globe, killing many, and collapsing the various economic, educational, and social activities across the globe.

Death rate ranges between 2 and 3%. It is drastically less severe than 2003 SARS (MR 10%) or 2012 MERS (MR 35%) outbreaks. Threat of decease is merely high in older people (above an age of ~ 60 years) and other people with pre-active health conditions, and approximately 80% of individuals have gentle symptoms and get over the sickness in 2 weeks. The majority of the symptoms are often treated on time medication (John Hopkins Center for System Science and Engineering (Live dashboard), as reported on March 11, 2020).

In view of the forgoing, all institutions of learning across the globe are subjected to an imminent and unavoidable indefinite break. This is an attempt to stop the virus from affecting the students or the teachers. This however has brought about lackadaisical attitudes among the students at home because they are idle and thus thinking nothing but evil.

Most countries across in the world including my country, Nigeria, have developed a way of engaging this students at home, and in some developed countries like the USA, students have resume back to school facelessly (via online). In Nigeria; a platform was developed online for educational used by students and any other researcher (academia.nitda.gov.ng). This is a laudable initiative but hampered by resources like electricity, internet, and to some awareness.

Consequently, all hands are now on desk, reviewing academic online platforms and updating it to meet up with the peculiarities of our day-to-day challenges while making it easy for studies and evaluations of student’s academic performance. This is the quest for this research work. Research problem: the global method of teaching is physical dialogue, whereby students and teachers will meet on a scheduled venue and physically interact. With the advent of these pandemic, public gatherings are prohibited; this makes it impossible for teaching to continue, so long as there is going to be person-to-person contact.

Hence, the need for a platform that will substitute the obsolete means of teaching in an effective and efficient method with the capability of evaluating students academic performance is imminent. Research gap: there are no academic researches on this topic; researches are yet to study online classes platforms, etc.

Objectives: The study explores and describes the present state of online classes, opportunities, and challenges. It is a novel research on the techniques and method adopted by teachers to bring the offline classroom online. The key goal of the learning is to assess socio-demographic and related factors on the attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic in India.

Literature Review

The approach of online-learning as an aspect of the synergistic study worldwide incorporates Web 2.0 advances, which are in the main used by our understudies and are presently enhancing into the homeroom. Teachers state that these innovative advances extremely help increments to their DE homerooms as they will upgrade learning among our technically knowledgeable understudies, reflecting the usage of those advances in their day-by-day lives. Web 2.0 main advances incorporate wikis, sites, broadcasts, informal communities, and online video-sharing destinations like YouTube. Teachers and scientists can foresee that new advances will in any case be presented, which can require transformation by the two understudies and educators, upheld by examination by analysts on their viability. It is essential to appear for “hints on how e-learning advances can turn out to be ground-breaking impetuses for change additionally as devices for updating our education and instructional frameworks” (Shroff & Vogel, 2009 , p.60).

The developing of instructional stages, likewise referenced as Knowledge Management Systems (KMS), is another advancement in ongoing DE history. Saadé & Kira ( 2009 ) depict Learning Management Systems (LMS) as a structure that has educator instruments, learning measure apparatuses, and a store of information. Tests of KMS stages incorporate WebCT, Blackboard, and DesireToLearn, which have risen on the grounds that the best three LMS are unavoidable in the present DE condition. Last Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (Moodle) has developed as a substitution to LMS open-source framework, a free option to the previously mentioned stages (Unal & Unal, 2011 ). It is fundamental that the devices executed help the course tasks, exercises, and substance (Singh et al.  2010 ; Smart & Cappel, 2006 ). “Unmistakably, innovation upheld learning conditions can possibly flexibly instruments and structure to modify training” (Shroff & Vogel, 2009 , p. 60). The researchers used in this investigation are presented to Blackboard LMS through which understudies partake in conversation gatherings, online diaries, Wikis, Web-based testing and practice tests, virtual groups, YouTube, and other intelligent devices.

The idea of online-learning and hence the plan to utilize Moodle in college option came after a progression of global temporary jobs we were included and after a progression of on-line classes and stage setup for improving instructing ventures. There are numerous advantages of utilizing online instruction together with correspondence, collaboration between understudies, bunch improvement, and a superior admittance to information. Regardless of those advantages, numerous Romanian colleges regularly consent to stay in customary instructing without extra help. Moodle might be a learning stage initially planned by Martin Dougiamas (first form of Moodle was delivered on August 20, 2002). Moodle, as a solid open-source e-learning stage, was utilized and created by worldwide cooperative exertion of global network. Moodle is implied and proceed with improved to flexibly instructors, directors, and students with one vigorous, secure, and incorporated framework to make customized learning conditions. Presently, on March 27, 2014, Moodle 2.6.2 was launched. We consider Moodle a Web-based versatile community-oriented learning condition that contains all parts portrayed by Wang et al. ( 2004 ): conversation gathering and one-on-one companion help client model, collective methodology model, and versatile segment. A few creators were likewise inquisitive about cooperation and human correspondence on a Web-based collaborative learning environment (Zhang et al.  2004 ), while different creators call these virtual learning situations (Knight & Halkett, 2010 ). Comparative encounters of utilizing intelligent e-learning instruments as Moodle were portrayed by different creators (Beatty & Ulasewicz, 2006 ). They all pointed in their papers (Shen et al.,  2006 ) that utilizing Moodle can build up understudies’ psychological blueprint, help to develop their insight, advance understudies’ uplifting mentalities towards talking about and helping out companions, and increment understudies’ aptitudes to embrace deep-rooted learning by utilizing the information innovation. Options as far as Web-based collaborative learning are given by Pfahl et al. ( 2001 ). During this adaptable online network for learning, understudies collaborate with course assets and are prepared to grow new abilities and to structure their own learning direction. Applying this e-learning stage, we exploited understudy’s spare time and their accessibility to spend and structure their activities (Arbaugh et al.  2009 ) in order to submit schoolwork regarding a firm cutoff time.

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) and open education research (OER) MOOCs are online courses that by and large permit anybody to enrol and complete without any extra fee (at any rate for the fundamental course). Cormier and Siemens [8] contend that they are a possible result of “open educating and study.” The degree of receptiveness in MOOCs varies from course to course and if the course is realistic on a MOOC stage, relying on the stage. While numerous cMOOCs offered its substance utilizing open authorizing, other MOOC suppliers just give the substance to privately utilize it as it were. For example, Coursera, single among the main xMOOC stages (Kibaru, 2018 ), expresses that the texture is “just for your very own, non-business use. you'll not in any case duplicate, imitate, retransmit, disseminate, distribute, monetarily abuse or in any case move any material, nor may you alter or make subsidiaries mechanism of the material” ( Rabe-Hemp et al., 2009 ). In this manner, yet a “by item” of the open education development, MOOCs appear to be less open than OERs, uninhibitedly available instructive substance, which are for the most part delivered with open authorizing.

E-learning Tools for Distance Education

With the growing concerns over COVID-19, many school districts have moved classroom instruction online for the foreseeable future. We understand that this change can present challenges on many levels for educators, administrators, students, and families. The following recommended tools may be helpful in making the transition to digital learning during this difficult time. These resources include general e-learning tools for educators, subject-based tools for students, and extensions to assist students with learning differences. Almost all of these resources are free, with the exception of a few inexpensive tools/available free trials (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2020.)

SOURCE: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2020

Descriptive Analysis of Tools of Online Class MOOC

Impartus : This is the main video proposal for OER and training. Around 130 higher institutions in India are currently using this platform ( http://www.impartus.com ).

Webex : Webex is an online tool that allows you to virtually hold meetings without leaving your homes or offices. It only requires a computer with an internet access and a separate phone line. This is a product of Cisco Company and is capable giving access to up to 100 clients at a time. It is free to sign up but requires $49/month subscription ( http://www.webex.com ).

Zoom : This is another online livestreaming tool but it is a mobile app. It is available on Android and iOS. While online, you can record sessions, collaborate on projects, and share or annotate one another’s screen. It cost $14.99/month, and it allows meetings recording on the cloud. It has unlimited number of participants, but the meetings can only last for 40 min ( https://zoom.us ).

Google Classroom : This is an open source Web service provided by Google for education and training with the sole aspire of online evaluation of test and assignment in a paperless way. However, organizations must register their corporate account on G-Suit before they can use this service. The students only need a valid email account to get connected to the class. This is linked to Google Drive, Google Docs, and Gmail for efficient sharing of resources ( https://classroom.google.com ).

Microsoft Teams : This is designed by Microsoft as an all-round collaborative platform offering: chats, voice, and calling features. It allows instant messaging with inbuilt office 365 for manipulating documents with live stream. All you need to do is to subscribe to the Microsoft 365 business essentials package; however, this package cost $5/month and per single user ( https://support.office.com ).

Descriptive Tools for Online Classes

Internet learning content is available through various types (text, pictures, sounds, and curios) (Moore & Kearsley, 2012 ) and kinds of media (versatile, intelligent, account, profitable) (Laurillard, 2002 ). The educated client can utilize different Web-based learning assets to make a learning domain that suits his own adapting needs (for example, learning styles, singular openness needs, inspiration); moreover, to the information on different kinds of ICT, it is critical to know somebody’s very own adapting needs (Grant et al., 2009 ).

There are many online tools that are already in use to achieve online classes. It depends on the resources available for the organization to subscribe to such online services. Each of these tools has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of security, cost, and regional peculiarities. The below table can assist in analyzing some selected tools based on their cost and security.

Descriptive Analysis of Tools of Online Examination

For a complete online classroom, there is a need for an equivalent system/platform in place for an online examination evaluation. Many of such platforms are readily available online. It is left for organizations to analyse the available systems and choose the best that suits their requirements considering the cost and security of the model. Below are some selected tools fitted for that purpose;

TCexam : This is an open source system for electronic exam. It is also known as computer-based assessment (CBA) and computer-based test (CBT). It is free and does not require additional hardware to run.

Virtualx : This is a free online exam management information system. It is cloud-based, and it is an open source. It is user friendly and scalable to user requirements.

Moodle : This is a learning platform or course management system that is aimed at online automation of examinations. It gives the opportunity for lecturers to create their own personal websites. It is free and open source.

FlexiQuiz : This is a main online test producer that will work without human intervention and mark and grade your quizzes. It is an open source and free. And it is secured with SSL encryption technology.

EdBase : This is a powerful and flexible tool for online examinations and grading. It is cloud-based and free. It has the feature of creating question bank and autograding. It is easier in generating portable reports in different formats and is secured with SSL encryption technology.

Tabular comparison of online examination tools

Challenges of Online Classes

Nowadays, smart KMS (Knowledge Management Systems) and LMS (Learning Management Systems) with technology inbuilt are in demand for increasing the need of self directness. Evidence have shown that students tend to understand better if multimedia (Adnan, 2018 ) tools are integrated into their teaching. Despite efforts by institutions to adapt the use of internet and ICT in teaching, most especially in the present condition of lockdowns, certain challenges are curtailing these efforts. Viz;

Lack of internet in most developing countries, like Africa: this proposed framework is purely online, and as such, reliable internet network is the backbone of its emergence. Most developing countries like Africa do not have sufficient internet network for their citizens, and this is a major setback for e-learning.

Security: The major challenge of anything online is security. This is because of the fair of cyber-attacks by hackers. Such a proposed framework will be handling students’ records and examination results. Any possible breach of access can result to serious information mismanagement. Hence, the need to put a serious security in place.

Lack of infrastructures like computers and ICT gadgets due to the level of poverty in some regions like Africa: for a successful online classroom, there must be resources to be sufficiently made available. These resources include network hardware, system hardware/software, and human resources, but due to economic factors of some countries, such provisions are relatively impossible and thus, a big challenge for e-learning.

Lack of power supply in many regions, like Africa: there cannot be technology without electricity and the issue of electricity is a regional challenge to Africans. Most universities in Nigeria were operating strictly on generators because there is no sufficient power supply. This makes it impossible for the students to gain access online as expected because they may not have the means of power supply while out of campus.

Lack of political will due to corruption in Africa: democracy is now a global rule of law. Though, every region or Country has its way of politics; in Africa corruption has pose major challenge in the development of the region and this makes it unfavourable for developmental trends like; ICT, Power etc.

Lack of scalable policies by government: In some countries, there are strict policies on the use of ICT; this might be due to the prevailing cybercrimes over the cyberspace and the process of adhering to such policies; it poses a great challenge in the development of educational technologies and other ICT-related platforms.

Lack of ICT knowledge/awareness among students and lecturers: In some countries and institutions, the knowledge of ICT is very scarce. In fact, some are resisting to accept technology as a modern science. They view the concept of ICT as an attempt to scam and hence, posing a very big challenge in the implementation of any ICT framework to such categories of Institutions/people.

Advantages of Online Classes

Easily accessible: you can log in anywhere you are, so long as you are online and you are registered on the platform. Unlike the traditional classroom where you to be at a scheduled venue, to receive lectures physically.

Unlimited access to resources: Most online-learning platforms are connected to an unlimited number of e-libraries from various academic institutions. Once you have access, you will gain access to unlimited e-books, journals, etc.

Flexibility in learning: Online-learning platforms simplify the methods of teaching, in the sense that lecturers can leave offline materials and assignments and each student can log in at his/her free time to download and act accordingly.

Sharing of resources is easier: Resources are easily shared via emails or direct download from the platform. Students do not need to go for photocopies or any physical stress.

Academic collaborations are enhanced: With the use of online teaching platforms, students collaborate far more than physically been in class. Such collaborations will assist them in group research and efficient time management for academic attainments.

Very portable and comfortable: Students can log in at their comfort zones. You can be in bed and still connect to the class and situation where you have travelled or lost your computer; all you need to do is to fine another one, connect to the internet, and log in to your classroom to continue your classes.

Possible Solutions to the Challenges of Online Classes

Nowadays, smart KMS (Knowledge Management Systems) and LMS (Learning Management Systems) with technology inbuilt is in demand for increasing the need of self directness (Gibson et al.,  2008 ). Below are some proposed solutions to the aforementioned challenges;

Reliable internet network: The government should provide internet networks across the country at a subsidize rate. It is recommended that students been given free access to the internet while other citizens should pay either monthly or annually as proposed.

Sufficient power supply: Government should make available electricity to its citizens at a subsidise rate. This will bring about Industrialisations and thus, providing job opportunities among graduates.

Fighting corruption: The government should establish strong institutions for fighting corruption. These institutions should be independent and should have members from European, African Union (EAU), United Nations (UN), and any other intentional agency that is capable of checkmating the international affairs of a country.

Flexible government policies: Government should make their policies very favourable to their citizens. Government should be reviewing their policies routinely to curtail the shortcomings in their policies.

Strong ICT awareness: Students and the teachers should be train on ICT trends. The immediate societies should also be given awareness on the positive impacts of ICT in their environments.

Methodology

The study area will conduct in India and other country. The study populations are all populations who are delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19. A total of 150 respondents were included.

Study Design

A cross-sectional study design would be carried out. Cross-sectional survey design is mainly used for the collection of information on and related socio-demographic factors at a given point in time to attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown. The learning design for this learning was a traverse sectional survey conducted using population based representative sample. Variables are collected for several sample units at the same points in time (one time shoot), just the data collected from the respondents directly in a particular time. Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather information (Brecht & Ogilby, 2008 ) on a population at a single point in time. An example of a cross-sectional survey would be a questionnaire that collects data on peoples’ experiences of a particular initiative or event.

Source of Data

Primary data were collected from a community-based, cross-sectional survey. Primary data collection is the process of gathering data through surveys, interviews, or experiments. A typical aims for this study for data collection was primary data is online surveys by conducting well-done questions in India for 150 respondents. Online surveys were effective and therefore require computational logic and branching technologies for exponentially more accurate survey data collection versus any other traditional means of surveying. They are straightforward in their implementation and take a minimum time of the respondents (150). The investment required for survey data collection using online surveys is also negligible in comparison to the other methods. The results are collected in real-time for researchers to analyse and decide corrective measures.

Sampling Techniques

It is an inspecting method during which the choice of individuals for an example relies upon the possibility of comfort, individual decision or intrigue. For this examination we utilized judgment sampling. During this case, the individual taking the example has immediate or backhanded power over which things are chosen for the example.

Study Variables

The variables measured in this learning are taken based on previous studies at the global and national level. Those factors considered during this examination are delegated as: reliant and logical factors. The outcome variable is for the study attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19, which is dichotomous. The response variable for each respondent is given by:

The independent variables are measured from structural questionnaires. In this learning, the possible determinant factors estimated to be a significant effect on are included as variables. Poor internet connection, source of info about COVID-19, awareness on COVID-19, recommends MOOC, satisfaction with online study, materials and information sent, enough sources of materials, presently enrolled course, and favourite online methods were included for this study.

Methods of Data Analysis

In this study, frequency distribution, cross-tabulation, and percentage were applied to see the prevalence of the dependent variable. Binary logistic regression was applied to identify the factors for the outcome variable.

Binary Logistic Regression

Binary logistic regression is a prognostic model that is fitted where there is a dichotomous-/binary-dependent variable like in this instance where the researcher is interested in whether there was positive or negative. Usually, the categories are coded as “0” and “1” as it results is a straightforward interpretation. Binary logistic regression is the sort of regression used in our study (attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19). The model is given by

\(ln\left(\frac{{\pi }_{i}}{1-{\pi }_{i}}\right)={\beta }_{0} + {\beta }_{1}{X}_{1i}+{{\beta }_{2}X}_{2i}+ \dots \dots ..{\beta }_{k}{X}_{ki}\dots \dots \dots \dots \dots \dots \dots \dots ..\) (1 \()\) .

\(\frac{{\pi }_{i}}{1-{\pi }_{i}}= exp\left({\beta }_{0} + {\beta }_{1}{X}_{1i}+{{\beta }_{2}X}_{2i}+ \dots \dots ..{\beta }_{k}{X}_{ki}\right)\) ……… (2).

where: \({\pi }_{i}\) is the probability of success, \(1-{\pi }_{i}\) is the probability of failure \(,{\beta }_{0}\) is the constant term, \(\beta\) the regression coefficients, and \({X}_{i}\) are the independent variables. Logistic regression quantifies the relationship between the dichotomous dependent variable and the predictors using odds ratios. Odds ratio is the probability that an event will occur divided by the probability that the event will not happen. In this study, the odds ratio is the probability that attitudes towards delivering of online classes being negative divided by the probability that the attitudes towards delivering of online classes being positive. Method of maximum likelihood estimation yields to estimate values for the unknown parameters which maximize the probability of obtaining the observed set of knowledge. For logistic regression, the model coefficients are estimated by the utmost likelihood method and therefore the likelihood equations are non-linear explicit function of unknown parameters. For statistical analysis SAS version 9.4 software will be used at 5% level of significance.

Results and Discussion

Socio-economic variables are categorical. For our study the dependent variable might be “positive” or “negative.” In this case we would carry out a binary logistic regression analysis.

Table 1 depicted that poor internet connection, awareness on COVID-19, enough sources of materials; recommends MOOC, favourite online methods, and satisfaction with online study are significant in the model. The positive parameter estimates indicated that there is a positive relationship between the dependent variable and associated independent variables whereas the negative coefficients parameters indicated that there is a negative relationship between a dependent variable and independent variables. Where, X 1 is poor internet connection (No), X 2 is favourite online methods(E-books), X 3 is favourite online methods(Videos), X 4 is enough sources of materials(Yes), X 5 is satisfaction with online study (Very satisfied), X 6 is satisfaction with online study(Satisfied), X 7 is recommends MOOC (No), and X 8 is awareness on COVID-19 (No). Fitted model is given by

The poor internet connection (lack of internet access) had statistically significant effect to the attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic. The odds ratio of the poor internet connection (no) equals exp (0.178) = 1.081(95% CI 1.320, 0.476) (adjusted for the other variables are constant); the results show that those students who had not good connection in the study area are 0.081 times more likely to be negative attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic compared with that of students who had good connection. Sufficient internet network for their students is a major problem setback for e-learning or online class. Without good way of connection with respect to internet, academic collaborations were not enhanced; without the use of online teaching platforms, students cannot collaborate far more than physically been in class. Such collaborations will not assist them in group research and efficient time management for academic attainments.

Awareness on COVID-19 had also statistically significant effect on delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic. This implies that will help to locate out the data and information gaps among the students regarding the COVID-19 and the misconceptions and credulous beliefs popular in the society about it. It will also provide expressive data which may be useful for the concerned authority and planning institutions that prepare plans of programs to tackle the COVID-19 disease. Students who had awareness about COVID-19 pandemic odds ratio = exp (− 0.303) = 0.739 (95% CI 0.634, 0.861) times less likely to be negative attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic compared students who had not awareness about COVID-19 pandemic.

Many of such platforms are readily available online; it is left for organizations to analyse the available systems and choose the best that suits their requirements considering the online methods of learning and teaching. Even though, favourite online methods had an important factor for attitudes towards delivering. The odds ratio of the favourite online methods exp (0.830) = 2.293 and exp (0.585) = 1.795 for e-books and videos respectively (adjusted other variables). This implies students whose favourite online methods e-books = 2.293 (95% CI 1.421, 3.701) times more likely to be negative attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic compared all. Although students whose favourite videos, online methods of learning = 1.795 times more likely to be negative attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic compared all. Overall, e-books and videos significantly affect than all on attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown.

The key objective of the study is to assess the socio-demographic and related factors on the attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic in India. Primary data were collected from a community-based, cross-sectional survey. Just the data collected from the respondents directly in a particular time. For this examination we utilized judgment sampling. We have used a sample of 150 participants. Accordingly, descriptive analysis (frequency distribution, cross-tabulation, and percentage) and binary logistic regression were used. Binary logistic regression was found to be the model that could be applied for the study to such a variable as the dependent could meet the assumptions that should be satisfied for methods to be fitted. The backward stepwise logistic regression started with a model with all the variables and excluded the variables with insignificant coefficients until the model was at its best predictive power. As a result of binary logistic regression, poor internet connection, awareness on COVID-19, enough sources of materials, recommends MOOC, favourite online methods, and satisfaction with online study are significant in the model or attitudes towards delivering of online classes during lockdown COVID-19 pandemic at 5% level of significance. The analysis of the significance of the logistic coefficients was done using likelihood ratio and Wald test. The model was considered to be valid since both the model fitting and the validation sample produced almost the same classification accuracy.

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Pandey, D., Ogunmola, G.A., Enbeyle, W. et al. COVID-19: A Framework for Effective Delivering of Online Classes During Lockdown. Hu Arenas 5 , 322–336 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42087-020-00175-x

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Why lockdown and distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to increase the social class achievement gap

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The COVID-19 pandemic has forced teachers and parents to quickly adapt to a new educational context: distance learning. Teachers developed online academic material while parents taught the exercises and lessons provided by teachers to their children at home. Considering that the use of digital tools in education has dramatically increased during this crisis, and it is set to continue, there is a pressing need to understand the impact of distance learning. Taking a multidisciplinary view, we argue that by making the learning process rely more than ever on families, rather than on teachers, and by getting students to work predominantly via digital resources, school closures exacerbate social class academic disparities. To address this burning issue, we propose an agenda for future research and outline recommendations to help parents, teachers and policymakers to limit the impact of the lockdown on social-class-based academic inequality.

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The widespread effects of the COVID-19 pandemic that emerged in 2019–2020 have drastically increased health, social and economic inequalities 1 , 2 . For more than 900 million learners around the world, the pandemic led to the closure of schools and universities 3 . This exceptional situation forced teachers, parents and students to quickly adapt to a new educational context: distance learning. Teachers had to develop online academic materials that could be used at home to ensure educational continuity while ensuring the necessary physical distancing. Primary and secondary school students suddenly had to work with various kinds of support, which were usually provided online by their teachers. For college students, lockdown often entailed returning to their hometowns while staying connected with their teachers and classmates via video conferences, email and other digital tools. Despite the best efforts of educational institutions, parents and teachers to keep all children and students engaged in learning activities, ensuring educational continuity during school closure—something that is difficult for everyone—may pose unique material and psychological challenges for working-class families and students.

Not only did the pandemic lead to the closure of schools in many countries, often for several weeks, it also accelerated the digitalization of education and amplified the role of parental involvement in supporting the schoolwork of their children. Thus, beyond the specific circumstances of the COVID-19 lockdown, we believe that studying the effects of the pandemic on academic inequalities provides a way to more broadly examine the consequences of school closure and related effects (for example, digitalization of education) on social class inequalities. Indeed, bearing in mind that (1) the risk of further pandemics is higher than ever (that is, we are in a ‘pandemic era’ 4 , 5 ) and (2) beyond pandemics, the use of digital tools in education (and therefore the influence of parental involvement) has dramatically increased during this crisis, and is set to continue, there is a pressing need for an integrative and comprehensive model that examines the consequences of distance learning. Here, we propose such an integrative model that helps us to understand the extent to which the school closures associated with the pandemic amplify economic, digital and cultural divides that in turn affect the psychological functioning of parents, students and teachers in a way that amplifies academic inequalities. Bringing together research in social sciences, ranging from economics and sociology to social, cultural, cognitive and educational psychology, we argue that by getting students to work predominantly via digital resources rather than direct interactions with their teachers, and by making the learning process rely more than ever on families rather than teachers, school closures exacerbate social class academic disparities.

First, we review research showing that social class is associated with unequal access to digital tools, unequal familiarity with digital skills and unequal uses of such tools for learning purposes 6 , 7 . We then review research documenting how unequal familiarity with school culture, knowledge and skills can also contribute to the accentuation of academic inequalities 8 , 9 . Next, we present the results of surveys conducted during the 2020 lockdown showing that the quality and quantity of pedagogical support received from schools varied according to the social class of families (for examples, see refs. 10 , 11 , 12 ). We then argue that these digital, cultural and structural divides represent barriers to the ability of parents to provide appropriate support for children during distance learning (Fig. 1 ). These divides also alter the levels of self-efficacy of parents and children, thereby affecting their engagement in learning activities 13 , 14 . In the final section, we review preliminary evidence for the hypothesis that distance learning widens the social class achievement gap and we propose an agenda for future research. In addition, we outline recommendations that should help parents, teachers and policymakers to use social science research to limit the impact of school closure and distance learning on the social class achievement gap.

Economic, structural, digital and cultural divides influence the psychological functioning of parents and students in a way that amplify inequalities.

The digital divide

Unequal access to digital resources.

Although the use of digital technologies is almost ubiquitous in developed nations, there is a digital divide such that some people are more likely than others to be numerically excluded 15 (Fig. 1 ). Social class is a strong predictor of digital disparities, including the quality of hardware, software and Internet access 16 , 17 , 18 . For example, in 2019, in France, around 1 in 5 working-class families did not have personal access to the Internet compared with less than 1 in 20 of the most privileged families 19 . Similarly, in 2020, in the United Kingdom, 20% of children who were eligible for free school meals did not have access to a computer at home compared with 7% of other children 20 . In 2021, in the United States, 41% of working-class families do not own a laptop or desktop computer and 43% do not have broadband compared with 8% and 7%, respectively, of upper/middle-class Americans 21 . A similar digital gap is also evident between lower-income and higher-income countries 22 .

Second, simply having access to a computer and an Internet connection does not ensure effective distance learning. For example, many of the educational resources sent by teachers need to be printed, thereby requiring access to printers. Moreover, distance learning is more difficult in households with only one shared computer compared with those where each family member has their own 23 . Furthermore, upper/middle-class families are more likely to be able to guarantee a suitable workspace for each child than their working-class counterparts 24 .

In the context of school closures, such disparities are likely to have important consequences for educational continuity. In line with this idea, a survey of approximately 4,000 parents in the United Kingdom confirmed that during lockdown, more than half of primary school children from the poorest families did not have access to their own study space and were less well equipped for distance learning than higher-income families 10 . Similarly, a survey of around 1,300 parents in the Netherlands found that during lockdown, children from working-class families had fewer computers at home and less room to study than upper/middle-class children 11 .

Data from non-Western countries highlight a more general digital divide, showing that developing countries have poorer access to digital equipment. For example, in India in 2018, only 10.7% of households possessed a digital device 25 , while in Pakistan in 2020, 31% of higher-education teachers did not have Internet access and 68.4% did not have a laptop 26 . In general, developing countries lack access to digital technologies 27 , 28 , and these difficulties of access are even greater in rural areas (for example, see ref. 29 ). Consequently, school closures have huge repercussions for the continuity of learning in these countries. For example, in India in 2018, only 11% of the rural and 40% of the urban population above 14 years old could use a computer and access the Internet 25 . Time spent on education during school closure decreased by 80% in Bangladesh 30 . A similar trend was observed in other countries 31 , with only 22% of children engaging in remote learning in Kenya 32 and 50% in Burkina Faso 33 . In Ghana, 26–32% of children spent no time at all on learning during the pandemic 34 . Beyond the overall digital divide, social class disparities are also evident in developing countries, with lower access to digital resources among households in which parental educational levels were low (versus households in which parental educational levels were high; for example, see ref. 35 for Nigeria and ref. 31 for Ecuador).

Unequal digital skills

In addition to unequal access to digital tools, there are also systematic variations in digital skills 36 , 37 (Fig. 1 ). Upper/middle-class families are more familiar with digital tools and resources and are therefore more likely to have the digital skills needed for distance learning 38 , 39 , 40 . These digital skills are particularly useful during school closures, both for students and for parents, for organizing, retrieving and correctly using the resources provided by the teachers (for example, sending or receiving documents by email, printing documents or using word processors).

Social class disparities in digital skills can be explained in part by the fact that children from upper/middle-class families have the opportunity to develop digital skills earlier than working-class families 41 . In member countries of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), only 23% of working-class children had started using a computer at the age of 6 years or earlier compared with 43% of upper/middle-class children 42 . Moreover, because working-class people tend to persist less than upper/middle-class people when confronted with digital difficulties 23 , the use of digital tools and resources for distance learning may interfere with the ability of parents to help children with their schoolwork.

Unequal use of digital tools

A third level of digital divide concerns variations in digital tool use 18 , 43 (Fig. 1 ). Upper/middle-class families are more likely to use digital resources for work and education 6 , 41 , 44 , whereas working-class families are more likely to use these resources for entertainment, such as electronic games or social media 6 , 45 . This divide is also observed among students, whereby working-class students tend to use digital technologies for leisure activities, whereas their upper/middle-class peers are more likely to use them for academic activities 46 and to consider that computers and the Internet provide an opportunity for education and training 23 . Furthermore, working-class families appear to regulate the digital practices of their children less 47 and are more likely to allow screens in the bedrooms of children and teenagers without setting limits on times or practices 48 .

In sum, inequalities in terms of digital resources, skills and use have strong implications for distance learning. This is because they make working-class students and parents particularly vulnerable when learning relies on extensive use of digital devices rather than on face-to-face interaction with teachers.

The cultural divide

Even if all three levels of digital divide were closed, upper/middle-class families would still be better prepared than working-class families to ensure educational continuity for their children. Upper/middle-class families are more familiar with the academic knowledge and skills that are expected and valued in educational settings, as well as with the independent, autonomous way of learning that is valued in the school culture and becomes even more important during school closure (Fig. 1 ).

Unequal familiarity with academic knowledge and skills

According to classical social reproduction theory 8 , 49 , school is not a neutral place in which all forms of language and knowledge are equally valued. Academic contexts expect and value culture-specific and taken-for-granted forms of knowledge, skills and ways of being, thinking and speaking that are more in tune with those developed through upper/middle-class socialization (that is, ‘cultural capital’ 8 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ). For instance, academic contexts value interest in the arts, museums and literature 54 , 55 , a type of interest that is more likely to develop through socialization in upper/middle-class families than in working-class socialization 54 , 56 . Indeed, upper/middle-class parents are more likely than working-class parents to engage in activities that develop this cultural capital. For example, they possess more books and cultural objects at home, read more stories to their children and visit museums and libraries more often (for examples, see refs. 51 , 54 , 55 ). Upper/middle-class children are also more involved in extra-curricular activities (for example, playing a musical instrument) than working-class children 55 , 56 , 57 .

Beyond this implicit familiarization with the school curriculum, upper/middle-class parents more often organize educational activities that are explicitly designed to develop academic skills of their children 57 , 58 , 59 . For example, they are more likely to monitor and re-explain lessons or use games and textbooks to develop and reinforce academic skills (for example, labelling numbers, letters or colours 57 , 60 ). Upper/middle-class parents also provide higher levels of support and spend more time helping children with homework than working-class parents (for examples, see refs. 61 , 62 ). Thus, even if all parents are committed to the academic success of their children, working-class parents have fewer chances to provide the help that children need to complete homework 63 , and homework is more beneficial for children from upper-middle class families than for children from working-class families 64 , 65 .

School closures amplify the impact of cultural inequalities

The trends described above have been observed in ‘normal’ times when schools are open. School closures, by making learning rely more strongly on practices implemented at home (rather than at school), are likely to amplify the impact of these disparities. Consistent with this idea, research has shown that the social class achievement gap usually greatly widens during school breaks—a phenomenon described as ‘summer learning loss’ or ‘summer setback’ 66 , 67 , 68 . During holidays, the learning by children tends to decline, and this is particularly pronounced in children from working-class families. Consequently, the social class achievement gap grows more rapidly during the summer months than it does in the rest of the year. This phenomenon is partly explained by the fact that during the break from school, social class disparities in investment in activities that are beneficial for academic achievement (for example, reading, travelling to a foreign country or museum visits) are more pronounced.

Therefore, when they are out of school, children from upper/middle-class backgrounds may continue to develop academic skills unlike their working-class counterparts, who may stagnate or even regress. Research also indicates that learning loss during school breaks tends to be cumulative 66 . Thus, repeated episodes of school closure are likely to have profound consequences for the social class achievement gap. Consistent with the idea that school closures could lead to similar processes as those identified during summer breaks, a recent survey indicated that during the COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom, children from upper/middle-class families spent more time on educational activities (5.8 h per day) than those from working-class families (4.5 h per day) 7 , 69 .

Unequal dispositions for autonomy and self-regulation

School closures have encouraged autonomous work among students. This ‘independent’ way of studying is compatible with the family socialization of upper/middle-class students, but does not match the interdependent norms more commonly associated with working-class contexts 9 . Upper/middle-class contexts tend to promote cultural norms of independence whereby individuals perceive themselves as autonomous actors, independent of other individuals and of the social context, able to pursue their own goals 70 . For example, upper/middle-class parents tend to invite children to express their interests, preferences and opinions during the various activities of everyday life 54 , 55 . Conversely, in working-class contexts characterized by low economic resources and where life is more uncertain, individuals tend to perceive themselves as interdependent, connected to others and members of social groups 53 , 70 , 71 . This interdependent self-construal fits less well with the independent culture of academic contexts. This cultural mismatch between interdependent self-construal common in working-class students and the independent norms of the educational institution has negative consequences for academic performance 9 .

Once again, the impact of these differences is likely to be amplified during school closures, when being able to work alone and autonomously is especially useful. The requirement to work alone is more likely to match the independent self-construal of upper/middle-class students than the interdependent self-construal of working-class students. In the case of working-class students, this mismatch is likely to increase their difficulties in working alone at home. Supporting our argument, recent research has shown that working-class students tend to underachieve in contexts where students work individually compared with contexts where students work with others 72 . Similarly, during school closures, high self-regulation skills (for example, setting goals, selecting appropriate learning strategies and maintaining motivation 73 ) are required to maintain study activities and are likely to be especially useful for using digital resources efficiently. Research has shown that students from working-class backgrounds typically develop their self-regulation skills to a lesser extent than those from upper/middle-class backgrounds 74 , 75 , 76 .

Interestingly, some authors have suggested that independent (versus interdependent) self-construal may also affect communication with teachers 77 . Indeed, in the context of distance learning, working-class families are less likely to respond to the communication of teachers because their ‘interdependent’ self leads them to respect hierarchies, and thus perceive teachers as an expert who ‘can be trusted to make the right decisions for learning’. Upper/middle class families, relying on ‘independent’ self-construal, are more inclined to seek individualized feedback, and therefore tend to participate to a greater extent in exchanges with teachers. Such cultural differences are important because they can also contribute to the difficulties encountered by working-class families.

The structural divide: unequal support from schools

The issues reviewed thus far all increase the vulnerability of children and students from underprivileged backgrounds when schools are closed. To offset these disadvantages, it might be expected that the school should increase its support by providing additional resources for working-class students. However, recent data suggest that differences in the material and human resources invested in providing educational support for children during periods of school closure were—paradoxically—in favour of upper/middle-class students (Fig. 1 ). In England, for example, upper/middle-class parents reported benefiting from online classes and video-conferencing with teachers more often than working-class parents 10 . Furthermore, active help from school (for example, online teaching, private tutoring or chats with teachers) occurred more frequently in the richest households (64% of the richest households declared having received help from school) than in the poorest households (47%). Another survey found that in the United Kingdom, upper/middle-class children were more likely to take online lessons every day (30%) than working-class students (16%) 12 . This substantial difference might be due, at least in part, to the fact that private schools are better equipped in terms of online platforms (60% of schools have at least one online platform) than state schools (37%, and 23% in the most deprived schools) and were more likely to organize daily online lessons. Similarly, in the United Kingdom, in schools with a high proportion of students eligible for free school meals, teachers were less inclined to broadcast an online lesson for their pupils 78 . Interestingly, 58% of teachers in the wealthiest areas reported having messaged their students or their students’ parents during lockdown compared with 47% in the most deprived schools. In addition, the probability of children receiving technical support from the school (for example, by providing pupils with laptops or other devices) is, surprisingly, higher in the most advantaged schools than in the most deprived 78 .

In addition to social class disparities, there has been less support from schools for African-American and Latinx students. During school closures in the United States, 40% of African-American students and 30% of Latinx students received no online teaching compared with 10% of white students 79 . Another source of inequality is that the probability of school closure was correlated with social class and race. In the United States, for example, school closures from September to December 2020 were more common in schools with a high proportion of racial/ethnic minority students, who experience homelessness and are eligible for free/discounted school meals 80 .

Similarly, access to educational resources and support was lower in poorer (compared with richer) countries 81 . In sub-Saharan Africa, during lockdown, 45% of children had no exposure at all to any type of remote learning. Of those who did, the medium was mostly radio, television or paper rather than digital. In African countries, at most 10% of children received some material through the Internet. In Latin America, 90% of children received some remote learning, but less than half of that was through the internet—the remainder being via radio and television 81 . In Ecuador, high-school students from the lowest wealth quartile had fewer remote-learning opportunities, such as Google class/Zoom, than students from the highest wealth quartile 31 .

Thus, the achievement gap and its accentuation during lockdown are due not only to the cultural and digital disadvantages of working-class families but also to unequal support from schools. This inequality in school support is not due to teachers being indifferent to or even supportive of social stratification. Rather, we believe that these effects are fundamentally structural. In many countries, schools located in upper/middle-class neighbourhoods have more money than those in the poorest neighbourhoods. Moreover, upper/middle-class parents invest more in the schools of their children than working-class parents (for example, see ref. 82 ), and schools have an interest in catering more for upper/middle-class families than for working-class families 83 . Additionally, the expectation of teachers may be lower for working-class children 84 . For example, they tend to estimate that working-class students invest less effort in learning than their upper/middle-class counterparts 85 . These differences in perception may have influenced the behaviour of teachers during school closure, such that teachers in privileged neighbourhoods provided more information to students because they expected more from them in term of effort and achievement. The fact that upper/middle-class parents are better able than working-class parents to comply with the expectations of teachers (for examples, see refs. 55 , 86 ) may have reinforced this phenomenon. These discrepancies echo data showing that working-class students tend to request less help in their schoolwork than upper/middle-class ones 87 , and they may even avoid asking for help because they believe that such requests could lead to reprimands 88 . During school closures, these students (and their families) may in consequence have been less likely to ask for help and resources. Jointly, these phenomena have resulted in upper/middle-class families receiving more support from schools during lockdown than their working-class counterparts.

Psychological effects of digital, cultural and structural divides

Despite being strongly influenced by social class, differences in academic achievement are often interpreted by parents, teachers and students as reflecting differences in ability 89 . As a result, upper/middle-class students are usually perceived—and perceive themselves—as smarter than working-class students, who are perceived—and perceive themselves—as less intelligent 90 , 91 , 92 or less able to succeed 93 . Working-class students also worry more about the fact that they might perform more poorly than upper/middle-class students 94 , 95 . These fears influence academic learning in important ways. In particular, they can consume cognitive resources when children and students work on academic tasks 96 , 97 . Self-efficacy also plays a key role in engaging in learning and perseverance in the face of difficulties 13 , 98 . In addition, working-class students are those for whom the fear of being outperformed by others is the most negatively related to academic performance 99 .

The fact that working-class children and students are less familiar with the tasks set by teachers, and less well equipped and supported, makes them more likely to experience feelings of incompetence (Fig. 1 ). Working-class parents are also more likely than their upper/middle-class counterparts to feel unable to help their children with schoolwork. Consistent with this, research has shown that both working-class students and parents have lower feelings of academic self-efficacy than their upper/middle-class counterparts 100 , 101 . These differences have been documented under ‘normal’ conditions but are likely to be exacerbated during distance learning. Recent surveys conducted during the school closures have confirmed that upper/middle-class families felt better able to support their children in distance learning than did working-class families 10 and that upper/middle-class parents helped their children more and felt more capable to do so 11 , 12 .

Pandemic disparity, future directions and recommendations

The research reviewed thus far suggests that children and their families are highly unequal with respect to digital access, skills and use. It also shows that upper/middle-class students are more likely to be supported in their homework (by their parents and teachers) than working-class students, and that upper/middle-class students and parents will probably feel better able than working-class ones to adapt to the context of distance learning. For all these reasons, we anticipate that as a result of school closures, the COVID-19 pandemic will substantially increase the social class achievement gap. Because school closures are a recent occurrence, it is too early to measure with precision their effects on the widening of the achievement gap. However, some recent data are consistent with this idea.

Evidence for a widening gap during the pandemic

Comparing academic achievement in 2020 with previous years provides an early indication of the effects of school closures during the pandemic. In France, for example, first and second graders take national evaluations at the beginning of the school year. Initial comparisons of the results for 2020 with those from previous years revealed that the gap between schools classified as ‘priority schools’ (those in low-income urban areas) and schools in higher-income neighbourhoods—a gap observed every year—was particularly pronounced in 2020 in both French and mathematics 102 .

Similarly, in the Netherlands, national assessments take place twice a year. In 2020, they took place both before and after school closures. A recent analysis compared progress during this period in 2020 in mathematics/arithmetic, spelling and reading comprehension for 7–11-year-old students within the same period in the three previous years 103 . Results indicated a general learning loss in 2020. More importantly, for the 8% of working-class children, the losses were 40% greater than they were for upper/middle-class children.

Similar results were observed in Belgium among students attending the final year of primary school. Compared with students from previous cohorts, students affected by school closures experienced a substantial decrease in their mathematics and language scores, with children from more disadvantaged backgrounds experiencing greater learning losses 104 . Likewise, oral reading assessments in more than 100 school districts in the United States showed that the development of this skill among children in second and third grade significantly slowed between Spring and Autumn 2020, but this slowdown was more pronounced in schools from lower-achieving districts 105 .

It is likely that school closures have also amplified racial disparities in learning and achievement. For example, in the United States, after the first lockdown, students of colour lost the equivalent of 3–5 months of learning, whereas white students were about 1–3 months behind. Moreover, in the Autumn, when some students started to return to classrooms, African-American and Latinx students were more likely to continue distance learning, despite being less likely to have access to the digital tools, Internet access and live contact with teachers 106 .

In some African countries (for example, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Tanzania and Uganda), the COVID-19 crisis has resulted in learning loss ranging from 6 months to more 1 year 107 , and this learning loss appears to be greater for working-class children (that is, those attending no-fee schools) than for upper/middle-class children 108 .

These findings show that school closures have exacerbated achievement gaps linked to social class and ethnicity. However, more research is needed to address the question of whether school closures differentially affect the learning of students from working- and upper/middle-class families.

Future directions

First, to assess the specific and unique impact of school closures on student learning, longitudinal research should compare student achievement at different times of the year, before, during and after school closures, as has been done to document the summer learning loss 66 , 109 . In the coming months, alternating periods of school closure and opening may occur, thereby presenting opportunities to do such research. This would also make it possible to examine whether the gap diminishes a few weeks after children return to in-school learning or whether, conversely, it increases with time because the foundations have not been sufficiently acquired to facilitate further learning 110 .

Second, the mechanisms underlying the increase in social class disparities during school closures should be examined. As discussed above, school closures result in situations for which students are unevenly prepared and supported. It would be appropriate to seek to quantify the contribution of each of the factors that might be responsible for accentuating the social class achievement gap. In particular, distinguishing between factors that are relatively ‘controllable’ (for example, resources made available to pupils) and those that are more difficult to control (for example, the self-efficacy of parents in supporting the schoolwork of their children) is essential to inform public policy and teaching practices.

Third, existing studies are based on general comparisons and very few provide insights into the actual practices that took place in families during school closure and how these practices affected the achievement gap. For example, research has documented that parents from working-class backgrounds are likely to find it more difficult to help their children to complete homework and to provide constructive feedback 63 , 111 , something that could in turn have a negative impact on the continuity of learning of their children. In addition, it seems reasonable to assume that during lockdown, parents from upper/middle-class backgrounds encouraged their children to engage in practices that, even if not explicitly requested by teachers, would be beneficial to learning (for example, creative activities or reading). Identifying the practices that best predict the maintenance or decline of educational achievement during school closures would help identify levers for intervention.

Finally, it would be interesting to investigate teaching practices during school closures. The lockdown in the spring of 2020 was sudden and unexpected. Within a few days, teachers had to find a way to compensate for the school closure, which led to highly variable practices. Some teachers posted schoolwork on platforms, others sent it by email, some set work on a weekly basis while others set it day by day. Some teachers also set up live sessions in large or small groups, providing remote meetings for questions and support. There have also been variations in the type of feedback given to students, notably through the monitoring and correcting of work. Future studies should examine in more detail what practices schools and teachers used to compensate for the school closures and their effects on widening, maintaining or even reducing the gap, as has been done for certain specific literacy programmes 112 as well as specific instruction topics (for example, ecology and evolution 113 ).

Practical recommendations

We are aware of the debate about whether social science research on COVID-19 is suitable for making policy decisions 114 , and we draw attention to the fact that some of our recommendations (Table 1 ) are based on evidence from experiments or interventions carried out pre-COVID while others are more speculative. In any case, we emphasize that these suggestions should be viewed with caution and be tested in future research. Some of our recommendations could be implemented in the event of new school closures, others only when schools re-open. We also acknowledge that while these recommendations are intended for parents and teachers, their implementation largely depends on the adoption of structural policies. Importantly, given all the issues discussed above, we emphasize the importance of prioritizing, wherever possible, in-person learning over remote learning 115 and where this is not possible, of implementing strong policies to support distance learning, especially for disadvantaged families.

Where face-to face teaching is not possible and teachers are responsible for implementing distance learning, it will be important to make them aware of the factors that can exacerbate inequalities during lockdown and to provide them with guidance about practices that would reduce these inequalities. Thus, there is an urgent need for interventions aimed at making teachers aware of the impact of the social class of children and families on the following factors: (1) access to, familiarity with and use of digital devices; (2) familiarity with academic knowledge and skills; and (3) preparedness to work autonomously. Increasing awareness of the material, cultural and psychological barriers that working-class children and families face during lockdown should increase the quality and quantity of the support provided by teachers and thereby positively affect the achievements of working-class students.

In addition to increasing the awareness of teachers of these barriers, teachers should be encouraged to adjust the way they communicate with working-class families due to differences in self-construal compared with upper/middle-class families 77 . For example, questions about family (rather than personal) well-being would be congruent with interdependent self-construals. This should contribute to better communication and help keep a better track of the progress of students during distance learning.

It is also necessary to help teachers to engage in practices that have a chance of reducing inequalities 53 , 116 . Particularly important is that teachers and schools ensure that homework can be done by all children, for example, by setting up organizations that would help children whose parents are not in a position to monitor or assist with the homework of their children. Options include homework help groups and tutoring by teachers after class. When schools are open, the growing tendency to set homework through digital media should be resisted as far as possible given the evidence we have reviewed above. Moreover, previous research has underscored the importance of homework feedback provided by teachers, which is positively related to the amount of homework completed and predictive of academic performance 117 . Where homework is web-based, it has also been shown that feedback on web-based homework enhances the learning of students 118 . It therefore seems reasonable to predict that the social class achievement gap will increase more slowly (or even remain constant or be reversed) in schools that establish individualized monitoring of students, by means of regular calls and feedback on homework, compared with schools where the support provided to pupils is more generic.

Given that learning during lockdown has increasingly taken place in family settings, we believe that interventions involving the family are also likely to be effective 119 , 120 , 121 . Simply providing families with suitable material equipment may be insufficient. Families should be given training in the efficient use of digital technology and pedagogical support. This would increase the self-efficacy of parents and students, with positive consequences for achievement. Ideally, such training would be delivered in person to avoid problems arising from the digital divide. Where this is not possible, individualized online tutoring should be provided. For example, studies conducted during the lockdown in Botswana and Italy have shown that individual online tutoring directly targeting either parents or students in middle school has a positive impact on the achievement of students, particularly for working-class students 122 , 123 .

Interventions targeting families should also address the psychological barriers faced by working-class families and children. Some interventions have already been designed and been shown to be effective in reducing the social class achievement gap, particularly in mathematics and language 124 , 125 , 126 . For example, research showed that an intervention designed to train low-income parents in how to support the mathematical development of their pre-kindergarten children (including classes and access to a library of kits to use at home) increased the quality of support provided by the parents, with a corresponding impact on the development of mathematical knowledge of their children. Such interventions should be particularly beneficial in the context of school closure.

Beyond its impact on academic performance and inequalities, the COVID-19 crisis has shaken the economies of countries around the world, casting millions of families around the world into poverty 127 , 128 , 129 . As noted earlier, there has been a marked increase in economic inequalities, bringing with it all the psychological and social problems that such inequalities create 130 , 131 , especially for people who live in scarcity 132 . The increase in educational inequalities is just one facet of the many difficulties that working-class families will encounter in the coming years, but it is one that could seriously limit the chances of their children escaping from poverty by reducing their opportunities for upward mobility. In this context, it should be a priority to concentrate resources on the most deprived students. A large proportion of the poorest households do not own a computer and do not have personal access to the Internet, which has important consequences for distance learning. During school closures, it is therefore imperative to provide such families with adequate equipment and Internet service, as was done in some countries in spring 2020. Even if the provision of such equipment is not in itself sufficient, it is a necessary condition for ensuring pedagogical continuity during lockdown.

Finally, after prolonged periods of school closure, many students may not have acquired the skills needed to pursue their education. A possible consequence would be an increase in the number of students for whom teachers recommend class repetitions. Class repetitions are contentious. On the one hand, class repetition more frequently affects working-class children and is not efficient in terms of learning improvement 133 . On the other hand, accepting lower standards of academic achievement or even suspending the practice of repeating a class could lead to pupils pursuing their education without mastering the key abilities needed at higher grades. This could create difficulties in subsequent years and, in this sense, be counterproductive. We therefore believe that the most appropriate way to limit the damage of the pandemic would be to help children catch up rather than allowing them to continue without mastering the necessary skills. As is being done in some countries, systematic remedial courses (for example, summer learning programmes) should be organized and financially supported following periods of school closure, with priority given to pupils from working-class families. Such interventions have genuine potential in that research has shown that participation in remedial summer programmes is effective in reducing learning loss during the summer break 134 , 135 , 136 . For example, in one study 137 , 438 students from high-poverty schools were offered a multiyear summer school programme that included various pedagogical and enrichment activities (for example, science investigation and music) and were compared with a ‘no-treatment’ control group. Students who participated in the summer programme progressed more than students in the control group. A meta-analysis 138 of 41 summer learning programmes (that is, classroom- and home-based summer interventions) involving children from kindergarten to grade 8 showed that these programmes had significantly larger benefits for children from working-class families. Although such measures are costly, the cost is small compared to the price of failing to fulfil the academic potential of many students simply because they were not born into upper/middle-class families.

The unprecedented nature of the current pandemic means that we lack strong data on what the school closure period is likely to produce in terms of learning deficits and the reproduction of social inequalities. However, the research discussed in this article suggests that there are good reasons to predict that this period of school closures will accelerate the reproduction of social inequalities in educational achievement.

By making school learning less dependent on teachers and more dependent on families and digital tools and resources, school closures are likely to greatly amplify social class inequalities. At a time when many countries are experiencing second, third or fourth waves of the pandemic, resulting in fresh periods of local or general lockdowns, systematic efforts to test these predictions are urgently needed along with steps to reduce the impact of school closures on the social class achievement gap.

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Acknowledgements

We thank G. Reis for editing the figure. The writing of this manuscript was supported by grant ANR-19-CE28-0007–PRESCHOOL from the French National Research Agency (S.G.).

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Goudeau, S., Sanrey, C., Stanczak, A. et al. Why lockdown and distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to increase the social class achievement gap. Nat Hum Behav 5 , 1273–1281 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01212-7

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Capturing the benefits of remote learning

How education experts are applying lessons learned in the pandemic to promote positive outcomes for all students

Vol. 52 No. 6 Print version: page 46

• Schools and Classrooms

With schools open again after more than a year of teaching students outside the classroom, the pandemic sometimes feels like a distant memory. The return to classrooms this fall brings major relief for many families and educators. Factors such as a lack of reliable technology and family support, along with an absence of school resources, resulted in significant academic setbacks, not to mention stress for everyone involved.

But for all the downsides of distance learning, educators, psychologists, and parents have seen some benefits as well. For example, certain populations of students found new ways to be more engaged in learning, without the distractions and difficulties they faced in the classroom, and the general challenges of remote learning and the pandemic brought mental health to the forefront of the classroom experience.

Peter Faustino, PsyD, a school psychologist in Scarsdale, New York, said the pandemic also prompted educators and school psychologists to find creative new ways of ensuring students’ emotional and academic well-being. “So many students were impacted by the pandemic, so we couldn’t just assume they would find resources on their own,” said Faustino. “We had to work hard at figuring out new ways to connect with them.”

Here are some of the benefits of distance learning that school psychologists and educators have observed and the ways in which they’re implementing those lessons post-pandemic, with the goal of creating a more equitable, productive environment for all students.

Prioritizing mental health

Faustino said that during the pandemic, he had more mental health conversations with students, families, and teachers than ever. “Because COVID-19 affected everyone, we’re now having mental health discussions as school leaders on a daily and weekly basis,” he said.

This renewed focus on mental health has the potential to improve students’ well-being in profound ways—starting with helping them recover from the pandemic’s effects. In New York City, for example, schools are hiring more than 600 new clinicians, including psychologists , to screen students’ mental health and help them process pandemic-related trauma and adjust to the “new normal” of attending school in person.

Educators and families are also realizing the importance of protecting students’ mental health more generally—not only for their health and safety but for their learning. “We’ve been seeing a broader appreciation for the fact that mental health is a prerequisite for learning rather than an extracurricular pursuit,” said Eric Rossen, PhD, director of professional development and standards at the National Association of School Psychologists.

As a result, Rossen hopes educators will embed social and emotional learning components into daily instruction. For example, teachers could teach mindfulness techniques in the classroom and take in-the-moment opportunities to help kids resolve conflicts or manage stress.

Improved access to mental health resources in schools is another positive effect. Because of physical distancing guidelines, school leaders had to find ways to deliver mental health services remotely, including via online referrals and teletherapy with school psychologists and counselors.

Early in the pandemic, Faustino said he was hesitant about teletherapy’s effectiveness; now, he hopes to continue offering a virtual option. Online scheduling and remote appointments make it easier for students to access mental health resources, and some students even enjoy virtual appointments more, as they can attend therapy in their own spaces rather than showing up in the counselor’s office. For older students, Faustino said that level of comfort often leads to more productive, open conversations.

Autonomy as a key to motivation

Research suggests that when students have more choices about their materials and activities, they’re more motivated—which may translate to increased learning and academic success. In a 2016 paper, psychology researcher Allan Wigfield, PhD, and colleagues make the case that control and autonomy in reading activities can improve both motivation and comprehension ( Child Development Perspectives , Vol. 10, No. 3 ).

During the period of online teaching, some students had opportunities to learn at their own pace, which educators say improved their learning outcomes—especially in older students. In a 2020 survey of more than 600 parents, researchers found the second-most-valued benefit of distance learning was flexibility—not only in schedule but in method of learning.

In a recent study, researchers found that 18% of parents pointed to greater flexibility in a child’s schedule or way of learning as the biggest benefit or positive outcome related to remote learning ( School Psychology , Roy, A., et al., in press).

This individualized learning helps students find more free time for interests and also allows them to conduct their learning at a time they’re most likely to succeed. During the pandemic, Mark Gardner, an English teacher at Hayes Freedom High School in Camas, Washington, said he realized how important student-centered learning is and that whether learning happens should take precedence over how and when it occurs.

For example, one of his students thrived when he had the choice to do work later at night because he took care of his siblings during the day. Now, Gardner posts homework online on Sundays so students can work at their own pace during the week. “Going forward, we want to create as many access points as we can for kids to engage with learning,” he said.

Rosanna Breaux , PhD, an assistant professor of psychology and assistant director of the Child Study Center at Virginia Tech, agrees. “I’d like to see this flexibility continue in some way, where—similar to college—students can guide their own learning based on their interests or when they’re most productive,” she said.

During the pandemic, many educators were forced to rethink how to keep students engaged. Rossen said because many school districts shared virtual curricula during the period of remote learning, older students could take more challenging or interesting courses than they could in person. The same is true for younger students: Megan Hibbard, a teacher in White Bear Lake, Minnesota, said many of her fifth graders enjoyed distance learning more than in-person because they could work on projects that aligned with their interests.

“So much of motivation is discovering the unique things the student finds interesting,” said Hunter Gehlbach, PhD, a professor and vice dean at the Johns Hopkins School of Education. “The more you can facilitate students spending more time on the things they’re really interested in, the better.”

Going forward, Rossen hopes virtual curricula will allow students greater opportunities to pursue their interests, such as by taking AP classes, foreign languages, or vocational electives not available at their own schools.

Conversely, Hibbard’s goal is to increase opportunities for students to pursue their interests in the in-person setting. For example, she plans to increase what she calls “Genius Hours,” a time at the end of the school day when students can focus on high-interest projects they’ll eventually share with the class.

Better understanding of children's needs

One of the most important predictors of a child’s success in school is parental involvement in their education. For example, in a meta-analysis of studies, researchers linked parental engagement in their middle schoolers’ education with greater measures of success (Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F., Developmental Psychology , Vol. 45, No. 3, 2009).

During the pandemic, parents had new opportunities to learn about their kids and, as a result, help them learn. According to a study by Breaux and colleagues, many parents reported that the pandemic allowed them a better understanding of their child’s learning style, needs, or curriculum.

James C. Kaufman , PhD, a professor of educational psychology at the University of Connecticut and the father of an elementary schooler and a high schooler, said he’s had a front-row seat for his sons’ learning for the first time. “Watching my kids learn and engage with classmates has given me some insight in how to parent them,” he said.

Stephen Becker , PhD, a pediatric psychologist at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, said some parents have observed their children’s behavior or learning needs for the first time, which could prompt them to consider assessment and Individualized Education Program (IEP) services. Across the board, Gehlbach said parents are realizing how they can better partner with schools to ensure their kids’ well-being and academic success.

For example, Samantha Marks , PsyD, a Florida-based clinical psychologist, said she realized how much help her middle school daughter, a gifted and talented student with a 504 plan (a plan for how the school will offer support for a student’s disability) for anxiety, needed with independence. “Bringing the learning home made it crystal clear what we needed to teach our daughter to be independent and improve executive functioning” she said. “My takeaway from this is that more parents need to be involved in their children’s education in a healthy, helpful way.”

Marks also gained a deeper understanding of her daughter’s mental health needs. Through her 504 plan, she received help managing her anxiety at school—at home, though, Marks wasn’t always available to help, which taught her the importance of helping her daughter manage her anxiety independently.

Along with parents gaining a deeper understanding of their kids’ needs, the pandemic also prompted greater parent participation in school. For example, Rossen said his kids’ school had virtual school board meetings; he hopes virtual options continue for events like back-to-school information sessions and parenting workshops. “These meetings are often in the evening, and if you’re a single parent or sole caregiver, you may not want to pay a babysitter in order to attend,” he said.

Brittany Greiert, PhD, a school psychologist in Aurora, Colorado, says culturally and linguistically diverse families at her schools benefited from streamlined opportunities to communicate with administrators and teachers. Her district used an app that translates parent communication into 150 languages. Parents can also remotely participate in meetings with school psychologists or teachers, which Greiert says she plans to continue post-pandemic.

Decreased bullying

During stay-at-home orders, kids with neurodevelopmental disorders experienced less bullying than pre-pandemic (McFayden, T. C., et al., Journal of Rural Mental Health , No. 45, Vol. 2, 2021). According to 2019 research, children with emotional, behavioral, and physical health needs experience increased rates of bullying victimization ( Lebrun-Harris, L. A., et al., ), and from the U.S. Department of Education suggests the majority of bullying takes place in person and in unsupervised areas (PDF) .

Scott Graves , PhD, an associate professor of educational studies at The Ohio State University and a member of APA’s Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education (CPSE), said the supervision by parents and teachers in remote learning likely played a part in reducing bullying. As a result, he’s less worried his Black sons will be victims of microaggressions and racist behavior during online learning.

Some Asian American families also report that remote learning offered protection against racism students may have experienced in person. Shereen Naser, PhD, an associate professor of psychology at Cleveland State University and a member of CPSE, and colleagues found that students are more comfortable saying discriminatory things in school when their teachers are also doing so; Naser suspects this trickle-down effect is less likely to happen when students learn from home ( School Psychology International , 2019).

Reductions in bullying and microaggressions aren’t just beneficial for students’ long-term mental health. Breaux said less bullying at school results in less stress, which can improve students’ self-esteem and mood—both of which impact their ability to learn.

Patricia Perez, PhD, an associate professor of international psychology at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology and a member of CPSE, said it’s important for schools to be proactive in providing spaces for support and cultural expression for students from vulnerable backgrounds, whether in culture-specific clubs, all-school assemblies that address racism and other diversity-related topics, or safe spaces to process feelings with teachers.

According to Rossen, many schools are already considering how to continue supporting students at risk for bullying, including by restructuring the school environment.

One principal, Rossen said, recently switched to single-use bathrooms to avoid congregating in those spaces once in-person learning commences to maintain social distancing requirements. “The principal received feedback from students about how going to the bathroom is much less stressful for these students in part due to less bullying,” he said.

More opportunities for special needs students

In Becker and Breaux’s research, parents of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), particularly those with a 504 plan and IEP, reported greater difficulties with remote learning. But some students with special learning needs—including those with IEPs and 504 plans—thrived in an at-home learning environment. Recent reporting in The New York Times suggests this is one reason many students want to continue online learning.

According to Cara Laitusis, PhD, a principal research scientist at Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) and a member of CPSE, reduced distractions may improve learning outcomes for some students with disabilities that impact attention in a group setting. “In assessments, small group or individual settings are frequently requested accommodations for some students with ADHD, anxiety, or autism. Being in a quiet place alone without peers for part of the instructional day may also allow for more focus,” she said. However, she also pointed out the benefits of inclusion in the classroom for developing social skills with peers.

Remote learning has improved academic outcomes for students with different learning needs, too. Marks said her seventh-grade daughter, a visual learner, appreciated the increase in video presentations and graphics. Similarly, Hibbard said many of her students who struggle to grasp lessons on the first try have benefited from the ability to watch videos over again until they understand. Post-pandemic, she plans to record bite-size lessons—for example, a 1-minute video of a long division problem—so her students can rewatch and process at their own rate.

Learners with anxiety also appreciate the option not to be in the classroom, because the social pressures of being surrounded by peers can make it hard to focus on academics. “Several of my students have learned more in the last year simply due to the absence of anxiety,” said Rosie Reid, an English teacher at Ygnacio Valley High School in Concord, California, and a 2019 California Teacher of the Year. “It’s just one less thing to negotiate in a learning environment.”

On online learning platforms, it’s easier for kids with social anxiety or shyness to participate. One of Gardner’s students with social anxiety participated far more in virtual settings and chats. Now, Gardner is brainstorming ways to encourage students to chat in person, such as by projecting a chat screen on the blackboard.

Technology has helped school psychologists better engage students, too. For example, Greiert said the virtual setting gave her a new understanding of her students’ personalities and needs. “Typing out their thoughts, they were able to demonstrate humor or complex thoughts they never demonstrated in person,” she said. “I really want to keep incorporating technology into sessions so kids can keep building on their strengths.”

Reid says that along with the high school students she teaches, she’s seen her 6-year-old daughter benefit from learning at her own pace in the familiarity of her home. Before the pandemic, she was behind academically, but by guiding her own learning—writing poems, reading books, playing outside with her siblings—she’s blossomed. “For me, as both a mother and as a teacher, this whole phenomenon has opened the door to what education can be,” Reid said.

Eleanor Di Marino-Linnen, PhD, a psychologist and superintendent of the Rose Tree Media School District in Media, Pennsylvania, says the pandemic afforded her district a chance to rethink old routines and implement new ones. “As challenging as it is, it’s definitely an exciting time to be in education when we have a chance to reenvision what schools have looked like for many years,” she said. “We want to capitalize on what we’ve learned.”

Further reading

Why are some kids thriving during remote learning? Fleming, N., Edutopia, 2020

Remote learning has been a disaster for many students. But some kids have thrived. Gilman, A., The Washington Post , Oct. 3, 2020

A preliminary examination of key strategies, challenges, and benefits of remote learning expressed by parents during the COVID-19 pandemic Roy, A., et al., School Psychology , in press

Remote learning during COVID-19: Examining school practices, service continuation, and difficulties for adolescents with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder Becker S. P., et al., Journal of Adolescent Health , 2020

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Online learning and my experience during lockdown

I’m sure no one could have imagined that the academic year would have ended this way. The disruptions from the global pandemic have brought about a new normal in more ways than one. Online learning at university is most definitely one of them and although it comes with its own concerns and challenges, it could be something we see more often in the near future.

When campus was closed, many classes and lectures made the shift online fairly quickly and this included revision sessions with lecturers on Zoom. The experience was straight forward, with students being able to access sessions via a link sent to our emails. The majority of the Zoom classes were recorded and put on Moodle so they could be re-watched if anything was missed in the live class. Alternatively, some seminars were recorded as a voice note and uploaded alongside the corresponding PowerPoint topic. This way, students could listen in their own time making the experience a lot easier.

When it came to exams, the instructions were made very simple for us all to understand. The assessments took place in the form of ‘take-home exams’. In the Economics department, we were given 3 hours to download the paper at the time of the exam, complete the exam and re-upload our answers onto FASER. Fortunately, I was able to work in a calm environment away from distractions to make the examinations as stress-free as possible. If I had to mention one thing that was a little bit of a pain, it would be the process of uploading the exam paper. I had made the decision to hand write all my exams because that is what I was most comfortable doing. However, it meant I would need to scan my answers and put them into one word document before submitting them. I completely underestimated the time this would take and so felt the time pressure during my first exam. This error was avoided in the exams that followed as I was better able to estimate the time needed to complete the paper and upload it in time.

Naturally, new experiences come with their own challenges and adjustments. The main challenge for me was maintaining the same levels of discipline to my studies despite being at home. It is fairly easy to get distracted whilst being stuck at home with the entire family. Secondly, the uncertainty surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic has been another challenge in and of itself. There have been moments during this period where motivation and morale has been low. This is particularly due to the devastating implications and effects the virus has had on many thousands of people.

Fortunately, I was able to secure a 12-week internship with an AR/VR company via the Essex Interns Programme a week before lockdown was announced by the government. This role helped me build a daily routine and remain focused whilst working from home. Despite only being in the office for the first 2 days, I am grateful to have still been able to complete the internship remotely. Meeting and working alongside new people allowed me to gain key skills that will most definitely be useful in future employment opportunities. Aside from this, I was also determined to ensure that regular exercise or physical activity became part of my routine. Most of the time, this would simply be a walk around the local area. Other times, I would have work out sessions with a few friends via Zoom in my back garden. This played an important role in helping to de-stress from the pressures that came with completing a degree during a global pandemic.

Overall, my experience during lockdown and with online learning has been as positive as it could be. The support from the university has allowed it to be as smooth as possible with students being kept up to date at every stage. In the near future, online learning could be a key part of university learning and the past few months have proved that it has the capacity to be successful for many students and institutions.

About the Author:

Deborah sampah.

Economics student, University of Essex

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Student’s experiences with online teaching following COVID-19 lockdown: A mixed methods explorative study

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nursing and Health Promotion, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Roles Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Primary and Secondary Teacher Education, Faculty of Education and International Studies, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

• Kari Almendingen, 
• Marianne Sandsmark Morseth, 
• Eli Gjølstad, 
• Asgeir Brevik, 
• Christine Tørris

• Published: August 31, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378
• Reader Comments

The COVID-19 pandemic lead to a sudden shift to online teaching and restricted campus access.

To assess how university students experienced the sudden shift to online teaching after closure of campus due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Material and methods

Students in Public Health Nutrition answered questionnaires two and 12 weeks (N = 79: response rate 20.3% and 26.6%, respectively) after the lockdown in Norway on 12 March 2020 and participated in digital focus group interviews in May 2020 (mixed methods study).

Findings and discussion

Two weeks into the lockdown, 75% of students reported that their life had become more difficult and 50% felt that learning outcomes would be harder to achieve due to the sudden shift to online education. Twelve weeks into the lockdown, the corresponding numbers were 57% and 71%, respectively. The most pressing concerns among students were a lack of social interaction, housing situations that were unfit for home office purposes, including insufficient data bandwidth, and an overall sense of reduced motivation and effort. The students collaborated well in digital groups but wanted smaller groups with students they knew rather than being randomly assigned to groups. Most students agreed that pre-recorded and streamed lectures, frequent virtual meetings and student response systems could improve learning outcomes in future digital courses. The preference for written home exams over online versions of previous on-campus exams was likely influenced by student’s familiarity with the former. The dropout rate remained unchanged compared to previous years.

The sudden shift to digital teaching was challenging for students, but it appears that they adapted quickly to the new situation. A lthough the concerns described by students in this study may only be representative for the period right after campus lockdown, the study provide the student perspective on a unique period of time in higher education.

Citation: Almendingen K, Morseth MS, Gjølstad E, Brevik A, Tørris C (2021) Student’s experiences with online teaching following COVID-19 lockdown: A mixed methods explorative study. PLoS ONE 16(8): e0250378. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378

Editor: Mohammed Saqr, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SWEDEN

Received: September 30, 2020; Accepted: April 6, 2021; Published: August 31, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Almendingen et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused extraordinary challenges in the global education sector [ 1 , 2 ]. Most countries temporarily closed educational institutions in an attempt to contain the spread of the virus and reduce infections [ 3 ]. In Norway, the move to online teaching and learning methods accelerated as a consequence of the physical closure of universities and university colleges on 12 March 2020 [ 4 ]. Education is better implemented through active, student-centered learning strategies, as opposed to traditional educator-centered pedagogies [ 5 , 6 ]. At the time of the COVID-19 outbreak, the decision to boost the use of active student-centered learning methods and digitalisation had already been made at both the governmental and institutional levels [ 7 , 8 ] because student-active learning (such as use of student response systems and flipping the classroom) increase motivation and improve learning outcomes [ 5 , 7 , 9 ]. However, the implementation of this insight was lagging behind. Traditional educator-centered pedagogies dominated higher education in Norway prior to the lockdown, and only 30% of academic teachers from higher institutions reported having any previous experience with online teaching [ 4 ]. Due to the COVID-19 lockdown, most educators had to change their approaches to most aspects of their work overnight: teaching, assessment, supervision, research, service and engagement [ 4 , 10 ].

Bachelor’s and master’s in Public Health Nutrition (PHN) represents two small-sized programmes at Oslo Metropolitan University (OsloMet). PHN is defined as ‘the application of nutrition and public health principles to design programs, systems, policies, and environments that aims to improve or maintain the optimal health of populations and targeted groups’ [ 11 , 12 ]. Traditional teaching methods dominated on both programs during winter 2020. Following the lockdown, online learning for the continuation of academic activities and the prevention of dropouts from study programmes in higher education were given the highest priority. Due to an extraordinary effort by both the administrative and academic staff, digital alternatives to the scheduled on-campus academic activities were offered to PHN students already in the first week following lockdown. The scheduled on-campus lectures were mainly offered as live-streamed plenary lectures lasting 30–45 minutes, mainly using the video conferencing tool Zoom. Throughout the spring semester educators received training in digital teaching from the institution and increasingly made use of online student response systems (such as Padlet and Mentimeter) as well as tools to facilitate digital group-work (Zoom/Microsoft Teams). Non-theoretical lectures (e.g. cooking classes), were cancelled, and face-to-face exams were re-organized into digital alternatives in order to ensure normal teaching operations. Several small tweaks were employed to minimize dropout. There was no time for coordinating the different courses with regards to the types of online teaching activities, exams and assessments. Social media, i.e Facebook, and SMS were the primary communication channels the first week after lockdown. The use of learning management systems (LMS) Canvas and digital assessment system, Inspera, remained mainly unchanged. Due to the new situation, the deadline for the submission of bachelor theses was postponed by 48 hours. In addition, bachelor students submitting their thesis where given permission to use the submission deadline for the deferred exam in August as their ordinary exam deadline. The deadline for the submission of master theses was extended by one week, but all planned master exams were completed by the end of June, including oral examinations using Zoom instead of the traditional face-to-face examinations on campus. Even though most of the new online activities where put in place with limited regard for subtle nuances of pedagogical theory, and did not allow for much student involvement, the dropout rate from PHN programs remained unchanged compared to previous years. PHN is a small-sized education with close follow up of students. However, although the students experienced a digital revolution overnight, we know little about how they experienced the situation after the university closed for on-campus activities.

Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to assess how Norwegian PHN students experienced the shift to digital teaching following campus lockdown. Students were also asked to provide feedback on what might improve the learning outcomes in future online lectures and courses.

Design and sampling

This study utilised a mixed methods cross-sectional design, where quantitative and qualitative methods complemented each other. An invitation to participate was sent out to 79 eligible students via multiple channels (Facebook, Teams, Zoom, LMS Canvas, SMS), with several reminders. The only eligibility criteria was being a student in PHN during spring 2020. All students received the quantitative survey. Due to few students eligible for each focus group interview, all who wanted to participate were interviewed/included. The invited students were in their second-year (n = 17) and third-year (n = 28) bachelor’s and first-year (n = 13) and second-year (n = 21) master’s programme at PHN in the Faculty of Health Sciences at OsloMet. The response rate was 16/79 (20.3%) and 21/79 (26.6%). Two focus group interviews were scheduled in each class (a total of 8) but only 4 interviews were conducted. The research team was heterogeneously composed of members with both pedagogical and health professional backgrounds.

Online questionnaire

To the best of our knowledge, this study was the first “corona” study at our Faculty. No suitable national or international questionnaire had been developed and /or validated by March 2020. Hence, online questionnaires for the present study were designed virtually ‘over-night’. The questions were however based on experiences from a large-scale interprofessional learning course using the blended learning approach at OsloMet [ 13 , 14 ] and specific experiences that academic staff in Norway reported during the first week of teaching during the lockdown [ 4 ]. The questionnaires were based on an anonymous self-administrated web survey ‘Nettskjema’ [ 15 ]. ‘Nettskjema’ is a Norwegian tool for designing and conducting online surveys with features that are customised for research purposes. It is easy to use, and the respondents can submit answers from a browser on a computer, mobile phone or tablet. During the first week after lockdown, the questionnaire was sent out to university colleagues and head of studies and revised accordingly. The questionnaires were deliberately kept short because the response rate is generally low in student surveys [ 16 ]. Ideally, we should have pretested and validated the questionnaires, but this was not possible within the short-time frame after lockdown. Items were measured on a five-level ordinal scale (Likert scale 0–5). The two forms contained both numerical and open questions, permitting both quantitative and qualitative analyses. The first questionnaire was sent out to the students on 25 March 2020 (two weeks after the closure of university campus; students were asked to submit their answers during the period from 12 March until the link was closed at Easter Holiday), and the second questionnaire was sent on 3 June 2020 (12 weeks after closure; students were asked to submit their answers during the period after Easter and until the end of the spring semester). The questionnaires were distributed as web links embedded in the LMS Canvas application. Because live-streamed lectures were offered primarily through Zoom during the first weeks, students were not asked about interactive digital teaching and tools in the first questionnaire. At the end of both questionnaires, the students were asked what they believed could improve the learning experience in future online education. The qualitative part consisted of text answers to open questions from the two electronic questionnaires.

Digital focus group interview

To capture meaningful insights into the participants experiences, we conducted digital focus group interviews [ 17 ], aiming to conduct one digital focus group interview in each class. PHN is a small sized education, and the teachers know all the students. The focus group interviews were therefore performed by two external independent researchers (EG and CT) who are not directly involved in the PHN education and had no prior knowledge to the students. The two interviewers (moderators) were middle-aged female teachers working in the university, and both have significant experience in digitalizing education. They were presented to the participants as researchers from the university. The report of this study was guided by the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ). The interviews were conducted via the video conferencing system Zoom during May 2020, following internal guidelines [ 18 ]. In the focus group interviews, the participants reflected on their own experiences, and the moderator guided the discussion using a semi-structured interview guide. This guide was prepared based on the research questions. One pilot interview was conducted, which resulted in some minor changes to the interview guide. The results from the pilot interview are not included in the results. The focus group interviews lasted for approximately one hour, and five students were invited to each focus group interview. The interviews were not recorded, but the moderator took notes, ensuring that the participants remained anonymised.

Data analysis

Quantitative data are described descriptively with numbers and percentages. Apart from re-categorization of response categories, no statistical analysis was performed. Quantitative data were extracted directly from the survey system. Answers in categories 0 or 1 were categorised as ‘Disagree/slightly agree’, answers in categories 2 or 3 were categorised as ‘Somewhat agree’ and answers in categories 4 or 5 were categorised as ‘Agree’. Qualitative data were analysed using systematic text condensation (STC), inspired by Giorgi’s phenomenological approach and modified by Malterud [ 17 ]. First, the entire texts (from the interviews) were read to get an overall impression, and preliminary themes were derived from the interviews. Then, meaning units, such as sentences and words, were identified and connected with the preliminary theme to elucidate the study question. The meaning units were then coded and systemized into groups, so that meaning could be abstracted from the different code groups. Finally, the meanings of the various units were summarised. The qualitative data from the questionnaire were then extracted by the moderators, and the words and sentences were identified and abstracted. In order to ensure quality, the notes from the focus group interviews and the text answers from the questionnaires were reviewed by both moderators.

Ethical considerations

All participants gave their informed consent. The questionnaires did not include questions about personal health information or sensitive data. The quantitative data were collected through an anonymous web survey using ‘Nettskjema’ [ 15 ]. Internal routines at OsloMet for using Zoom in research interviews were applied [ 18 ]. In the interviews, the participants provided their written consent in the chat without their names and remained anonymous. The data protection was approved by the Norwegian Centre for Research Data (NSD, reference no. 846363), as PHN is a small-sized study programme and because Zoom was used for the digital focus group interviews.

Quantitative data

There were 16 (20.3%) and 21 (26.6%) students who answered the questionnaires two and 12 weeks after lockdown, respectively ( Table 1 ). Both samples had an even distribution of bachelor and master students.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.t001

Among the respondents two and 12 weeks after lockdown, 7/16 students (44%) and 9/21 students (43%) reported having previous experience with online learning, respectively ( Table 1 ). After two weeks of forced online education, 8/16 students (50%) expected that their learning outcomes would be inferior with online education compared to their pre-COVID-19 education at campus. After 12 weeks, 15/ 21 students (71%) expected that their learning outcome would be lower, and, notably, none of the students expected that it would be higher. On both occasions, most students reported that studying had become more difficult compared to the time before the pandemic.

Several of the identified challenges with online education were reported by more than 50% of the students, and there was an uneven spread across categories of answers (Tables 2 and 3 ). Only one of 16 students (6%) agreed that they needed to increase their digital competence, but approximately half reported having technical challenges at home. All of the students agreed that the lack of contact with other students was a challenge. However, after 12 weeks, the lack of contact with academic staff seemed to pose less of a challenge.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.t002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.t003

After 12 weeks, 20/21 students (95%) agreed that their motivation and effort had been reduced. At the same time, all students wanted to return to campus. Only 5/21 (24%) reported that their learning outcomes had not deteriorated.

Suggestions for how to increase learning outcome in future digital courses

Two weeks after lockdown, most students answered that the use of different components of online education would improve the learning outcomes in a future online course ( Table 4 ). Regarding participation in digital group work, there was a nearly even spread across the different categories of answers. Finally, participants preferred written home exams and feedback over the digital options suggested ( Table 5 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.t004

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.t005

After 12 weeks of (forced) online teaching, more ambivalence toward the use of digital learning tools could be detected ( Table 6 ). However, the proportion of students who agreed that digital group work would increase the learning outcomes seemed unchanged (around 1/3 of both samples). In line with the findings obtained only two weeks after lockdown, written submissions and feedback seemed to be preferable to digital exam options ( Table 7 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.t006

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.t007

After 12 weeks, 16/21 students (76%) agreed that social interaction plays a role in learning outcomes and well-being ( Table 8 ), and an equal proportion agreed that it was important that everyone had their camera on during teaching.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.t008

There were 15/21 students (71%) who agreed that their digital competence and interest in digital teaching methods had increased while 6/21 students (29%) disagreed with this statement.

Qualitative data

In total, there were four master students who participated in digital focus group interviews (on two different occasions, with three students and one student in the groups, respectively).

Digital lectures.

The students were satisfied with the teaching and reported that the lecturers were competent in arranging online teaching. The lecturers were also good at adapting to the students’ wishes regarding teaching. Lectures that were streamed live (synchronous classes) were preferred over recordings (asynchronous). One student said it was a privilege to still be able to study even though the university campus was closed due to corona and all the lectures were digital. The students expressed that it is an advantage if the lecturer has digital competence to ensure that the lecture runs smoothly without digital/technical problems, or if there is a co-host who can assist. Technical competence is also important when invitation links are sent out. It signals that the student group is well taken care of. The informants described a course co-ordinator as a person with a good overview and sense of responsibility—someone who is good at structure and order. These qualities were highlighted as important in a fully digitalised teaching program.

The students did not support compulsory attendance, as it would reduce the feeling of freedom that most students value. If learning activities were compulsory, students felt it might also present challenges in dealing with their children and part-time work. The students expressed that most of their fellow students were present in lectures that went live on Zoom. One student stated that live digital lectures were best because it was easier to ask questions. When using a flipped classroom or recordings, the questions must be written down and asked afterwards, but both options (flipped classroom and live streaming) were perceived as fine.

Interestingly, the qualitative results from the questionnaire indicated that some students found it easy to ask questions, while others thought it had become more difficult. According to one student, ‘As long as we have the opportunity to ask questions online, I think it will go just fine. I commute three hours per school day to get to and from school, so I feel I have more time to work with school now that the lecture is online’.

One of the informants thought that interaction was challenging, and it did not feel as natural to ask questions in online classes. ‘Raising your hand’ was not perceived to be as easy as in the face-to-face setting on campus, which could mean that the students did not always get answers to their questions.

The students’ indicated that recorded lectures should not be longer than one hour, as it is easy to lose focus, and one must rewind the recordings. For live online lectures, two hours was deemed fine, and they were perceived as fun to watch. However, each session of the live online lectures should not be longer than 45 minutes.

The online teaching (mainly in the form of synchronous plenum lectures originally intended as on-campus lectures) was challenging in the beginning because some students fell out of the digital rooms due to technical reasons, but it got better over time. Some students experienced poor bandwidth, which led to them not being able to turn on their camera and reduced sound quality. One student stated that poor internet quality was something he could not do anything about, but it resulted in a non-optimal learning situation. It was suggested that using a flipped classroom/recorded lectures in the first weeks after lockdown could have solved this problem.

The respondents pointed out that the use of several conference systems/channels in addition to LMS Canvas provided a poor overview and ineffective communication, and they would prefer a single learning platform. The students were unsure how to contact their teachers in the first weeks after lockdown due to the use of several platforms. Even with a single contact channel (LMS), the students found that the threshold barrier for sending questions to the teacher through email was high.

When asked what they thought about ‘black screens’ (students turning off the camera), several answered that this reduced the quality of communication between the lecturer and student. The lecturer missed affirmative nods from students, and the students also likely missed parts of the communication when the camera was turned off. In some of the lectures, all of the students were encouraged to keep the camera on, and some of the lecturers asked the students questions to initiate two-way communication. The students expressed that it was nice to see the other attending students on video. Furthermore, the participants felt that the lecturers mainly engaged the students who had their camera on. However, several students said that they turned off their cameras during the lectures because the session was being recorded. Another stated that having the camera on was particularly useful when having discussions in digital groups. The students who participated in the survey wished for more recorded lectures, indicating that their lecturers did not do this often.

One of the informants assumed that she would have turned off the camera when recording the lecture, and she thought she had not contributed much. She would have to consider whether a question was ‘stupid’ before asking it, and probably she had not asked any questions at all. She thought this was due to habit, and she indicated that one might get used to being recorded. That is, if recording had been the norm and she had become accustomed to it, it would have been easier to relate to.

All of the informants agreed that presentations with audio were useful, as the material could be repeated by rewinding to the desired location. They also reported that it sometimes took a while for the teachers to post such files, even though the students found these learning resources very useful.

They noticed an increased attendance rate among their peers in the online lectures, which they perceived as positive. The reason for the increased attendance, they believed, was that many students have to make a long trip to attend class, and the threshold for participating had become lower now that all teaching was online. This was supported by the qualitative results from the questionnaire, where a student said, ‘I commute several hours per school day to get to and from school, so I feel I have more time to work with school now that the lecture is online’.

However, one of the informants pointed out that it is important for students to be able to talk to each other when the lecturer is not present, that group activities should be arranged and that they should be provided with opportunities for voluntary meetings on campus in their spare time. One of the informants believed it to be important that the students themselves have a responsibility to address the learning environment and initiate meetings in both academic and social arenas. One felt that it was not desirable that the university was responsible for social contact between peers. It was suggested that time could be set aside, for example, after teaching, so that only students could talk together. It was expressed that in order to preserve social aspects in digital teaching and learning, the first meeting should be on campus. A mentor scheme was suggested, where former students could give tips and advice on how to function as a ‘digital student’.

Digital group work.

The students expressed that they mainly collaborated well in digital groups (breakout rooms). Communication usually worked well with both the teacher and peers in these digital rooms. Nevertheless, some students reported that group work was not effective when it was carried out in ‘breakout rooms’. The students felt that the allocated time for group work was too short for collaboration, and some of the time was spent on technical challenges. There were also some students who withdrew from the group work, which the respondents believed was because some were shy. One student said that discussions during group work paid off and that communication worked well, but it was a pity that so few students participated. Getting to know the others in the group well was also deemed to be important for the level of collaboration and professional discussions. The students did not like to be randomly assigned into groups. However, they expressed that it would be advantageous to plan for more group work in smaller groups.

Another positive effect of online teaching the students highlighted was the increased amount of written feedback from lecturers on work submitted voluntarily. The students perceived that this was offered as a compensation for shorter teaching sessions.

One of the respondents thought that it was important to socially interact with peers and missed having lunch with fellow students. Others felt that there had not been many social gatherings in the group previously, and so they did not experience the absence of fellow students as a great loss. They also pointed out that students who had met each other physically at an earlier time had a different starting point in online meetings and for online education. One student stated, ‘Getting to know new peers digitally feels weird’. Furthermore, one of the informants pointed out that most people have a general need for physical contact, and that touching and eye-to-eye contact is important.

Motivation.

Some of the students were more motivated to participate in online learning activities, yet it was perceived to require greater effort to stay motivated and ‘in the course’. Some students work alongside their studies and thus do not attend classes, and others have children who must be tended to. Some indicated that student response systems such as Mentimeter, Quizlet, Padlet, Kahoot! and the use of polls was motivating factors, but it depended on the context in which they were used. Some of the students reported that they especially liked Kahoot, but it was important that the use of such response systems was done in a structured way. They expressed that they liked the teaching programme, which consisted of an introductory video and teaching in which the basics were presented, followed by group work and finally teaching, where the teacher went more in depth. This approach made it easier to follow the teaching and to ask questions.

The students said it was good for motivation when an overview of the course content was published, as it contributed to predictability and more people participate when they know what is planned.

Nevertheless, the qualitative results from the questionnaire indicated that it was difficult to get an overview of everything that needed to be done. It could be challenging to concentrate and have self-discipline due to many distractions, which reduced the students’ motivation. Several students expressed that they felt alone in their studies, and it was difficult to feel alone with the responsibility for learning the curriculum. One student wrote that there was considerable uncertainty, which negatively affected concentration, and that the COVID-19 crises was a difficult time for everyone.

Overall, these students were satisfied with the ad hoc online teaching after the lockdown, although they experienced self-perceived reduced learning outcomes compared to the pre-pandemic situation. It appears that they adapted quickly to the new situation, but they also reported difficulties with the transition to new teaching methods. Based on both the surveys and interviews, the most pressing concerns among students were a lack of social interaction, housing situations that were unsuitable for home office purposes, including insufficient data bandwidth, and a sense of reduced motivation and effort. PHN is a small sized education which enables close contact between educators and students. The low student volume might explain why the dropout rate from the bachelor and master programs remained unchanged compared to that in previous years.

Receiving teaching, supervision, exams and assessments solely through online solutions was a new experience for these students. Apart from a 15-credit mandatory bachelor course offered as hybrid learning (7), traditional teaching methods still dominated the bachelor and master study programmes of PHN in winter 2020. Importantly, the students evaluated the ad hoc solutions offered during the chaotic spring of 2020 rather than a well-planned, high-quality online education using student-active methods [ 5 ]. Teachers switched to online teaching without any time to learn the technology, or standard quality online teaching practices [ 4 ]. They had many years of experience teaching in -person, and they had arranged their lessons and interactive elements around this mode of learning. Alternatively, they had very little experience teaching online. The students’ experiences in these online learning environments, which were thrown together at the last minute, are not necessarily indicative of students’ experiences in a quality online course based on principles from Quality Matters online education [ 19 ].

Although the students reported reduced learning outcomes after 12 weeks dominated by synchronous live-streamed lectures lasting for 30–45 minutes on Zoom, they had positive attitudes toward use of digital learning materials and tools in future online courses. For asynchronous lectures, the rule of thumb in online education is less than 10–15 minutes [ 19 ]. Although lectures of 45 minute duration is far beyond what is recommended for digital teaching [ 19 ], the students responded based on their recent experiences where many teachers, for reasons of feasibility, conducted their planned on-campus lectures digitally shortly after lockdown. Some of the students also reported that they especially liked Kahoot, however, since we wanted to keep the research questionnaire short, we did not ask more in detail for concrete digital tools. A pre-corona study from OsloMet reported that physiotherapy students’ attitudes toward a flipped classroom intervention were mainly positive, although the academic outcomes from the final exam were similar to those in previous years [ 20 ]. Further, in a recent large-scale pre-COVID-19 blended learning interprofessional course conducted a few weeks ahead of the lockdown, first-year bachelor’s students at OsloMet reported positive perceptions of the blended learning approach, using only short video clips (less than 10 minutes) [ 21 ]. Approximately 3/4 of the students in that study disagreed that virtual group discussions resulted in better learning outcomes than face-to-face group discussions. The present data do not conflict with the findings from that larger-scale study.

The students expressed in various ways that online teaching with a lack of social interaction leads to worse learning outcomes and lower levels of motivation and well-being. Concerns about lack of face-to-face contact may have been aggravated by the stressful situation, and contentment with teaching methods would likely improve if teachers had been able to integrate the appropriate elements in a fully digitalized course. Face-to-face interactions provide the foundation for social communication, the lack of which can be viewed as a critical disadvantage of online learning [ 5 ]. Face-to-face training may be particular crucial for candidates expected to have communication skills, such as nutritionists [ 11 , 12 , 22 – 24 ]. The ad hoc solutions for teaching offered during the 2020 spring term were thus not in agreement with the suggested conceptual dimensions, which allow students to expand their knowledge beyond the intended learning outcome established by the teacher: motivation and attention [ 5 ].

The students expressed concerns that are common in traditional in‐class teaching as well, and such issues should not be overlooked in online teaching [ 25 , 26 ]: insufficient pre‐class study preparation, limited participation and inadequate depth in class discussions. Quality of education lies in the knowledge, skills and expertise that are conveyed as well as in the manner in which they are communicated and learned [ 7 , 26 ]. In different ways, the students’ responses revolved around central quality aspects, such as learning objectives, content, programme design, adaptation, teaching, work methods, supervision and forms of assessment [ 7 ]. These findings are in agreement with other studies on COVID‐19 and education [ 4 , 25 , 27 ].

The students stated that they received insufficient information about the exams. This is understandable because staff initially did not know how the different exams would be digitally transformed in spring term 2020. Asked about exam preferences students said that they preferred longer written exams at home, over old campus-style exams, with short timelines, adapted to an online format. They also preferred multi-day written home exams over potential alternatives such as video or podcasts, which none of them had tried before. It should be noted that they had limited experience with digital options. Student-produced podcast and video have been used as formative assessment forms at our university [ 14 ], but to lesser extent as formative assessment forms. The preference for written home exams over digital options was thus likely influenced by student’s familiarity with the former since no exams during this time-period were in the form of podcast or video. Feedback and guidance from academic staff have been found to be key aspects of study quality, and good feedback contributes to increased motivation and improved learning outcomes (6). Exam uncertainty causes undue stress, and thus a key recommendation during the transition to online learning is to ensure that all information about exams is communicated to the students clearly and in a timely manner [ 27 ].

‘Black screens’ do not necessarily reflect individuals lack of motivation and attention or embarrassment, but they may reflect a lack of digital training among freshmen or technical issues, such as poor bandwidth. Broadband bandwidth overload issues and a lack of suitable equipment will probably not be significant problems in Norway in the future. The students suggested that both flipped classrooms and live streaming should be used in future online courses. Flipping the classroom [ 9 ] ahead of live streaming, with the possibility for the students to write down questions during the live streaming or afterward in a seminar, increases flexibility. Asynchronous tools may be utilised to support students to work at different times. We cannot overlook the possibility that new students might have needs that differ from those of senior students in terms of getting accustomed to online education. Nevertheless, our date indicates that clarification of expectations constitutes an important success criteria for online teaching, especially when it comes to group work and formative and summative assessment [ 4 , 27 ].

The closure of campus may have unknown implications for society in both the short and long term [ 28 – 30 ], including impacts on educational quality and the mental health of students and academic staff [ 31 ]. If students are unable to study effectively for some unknown reason, it will make online learning ineffective, regardless of educational quality. The situation after the lockdown in Norway was confusing, and many students lost their jobs and moved back in with their parents [ 4 ]. We did not collect person-sensitive data, and thus we know little about these students’ circumstances. The dropout rate remained nearly unchanged among these students as compared to previous years. Being a small-sized education, the staff were able to follow-up each student individually using digital videoconference tools, such as Zoom and Teams. In the future, more sustainable approaches should be developed, for example, by increasing peer-to-peer interactions and through mentoring programs [ 1 ]. Reducing dropout and increasing completion rates was a strategic goal for higher education before the lockdown [ 29 ], and we do not know the impact of the lockdown on future dropout and completion rates. The high dropout rate from Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) has been a major concern of researchers and educators over the years [ 32 ]. Although some universities worldwide had already started offering MOOC-based undergraduate degrees before the COVID-19 pandemic [ 32 ], most MOOCs do not lead to degrees. The online courses offered in spring 2020 after the lockdown were mandatory courses leading to degrees, and thus they were not directly comparable to the voluntary MOOCs. However, such issues are premature for consideration in the present study. OsloMet is currently participating both in the future ‘The COVID-19 Multi-Country Student Well-being Study’[ 33 ] and the ‘Corona and Campus’ study [ 34 ]. The ‘Corona and Campus’ study has secondary outcomes related to teaching satisfaction and learning outcomes, and such data will have the power to inform future decision-making [ 30 ]. However, the present data were collected shortly after the national lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic on aspects of digitalisation relevant to the (post)-pandemic situation.

Strengths and weaknesses of the study

This study has several strengths. The most important strength is data collection shortly after a national lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The combined use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches enabled different perspectives to be captured and adds strength to the study. The triangulation allowed us to identify aspects more accurately and helped to offset the weaknesses of each approach alone. Group dynamics in focus group interviews can help bring out nuances in the data material beyond the answers to the predefined quantitative questions in the electronic questionnaires [ 17 ]. Another strength was the research team consisting of both external moderators providing objectivity, lack of vested interest and a fresh perspective, and internal evaluators who were familiar with the education and the students. One limitation is using a questionnaire which was not pre-tested or validated. However, due to time constraints shortly after campus lockdown following the COVID-19 outbreak, it was not possible to perform pre-testing or validation of the instruments used in the present study. Many of the necessary ad hoc changes to the course plans and exams (spring semester 2020) had yet to be made and decided upon when the present study was initiated, even when the first questionnaire was sent out before Easter 2020. The candidates actual achieved learning outcomes and working skills are unknown due to limited opportunities to monitor the quality of their work [ 4 ]. We do not consider it to be relevant to repeat the study, or reuse its instruments, since the acute phase after lockdown is over. PHN is a small-sized education, and the total number of students were only 79 individuals. The stress associated with the unprecedented situation may have contributed to a low response rate. Private circumstances such as poor internet connection, children at home, and lack of an adequate home office may also have contributed to a low response rate. A low response rate is also a limitation in studies performed in a normal situation [ 16 ]. We cannot rule out selection bias in the sample. The students who volunteered for the digital focus group interviews were positive and thorough. In particular, they seemed to reflect on a more general level, not restricted to their own personal situations. However, the range in age among the study participants was representative for the age range of all PHN students, and both bachelor and master students participated in the study. Data are collected from one single university, and the results might not be representative for large sized educations. Since the study is exploratory, we had not planned the data collection in order to test hypotheses. The study seeks to provide a snapshot in time of an evolving situation. Even with some limiting factors we believe the explorative study offers value since it provides a student perspective on an unprecedented black-swan event in higher education.

Conclusions

Although they had little previous experience with online education, these students seemed to adapt quickly to the sudden shift to ad hoc online education due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The most pressing concerns among students were a lack of social interaction, a feeling of being alone in their studies, unfit housing situations for home office purposes, including insufficient data bandwidth, and a sense of reduced motivation and effort. Although our data indicate that face-to-face contact was greatly missed during this time-period, a thoroughly planned online course with numerous contact points between teachers and students would likely have been received more favorably. Finally, the students expressed that they wanted more structure in future digital courses. Due to the very unusual circumstances experienced both by students and teachers in the early stages of national lockdown in Norway, we are hesitant to conclude with regards to students preferences for future online courses.

Supporting information

S1 file. spss file questionnaire 1—please see line 154..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.s001

S2 File. SPSS file Norwegian questionnaire 1—please see line 154.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.s002

S3 File. SPSS file questionnaire 2—please see line 154.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.s003

S4 File. SPSS file Norwegian questionnaire 2—please see line 154.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.s004

S5 File. Structured interview guide–please see line 145.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378.s005

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the participating students and the academic and administrative staff at Oslo Metropolitan University for their contributions.

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• Paragraph Writing
• Paragraph on Online Classes

Paragraph on Online Classes - Check Samples for Various Word Limits

Online classes have existed in our society for some time now, but the importance of online classes was fully realised only during the lockdowns on account of the pandemic. The online classes were very helpful to all students, teachers, and institutions. They are also beneficial to students who wish to pursue long-distance courses.

You can refer to the sample paragraphs on online classes given below to learn more about them.

Table of Contents

Paragraph on online classes in 100 words, paragraph on online classes in 150 words, paragraph on online classes in 200 words, paragraph on online classes in 250 words, frequently asked questions on online classes.

Even with the advances in science and technology, many people lagged behind and were not able to cope with the pace of growth in many places around the world. Most were unaware of the benefits of online education or of the existence of online classes in various countries. Just like every coin has two sides, there are two sides to online classes as well. Online classes are beneficial to continue our education despite various barriers. But online activities have the chance to digress into other addictive online activities at times when it comes to kids. Excess of anything is dangerous; therefore, investing too much time can harm the kids. Thus, parents should be responsible enough to take care of their children during online classes.

E-learning and ed-tech companies are the new beginnings that will revolutionise the whole education process. Online learning has become more convenient with the use of advanced science and technology. In this changing world, online classes have become more accessible. Online classes have made our learning process more manageable with our busy schedules. Online classes have been beneficial to students who do not have access to proper schooling and quality education. Ed-tech platforms are now helping students as well as teachers with different study materials, various online courses, etc., at a very reasonable cost so that education can be accessible and available to all grades of students. Online classes help students and teachers excel academically even better than offline classes because they get their own space for learning. They can learn in their own comfort zone. During the pandemic, online classes have been beneficial to the students and their parents to keep the children engaged with their studies.

Online classes have been the best possible solution for educational institutions as well as students during the pandemic. Online education or online classes were not a new concept, but online classes’ prominence was seen only during the pandemic. The online class provides a flexible and quick learning option. Its adaptability and efficiency made it more popular during the pandemic’s early days. It lowers the distance between learning locations. There are a lot of advantages as well as disadvantages to online classes. It is a versatile method of learning which helps connect with people from various parts of the globe, which was not possible in offline classes. Students were given their comfort zone to study, resulting in better performance and productivity. It reduced a lot of paperwork, ultimately saving mother earth. Many renowned institutions have changed their learning methods to online methods because it made education more accessible. There are also a few disadvantages, like, as a lot of students misuse these benefits and get addicted to different games and social media. But it all depends on the individual and if they want to make their career bright. Therefore it is essential to know the limitations of everything.

Online classes are the new modes of learning which have brought about a revolution in the education system. Online classes have been existing in various countries, but their importance increased only during the pandemic. A lot of colleges and universities never accepted a degree certificate that was earned after attending classes online, but now, with the changing time, many renowned colleges and universities have accepted online courses and have shifted to the online method of learning. Online classes have been more accessible and accepted by students as well as teachers. We connect with different people from around the world through online classes, which makes students more competent and engaging. Students have become smarter and technologically sound with online classes, and it has also helped teachers to be more technologically sound. With the growing demand for online classes, education has become more comforting and more satisfying. Even with a hundred barriers, people have accepted online learning methods to continue their education. It has been noticed that student’s performance has improved due to online classes, which is why most students have accepted online learning methods. There was a time when girls were not allowed to go to college to attend classes, and there were many restrictions to choosing a course, but with the increasing demand for online classes, there are no more limitations to education. The students now have all the freedom to choose any course of their choice and build their careers as per their choice. Therefore, online education has been a great help and revolution in today’s learning system.

How do I write a paragraph on online classes?

While writing a paragraph on online classes, you can write about the growing importance of it and how it has changed learning patterns. You can write about the advantages and disadvantages of online classes that you have gone through during the Covid-19 pandemic.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of online classes?

The advantages and disadvantages vary depending on the individual. If a student misuses online classes and takes advantage of them, they will be misusing their phones or computers for other purposes. Online classes can be helpful in various ways as it gives the comfort zone for students and teachers to study, connect with people from around the world, become more competent, etc.

Are the online course certificates accepted?

Yes, with time, people have understood the importance of online classes, and the certificates are now being accepted by various organisations.

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New World Bank report: Remote Learning during the pandemic: Lessons from today, principles for tomorrow 

WASHINGTON, D.C., Nov. 18, 2021— Education systems around the world reacted to COVID-19 by closing schools and rolling out remote learning options for their students as an emergency response.  New World Bank analysis of early evidence reveals that while remote learning has not been equally effective everywhere, hybrid learning is here to stay.

Going forward, for remote learning to deliver on its potential, the analysis shows the need to ensure strong alignment between three complementary components: effective teaching, suitable technology, and engaged learners.

“Hybrid learning – which combines in-person and remote learning – is here to stay. The challenge will be the art of combining technology and the human factor to make hybrid learning a tool to expand access to quality education for all,” emphasized Jaime Saavedra, World Bank Global Director for Education .   “Information technology is only a complement, not a substitute, for the conventional teaching process – particularly among preschool and elementary school students. The importance of teachers, and the recognition of education as essentially a human interaction endeavor, is now even clearer.”

The twin reports, Remote Learning During the Global School Lockdown: Multi-Country Lessons and Remote Learning During COVID-19: Lessons from Today, Principles for Tomorrow , stress that three components are critical for remote learning to be effective:

• Prioritizing effective teachers: a teacher with high subject content knowledge, skills to use technology, and appropriate pedagogical tools and support is more likely to be effective at remote instruction.
• Adopting suitable technology: availability of technology is a necessary but not sufficient condition for effective remote learning.
• Ensuring learners are engaged: for students to be engaged, contextual factors such as the home environment, family support, and motivation for learning must be well aligned.

The reports found that many countries struggled to ensure take-up and some even found themselves in a remote learning paradox: choosing a distance learning approach unsuited to the access and capabilities of a majority of their teachers and students.

“Emerging evidence on the effectiveness of remote learning during COVID-19 is mixed at best,” said Cristóbal Cobo, World Bank Senior Education and Technology Specialist, and co-author of the two reports . “Some countries provided online digital learning solutions, although a majority of students lacked digital devices or connectivity, thus resulting in uneven participation, which further exacerbated existing inequalities. Other factors leading to low student take-up are unconducive home environments; challenges in maintaining children’s engagement, especially that of younger children; and low digital literacy of students, teachers, and/or parents.”

“While pre-pandemic access to technology and capabilities to use it differed widely within and across countries, limited parental engagement and support for children from poor families has generally hindered their ability to benefit from remote learning,” stressed Saavedra .

Despite these challenges with remote learning, this can be an unprecedented opportunity to leverage its potential to reimagine learning and to build back more effective and equitable education systems. Hybrid learning is part of the solution for the future to make the education process more effective and resilient. 

The reports offer the following five principles to guide country efforts going forward:

• Ensure remote learning is fit-for-purpose. Countries should choose modes of remote learning that are suitable to the access and utilization of technology among both teachers and students, including digital skills, and that teachers have opportunities to develop the technical and pedagogical competencies needed for effective remote teaching. 
• Use technology to enhance the effectiveness of teachers. Teacher professional development should develop the skills and support needed to be an effective teacher in a remote setting.
• Establish meaningful two-way interactions. Using the most appropriate technology for the local context, it is imperative to enable opportunities for students and teachers to interact with each other with suitable adaptations to the delivery of the curriculum.
• Engage and support parents as partners in the teaching and learning process. It is imperative that parents (families) are engaged and supported to help students access remote learning and to ensure both continuity of learning and protect children’s socioemotional well-being.
• Rally all actors to cooperate around learning . Cooperation across all levels of government; as well as partnerships between the public and private sector, and between groups of teachers and school principals; is vital to the effectiveness of remote learning and to ensure that the system continues to adapt, learn, and improve in an ever-changing remote learning landscape.

World Bank Education Response to COVID-19

In response to the deepening education crisis, the World Bank has rapidly ramped up its support to developing countries, with projects reaching at least 432 million students and 26 million teachers – one-third of the student population and nearly a quarter of the teacher workforce in current client countries. The World Bank is the largest source of external financing for education in developing countries. In the last two fiscal years, our support to education has reached $11.5 billion.

World Bank Group Response to COVID-19

Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Bank Group has deployed over $157 billion to fight the health, economic, and social impacts of the pandemic, the fastest and largest crisis response in its history. The financing is helping more than 100 countries strengthen pandemic preparedness, protect the poor and jobs, and jump start a climate-friendly recovery. The Bank is also supporting over 60 low- and middle-income countries , more than half of which are in Africa, with the purchase and deployment of COVID-19 vaccines, and is making available $20 billion in financing for this purpose until the end of 2022.

For more information on the twin reports, please visit their website .

For more information on the World Bank and Education, please visit:  www.worldbank.org/education

Follow us on: @WBG_Education

Washington D.C.

Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

‘My Online Learning Experience as a Student This Fall Has Been Great’

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This series highlights contributions from students in my classes.

In Part One , Cathy Liu, Julia Yang, Eliseo Angulo Lopez, and Masihullah Shafiq shared their thoughts.

In Part Two , Luis Diaz, Samantha Nicole Vicedo, Cheyenne Lo, and Manpreet Rana contribute their commentaries.

Today, Lyna Nguyen, Nono Loek, and Rachel Anjel “wrap up” this series...

Teachers ‘have been really understanding’

Lyna Nguyen is a junior at Luther Burbank High School in Sacramento, Calif.

My online learning experience as a student this fall has been great. What’s working for me is I like the 40 minutes in class and 40 minutes asynchronous time to work on our assignments. I feel like teachers have been really understanding and helpful of what we’re going through and how difficult it can be. I find it more relaxing for me because everything is organized through Google Classroom, and it puts a little stress off of me because I disliked feeling disorganized and anxious.

What is not working for me is sometimes my time management is off, and it can be a little stressful how teachers assign work really close to the due date of other class assignments. I’d rather have the assignments’ due dates spread out throughout the week. Sometimes, there are technology difficulties, which can interrupt my learning experience. Everything is also online, so it can take a while communicating with teachers. Overall, communication is delayed, and it can be difficult reaching out to teachers and asking for assistance. Even when I need help with a certain assignment, it can be difficult learning and processing information through a screen. Other than that, I appreciate teachers trying their best to make everything work during this pandemic.

‘Internet classes save time’

Nono Loek is a senior at Luther Burbank High School:

In my experience with internet classes, the good far outweighs the bad. Internet classes save time, and saving time is important to me. The studies are structured much better than I expected. I don’t really see a difference between the online and offline structures. Group work is done in separate rooms, and I think it’s not that bad, because we also learn a lot in online classes.

I sometimes miss the interaction with people, making long-lasting friendships, which is extremely important for all of us. At home, it’s hard to force yourself to take a break. I think this pandemic has t probably transformed education. Most of the things we found to be impossible have now proven to be possible.

I actually really enjoy distance learning, but sometimes I want everything to go back to normal. I also like how I don’t have to wake up at 6 every morning. I like that with learning online, I can relax more, as well as think more. What I don’t like about online learning is that it can take me up to a whole school day (6-7 hours) to finish assignments.

‘I understand teachers are trying to keep us safe’

Rachel Anjel is a senior at Luther Burbank High School:

My online experience this year is kind of boring because I don’t really get to see friends in school anymore. And I thought it was going to be fun using Chromebooks. Sometimes it can be difficult because sometimes the Wi-Fi doesn’t work or it can be slow. I sometimes feel bored because I can’t spend or hang out with my friends.

A good thing is that we have this app called FaceTime, so whenever I’m bored, I can just call my friends. We talk and play while we do our homework and have fun. But at the same time, I think having an online school is bad because I hate sitting in my room the whole six hrs. I remember saying I like online school, but now it’s getting boring. I think it would be better if we went to school. But I understand teachers are trying to keep us safe.

Thanks to Lyna, Nono, and Rachel for their contributions!

(This is the final post in a multipart series. You can see Part One here and Part Two here .)

The question-of-the-week:

What has your online learning experience been as a student this fall? What is working for you and why? What is not working for you and why?

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

Education Week has published a collection of posts from this blog, along with new material, in an e-book form. It’s titled Classroom Management Q&As: Expert Strategies for Teaching .

If you missed any of the highlights from the first eight years of this blog, you can see a categorized list below. The list doesn’t include ones from this current year.

• This Year’s Most Popular Q&A Posts
• Race & Racism in Schools
• School Closures & the Coronavirus Crisis
• Classroom-Management Advice
• Best Ways to Begin the School Year
• Best Ways to End the School Year
• Student Motivation & Social-Emotional Learning
• Implementing the Common Core
• Facing Gender Challenges in Education
• Teaching Social Studies.
• Cooperative & Collaborative Learning
• Using Tech in the Classroom
• Student Voices
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• Best of Classroom Q&A
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I am also creating a Twitter list including all contributors to this column

The opinions expressed in Classroom Q&A With Larry Ferlazzo are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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Effects of remote learning during COVID-19 lockdown on children’s learning abilities and school performance: A systematic review

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This systematic review describes the effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on children’s learning and school performance. A systematic search was conducted using three databases. A total of 1787 articles were found, and 24 articles were included. Overall, academic performance was negatively affected by COVID-19 lockdowns, with lower scores in standardized tests in the main domains compared to previous years. Academic, motivational, and socio-emotional factors contributed to lower performance. Educators, parents, and students reported disorganization, increased academic demands, and motivational and behavioral changes. Teachers and policymakers should consider these results in developing future education strategies.

1. Introduction

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had severe global impacts, from the deaths of millions of people to worldwide economic crises. The spread of this unprecedented disease has forced communities into social isolation, changing the ways we relate and socialize with others. Since March 11, 2020, when the World Health Organization declared a global pandemic, the world has increasingly transitioned toward remote communication, placing a virtual interface between human interactions ( Cucinotta and Vanelli, 2020 ). Children have been profoundly affected by this sudden lifestyle change. With the closure of schools and colleges, learning and education have increasingly become screen-dependent, impacting children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development ( Alban Conto et al., 2021 , Haleemunnissa et al., 2021 ).

Although remote learning benefits disease control, it has augmented socioeconomic inequalities regarding access to technological resources ( Hossain, 2021 ). During the pandemic, low-income families tended to have less access to reliable internet and devices compared with high-income families in the same city ( Francis and Weller, 2022 ). Consequently, children from less privileged households spent fewer hours learning and were more likely to drop out of school ( The Lancet, 2021 , Zagalaz-Sánchez et al., 2021 ). Indeed, UNICEF reports that the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on children’s education in Ghana were marked by a lack of access to essential tools and learning materials (such as computers and textbooks) and inadequate conditions for effective learning (overcrowded households, poor or no access to electricity, and improper space for learning). These circumstances were more common in children living in rural and remote areas. Children with disabilities and physical or learning impairments were also affected ( Karpati et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, a lack of high-quality education impacts individuals’ health and income, as well as professional opportunities in the future, because of the bidirectional links between health and education ( The Lancet, 2021 ).

Moreover, several adverse effects of remote learning on children’s mental health have been identified, mostly related to the excessive use of electronic devices and lack of in-person contact with school classmates and teachers. These reported effects include disturbed sleep patterns, attention deficits, frustration, stress, depression, and boredom ( Xie et al., 2020 ). However, positive effects of distance learning have also been reported, such as improved competitive and motor skills ( Sundus, 2017 ). Therefore, the overall impact of school closures and remote learning remains controversial.

Remote learning has also negatively affected children’s cognitive and academic performance throughout all age groups ( Colvin et al., 2022 ). Standardized assessments during and after obligatory confinement have revealed students’ difficulties meeting grade expectations, particularly in schools with less in-person class time ( Colvin et al., 2022 ). Specific academic difficulties have been reported in mathematics, language, and reading skills. More than 1.5 million students from across the United States exhibited worse performance in mathematics and reading scores compared with the previous academic year ( Colvin et al., 2022 ).

As the death rate from COVID-19 slows, people have gradually returned to in-person businesses, and schools have begun to reopen. Current evidence still needs to be more consistent regarding the effect of remote learning on academic performance. Although remote tools may facilitate access to education and allow the development of additional learning skills, the consequences of screen-dependent learning during confinement are likely to affect children in the post-COVID-19 era, and the long-term impact remains to be seen. Therefore, the current systematic review sought to describe the effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on children’s learning abilities and school performance.

2. Materials and methods

A systematic literature search was conducted on September 24, 2021, and February 3, 2023, to identify experimental, observational, or analytical studies. The search was performed in three online databases. The following terms were used in a search of PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/advanced/): (((((((((virtual) OR (virtually)) AND (learning)) AND (learning disorders)) AND (distance learning[MeSH Terms])) OR (distance education[MeSH Terms])) AND (pandemic[MeSH Terms])) OR (confinement)) AND (School children) AND (COVID-19)). For searching the Scopus database (https://www.scopus.com), we used the following terms: ALL ( virtual OR virtually AND learning AND learning AND disorders AND (“distance” AND “learning”) AND (“distance” AND “education”) AND (pandemic OR confinement) AND (“school” AND “children”) AND covid-19) AND (LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “MEDI”) OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “PSYC”) OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “HEAL”) OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “NEUR”)). Finally, for searching the Science Direct database (https://www.sciencedirect.com/search), we used the following terms: ((((((((virtual) AND (learning)) AND (learning disorders)) AND (distance learning[MeSH Terms])) OR (distance education[MeSH Terms])) AND (pandemic[MeSH Terms])) OR (confinement)) AND (school children) AND COVID-19. The ID 290696 was generated in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews.

We found 1787 articles, removed duplicates, and filtered the remaining articles by title and abstract following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines ( Fig. 1 ). Articles were excluded if they: (I) assessed the impact of COVID-19 lockdown on physical education, metabolic diseases, or visual impairment; (II) focused on paternal stress or adult academic performance; (III) focused on mental health or lifestyle implications caused by confinement without analyzing the association with learning abilities; (IV) were book chapters or narrative reviews; or (V) were published in languages other than Spanish, English, and French. Consequently, we selected 24 articles. All included articles were evaluated using the Joanna Briggs checklist to guarantee quality (https://jbi.global/critical-appraisal-tools). Finally, we extracted the following information: title, year of publication, authors, digital object identifier number, objectives, period of the study, period of confinement in the country of the study, evaluated learning area, population and sample, tests implemented for learning assessment, and overall results. In addition, a final question was answered for each study: “Did learning improve, stay the same, or worsen after lockdown?” All investigators participated in the data collection process and the preparation for data presentation and synthesis.

Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses flow diagram.

Articles included in the review were grouped based on the primary domain of children’s learning performance examined during COVID-19 lockdowns. First, children’s academic performance was clustered in mathematics, reading, language, and biology. Second, we grouped articles that examined emotional and behavioral impacts on academic performance, and those that focused on children’s, parents’, and teachers’ recollections regarding perceptions of learning ( Table 1 ). Twelve studies were conducted in Europe ( Álvarez-Guerrero et al., 2021 , Chambonnière et al., 2021 , Engzell et al., 2020 , Giménez-Dasí et al., 2020 , Haelermans et al., 2022 , Korzycka et al., 2021 , Maldonado and Witte, 2021 , Rose et al., 2021 , Scarpellini et al., 2021 , Spitzer and Musslick, 2021 , Tomasik et al., 2021 , Zagalaz-Sánchez et al., 2021 ), followed by four in Asia ( Cui et al., 2021 , Sakarneh, 2021 , Zhang et al., 2020 , Zhao et al., 2020 ), seven in North America ( Domingue et al., 2022 , Gaudreau et al., 2020 , Goldhaber et al., 2022 , Kuhfeld et al., 2022 , Kuhfeld et al., 2020 , Maulucci and Guffey, 2020 , Relyea et al., 2023 ), and one in South America ( González et al., 2022 ) ( Supplementary table ). Regarding evaluation methods, fifteen papers used standardized tests or formative assessment, eight studies used online questionnaires or surveys, and one study used an evaluation scale. Overall, we found that worsening learning outcomes were reported in 16 studies, whereas four studies reported improvements in children’s performance in mathematics, biology, and cognitive abilities, using adaptable teaching strategies for online classes. Finally, four studies reported stable learning performance. Further discussion of each study and the results is presented below.

Articles examining the impact of remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

4. Discussion

4.1. effects of covid-19 lockdowns on children’s mathematics performance.

Six of the 24 studies evaluated differences in mathematical performance before and after lockdowns ( Cui et al., 2021 , Engzell et al., 2020 , Goldhaber et al., 2022 , Kuhfeld et al., 2020 , Rose et al., 2021 , Tomasik et al., 2021 ). Of these, only one study reported improved children’s academic outcomes, comparing the relative error and absolute error rates in mathematical problem sets in 2500 German students from grades 4–10 before and during school closures ( Spitzer and Musslick, 2021 ). The results revealed a positive effect of remote learning during COVID-19 lockdowns compared with the results from the previous year, particularly in students with previous lower academic achievement ( Spitzer and Musslick, 2021 ).

The other studies that evaluated students using standardized math tests in American, Swiss, Dutch, Flemish, and British schools reported mainly lower primary school scores during and after lockdowns ( Engzell et al., 2020 , Goldhaber et al., 2022 , Kuhfeld et al., 2020 , Maldonado and Witte, 2021 , Rose et al., 2021 , Tomasik et al., 2021 ). Differences in school performance varied among primary and secondary Swiss students, with the former being the most affected group ( Tomasik et al., 2021 ). Overall academic achievement was reduced in both groups, whereas only primary school students exhibited delayed learning with a distance learning system ( Tomasik et al., 2021 ). The authors proposed that cognitive, motivational, and socio-emotional effects were contributing factors ( Spitzer and Musslick, 2021 ). These findings align with projections of slower academic development after school closures in the United States ( Goldhaber et al., 2022 , Kuhfeld et al., 2020 ). A Policy Analysis for California Education report found that by the time students completed interim winter assessments in the 2020–21 school year, they had experienced a learning lag of approximately 2.6 months in English language arts (ELA) and 2.5 months in math ( Pier et al., 2021 ). Moreover, economically disadvantaged students, English learners, and students of color experienced a more significant learning lag than students not in these groups ( Goldhaber et al., 2022 , Pier et al., 2021 ).

4.2. Effects of COVID-19 Lockdowns on Children’s reading performance

Several studies in the United States, Netherlands, and England evaluated the effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on reading abilities in children ( Domingue et al., 2022 , Engzell et al., 2020 , Gaudreau et al., 2020 , Goldhaber et al., 2022 , Kuhfeld et al., 2020 , Rose et al., 2021 , Tambyraja et al., 2021 ). Engzell et al. analyzed performance in reading and comprehension of factual and literary subjects among 350,000 primary school students in national exams before and after an 8-week lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Engzell et al., 2020 ). The results revealed a post-pandemic decrease in reading performance of more than 3 % compared with pre-pandemic test results ( Engzell et al., 2020 ). Similar unfavorable results were reported by Rose et al.’s study in England during the spring and summer of 2020 ( Rose et al., 2021 ), which followed 6000 pupils for two years and evaluated learning performance using National Foundation for Educational Research standardized tests. The results revealed significantly lower reading performance in 2020 compared with a 2017 sample, with 5.2 % of students scoring two marks fewer. Moreover, reading assessments revealed a 7-month progress delay in 2020, compared with a 2019 sample ( Rose et al., 2021 ).

In the United States, Kuhfeld et al. proposed several projections regarding the impact of COVID-19 on learning patterns in 5 million students ( Kuhfeld et al., 2020 ). Data were extracted from Measures of Academic Progress Growth assessments in the previous two years. The authors made various predictions regarding best-case scenarios through to worst-case scenarios. Projections in a partial absenteeism scenario were predicted to result in 63–68 % of the expected annual learning gains in reading, whereas full absenteeism was predicted to result in less than 30 % of learning gains in reading. In addition, variability between students’ reading performance was estimated to be 1.2 times the standard deviation normally expected ( Kuhfeld et al., 2022 ).

Several studies reported that students’ socioeconomic status was a determinant factor for negative impacts on reading performance caused by COVID-19 lockdowns ( Domingue et al., 2022 , Engzell et al., 2020 , Kuhfeld et al., 2020 , Rose et al., 2021 , Tambyraja et al., 2021 ). In the United States, studies reported that students who attended high socioeconomic-status schools achieved better academic performance and had a more robust growth level than those who attended low socioeconomic-status schools or had reduced-price lunches ( Domingue et al., 2022 ). In the Netherlands, the decrease in reading learning performance was reported to be 60 % greater in children from disadvantaged homes ( Engzell et al., 2020 , Haelermans et al., 2022 ). Moreover, in England, Rose et al. reported that the gap between disadvantaged and non-disadvantaged students was 8.28 standardized points in the test, corresponding to an 8-month learning gap between the two groups ( Rose et al., 2021 ).

However, Gaudreau et al. proposed that during the COVID-19 pandemic, children’s remote vocabulary learning, and comprehension could be supported with virtual strategies designed to contribute to the educational progress of young students ( Gaudreau et al., 2020 ). The researchers evaluated reading comprehension and vocabulary learning in 58 4-year-old children under three different storytelling format conditions: live, video chat, and prerecorded storytelling. The results revealed that reading in all three formats positively stimulated verbal learning compared with children not exposed to reading, with more significant responses reported in the live and video chat conditions ( Gaudreau et al., 2020 ).

In addition, absenteeism significantly impacts students’ reading performance, indicating greater variability between children’s academic skills ( Kuhfeld et al., 2020 ). Some reading strategies used in remote learning environments may be beneficial for reading and could be implemented by teachers ( Gaudreau et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, social, and economic inequalities may contribute to gaps in reading performance between students that could last for years, requiring substantial mitigation efforts from schools and governments.

We found only a few studies conducted in other countries. Angrist et al. estimated learning losses in terms of oral reading fluency in sub-Saharan Africa from half a year to over one year in the short term, which can accumulate over time, and children might be unable to catch up. Their estimates suggest that short-term learning deficits for a child in grade 3 could accumulate to the equivalent of 2.8 years of lost learning by grade 10 ( Angrist et al., 2021 ).

4.3. Effects of COVID-19 Lockdowns on Children’s language performance

School closures caused by COVID-19 lockdowns have been reported to affect language learning negatively. Three of the 17 included studies reported reduced performance in language standardized tests compared with previous test results ( Engzell et al., 2020 , Maldonado and Witte, 2021 , Tomasik et al., 2021 ). Maldonado et al. evaluated mathematical and language scores in a Flemish school and reported lower Dutch and French learning results than in mathematics ( Maldonado and Witte, 2021 ). The authors proposed that the lack of Dutch speaking at home contributed to lower language performance. However, this difference was not found by Engzell et al., who evaluated reading, spelling, and mathematics scores in a Dutch school and reported lower scores in all three subjects than the previous year ( Engzell et al., 2020 , Maldonado and Witte, 2021 ). Children who relied on speech and language therapy faced a more significant challenge after school closures. The lack of access to in-person therapy and the shift to newly established teletherapy modalities contributed to therapy dropout and were likely to have decreased academic achievement in this population ( Tambyraja et al., 2021 ).

4.4. Effects of COVID-19 Lockdowns on Children’s biology performance

Biology and science performance was also assessed during COVID-19 lockdowns, and different virtual strategies have been proposed by researchers ( Maulucci and Guffey, 2020 ). Maulucci et al. examined the effects of Bybee’s 5E virtual academic model in biology lessons among 71 high school students. Bybee’s 5E model was integrated into a remote biology school curriculum, following two standard courses: The Alabama Course of Study and the Next Generation Science Standards. The authors examined responses to two biology pretest questions to assess misconceptions and evaluate students’ progress. The course involved several engaging, exploring, explaining, extending, and evaluating virtual activities. Analysis of the course dynamics revealed that students who attended live lessons benefited from discussion and feedback opportunities. This finding indicates that increasing live lessons and real-time participation may increase engagement, using tools like Nearpod, Zoom, and bio-interactive platforms. Overall, the results suggest that teachers’ and students’ technology skills must be developed quickly to enable new virtual strategies that guarantee the best learning environments for students ( Maulucci and Guffey, 2020 ).

4.5. Children’s, parents, and teachers’ perceptions of learning during COVID-19

Multiple investigators have studied the perceptions of students, parents, and teachers regarding the changes in education caused by COVID-19 ( Álvarez-Guerrero et al., 2021 , Cui et al., 2021 , Korzycka et al., 2021 , Sakarneh, 2021 , Scarpellini et al., 2021 , Zagalaz-Sánchez et al., 2021 , Zhang et al., 2020 ). Here we discuss the perceptions reported in these studies, emphasizing those that involve academic performance and learning skills. We will also review how students perceive their learning process and how parents and teachers perceive it from their perspectives.

4.5.1. Perceptions of parents’ and teachers of children with special needs

Regarding students with intellectual disabilities, five studies have been conducted so far ( Álvarez-Guerrero et al., 2021 , Averett, 2021 , Sakarneh, 2021 , Scarpellini et al., 2021 , Tellier, 2022 ). Some studies revealed negative perceptions and challenges of remote learning ( Álvarez-Guerrero et al., 2021 , Averett, 2021 , Sakarneh, 2021 ). In Jordan, Sakarneh interviewed ten parents of children with special needs about their perceptions regarding the use of online platforms, behavioral changes caused by lockdowns, and the level of inclusion of education ( Sakarneh, 2021 ). Parents reported two main issues regarding remote learning adaptation: first, the lack of motivation to complete tasks individually, and second, the use of conventional teaching techniques that were not adaptable to children’s particular needs because of strict schedules and inadequate learning material ( Sakarneh, 2021 ). Studies conducted in Spain, Italy, and the US highlighted the lack of virtual accommodations for the special needs population and the lack of social skills development due to virtual interactions ( Álvarez-Guerrero et al., 2021 , Averett, 2021 , Scarpellini et al., 2021 ).

On the contrary, some parents and teachers in the US and Canada shared positive experiences with remote learning in children with disabilities. They expressed stress relief, control of mood swings, time flexibility, increased accessibility, and support due to the hard work of school staff ( Averett, 2021 , Pellicano and Stears, 2020 , Tellier, 2022 ).

Several strategies have been proposed. Utilization of concept maps, prolonged work times, and decreases in the number of tasks as well as encouraging children to ask for help, promoting the preparation of the class materials, stimulating peer discussion, familiarization with the learning platform, and using an individualized student center method ( Cui et al., 2021 , Tellier, 2022 , Zhao et al., 2020 ). In Spain, Álvarez-Guerrero et al. analyzed the Dialogic Literary Gatherings responses of five children with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities ( Álvarez-Guerrero et al., 2021 ). Teachers' and parents' perceptions were also examined. Two teachers directed the meetings once a week for six months. Visual aids, such as photographs and drawings related to the literary content, facilitated children's comprehension. In addition, the role of families in learning interaction during gatherings was essential for the transition from face-to-face to virtual dynamics. Teachers perceived the benefits of debate and discussion in cognitive and behavioral processes. Moreover, Dialogic Literary Gatherings were reported to promote children's vocabulary, comprehension, and reading abilities and enhance their interactions with society ( Álvarez-Guerrero et al., 2021 ).

4.5.2. Perceptions of parents and teachers of neurotypical children

In neurotypical children, further studies were carried out that reflected essential concerns, which can be grouped into the following clusters: perception of virtual learning disorganization, increased academic demands, motivational and behavioral changes, and particular academic impact in rural areas ( Sakarneh, 2021 , Scarpellini et al., 2021 , Zagalaz-Sánchez et al., 2021 ).

First, the overall results reported a perception of the disorganization of distance learning. In Italy, 1601 mothers were interviewed to explore their perceptions of primary and middle school children's experiences with remote learning during COVID-19 lockdowns. The results revealed that 1.5 % of children lacked access to technology, particularly primary school students who were often exposed to less structured routines. Furthermore, the results revealed diminished teacher feedback and contact compared with face-to-face teaching formats. Regarding learning assessments, primary school students performed less than in the previous academic year. In contrast, middle school grades remained consistent because of better planning of tests and oral exams ( Scarpellini et al., 2021 ). In a survey conducted in Poland, school children's concerns were regarding the lack of feedback from teachers, unclear evaluation parameters for older students, and an absence of academic progress comparison with peers among younger students ( Korzycka et al., 2021 ).

Second, the curriculum structure was a perceived concern, particularly increased academic demands. A national survey in Poland assessed adolescents' perceptions of remote learning and performance during COVID-19 lockdowns ( Korzycka et al., 2021 ). For older students, curriculum structure was identified as a difficulty, particularly increased academic demands ( Korzycka et al., 2021 ). In China, Cui et al. conducted a questionnaire with 1008 elementary school children and parents, distributed in two data collection periods, one at the beginning and the other at the end of 40 days during China's COVID-19 lockdown ( Cui et al., 2021 ). According to the results, parents agreed that the lecture format was inadequate, surpassing students' capacities and potentially promoting emotional and behavioral disturbances ( Cui et al., 2021 ).

Third, a lack of motivation and behavioral problems were commonly raised in surveys. A survey by Cui et al. revealed that a trend for decreased motivation was reflected in uncompleted homework assignments and dissatisfaction with online lessons ( Cui et al., 2021 ). Moreover, Korzycka et al. reported that lack of motivation was thought by children to be secondary to the lack of a school environment and extracurricular activities ( Korzycka et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, Italian mothers also reported behavioral changes, such as reduced attention span (< 20 min), an increased need for breaks (every 10 min), restlessness in younger children (69.1 %), and anxiety in older children (34.2 %) ( Scarpellini et al., 2021 ). In addition, living conditions during COVID-19 lockdowns significantly affected children's motivation, and the degree of happiness and fatigue were related to the size of housing ( Zagalaz-Sánchez et al., 2021 ). Specifically, larger house environments were associated with greater happiness and less fatigue, while participants that lived in rural areas had increased levels of physical activity and reading ( Zagalaz-Sánchez et al., 2021 ). A survey performed in India regarding the perception of teachers and students towards online classes reported generalized negative feedback and overall preference for regular classes and highlighted the influence of learning environments on the quality of online learning and teaching ( Selvaraj et al., 2021 ).

Finally, specific academic impacts in rural areas were also reported in three studies ( Korzycka et al., 2021 , van Cappelle et al., 2021 , Zagalaz-Sánchez et al., 2021 ). In Spain, a 45-day cross-sectional study was performed to analyze the effects of living conditions during COVID-19 on educational activities and learning processes. A sample of 837 0–12-year-old children and their families responded to a validated questionnaire, and daily life activities were compared between children from urban and rural areas. Regarding technological devices, children with higher usage tended to live in apartments, followed by children without gardens in their houses, who mostly lived in urban areas ( Zagalaz-Sánchez et al., 2021 ). In addition, students in rural areas faced significant tech-support challenges in remote learning compared with students from large cities ( Korzycka et al., 2021 ).

Similarly, a study reflecting on the findings from a UNICEF survey in India found several factors related to adolescents' perception of their learning. The frequency of teacher contact and live video classes had a positive impact. However, time spent on domestic chores significantly decreased reported levels of perceived learning ( van Cappelle et al., 2021 ).

Overall, the authors proposed that the multiple stimuli involved in remote learning can overload children’s integrating learning abilities ( Korzycka et al., 2021 ). The lack of appropriate cognitive stimulation and social interaction caused by COVID-19 lockdowns might affect learning performance, particularly in young children ( Scarpellini et al., 2021 ). Further institutional efforts should focus on comprehending social determinants to improve interventions and academic conditions for children.

4.6. Emotional and behavioral impacts on academic performance

Some previous studies have focused on understanding the emotional and behavioral factors regarding learning and academic environments during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, only three studies have sought to relate these factors to children's school performance and learning abilities ( Giménez-Dasí et al., 2020 , Zhang et al., 2020 , Zhao et al., 2020 ). For example, resilience, emotional regulation, psychiatric disorders, and behavioral changes have been examined in various studies. In Spain, Giménez-Dasí et al. evaluated psychological and behavioral effects in 167 3-to-11-year-old children and their families ( Giménez-Dasí et al., 2020 ). The System of Evaluation of Children and Adolescents questionnaire was assessed twice: before and after 4–6 weeks of lockdown. The results were divided between older (6–11-year-olds) and younger (3-year-olds) children. Older children exhibited the worst emotional regulation, attention, self-control, and willingness to study. In addition, younger children's parents reported worsening psychological states (55 % in early Childhood and 64 % in Primary education), whereas 36 % reported no change, and 17 % felt that their child's psychological state had improved ( Giménez-Dasí et al., 2020 ). Similar results were reported by Zhao et al. in 2010 school-aged children, parents, and teachers, using online questionnaires for seven days in China ( Zhao et al., 2020 ). Overall, participants reported that homeschooling methods were acceptable, whereas teachers mentioned a possible decline in children's academic performance, motivation, and focus. In addition, the results revealed that 17.6 % of respondents suspected emotional and behavioral problems in children, and 68.8 % of parents reported that their children had more than 3 h of screen time per day, which exceeds the recommendations of the American Academy of Pediatrics ( Committee on Public Education, 2001 , Zhao et al., 2020 ). Another study conducted in Spain found that online digital storytelling activity during the pandemic crisis provided primary school cognitive, emotional, and social support ( Alonso-Campuzano et al., 2021 ).

In China, Zhang et al. evaluated emotional resilience and its effects on learning skills in 896 12–14-year-old middle school children ( Zhang et al., 2020 ). In addition, different questionnaires were implemented in seventh and eighth graders during the first lockdown period. The results revealed that greater resilience contributed to a better time, environment, and resource management abilities. However, the authors reported that the follow-up duration was short and suggested further studies examining other factors, such as academic performance, family support, and technology habits ( Zhang et al., 2020 ).

5. Limitations

The number of studies selected for qualitative analysis is low, which impedes significant overall conclusions of the effects of lockdowns on academic outcomes. Although studies analyzed in this review provide general conclusions about the impact of remote learning on children's school performance, additional studies are required to further evaluate the potential moderators of learning. Furthermore, articles included in this study are heterogeneous in terms of the number of subjects, study design, and evaluation methods, which makes results difficult to compare one to another, thereby reaching subjective conclusions rather than quantitatively significant results. We also acknowledge an important geographic bias since most of the studies with significant results in academic performance were conducted in selected regions, and we found less evidence from Latin America, Africa, and other developing countries.

6. Conclusions

A relatively small number of studies examining the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on academic performance and learning abilities have been published to date. Our analysis suggested several negative consequences of lockdowns and the shift to virtual learning schemes for children's academic performance in different knowledge areas. However, in about 35 % of the studies included, no learning loss was reported; therefore, the negative impact of academic performance during lockdown should be tempered. Some contributing factors were identified: socioeconomic status (type of household and family income), access to technology, learning environment, quality of innovative remote resources, and teachers' feedback.

Furthermore, remote learning has increased the learning gap between students, including those with intellectual disabilities who face a more significant challenge. New learning strategies have been developed to improve assessment and interactive pedagogical tools for improving children's attention, motivation, and willingness to study. In addition, psychological support for the behavioral and emotional consequences of COVID-19 is needed to facilitate children's transition back into in-person learning routines. Further research should focus on the long-term learning impact on school performance after lockdown to establish truthful conclusions.

Preparation for a possible new emergency is deemed necessary. Consideration of flexible learning modalities and standardized tests for performance monitoring could help overcome language, geography, and disability barriers. In addition, psychological support for the behavioral and emotional consequences of COVID-19 is needed to facilitate children's transition back into in-person learning routines. Further research should focus on the long-term learning impact on school performance after lockdown to establish truthful conclusions.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Consent for publication.

This research received no external funding.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

María C. Cortés-Albornoz: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Sofía Ramírez-Guerrero: Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Danna P. García-Guáqueta: Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Alberto Vélez-Van-Meerbeke: Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Writing – review & editing. Claudia Talero-Gutiérrez: Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

Conflicts of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Appendix A Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version at doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102835 .

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Supplementary material

Data Availability

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• How lockdown reveals actual state of e-education in India

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