qualitative research methods in research

• Privacy Policy

Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

Also see Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Ethnographic Research -Types, Methods and Guide

Focus Groups – Steps, Examples and Guide

Explanatory Research – Types, Methods, Guide

Qualitative Research Methods

Observational Research – Methods and Guide

Phenomenology – Methods, Examples and Guide

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 28, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, qualitative vs. quantitative research | differences, examples & methods, how to do thematic analysis | step-by-step guide & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Chapter 1. Introduction

“Science is in danger, and for that reason it is becoming dangerous” -Pierre Bourdieu, Science of Science and Reflexivity

Why an Open Access Textbook on Qualitative Research Methods?

I have been teaching qualitative research methods to both undergraduates and graduate students for many years.  Although there are some excellent textbooks out there, they are often costly, and none of them, to my mind, properly introduces qualitative research methods to the beginning student (whether undergraduate or graduate student).  In contrast, this open-access textbook is designed as a (free) true introduction to the subject, with helpful, practical pointers on how to conduct research and how to access more advanced instruction.  

Textbooks are typically arranged in one of two ways: (1) by technique (each chapter covers one method used in qualitative research); or (2) by process (chapters advance from research design through publication).  But both of these approaches are necessary for the beginner student.  This textbook will have sections dedicated to the process as well as the techniques of qualitative research.  This is a true “comprehensive” book for the beginning student.  In addition to covering techniques of data collection and data analysis, it provides a road map of how to get started and how to keep going and where to go for advanced instruction.  It covers aspects of research design and research communication as well as methods employed.  Along the way, it includes examples from many different disciplines in the social sciences.

The primary goal has been to create a useful, accessible, engaging textbook for use across many disciplines.  And, let’s face it.  Textbooks can be boring.  I hope readers find this to be a little different.  I have tried to write in a practical and forthright manner, with many lively examples and references to good and intellectually creative qualitative research.  Woven throughout the text are short textual asides (in colored textboxes) by professional (academic) qualitative researchers in various disciplines.  These short accounts by practitioners should help inspire students.  So, let’s begin!

What is Research?

When we use the word research , what exactly do we mean by that?  This is one of those words that everyone thinks they understand, but it is worth beginning this textbook with a short explanation.  We use the term to refer to “empirical research,” which is actually a historically specific approach to understanding the world around us.  Think about how you know things about the world. [1] You might know your mother loves you because she’s told you she does.  Or because that is what “mothers” do by tradition.  Or you might know because you’ve looked for evidence that she does, like taking care of you when you are sick or reading to you in bed or working two jobs so you can have the things you need to do OK in life.  Maybe it seems churlish to look for evidence; you just take it “on faith” that you are loved.

Only one of the above comes close to what we mean by research.  Empirical research is research (investigation) based on evidence.  Conclusions can then be drawn from observable data.  This observable data can also be “tested” or checked.  If the data cannot be tested, that is a good indication that we are not doing research.  Note that we can never “prove” conclusively, through observable data, that our mothers love us.  We might have some “disconfirming evidence” (that time she didn’t show up to your graduation, for example) that could push you to question an original hypothesis , but no amount of “confirming evidence” will ever allow us to say with 100% certainty, “my mother loves me.”  Faith and tradition and authority work differently.  Our knowledge can be 100% certain using each of those alternative methods of knowledge, but our certainty in those cases will not be based on facts or evidence.

For many periods of history, those in power have been nervous about “science” because it uses evidence and facts as the primary source of understanding the world, and facts can be at odds with what power or authority or tradition want you to believe.  That is why I say that scientific empirical research is a historically specific approach to understand the world.  You are in college or university now partly to learn how to engage in this historically specific approach.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe, there was a newfound respect for empirical research, some of which was seriously challenging to the established church.  Using observations and testing them, scientists found that the earth was not at the center of the universe, for example, but rather that it was but one planet of many which circled the sun. [2]   For the next two centuries, the science of astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry emerged and became disciplines taught in universities.  All used the scientific method of observation and testing to advance knowledge.  Knowledge about people , however, and social institutions, however, was still left to faith, tradition, and authority.  Historians and philosophers and poets wrote about the human condition, but none of them used research to do so. [3]

It was not until the nineteenth century that “social science” really emerged, using the scientific method (empirical observation) to understand people and social institutions.  New fields of sociology, economics, political science, and anthropology emerged.  The first sociologists, people like Auguste Comte and Karl Marx, sought specifically to apply the scientific method of research to understand society, Engels famously claiming that Marx had done for the social world what Darwin did for the natural world, tracings its laws of development.  Today we tend to take for granted the naturalness of science here, but it is actually a pretty recent and radical development.

To return to the question, “does your mother love you?”  Well, this is actually not really how a researcher would frame the question, as it is too specific to your case.  It doesn’t tell us much about the world at large, even if it does tell us something about you and your relationship with your mother.  A social science researcher might ask, “do mothers love their children?”  Or maybe they would be more interested in how this loving relationship might change over time (e.g., “do mothers love their children more now than they did in the 18th century when so many children died before reaching adulthood?”) or perhaps they might be interested in measuring quality of love across cultures or time periods, or even establishing “what love looks like” using the mother/child relationship as a site of exploration.  All of these make good research questions because we can use observable data to answer them.

What is Qualitative Research?

“All we know is how to learn. How to study, how to listen, how to talk, how to tell.  If we don’t tell the world, we don’t know the world.  We’re lost in it, we die.” -Ursula LeGuin, The Telling

At its simplest, qualitative research is research about the social world that does not use numbers in its analyses.  All those who fear statistics can breathe a sigh of relief – there are no mathematical formulae or regression models in this book! But this definition is less about what qualitative research can be and more about what it is not.  To be honest, any simple statement will fail to capture the power and depth of qualitative research.  One way of contrasting qualitative research to quantitative research is to note that the focus of qualitative research is less about explaining and predicting relationships between variables and more about understanding the social world.  To use our mother love example, the question about “what love looks like” is a good question for the qualitative researcher while all questions measuring love or comparing incidences of love (both of which require measurement) are good questions for quantitative researchers. Patton writes,

Qualitative data describe.  They take us, as readers, into the time and place of the observation so that we know what it was like to have been there.  They capture and communicate someone else’s experience of the world in his or her own words.  Qualitative data tell a story. ( Patton 2002:47 )

Qualitative researchers are asking different questions about the world than their quantitative colleagues.  Even when researchers are employed in “mixed methods” research ( both quantitative and qualitative), they are using different methods to address different questions of the study.  I do a lot of research about first-generation and working-college college students.  Where a quantitative researcher might ask, how many first-generation college students graduate from college within four years? Or does first-generation college status predict high student debt loads?  A qualitative researcher might ask, how does the college experience differ for first-generation college students?  What is it like to carry a lot of debt, and how does this impact the ability to complete college on time?  Both sets of questions are important, but they can only be answered using specific tools tailored to those questions.  For the former, you need large numbers to make adequate comparisons.  For the latter, you need to talk to people, find out what they are thinking and feeling, and try to inhabit their shoes for a little while so you can make sense of their experiences and beliefs.

Examples of Qualitative Research

You have probably seen examples of qualitative research before, but you might not have paid particular attention to how they were produced or realized that the accounts you were reading were the result of hours, months, even years of research “in the field.”  A good qualitative researcher will present the product of their hours of work in such a way that it seems natural, even obvious, to the reader.  Because we are trying to convey what it is like answers, qualitative research is often presented as stories – stories about how people live their lives, go to work, raise their children, interact with one another.  In some ways, this can seem like reading particularly insightful novels.  But, unlike novels, there are very specific rules and guidelines that qualitative researchers follow to ensure that the “story” they are telling is accurate , a truthful rendition of what life is like for the people being studied.  Most of this textbook will be spent conveying those rules and guidelines.  Let’s take a look, first, however, at three examples of what the end product looks like.  I have chosen these three examples to showcase very different approaches to qualitative research, and I will return to these five examples throughout the book.  They were all published as whole books (not chapters or articles), and they are worth the long read, if you have the time.  I will also provide some information on how these books came to be and the length of time it takes to get them into book version.  It is important you know about this process, and the rest of this textbook will help explain why it takes so long to conduct good qualitative research!

Example 1 : The End Game (ethnography + interviews)

Corey Abramson is a sociologist who teaches at the University of Arizona.   In 2015 he published The End Game: How Inequality Shapes our Final Years ( 2015 ). This book was based on the research he did for his dissertation at the University of California-Berkeley in 2012.  Actually, the dissertation was completed in 2012 but the work that was produced that took several years.  The dissertation was entitled, “This is How We Live, This is How We Die: Social Stratification, Aging, and Health in Urban America” ( 2012 ).  You can see how the book version, which was written for a more general audience, has a more engaging sound to it, but that the dissertation version, which is what academic faculty read and evaluate, has a more descriptive title.  You can read the title and know that this is a study about aging and health and that the focus is going to be inequality and that the context (place) is going to be “urban America.”  It’s a study about “how” people do something – in this case, how they deal with aging and death.  This is the very first sentence of the dissertation, “From our first breath in the hospital to the day we die, we live in a society characterized by unequal opportunities for maintaining health and taking care of ourselves when ill.  These disparities reflect persistent racial, socio-economic, and gender-based inequalities and contribute to their persistence over time” ( 1 ).  What follows is a truthful account of how that is so.

Cory Abramson spent three years conducting his research in four different urban neighborhoods.  We call the type of research he conducted “comparative ethnographic” because he designed his study to compare groups of seniors as they went about their everyday business.  It’s comparative because he is comparing different groups (based on race, class, gender) and ethnographic because he is studying the culture/way of life of a group. [4]   He had an educated guess, rooted in what previous research had shown and what social theory would suggest, that people’s experiences of aging differ by race, class, and gender.  So, he set up a research design that would allow him to observe differences.  He chose two primarily middle-class (one was racially diverse and the other was predominantly White) and two primarily poor neighborhoods (one was racially diverse and the other was predominantly African American).  He hung out in senior centers and other places seniors congregated, watched them as they took the bus to get prescriptions filled, sat in doctor’s offices with them, and listened to their conversations with each other.  He also conducted more formal conversations, what we call in-depth interviews, with sixty seniors from each of the four neighborhoods.  As with a lot of fieldwork , as he got closer to the people involved, he both expanded and deepened his reach –

By the end of the project, I expanded my pool of general observations to include various settings frequented by seniors: apartment building common rooms, doctors’ offices, emergency rooms, pharmacies, senior centers, bars, parks, corner stores, shopping centers, pool halls, hair salons, coffee shops, and discount stores. Over the course of the three years of fieldwork, I observed hundreds of elders, and developed close relationships with a number of them. ( 2012:10 )

When Abramson rewrote the dissertation for a general audience and published his book in 2015, it got a lot of attention.  It is a beautifully written book and it provided insight into a common human experience that we surprisingly know very little about.  It won the Outstanding Publication Award by the American Sociological Association Section on Aging and the Life Course and was featured in the New York Times .  The book was about aging, and specifically how inequality shapes the aging process, but it was also about much more than that.  It helped show how inequality affects people’s everyday lives.  For example, by observing the difficulties the poor had in setting up appointments and getting to them using public transportation and then being made to wait to see a doctor, sometimes in standing-room-only situations, when they are unwell, and then being treated dismissively by hospital staff, Abramson allowed readers to feel the material reality of being poor in the US.  Comparing these examples with seniors with adequate supplemental insurance who have the resources to hire car services or have others assist them in arranging care when they need it, jolts the reader to understand and appreciate the difference money makes in the lives and circumstances of us all, and in a way that is different than simply reading a statistic (“80% of the poor do not keep regular doctor’s appointments”) does.  Qualitative research can reach into spaces and places that often go unexamined and then reports back to the rest of us what it is like in those spaces and places.

Example 2: Racing for Innocence (Interviews + Content Analysis + Fictional Stories)

Jennifer Pierce is a Professor of American Studies at the University of Minnesota.  Trained as a sociologist, she has written a number of books about gender, race, and power.  Her very first book, Gender Trials: Emotional Lives in Contemporary Law Firms, published in 1995, is a brilliant look at gender dynamics within two law firms.  Pierce was a participant observer, working as a paralegal, and she observed how female lawyers and female paralegals struggled to obtain parity with their male colleagues.

Fifteen years later, she reexamined the context of the law firm to include an examination of racial dynamics, particularly how elite white men working in these spaces created and maintained a culture that made it difficult for both female attorneys and attorneys of color to thrive. Her book, Racing for Innocence: Whiteness, Gender, and the Backlash Against Affirmative Action , published in 2012, is an interesting and creative blending of interviews with attorneys, content analyses of popular films during this period, and fictional accounts of racial discrimination and sexual harassment.  The law firm she chose to study had come under an affirmative action order and was in the process of implementing equitable policies and programs.  She wanted to understand how recipients of white privilege (the elite white male attorneys) come to deny the role they play in reproducing inequality.  Through interviews with attorneys who were present both before and during the affirmative action order, she creates a historical record of the “bad behavior” that necessitated new policies and procedures, but also, and more importantly , probed the participants ’ understanding of this behavior.  It should come as no surprise that most (but not all) of the white male attorneys saw little need for change, and that almost everyone else had accounts that were different if not sometimes downright harrowing.

I’ve used Pierce’s book in my qualitative research methods courses as an example of an interesting blend of techniques and presentation styles.  My students often have a very difficult time with the fictional accounts she includes.  But they serve an important communicative purpose here.  They are her attempts at presenting “both sides” to an objective reality – something happens (Pierce writes this something so it is very clear what it is), and the two participants to the thing that happened have very different understandings of what this means.  By including these stories, Pierce presents one of her key findings – people remember things differently and these different memories tend to support their own ideological positions.  I wonder what Pierce would have written had she studied the murder of George Floyd or the storming of the US Capitol on January 6 or any number of other historic events whose observers and participants record very different happenings.

This is not to say that qualitative researchers write fictional accounts.  In fact, the use of fiction in our work remains controversial.  When used, it must be clearly identified as a presentation device, as Pierce did.  I include Racing for Innocence here as an example of the multiple uses of methods and techniques and the way that these work together to produce better understandings by us, the readers, of what Pierce studied.  We readers come away with a better grasp of how and why advantaged people understate their own involvement in situations and structures that advantage them.  This is normal human behavior , in other words.  This case may have been about elite white men in law firms, but the general insights here can be transposed to other settings.  Indeed, Pierce argues that more research needs to be done about the role elites play in the reproduction of inequality in the workplace in general.

Example 3: Amplified Advantage (Mixed Methods: Survey Interviews + Focus Groups + Archives)

The final example comes from my own work with college students, particularly the ways in which class background affects the experience of college and outcomes for graduates.  I include it here as an example of mixed methods, and for the use of supplementary archival research.  I’ve done a lot of research over the years on first-generation, low-income, and working-class college students.  I am curious (and skeptical) about the possibility of social mobility today, particularly with the rising cost of college and growing inequality in general.  As one of the few people in my family to go to college, I didn’t grow up with a lot of examples of what college was like or how to make the most of it.  And when I entered graduate school, I realized with dismay that there were very few people like me there.  I worried about becoming too different from my family and friends back home.  And I wasn’t at all sure that I would ever be able to pay back the huge load of debt I was taking on.  And so I wrote my dissertation and first two books about working-class college students.  These books focused on experiences in college and the difficulties of navigating between family and school ( Hurst 2010a, 2012 ).  But even after all that research, I kept coming back to wondering if working-class students who made it through college had an equal chance at finding good jobs and happy lives,

What happens to students after college?  Do working-class students fare as well as their peers?  I knew from my own experience that barriers continued through graduate school and beyond, and that my debtload was higher than that of my peers, constraining some of the choices I made when I graduated.  To answer these questions, I designed a study of students attending small liberal arts colleges, the type of college that tried to equalize the experience of students by requiring all students to live on campus and offering small classes with lots of interaction with faculty.  These private colleges tend to have more money and resources so they can provide financial aid to low-income students.  They also attract some very wealthy students.  Because they enroll students across the class spectrum, I would be able to draw comparisons.  I ended up spending about four years collecting data, both a survey of more than 2000 students (which formed the basis for quantitative analyses) and qualitative data collection (interviews, focus groups, archival research, and participant observation).  This is what we call a “mixed methods” approach because we use both quantitative and qualitative data.  The survey gave me a large enough number of students that I could make comparisons of the how many kind, and to be able to say with some authority that there were in fact significant differences in experience and outcome by class (e.g., wealthier students earned more money and had little debt; working-class students often found jobs that were not in their chosen careers and were very affected by debt, upper-middle-class students were more likely to go to graduate school).  But the survey analyses could not explain why these differences existed.  For that, I needed to talk to people and ask them about their motivations and aspirations.  I needed to understand their perceptions of the world, and it is very hard to do this through a survey.

By interviewing students and recent graduates, I was able to discern particular patterns and pathways through college and beyond.  Specifically, I identified three versions of gameplay.  Upper-middle-class students, whose parents were themselves professionals (academics, lawyers, managers of non-profits), saw college as the first stage of their education and took classes and declared majors that would prepare them for graduate school.  They also spent a lot of time building their resumes, taking advantage of opportunities to help professors with their research, or study abroad.  This helped them gain admission to highly-ranked graduate schools and interesting jobs in the public sector.  In contrast, upper-class students, whose parents were wealthy and more likely to be engaged in business (as CEOs or other high-level directors), prioritized building social capital.  They did this by joining fraternities and sororities and playing club sports.  This helped them when they graduated as they called on friends and parents of friends to find them well-paying jobs.  Finally, low-income, first-generation, and working-class students were often adrift.  They took the classes that were recommended to them but without the knowledge of how to connect them to life beyond college.  They spent time working and studying rather than partying or building their resumes.  All three sets of students thought they were “doing college” the right way, the way that one was supposed to do college.   But these three versions of gameplay led to distinct outcomes that advantaged some students over others.  I titled my work “Amplified Advantage” to highlight this process.

These three examples, Cory Abramson’s The End Game , Jennifer Peirce’s Racing for Innocence, and my own Amplified Advantage, demonstrate the range of approaches and tools available to the qualitative researcher.  They also help explain why qualitative research is so important.  Numbers can tell us some things about the world, but they cannot get at the hearts and minds, motivations and beliefs of the people who make up the social worlds we inhabit.  For that, we need tools that allow us to listen and make sense of what people tell us and show us.  That is what good qualitative research offers us.

How Is This Book Organized?

This textbook is organized as a comprehensive introduction to the use of qualitative research methods.  The first half covers general topics (e.g., approaches to qualitative research, ethics) and research design (necessary steps for building a successful qualitative research study).  The second half reviews various data collection and data analysis techniques.  Of course, building a successful qualitative research study requires some knowledge of data collection and data analysis so the chapters in the first half and the chapters in the second half should be read in conversation with each other.  That said, each chapter can be read on its own for assistance with a particular narrow topic.  In addition to the chapters, a helpful glossary can be found in the back of the book.  Rummage around in the text as needed.

Chapter Descriptions

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Research Design Process.  How does one begin a study? What is an appropriate research question?  How is the study to be done – with what methods ?  Involving what people and sites?  Although qualitative research studies can and often do change and develop over the course of data collection, it is important to have a good idea of what the aims and goals of your study are at the outset and a good plan of how to achieve those aims and goals.  Chapter 2 provides a road map of the process.

Chapter 3 describes and explains various ways of knowing the (social) world.  What is it possible for us to know about how other people think or why they behave the way they do?  What does it mean to say something is a “fact” or that it is “well-known” and understood?  Qualitative researchers are particularly interested in these questions because of the types of research questions we are interested in answering (the how questions rather than the how many questions of quantitative research).  Qualitative researchers have adopted various epistemological approaches.  Chapter 3 will explore these approaches, highlighting interpretivist approaches that acknowledge the subjective aspect of reality – in other words, reality and knowledge are not objective but rather influenced by (interpreted through) people.

Chapter 4 focuses on the practical matter of developing a research question and finding the right approach to data collection.  In any given study (think of Cory Abramson’s study of aging, for example), there may be years of collected data, thousands of observations , hundreds of pages of notes to read and review and make sense of.  If all you had was a general interest area (“aging”), it would be very difficult, nearly impossible, to make sense of all of that data.  The research question provides a helpful lens to refine and clarify (and simplify) everything you find and collect.  For that reason, it is important to pull out that lens (articulate the research question) before you get started.  In the case of the aging study, Cory Abramson was interested in how inequalities affected understandings and responses to aging.  It is for this reason he designed a study that would allow him to compare different groups of seniors (some middle-class, some poor).  Inevitably, he saw much more in the three years in the field than what made it into his book (or dissertation), but he was able to narrow down the complexity of the social world to provide us with this rich account linked to the original research question.  Developing a good research question is thus crucial to effective design and a successful outcome.  Chapter 4 will provide pointers on how to do this.  Chapter 4 also provides an overview of general approaches taken to doing qualitative research and various “traditions of inquiry.”

Chapter 5 explores sampling .  After you have developed a research question and have a general idea of how you will collect data (Observations?  Interviews?), how do you go about actually finding people and sites to study?  Although there is no “correct number” of people to interview , the sample should follow the research question and research design.  Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research involves nonprobability sampling.  Chapter 5 explains why this is so and what qualities instead make a good sample for qualitative research.

Chapter 6 addresses the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research.  Related to epistemological issues of how we know anything about the social world, qualitative researchers understand that we the researchers can never be truly neutral or outside the study we are conducting.  As observers, we see things that make sense to us and may entirely miss what is either too obvious to note or too different to comprehend.  As interviewers, as much as we would like to ask questions neutrally and remain in the background, interviews are a form of conversation, and the persons we interview are responding to us .  Therefore, it is important to reflect upon our social positions and the knowledges and expectations we bring to our work and to work through any blind spots that we may have.  Chapter 6 provides some examples of reflexivity in practice and exercises for thinking through one’s own biases.

Chapter 7 is a very important chapter and should not be overlooked.  As a practical matter, it should also be read closely with chapters 6 and 8.  Because qualitative researchers deal with people and the social world, it is imperative they develop and adhere to a strong ethical code for conducting research in a way that does not harm.  There are legal requirements and guidelines for doing so (see chapter 8), but these requirements should not be considered synonymous with the ethical code required of us.   Each researcher must constantly interrogate every aspect of their research, from research question to design to sample through analysis and presentation, to ensure that a minimum of harm (ideally, zero harm) is caused.  Because each research project is unique, the standards of care for each study are unique.  Part of being a professional researcher is carrying this code in one’s heart, being constantly attentive to what is required under particular circumstances.  Chapter 7 provides various research scenarios and asks readers to weigh in on the suitability and appropriateness of the research.  If done in a class setting, it will become obvious fairly quickly that there are often no absolutely correct answers, as different people find different aspects of the scenarios of greatest importance.  Minimizing the harm in one area may require possible harm in another.  Being attentive to all the ethical aspects of one’s research and making the best judgments one can, clearly and consciously, is an integral part of being a good researcher.

Chapter 8 , best to be read in conjunction with chapter 7, explains the role and importance of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) .  Under federal guidelines, an IRB is an appropriately constituted group that has been formally designated to review and monitor research involving human subjects .  Every institution that receives funding from the federal government has an IRB.  IRBs have the authority to approve, require modifications to (to secure approval), or disapprove research.  This group review serves an important role in the protection of the rights and welfare of human research subjects.  Chapter 8 reviews the history of IRBs and the work they do but also argues that IRBs’ review of qualitative research is often both over-inclusive and under-inclusive.  Some aspects of qualitative research are not well understood by IRBs, given that they were developed to prevent abuses in biomedical research.  Thus, it is important not to rely on IRBs to identify all the potential ethical issues that emerge in our research (see chapter 7).

Chapter 9 provides help for getting started on formulating a research question based on gaps in the pre-existing literature.  Research is conducted as part of a community, even if particular studies are done by single individuals (or small teams).  What any of us finds and reports back becomes part of a much larger body of knowledge.  Thus, it is important that we look at the larger body of knowledge before we actually start our bit to see how we can best contribute.  When I first began interviewing working-class college students, there was only one other similar study I could find, and it hadn’t been published (it was a dissertation of students from poor backgrounds).  But there had been a lot published by professors who had grown up working class and made it through college despite the odds.  These accounts by “working-class academics” became an important inspiration for my study and helped me frame the questions I asked the students I interviewed.  Chapter 9 will provide some pointers on how to search for relevant literature and how to use this to refine your research question.

Chapter 10 serves as a bridge between the two parts of the textbook, by introducing techniques of data collection.  Qualitative research is often characterized by the form of data collection – for example, an ethnographic study is one that employs primarily observational data collection for the purpose of documenting and presenting a particular culture or ethnos.  Techniques can be effectively combined, depending on the research question and the aims and goals of the study.   Chapter 10 provides a general overview of all the various techniques and how they can be combined.

The second part of the textbook moves into the doing part of qualitative research once the research question has been articulated and the study designed.  Chapters 11 through 17 cover various data collection techniques and approaches.  Chapters 18 and 19 provide a very simple overview of basic data analysis.  Chapter 20 covers communication of the data to various audiences, and in various formats.

Chapter 11 begins our overview of data collection techniques with a focus on interviewing , the true heart of qualitative research.  This technique can serve as the primary and exclusive form of data collection, or it can be used to supplement other forms (observation, archival).  An interview is distinct from a survey, where questions are asked in a specific order and often with a range of predetermined responses available.  Interviews can be conversational and unstructured or, more conventionally, semistructured , where a general set of interview questions “guides” the conversation.  Chapter 11 covers the basics of interviews: how to create interview guides, how many people to interview, where to conduct the interview, what to watch out for (how to prepare against things going wrong), and how to get the most out of your interviews.

Chapter 12 covers an important variant of interviewing, the focus group.  Focus groups are semistructured interviews with a group of people moderated by a facilitator (the researcher or researcher’s assistant).  Focus groups explicitly use group interaction to assist in the data collection.  They are best used to collect data on a specific topic that is non-personal and shared among the group.  For example, asking a group of college students about a common experience such as taking classes by remote delivery during the pandemic year of 2020.  Chapter 12 covers the basics of focus groups: when to use them, how to create interview guides for them, and how to run them effectively.

Chapter 13 moves away from interviewing to the second major form of data collection unique to qualitative researchers – observation .  Qualitative research that employs observation can best be understood as falling on a continuum of “fly on the wall” observation (e.g., observing how strangers interact in a doctor’s waiting room) to “participant” observation, where the researcher is also an active participant of the activity being observed.  For example, an activist in the Black Lives Matter movement might want to study the movement, using her inside position to gain access to observe key meetings and interactions.  Chapter  13 covers the basics of participant observation studies: advantages and disadvantages, gaining access, ethical concerns related to insider/outsider status and entanglement, and recording techniques.

Chapter 14 takes a closer look at “deep ethnography” – immersion in the field of a particularly long duration for the purpose of gaining a deeper understanding and appreciation of a particular culture or social world.  Clifford Geertz called this “deep hanging out.”  Whereas participant observation is often combined with semistructured interview techniques, deep ethnography’s commitment to “living the life” or experiencing the situation as it really is demands more conversational and natural interactions with people.  These interactions and conversations may take place over months or even years.  As can be expected, there are some costs to this technique, as well as some very large rewards when done competently.  Chapter 14 provides some examples of deep ethnographies that will inspire some beginning researchers and intimidate others.

Chapter 15 moves in the opposite direction of deep ethnography, a technique that is the least positivist of all those discussed here, to mixed methods , a set of techniques that is arguably the most positivist .  A mixed methods approach combines both qualitative data collection and quantitative data collection, commonly by combining a survey that is analyzed statistically (e.g., cross-tabs or regression analyses of large number probability samples) with semi-structured interviews.  Although it is somewhat unconventional to discuss mixed methods in textbooks on qualitative research, I think it is important to recognize this often-employed approach here.  There are several advantages and some disadvantages to taking this route.  Chapter 16 will describe those advantages and disadvantages and provide some particular guidance on how to design a mixed methods study for maximum effectiveness.

Chapter 16 covers data collection that does not involve live human subjects at all – archival and historical research (chapter 17 will also cover data that does not involve interacting with human subjects).  Sometimes people are unavailable to us, either because they do not wish to be interviewed or observed (as is the case with many “elites”) or because they are too far away, in both place and time.  Fortunately, humans leave many traces and we can often answer questions we have by examining those traces.  Special collections and archives can be goldmines for social science research.  This chapter will explain how to access these places, for what purposes, and how to begin to make sense of what you find.

Chapter 17 covers another data collection area that does not involve face-to-face interaction with humans: content analysis .  Although content analysis may be understood more properly as a data analysis technique, the term is often used for the entire approach, which will be the case here.  Content analysis involves interpreting meaning from a body of text.  This body of text might be something found in historical records (see chapter 16) or something collected by the researcher, as in the case of comment posts on a popular blog post.  I once used the stories told by student loan debtors on the website studentloanjustice.org as the content I analyzed.  Content analysis is particularly useful when attempting to define and understand prevalent stories or communication about a topic of interest.  In other words, when we are less interested in what particular people (our defined sample) are doing or believing and more interested in what general narratives exist about a particular topic or issue.  This chapter will explore different approaches to content analysis and provide helpful tips on how to collect data, how to turn that data into codes for analysis, and how to go about presenting what is found through analysis.

Where chapter 17 has pushed us towards data analysis, chapters 18 and 19 are all about what to do with the data collected, whether that data be in the form of interview transcripts or fieldnotes from observations.  Chapter 18 introduces the basics of coding , the iterative process of assigning meaning to the data in order to both simplify and identify patterns.  What is a code and how does it work?  What are the different ways of coding data, and when should you use them?  What is a codebook, and why do you need one?  What does the process of data analysis look like?

Chapter 19 goes further into detail on codes and how to use them, particularly the later stages of coding in which our codes are refined, simplified, combined, and organized.  These later rounds of coding are essential to getting the most out of the data we’ve collected.  As students are often overwhelmed with the amount of data (a corpus of interview transcripts typically runs into the hundreds of pages; fieldnotes can easily top that), this chapter will also address time management and provide suggestions for dealing with chaos and reminders that feeling overwhelmed at the analysis stage is part of the process.  By the end of the chapter, you should understand how “findings” are actually found.

The book concludes with a chapter dedicated to the effective presentation of data results.  Chapter 20 covers the many ways that researchers communicate their studies to various audiences (academic, personal, political), what elements must be included in these various publications, and the hallmarks of excellent qualitative research that various audiences will be expecting.  Because qualitative researchers are motivated by understanding and conveying meaning , effective communication is not only an essential skill but a fundamental facet of the entire research project.  Ethnographers must be able to convey a certain sense of verisimilitude , the appearance of true reality.  Those employing interviews must faithfully depict the key meanings of the people they interviewed in a way that rings true to those people, even if the end result surprises them.  And all researchers must strive for clarity in their publications so that various audiences can understand what was found and why it is important.

The book concludes with a short chapter ( chapter 21 ) discussing the value of qualitative research. At the very end of this book, you will find a glossary of terms. I recommend you make frequent use of the glossary and add to each entry as you find examples. Although the entries are meant to be simple and clear, you may also want to paraphrase the definition—make it “make sense” to you, in other words. In addition to the standard reference list (all works cited here), you will find various recommendations for further reading at the end of many chapters. Some of these recommendations will be examples of excellent qualitative research, indicated with an asterisk (*) at the end of the entry. As they say, a picture is worth a thousand words. A good example of qualitative research can teach you more about conducting research than any textbook can (this one included). I highly recommend you select one to three examples from these lists and read them along with the textbook.

A final note on the choice of examples – you will note that many of the examples used in the text come from research on college students.  This is for two reasons.  First, as most of my research falls in this area, I am most familiar with this literature and have contacts with those who do research here and can call upon them to share their stories with you.  Second, and more importantly, my hope is that this textbook reaches a wide audience of beginning researchers who study widely and deeply across the range of what can be known about the social world (from marine resources management to public policy to nursing to political science to sexuality studies and beyond).  It is sometimes difficult to find examples that speak to all those research interests, however. A focus on college students is something that all readers can understand and, hopefully, appreciate, as we are all now or have been at some point a college student.

Recommended Reading: Other Qualitative Research Textbooks

I’ve included a brief list of some of my favorite qualitative research textbooks and guidebooks if you need more than what you will find in this introductory text.  For each, I’ve also indicated if these are for “beginning” or “advanced” (graduate-level) readers.  Many of these books have several editions that do not significantly vary; the edition recommended is merely the edition I have used in teaching and to whose page numbers any specific references made in the text agree.

Barbour, Rosaline. 2014. Introducing Qualitative Research: A Student’s Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  A good introduction to qualitative research, with abundant examples (often from the discipline of health care) and clear definitions.  Includes quick summaries at the ends of each chapter.  However, some US students might find the British context distracting and can be a bit advanced in some places.  Beginning .

Bloomberg, Linda Dale, and Marie F. Volpe. 2012. Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  Specifically designed to guide graduate students through the research process. Advanced .

Creswell, John W., and Cheryl Poth. 2018 Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions .  4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  This is a classic and one of the go-to books I used myself as a graduate student.  One of the best things about this text is its clear presentation of five distinct traditions in qualitative research.  Despite the title, this reasonably sized book is about more than research design, including both data analysis and how to write about qualitative research.  Advanced .

Lareau, Annette. 2021. Listening to People: A Practical Guide to Interviewing, Participant Observation, Data Analysis, and Writing It All Up .  Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A readable and personal account of conducting qualitative research by an eminent sociologist, with a heavy emphasis on the kinds of participant-observation research conducted by the author.  Despite its reader-friendliness, this is really a book targeted to graduate students learning the craft.  Advanced .

Lune, Howard, and Bruce L. Berg. 2018. 9th edition.  Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences.  Pearson . Although a good introduction to qualitative methods, the authors favor symbolic interactionist and dramaturgical approaches, which limits the appeal primarily to sociologists.  Beginning .

Marshall, Catherine, and Gretchen B. Rossman. 2016. 6th edition. Designing Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  Very readable and accessible guide to research design by two educational scholars.  Although the presentation is sometimes fairly dry, personal vignettes and illustrations enliven the text.  Beginning .

Maxwell, Joseph A. 2013. Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach .  3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. A short and accessible introduction to qualitative research design, particularly helpful for graduate students contemplating theses and dissertations. This has been a standard textbook in my graduate-level courses for years.  Advanced .

Patton, Michael Quinn. 2002. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  This is a comprehensive text that served as my “go-to” reference when I was a graduate student.  It is particularly helpful for those involved in program evaluation and other forms of evaluation studies and uses examples from a wide range of disciplines.  Advanced .

Rubin, Ashley T. 2021. Rocking Qualitative Social Science: An Irreverent Guide to Rigorous Research. Stanford : Stanford University Press.  A delightful and personal read.  Rubin uses rock climbing as an extended metaphor for learning how to conduct qualitative research.  A bit slanted toward ethnographic and archival methods of data collection, with frequent examples from her own studies in criminology. Beginning .

Weis, Lois, and Michelle Fine. 2000. Speed Bumps: A Student-Friendly Guide to Qualitative Research . New York: Teachers College Press.  Readable and accessibly written in a quasi-conversational style.  Particularly strong in its discussion of ethical issues throughout the qualitative research process.  Not comprehensive, however, and very much tied to ethnographic research.  Although designed for graduate students, this is a recommended read for students of all levels.  Beginning .

Patton’s Ten Suggestions for Doing Qualitative Research

The following ten suggestions were made by Michael Quinn Patton in his massive textbooks Qualitative Research and Evaluations Methods . This book is highly recommended for those of you who want more than an introduction to qualitative methods. It is the book I relied on heavily when I was a graduate student, although it is much easier to “dip into” when necessary than to read through as a whole. Patton is asked for “just one bit of advice” for a graduate student considering using qualitative research methods for their dissertation.  Here are his top ten responses, in short form, heavily paraphrased, and with additional comments and emphases from me:

• Make sure that a qualitative approach fits the research question. The following are the kinds of questions that call out for qualitative methods or where qualitative methods are particularly appropriate: questions about people’s experiences or how they make sense of those experiences; studying a person in their natural environment; researching a phenomenon so unknown that it would be impossible to study it with standardized instruments or other forms of quantitative data collection.
• Study qualitative research by going to the original sources for the design and analysis appropriate to the particular approach you want to take (e.g., read Glaser and Straus if you are using grounded theory )
• Find a dissertation adviser who understands or at least who will support your use of qualitative research methods. You are asking for trouble if your entire committee is populated by quantitative researchers, even if they are all very knowledgeable about the subject or focus of your study (maybe even more so if they are!)
• Really work on design. Doing qualitative research effectively takes a lot of planning.  Even if things are more flexible than in quantitative research, a good design is absolutely essential when starting out.
• Practice data collection techniques, particularly interviewing and observing. There is definitely a set of learned skills here!  Do not expect your first interview to be perfect.  You will continue to grow as a researcher the more interviews you conduct, and you will probably come to understand yourself a bit more in the process, too.  This is not easy, despite what others who don’t work with qualitative methods may assume (and tell you!)
• Have a plan for analysis before you begin data collection. This is often a requirement in IRB protocols , although you can get away with writing something fairly simple.  And even if you are taking an approach, such as grounded theory, that pushes you to remain fairly open-minded during the data collection process, you still want to know what you will be doing with all the data collected – creating a codebook? Writing analytical memos? Comparing cases?  Having a plan in hand will also help prevent you from collecting too much extraneous data.
• Be prepared to confront controversies both within the qualitative research community and between qualitative research and quantitative research. Don’t be naïve about this – qualitative research, particularly some approaches, will be derided by many more “positivist” researchers and audiences.  For example, is an “n” of 1 really sufficient?  Yes!  But not everyone will agree.
• Do not make the mistake of using qualitative research methods because someone told you it was easier, or because you are intimidated by the math required of statistical analyses. Qualitative research is difficult in its own way (and many would claim much more time-consuming than quantitative research).  Do it because you are convinced it is right for your goals, aims, and research questions.
• Find a good support network. This could be a research mentor, or it could be a group of friends or colleagues who are also using qualitative research, or it could be just someone who will listen to you work through all of the issues you will confront out in the field and during the writing process.  Even though qualitative research often involves human subjects, it can be pretty lonely.  A lot of times you will feel like you are working without a net.  You have to create one for yourself.  Take care of yourself.
• And, finally, in the words of Patton, “Prepare to be changed. Looking deeply at other people’s lives will force you to look deeply at yourself.”
• We will actually spend an entire chapter ( chapter 3 ) looking at this question in much more detail! ↵
• Note that this might have been news to Europeans at the time, but many other societies around the world had also come to this conclusion through observation.  There is often a tendency to equate “the scientific revolution” with the European world in which it took place, but this is somewhat misleading. ↵
• Historians are a special case here.  Historians have scrupulously and rigorously investigated the social world, but not for the purpose of understanding general laws about how things work, which is the point of scientific empirical research.  History is often referred to as an idiographic field of study, meaning that it studies things that happened or are happening in themselves and not for general observations or conclusions. ↵
• Don’t worry, we’ll spend more time later in this book unpacking the meaning of ethnography and other terms that are important here.  Note the available glossary ↵

An approach to research that is “multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.  This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.  Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials – case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives." ( Denzin and Lincoln 2005:2 ). Contrast with quantitative research .

In contrast to methodology, methods are more simply the practices and tools used to collect and analyze data.  Examples of common methods in qualitative research are interviews , observations , and documentary analysis .  One’s methodology should connect to one’s choice of methods, of course, but they are distinguishable terms.  See also methodology .

A proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation.  The positing of a hypothesis is often the first step in quantitative research but not in qualitative research.  Even when qualitative researchers offer possible explanations in advance of conducting research, they will tend to not use the word “hypothesis” as it conjures up the kind of positivist research they are not conducting.

The foundational question to be addressed by the research study.  This will form the anchor of the research design, collection, and analysis.  Note that in qualitative research, the research question may, and probably will, alter or develop during the course of the research.

An approach to research that collects and analyzes numerical data for the purpose of finding patterns and averages, making predictions, testing causal relationships, and generalizing results to wider populations.  Contrast with qualitative research .

Data collection that takes place in real-world settings, referred to as “the field;” a key component of much Grounded Theory and ethnographic research.  Patton ( 2002 ) calls fieldwork “the central activity of qualitative inquiry” where “‘going into the field’ means having direct and personal contact with people under study in their own environments – getting close to people and situations being studied to personally understand the realities of minutiae of daily life” (48).

The people who are the subjects of a qualitative study.  In interview-based studies, they may be the respondents to the interviewer; for purposes of IRBs, they are often referred to as the human subjects of the research.

The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge.  For researchers, it is important to recognize and adopt one of the many distinguishing epistemological perspectives as part of our understanding of what questions research can address or fully answer.  See, e.g., constructivism , subjectivism, and  objectivism .

An approach that refutes the possibility of neutrality in social science research.  All research is “guided by a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied” (Denzin and Lincoln 2005: 13).  In contrast to positivism , interpretivism recognizes the social constructedness of reality, and researchers adopting this approach focus on capturing interpretations and understandings people have about the world rather than “the world” as it is (which is a chimera).

The cluster of data-collection tools and techniques that involve observing interactions between people, the behaviors, and practices of individuals (sometimes in contrast to what they say about how they act and behave), and cultures in context.  Observational methods are the key tools employed by ethnographers and Grounded Theory .

Research based on data collected and analyzed by the research (in contrast to secondary “library” research).

The process of selecting people or other units of analysis to represent a larger population. In quantitative research, this representation is taken quite literally, as statistically representative.  In qualitative research, in contrast, sample selection is often made based on potential to generate insight about a particular topic or phenomenon.

A method of data collection in which the researcher asks the participant questions; the answers to these questions are often recorded and transcribed verbatim. There are many different kinds of interviews - see also semistructured interview , structured interview , and unstructured interview .

The specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.  Contrast population.

The practice of being conscious of and reflective upon one’s own social location and presence when conducting research.  Because qualitative research often requires interaction with live humans, failing to take into account how one’s presence and prior expectations and social location affect the data collected and how analyzed may limit the reliability of the findings.  This remains true even when dealing with historical archives and other content.  Who we are matters when asking questions about how people experience the world because we, too, are a part of that world.

The science and practice of right conduct; in research, it is also the delineation of moral obligations towards research participants, communities to which we belong, and communities in which we conduct our research.

An administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the institution with which it is affiliated. The IRB is charged with the responsibility of reviewing all research involving human participants. The IRB is concerned with protecting the welfare, rights, and privacy of human subjects. The IRB has the authority to approve, disapprove, monitor, and require modifications in all research activities that fall within its jurisdiction as specified by both the federal regulations and institutional policy.

Research, according to US federal guidelines, that involves “a living individual about whom an investigator (whether professional or student) conducting research:  (1) Obtains information or biospecimens through intervention or interaction with the individual, and uses, studies, or analyzes the information or biospecimens; or  (2) Obtains, uses, studies, analyzes, or generates identifiable private information or identifiable biospecimens.”

One of the primary methodological traditions of inquiry in qualitative research, ethnography is the study of a group or group culture, largely through observational fieldwork supplemented by interviews. It is a form of fieldwork that may include participant-observation data collection. See chapter 14 for a discussion of deep ethnography. 

A form of interview that follows a standard guide of questions asked, although the order of the questions may change to match the particular needs of each individual interview subject, and probing “follow-up” questions are often added during the course of the interview.  The semi-structured interview is the primary form of interviewing used by qualitative researchers in the social sciences.  It is sometimes referred to as an “in-depth” interview.  See also interview and  interview guide .

A method of observational data collection taking place in a natural setting; a form of fieldwork .  The term encompasses a continuum of relative participation by the researcher (from full participant to “fly-on-the-wall” observer).  This is also sometimes referred to as ethnography , although the latter is characterized by a greater focus on the culture under observation.

A research design that employs both quantitative and qualitative methods, as in the case of a survey supplemented by interviews.

An epistemological perspective that posits the existence of reality through sensory experience similar to empiricism but goes further in denying any non-sensory basis of thought or consciousness.  In the social sciences, the term has roots in the proto-sociologist August Comte, who believed he could discern “laws” of society similar to the laws of natural science (e.g., gravity).  The term has come to mean the kinds of measurable and verifiable science conducted by quantitative researchers and is thus used pejoratively by some qualitative researchers interested in interpretation, consciousness, and human understanding.  Calling someone a “positivist” is often intended as an insult.  See also empiricism and objectivism.

A place or collection containing records, documents, or other materials of historical interest; most universities have an archive of material related to the university’s history, as well as other “special collections” that may be of interest to members of the community.

A method of both data collection and data analysis in which a given content (textual, visual, graphic) is examined systematically and rigorously to identify meanings, themes, patterns and assumptions.  Qualitative content analysis (QCA) is concerned with gathering and interpreting an existing body of material.    

A word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data (Saldaña 2021:5).

Usually a verbatim written record of an interview or focus group discussion.

The primary form of data for fieldwork , participant observation , and ethnography .  These notes, taken by the researcher either during the course of fieldwork or at day’s end, should include as many details as possible on what was observed and what was said.  They should include clear identifiers of date, time, setting, and names (or identifying characteristics) of participants.

The process of labeling and organizing qualitative data to identify different themes and the relationships between them; a way of simplifying data to allow better management and retrieval of key themes and illustrative passages.  See coding frame and  codebook.

A methodological tradition of inquiry and approach to analyzing qualitative data in which theories emerge from a rigorous and systematic process of induction.  This approach was pioneered by the sociologists Glaser and Strauss (1967).  The elements of theory generated from comparative analysis of data are, first, conceptual categories and their properties and, second, hypotheses or generalized relations among the categories and their properties – “The constant comparing of many groups draws the [researcher’s] attention to their many similarities and differences.  Considering these leads [the researcher] to generate abstract categories and their properties, which, since they emerge from the data, will clearly be important to a theory explaining the kind of behavior under observation.” (36).

A detailed description of any proposed research that involves human subjects for review by IRB.  The protocol serves as the recipe for the conduct of the research activity.  It includes the scientific rationale to justify the conduct of the study, the information necessary to conduct the study, the plan for managing and analyzing the data, and a discussion of the research ethical issues relevant to the research.  Protocols for qualitative research often include interview guides, all documents related to recruitment, informed consent forms, very clear guidelines on the safekeeping of materials collected, and plans for de-identifying transcripts or other data that include personal identifying information.

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Qualitative Research : Definition

Qualitative research is the naturalistic study of social meanings and processes, using interviews, observations, and the analysis of texts and images.  In contrast to quantitative researchers, whose statistical methods enable broad generalizations about populations (for example, comparisons of the percentages of U.S. demographic groups who vote in particular ways), qualitative researchers use in-depth studies of the social world to analyze how and why groups think and act in particular ways (for instance, case studies of the experiences that shape political views).   

Events and Workshops

• Introduction to NVivo Have you just collected your data and wondered what to do next? Come join us for an introductory session on utilizing NVivo to support your analytical process. This session will only cover features of the software and how to import your records. Please feel free to attend any of the following sessions below: April 25th, 2024 12:30 pm - 1:45 pm Green Library - SVA Conference Room 125 May 9th, 2024 12:30 pm - 1:45 pm Green Library - SVA Conference Room 125
• Next: Choose an approach >>
• Choose an approach
• Find studies
• Learn methods
• Getting Started
• Get software
• Get data for secondary analysis
• Network with researchers

• Last Updated: May 23, 2024 1:27 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.stanford.edu/qualitative_research

Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

What is Qualitative Research? Methods, Types, Approaches and Examples

Qualitative research is a type of method that researchers use depending on their study requirements. Research can be conducted using several methods, but before starting the process, researchers should understand the different methods available to decide the best one for their study type. The type of research method needed depends on a few important criteria, such as the research question, study type, time, costs, data availability, and availability of respondents. The two main types of methods are qualitative research and quantitative research. Sometimes, researchers may find it difficult to decide which type of method is most suitable for their study. Keeping in mind a simple rule of thumb could help you make the correct decision. Quantitative research should be used to validate or test a theory or hypothesis and qualitative research should be used to understand a subject or event or identify reasons for observed patterns.  

Qualitative research methods are based on principles of social sciences from several disciplines like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. In this method, researchers try to understand the feelings and motivation of their respondents, which would have prompted them to select or give a particular response to a question. Here are two qualitative research examples :  

• Two brands (A & B) of the same medicine are available at a pharmacy. However, Brand A is more popular and has higher sales. In qualitative research , the interviewers would ideally visit a few stores in different areas and ask customers their reason for selecting either brand. Respondents may have different reasons that motivate them to select one brand over the other, such as brand loyalty, cost, feedback from friends, doctor’s suggestion, etc. Once the reasons are known, companies could then address challenges in that specific area to increase their product’s sales.  
• A company organizes a focus group meeting with a random sample of its product’s consumers to understand their opinion on a new product being launched.  

Table of Contents

What is qualitative research? 1

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data. The findings of qualitative research are expressed in words and help in understanding individuals’ subjective perceptions about an event, condition, or subject. This type of research is exploratory and is used to generate hypotheses or theories from data. Qualitative data are usually in the form of text, videos, photographs, and audio recordings. There are multiple qualitative research types , which will be discussed later.  

Qualitative research methods 2

Researchers can choose from several qualitative research methods depending on the study type, research question, the researcher’s role, data to be collected, etc.  

The following table lists the common qualitative research approaches with their purpose and examples, although there may be an overlap between some.  

Types of qualitative research 3,4

The data collection methods in qualitative research are designed to assess and understand the perceptions, motivations, and feelings of the respondents about the subject being studied. The different qualitative research types include the following:  

• In-depth or one-on-one interviews : This is one of the most common qualitative research methods and helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event. These interviews are usually conversational and encourage the respondents to express their opinions freely. Semi-structured interviews, which have open-ended questions (where the respondents can answer more than just “yes” or “no”), are commonly used. Such interviews can be either face-to-face or telephonic, and the duration can vary depending on the subject or the interviewer. Asking the right questions is essential in this method so that the interview can be led in the suitable direction. Face-to-face interviews also help interviewers observe the respondents’ body language, which could help in confirming whether the responses match.  
• Document study/Literature review/Record keeping : Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.  
• Focus groups : Usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic. Focus groups ensure constructive discussions to understand the why, what, and, how about the topic. These group meetings need not always be in-person. In recent times, online meetings are also encouraged, and online surveys could also be administered with the option to “write” subjective answers as well. However, this method is expensive and is mostly used for new products and ideas.  
• Qualitative observation : In this method, researchers collect data using their five senses—sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This method doesn’t include any measurements but only the subjective observation. For example, “The dessert served at the bakery was creamy with sweet buttercream frosting”; this observation is based on the taste perception.  

Qualitative research : Data collection and analysis

• Qualitative data collection is the process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research.  
• The data collected are usually non-numeric and subjective and could be recorded in various methods, for instance, in case of one-to-one interviews, the responses may be recorded using handwritten notes, and audio and video recordings, depending on the interviewer and the setting or duration.  
• Once the data are collected, they should be transcribed into meaningful or useful interpretations. An experienced researcher could take about 8-10 hours to transcribe an interview’s recordings. All such notes and recordings should be maintained properly for later reference.  
• Some interviewers make use of “field notes.” These are not exactly the respondents’ answers but rather some observations the interviewer may have made while asking questions and may include non-verbal cues or any information about the setting or the environment. These notes are usually informal and help verify respondents’ answers.  

2. Qualitative data analysis 

• This process involves analyzing all the data obtained from the qualitative research methods in the form of text (notes), audio-video recordings, and pictures.  
• Text analysis is a common form of qualitative data analysis in which researchers examine the social lives of the participants and analyze their words, actions, etc. in specific contexts. Social media platforms are now playing an important role in this method with researchers analyzing all information shared online.   

There are usually five steps in the qualitative data analysis process: 5

• Prepare and organize the data  
• Transcribe interviews  
• Collect and document field notes and other material  
• Review and explore the data  
• Examine the data for patterns or important observations  
• Develop a data coding system  
• Create codes to categorize and connect the data  
• Assign these codes to the data or responses  
• Review the codes  
• Identify recurring themes, opinions, patterns, etc.  
• Present the findings  
• Use the best possible method to present your observations  

The following table 6 lists some common qualitative data analysis methods used by companies to make important decisions, with examples and when to use each. The methods may be similar and can overlap.  

Characteristics of qualitative research methods 4

• Unstructured raw data : Qualitative research methods use unstructured, non-numerical data , which are analyzed to generate subjective conclusions about specific subjects, usually presented descriptively, instead of using statistical data.  
• Site-specific data collection : In qualitative research methods , data are collected at specific areas where the respondents or researchers are either facing a challenge or have a need to explore. The process is conducted in a real-world setting and participants do not need to leave their original geographical setting to be able to participate.  
• Researchers’ importance : Researchers play an instrumental role because, in qualitative research , communication with respondents is an essential part of data collection and analysis. In addition, researchers need to rely on their own observation and listening skills during an interaction and use and interpret that data appropriately.  
• Multiple methods : Researchers collect data through various methods, as listed earlier, instead of relying on a single source. Although there may be some overlap between the qualitative research methods , each method has its own significance.  
• Solving complex issues : These methods help in breaking down complex problems into more useful and interpretable inferences, which can be easily understood by everyone.  
• Unbiased responses : Qualitative research methods rely on open communication where the participants are allowed to freely express their views. In such cases, the participants trust the interviewer, resulting in unbiased and truthful responses.  
• Flexible : The qualitative research method can be changed at any stage of the research. The data analysis is not confined to being done at the end of the research but can be done in tandem with data collection. Consequently, based on preliminary analysis and new ideas, researchers have the liberty to change the method to suit their objective.  

When to use qualitative research   4

The following points will give you an idea about when to use qualitative research .  

• When the objective of a research study is to understand behaviors and patterns of respondents, then qualitative research is the most suitable method because it gives a clear insight into the reasons for the occurrence of an event.  
• A few use cases for qualitative research methods include:  
• New product development or idea generation  
• Strengthening a product’s marketing strategy  
• Conducting a SWOT analysis of product or services portfolios to help take important strategic decisions  
• Understanding purchasing behavior of consumers  
• Understanding reactions of target market to ad campaigns  
• Understanding market demographics and conducting competitor analysis  
• Understanding the effectiveness of a new treatment method in a particular section of society  

A qualitative research method case study to understand when to use qualitative research 7

Context : A high school in the US underwent a turnaround or conservatorship process and consequently experienced a below average teacher retention rate. Researchers conducted qualitative research to understand teachers’ experiences and perceptions of how the turnaround may have influenced the teachers’ morale and how this, in turn, would have affected teachers’ retention.  

Method : Purposive sampling was used to select eight teachers who were employed with the school before the conservatorship process and who were subsequently retained. One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with these teachers. The questions addressed teachers’ perspectives of morale and their views on the conservatorship process.  

Results : The study generated six factors that may have been influencing teachers’ perspectives: powerlessness, excessive visitations, loss of confidence, ineffective instructional practices, stress and burnout, and ineffective professional development opportunities. Based on these factors, four recommendations were made to increase teacher retention by boosting their morale.  

Advantages of qualitative research 1

• Reflects real-world settings , and therefore allows for ambiguities in data, as well as the flexibility to change the method based on new developments.  
• Helps in understanding the feelings or beliefs of the respondents rather than relying only on quantitative data.  
• Uses a descriptive and narrative style of presentation, which may be easier to understand for people from all backgrounds.  
• Some topics involving sensitive or controversial content could be difficult to quantify and so qualitative research helps in analyzing such content.  
• The availability of multiple data sources and research methods helps give a holistic picture.  
• There’s more involvement of participants, which gives them an assurance that their opinion matters, possibly leading to unbiased responses.   

Disadvantages of qualitative research 1

• Large-scale data sets cannot be included because of time and cost constraints.  
• Ensuring validity and reliability may be a challenge because of the subjective nature of the data, so drawing definite conclusions could be difficult.  
• Replication by other researchers may be difficult for the same contexts or situations.  
• Generalization to a wider context or to other populations or settings is not possible.  
• Data collection and analysis may be time consuming.  
• Researcher’s interpretation may alter the results causing an unintended bias.  

Differences between qualitative research and quantitative research 1

Frequently asked questions on qualitative research  

Q: how do i know if qualitative research is appropriate for my study  .

A: Here’s a simple checklist you could use:  

• Not much is known about the subject being studied.  
• There is a need to understand or simplify a complex problem or situation.  
• Participants’ experiences/beliefs/feelings are required for analysis.  
• There’s no existing hypothesis to begin with, rather a theory would need to be created after analysis.  
• You need to gather in-depth understanding of an event or subject, which may not need to be supported by numeric data.  

Q: How do I ensure the reliability and validity of my qualitative research findings?  

A: To ensure the validity of your qualitative research findings you should explicitly state your objective and describe clearly why you have interpreted the data in a particular way. Another method could be to connect your data in different ways or from different perspectives to see if you reach a similar, unbiased conclusion.   

To ensure reliability, always create an audit trail of your qualitative research by describing your steps and reasons for every interpretation, so that if required, another researcher could trace your steps to corroborate your (or their own) findings. In addition, always look for patterns or consistencies in the data collected through different methods.  

Q: Are there any sampling strategies or techniques for qualitative research ?   

A: Yes, the following are few common sampling strategies used in qualitative research :  

1. Convenience sampling  

Selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.  

2. Purposive sampling  

Participants are grouped according to predefined criteria based on a specific research question. Sample sizes are often determined based on theoretical saturation (when new data no longer provide additional insights).  

3. Snowball sampling  

Already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.  

4. Quota sampling  

While designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.  

Q: What ethical standards need to be followed with qualitative research ?  

A: The following ethical standards should be considered in qualitative research:  

• Anonymity : The participants should never be identified in the study and researchers should ensure that no identifying information is mentioned even indirectly.  
• Confidentiality : To protect participants’ confidentiality, ensure that all related documents, transcripts, notes are stored safely.  
• Informed consent : Researchers should clearly communicate the objective of the study and how the participants’ responses will be used prior to engaging with the participants.  

Q: How do I address bias in my qualitative research ?  

  A: You could use the following points to ensure an unbiased approach to your qualitative research :  

• Check your interpretations of the findings with others’ interpretations to identify consistencies.  
• If possible, you could ask your participants if your interpretations convey their beliefs to a significant extent.  
• Data triangulation is a way of using multiple data sources to see if all methods consistently support your interpretations.  
• Contemplate other possible explanations for your findings or interpretations and try ruling them out if possible.  
• Conduct a peer review of your findings to identify any gaps that may not have been visible to you.  
• Frame context-appropriate questions to ensure there is no researcher or participant bias.

We hope this article has given you answers to the question “ what is qualitative research ” and given you an in-depth understanding of the various aspects of qualitative research , including the definition, types, and approaches, when to use this method, and advantages and disadvantages, so that the next time you undertake a study you would know which type of research design to adopt.  

References:  

• McLeod, S. A. Qualitative vs. quantitative research. Simply Psychology [Accessed January 17, 2023]. www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html    
• Omniconvert website [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://www.omniconvert.com/blog/qualitative-research-definition-methodology-limitation-examples/  
• Busetto L., Wick W., Gumbinger C. How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and Practice [Accessed January 19, 2023] https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-020-00059  
• QuestionPro website. Qualitative research methods: Types & examples [Accessed January 16, 2023]. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-research-methods/  
• Campuslabs website. How to analyze qualitative data [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://baselinesupport.campuslabs.com/hc/en-us/articles/204305675-How-to-analyze-qualitative-data  
• Thematic website. Qualitative data analysis: Step-by-guide [Accessed January 20, 2023]. https://getthematic.com/insights/qualitative-data-analysis/  
• Lane L. J., Jones D., Penny G. R. Qualitative case study of teachers’ morale in a turnaround school. Research in Higher Education Journal . https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1233111.pdf  
• Meetingsnet website. 7 FAQs about qualitative research and CME [Accessed January 21, 2023]. https://www.meetingsnet.com/cme-design/7-faqs-about-qualitative-research-and-cme     
• Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Khoury College of Computer Sciences. Northeastern University. https://course.ccs.neu.edu/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf  

Researcher.Life is a subscription-based platform that unifies the best AI tools and services designed to speed up, simplify, and streamline every step of a researcher’s journey. The Researcher.Life All Access Pack is a one-of-a-kind subscription that unlocks full access to an AI writing assistant, literature recommender, journal finder, scientific illustration tool, and exclusive discounts on professional publication services from Editage.  

Based on 21+ years of experience in academia, Researcher.Life All Access empowers researchers to put their best research forward and move closer to success. Explore our top AI Tools pack, AI Tools + Publication Services pack, or Build Your Own Plan. Find everything a researcher needs to succeed, all in one place –  Get All Access now starting at just $17 a month !    

Related Posts

What is a Case Study in Research? Definition, Methods, and Examples

Take Top AI Tools for Researchers for a Spin with the Editage All Access 7-Day Pass!

Qualitative research: methods and examples

Last updated

13 April 2023

Reviewed by

Qualitative research involves gathering and evaluating non-numerical information to comprehend concepts, perspectives, and experiences. It’s also helpful for obtaining in-depth insights into a certain subject or generating new research ideas. 

As a result, qualitative research is practical if you want to try anything new or produce new ideas.

There are various ways you can conduct qualitative research. In this article, you'll learn more about qualitative research methodologies, including when you should use them.

Make research less tedious

Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a broad term describing various research types that rely on asking open-ended questions. Qualitative research investigates “how” or “why” certain phenomena occur. It is about discovering the inherent nature of something.

The primary objective of qualitative research is to understand an individual's ideas, points of view, and feelings. In this way, collecting in-depth knowledge of a specific topic is possible. Knowing your audience's feelings about a particular subject is important for making reasonable research conclusions.

Unlike quantitative research , this approach does not involve collecting numerical, objective data for statistical analysis. Qualitative research is used extensively in education, sociology, health science, history, and anthropology.

• Types of qualitative research methodology

Typically, qualitative research aims at uncovering the attitudes and behavior of the target audience concerning a specific topic. For example,  “How would you describe your experience as a new Dovetail user?”

Some of the methods for conducting qualitative analysis include:

Focus groups

Hosting a focus group is a popular qualitative research method. It involves obtaining qualitative data from a limited sample of participants. In a moderated version of a focus group, the moderator asks participants a series of predefined questions. They aim to interact and build a group discussion that reveals their preferences, candid thoughts, and experiences.

Unmoderated, online focus groups are increasingly popular because they eliminate the need to interact with people face to face.

Focus groups can be more cost-effective than 1:1 interviews or studying a group in a natural setting and reporting one’s observations.

Focus groups make it possible to gather multiple points of view quickly and efficiently, making them an excellent choice for testing new concepts or conducting market research on a new product.

However, there are some potential drawbacks to this method. It may be unsuitable for sensitive or controversial topics. Participants might be reluctant to disclose their true feelings or respond falsely to conform to what they believe is the socially acceptable answer (known as response bias).

Case study research

A case study is an in-depth evaluation of a specific person, incident, organization, or society. This type of qualitative research has evolved into a broadly applied research method in education, law, business, and the social sciences.

Even though case study research may appear challenging to implement, it is one of the most direct research methods. It requires detailed analysis, broad-ranging data collection methodologies, and a degree of existing knowledge about the subject area under investigation.

Historical model

The historical approach is a distinct research method that deeply examines previous events to better understand the present and forecast future occurrences of the same phenomena. Its primary goal is to evaluate the impacts of history on the present and hence discover comparable patterns in the present to predict future outcomes.

Oral history

This qualitative data collection method involves gathering verbal testimonials from individuals about their personal experiences. It is widely used in historical disciplines to offer counterpoints to established historical facts and narratives. The most common methods of gathering oral history are audio recordings, analysis of auto-biographical text, videos, and interviews.

Qualitative observation

One of the most fundamental, oldest research methods, qualitative observation , is the process through which a researcher collects data using their senses of sight, smell, hearing, etc. It is used to observe the properties of the subject being studied. For example, “What does it look like?” As research methods go, it is subjective and depends on researchers’ first-hand experiences to obtain information, so it is prone to bias. However, it is an excellent way to start a broad line of inquiry like, “What is going on here?”

Record keeping and review

Record keeping uses existing documents and relevant data sources that can be employed for future studies. It is equivalent to visiting the library and going through publications or any other reference material to gather important facts that will likely be used in the research.

Grounded theory approach

The grounded theory approach is a commonly used research method employed across a variety of different studies. It offers a unique way to gather, interpret, and analyze. With this approach, data is gathered and analyzed simultaneously.  Existing analysis frames and codes are disregarded, and data is analyzed inductively, with new codes and frames generated from the research.

Ethnographic research

Ethnography  is a descriptive form of a qualitative study of people and their cultures. Its primary goal is to study people's behavior in their natural environment. This method necessitates that the researcher adapts to their target audience's setting. 

Thereby, you will be able to understand their motivation, lifestyle, ambitions, traditions, and culture in situ. But, the researcher must be prepared to deal with geographical constraints while collecting data i.e., audiences can’t be studied in a laboratory or research facility.

This study can last from a couple of days to several years. Thus, it is time-consuming and complicated, requiring you to have both the time to gather the relevant data as well as the expertise in analyzing, observing, and interpreting data to draw meaningful conclusions.

Narrative framework

A narrative framework is a qualitative research approach that relies on people's written text or visual images. It entails people analyzing these events or narratives to determine certain topics or issues. With this approach, you can understand how people represent themselves and their experiences to a larger audience.

Phenomenological approach

The phenomenological study seeks to investigate the experiences of a particular phenomenon within a group of individuals or communities. It analyzes a certain event through interviews with persons who have witnessed it to determine the connections between their views. Even though this method relies heavily on interviews, other data sources (recorded notes), and observations could be employed to enhance the findings.

• Qualitative research methods (tools)

Some of the instruments involved in qualitative research include:

Document research: Also known as document analysis because it involves evaluating written documents. These can include personal and non-personal materials like archives, policy publications, yearly reports, diaries, or letters.

Focus groups:  This is where a researcher poses questions and generates conversation among a group of people. The major goal of focus groups is to examine participants' experiences and knowledge, including research into how and why individuals act in various ways.

Secondary study: Involves acquiring existing information from texts, images, audio, or video recordings.

Observations:   This requires thorough field notes on everything you see, hear, or experience. Compared to reported conduct or opinion, this study method can assist you in getting insights into a specific situation and observable behaviors.

Structured interviews :  In this approach, you will directly engage people one-on-one. Interviews are ideal for learning about a person's subjective beliefs, motivations, and encounters.

Surveys:  This is when you distribute questionnaires containing open-ended questions

Free AI content analysis generator

Make sense of your research by automatically summarizing key takeaways through our free content analysis tool.

• What are common examples of qualitative research?

Everyday examples of qualitative research include:

Conducting a demographic analysis of a business

For instance, suppose you own a business such as a grocery store (or any store) and believe it caters to a broad customer base, but after conducting a demographic analysis, you discover that most of your customers are men.

You could do 1:1 interviews with female customers to learn why they don't shop at your store.

In this case, interviewing potential female customers should clarify why they don't find your shop appealing. It could be because of the products you sell or a need for greater brand awareness, among other possible reasons.

Launching or testing a new product

Suppose you are the product manager at a SaaS company looking to introduce a new product. Focus groups can be an excellent way to determine whether your product is marketable.

In this instance, you could hold a focus group with a sample group drawn from your intended audience. The group will explore the product based on its new features while you ensure adequate data on how users react to the new features. The data you collect will be key to making sales and marketing decisions.

Conducting studies to explain buyers' behaviors

You can also use qualitative research to understand existing buyer behavior better. Marketers analyze historical information linked to their businesses and industries to see when purchasers buy more.

Qualitative research can help you determine when to target new clients and peak seasons to boost sales by investigating the reason behind these behaviors.

• Qualitative research: data collection

Data collection is gathering information on predetermined variables to gain appropriate answers, test hypotheses, and analyze results. Researchers will collect non-numerical data for qualitative data collection to obtain detailed explanations and draw conclusions.

To get valid findings and achieve a conclusion in qualitative research, researchers must collect comprehensive and multifaceted data.

Qualitative data is usually gathered through interviews or focus groups with videotapes or handwritten notes. If there are recordings, they are transcribed before the data analysis process. Researchers keep separate folders for the recordings acquired from each focus group when collecting qualitative research data to categorize the data.

• Qualitative research: data analysis

Qualitative data analysis is organizing, examining, and interpreting qualitative data. Its main objective is identifying trends and patterns, responding to research questions, and recommending actions based on the findings. Textual analysis is a popular method for analyzing qualitative data.

Textual analysis differs from other qualitative research approaches in that researchers consider the social circumstances of study participants to decode their words, behaviors, and broader meaning. 

Learn more about qualitative research data analysis software

• When to use qualitative research

Qualitative research is helpful in various situations, particularly when a researcher wants to capture accurate, in-depth insights. 

Here are some instances when qualitative research can be valuable:

Examining your product or service to improve your marketing approach

When researching market segments, demographics, and customer service teams

Identifying client language when you want to design a quantitative survey

When attempting to comprehend your or someone else's strengths and weaknesses

Assessing feelings and beliefs about societal and public policy matters

Collecting information about a business or product's perception

Analyzing your target audience's reactions to marketing efforts

When launching a new product or coming up with a new idea

When seeking to evaluate buyers' purchasing patterns

• Qualitative research methods vs. quantitative research methods

Qualitative research examines people's ideas and what influences their perception, whereas quantitative research draws conclusions based on numbers and measurements.

Qualitative research is descriptive, and its primary goal is to comprehensively understand people's attitudes, behaviors, and ideas.

In contrast, quantitative research is more restrictive because it relies on numerical data and analyzes statistical data to make decisions. This research method assists researchers in gaining an initial grasp of the subject, which deals with numbers. For instance, the number of customers likely to purchase your products or use your services.

What is the most important feature of qualitative research?

A distinguishing feature of qualitative research is that it’s conducted in a real-world setting instead of a simulated environment. The researcher is examining actual phenomena instead of experimenting with different variables to see what outcomes (data) might result.

Can I use qualitative and quantitative approaches together in a study?

Yes, combining qualitative and quantitative research approaches happens all the time and is known as mixed methods research. For example, you could study individuals’ perceived risk in a certain scenario, such as how people rate the safety or riskiness of a given neighborhood. Simultaneously, you could analyze historical data objectively, indicating how safe or dangerous that area has been in the last year. To get the most out of mixed-method research, it’s important to understand the pros and cons of each methodology, so you can create a thoughtfully designed study that will yield compelling results.

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 18 April 2023

Last updated: 27 February 2023

Last updated: 6 February 2023

Last updated: 6 October 2023

Last updated: 5 February 2023

Last updated: 16 April 2023

Last updated: 7 March 2023

Last updated: 9 March 2023

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 5 March 2024

Last updated: 13 May 2024

Latest articles

Related topics, .css-je19u9{-webkit-align-items:flex-end;-webkit-box-align:flex-end;-ms-flex-align:flex-end;align-items:flex-end;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-box-flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;justify-content:center;row-gap:0;text-align:center;max-width:671px;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}}@media (max-width: 799px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}} decide what to .css-1kiodld{max-height:56px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-1kiodld{display:none;}} build next, decide what to build next.

Users report unexpectedly high data usage, especially during streaming sessions.

Users find it hard to navigate from the home page to relevant playlists in the app.

It would be great to have a sleep timer feature, especially for bedtime listening.

I need better filters to find the songs or artists I’m looking for.

Log in or sign up

Get started for free

Research Methodologies

• Quantitative Research Methodologies

Qualitative Research Methodologies

• Systematic Reviews
• Finding Articles by Methodology
• Design Your Research Project

Library Help

What is qualitative research.

Qualitative research methodologies seek to capture information that often can't be expressed numerically. These methodologies often include some level of interpretation from researchers as they collect information via observation, coded survey or interview responses, and so on. Researchers may use multiple qualitative methods in one study, as well as a theoretical or critical framework to help them interpret their data.

Qualitative research methods can be used to study:

• How are political and social attitudes formed? 
• How do people make decisions?
• What teaching or training methods are most effective?  

Qualitative Research Approaches

Action research.

In this type of study, researchers will actively pursue some kind of intervention, resolve a problem, or affect some kind of change. They will not only analyze the results but will also examine the challenges encountered through the process. 

Ethnography

Ethnographies are an in-depth, holistic type of research used to capture cultural practices, beliefs, traditions, and so on. Here, the researcher observes and interviews members of a culture — an ethnic group, a clique, members of a religion, etc. — and then analyzes their findings. 

Grounded Theory

Researchers will create and test a hypothesis using qualitative data. Often, researchers use grounded theory to understand decision-making, problem-solving, and other types of behavior.

Narrative Research

Researchers use this type of framework to understand different aspects of the human experience and how their subjects assign meaning to their experiences. Researchers use interviews to collect data from a small group of subjects, then discuss those results in the form of a narrative or story.

Phenomenology

This type of research attempts to understand the lived experiences of a group and/or how members of that group find meaning in their experiences. Researchers use interviews, observation, and other qualitative methods to collect data. 

Often used to share novel or unique information, case studies consist of a detailed, in-depth description of a single subject, pilot project, specific events, and so on. 

• Hossain, M.S., Runa, F., & Al Mosabbir, A. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on rare diseases: A case study on thalassaemia patients in Bangladesh. Public Health in Practice, 2(100150), 1-3.
• Nožina, M. (2021). The Czech Rhino connection: A case study of Vietnamese wildlife trafficking networks’ operations across central Europe. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 27(2), 265-283.

Focus Groups

Researchers will recruit people to answer questions in small group settings. Focus group members may share similar demographics or be diverse, depending on the researchers' needs. Group members will then be asked a series of questions and have their responses recorded. While these responses may be coded and discussed numerically (e.g., 50% of group members responded negatively to a question), researchers will also use responses to provide context, nuance, and other details. 

• Dichabeng, P., Merat, N., & Markkula, G. (2021). Factors that influence the acceptance of future shared automated vehicles – A focus group study with United Kingdom drivers. Transportation Research: Part F, 82, 121–140.
• Maynard, E., Barton, S., Rivett, K., Maynard, O., & Davies, W. (2021). Because ‘grown-ups don’t always get it right’: Allyship with children in research—From research question to authorship. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 18(4), 518–536.

Observational Study

Researchers will arrange to observe (usually in an unobtrusive way) a set of subjects in specific conditions. For example, researchers might visit a school cafeteria to learn about the food choices students make or set up trail cameras to collect information about animal behavior in the area. 

• He, J. Y., Chan, P. W., Li, Q. S., Li, L., Zhang, L., & Yang, H. L. (2022). Observations of wind and turbulence structures of Super Typhoons Hato and Mangkhut over land from a 356 m high meteorological tower. Atmospheric Research, 265(105910), 1-18.
• Zerovnik Spela, Kos Mitja, & Locatelli Igor. (2022). Initiation of insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes: An observational study. Acta Pharmaceutica, 72(1), 147–157.

Open-Ended Surveys

Unlike quantitative surveys, open-ended surveys require respondents to answer the questions in their own words. 

• Mujcic, A., Blankers, M., Yildirim, D., Boon, B., & Engels, R. (2021). Cancer survivors’ views on digital support for smoking cessation and alcohol moderation: a survey and qualitative study. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1-13.
• Smith, S. D., Hall, J. P., & Kurth, N. K. (2021). Perspectives on health policy from people with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 32(3), 224–232.

Structured or Semi-Structured Interviews

Researchers will recruit a small number of people who fit pre-determined criteria (e.g., people in a certain profession) and ask each the same set of questions, one-on-one. Semi-structured interviews will include opportunities for the interviewee to provide additional information they weren't asked about by the researcher.

• Gibbs, D., Haven-Tang, C., & Ritchie, C. (2021). Harmless flirtations or co-creation? Exploring flirtatious encounters in hospitable experiences. Tourism & Hospitality Research, 21(4), 473–486.
• Call : 801.863.8840
• Text : 801.290.8123
• In-Person Help
• Email a Librarian
• Make an Appointment
• << Previous: Quantitative Research Methodologies
• Next: Systematic Reviews >>
• Last Updated: Jun 20, 2024 3:16 PM
• URL: https://uvu.libguides.com/methods

What is Qualitative Research? Methods and Examples

• Share on Twitter Share on Twitter
• Share on Facebook Share on Facebook
• Share on LinkedIn Share on LinkedIn

Forage puts students first. Our blog articles are written independently by our editorial team. They have not been paid for or sponsored by our partners. See our full  editorial guidelines .

Qualitative research seeks to gain insights and understand people’s experiences and perspectives by studying social organizations and human behavior. Data in qualitative studies focuses on people’s beliefs and emotional responses. Qualitative data is especially helpful when a company wants to know how customers feel about a product or service, such as in user experience (UX) design or marketing . 

In this guide, we’ll go over:

Qualitative Research Definition

Qualitative research methods and examples, advantages and disadvantages of qualitative approaches, qualitative vs. quantitative research, showing qualitative research skills on resumes.

Researchers use qualitative approaches to “determine answers to research questions on human behavior and the cultural values that drive our thinking and behavior,” says Margaret J. King, director at The Center for Cultural Studies & Analysis in Philadelphia.

Data in qualitative research typically can’t be assessed mathematically — the data is not sets of numbers or quantifiable information. Rather, it’s collections of images, words, notes on behaviors, descriptions of emotions, and historical context. Data is collected through observations, interviews, surveys, focus groups, and secondary research. 

However, a qualitative study needs a “clear research question at its base,” notes King, and the research needs to be “observed, categorized, compared, and evaluated (along a scale or by a typology chart) by reference to a baseline in order to determine an outcome with value as new and reliable information.”

Who Uses Qualitative Research?

Researchers in social sciences and humanities often use qualitative research methods, especially in specific areas of study like anthropology, history, education, and sociology. 

Qualitative methods are also applicable in business, technology , and marketing spaces. For example, product managers use qualitative research to understand how target audiences respond to their products. They may use focus groups to gain insights from potential customers on product prototypes and improvements or surveys from existing customers to understand what changes users want to see. 

Accenture and New York Jobs CEO Council Product Design

Learn how qualitative methods inform product development with Accenture's free job simulation.

Avg. Time: 4 hours

Skills you’ll build: Research, user research, user design, product design, critical thinking, product design

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is an inductive approach to theory development. In many forms of research, you begin with a hypothesis and then test it to see if you’re correct. In grounded theory, though, you go in without any assumptions and rely on the data you collect to form theories. You start with an open question about a phenomenon you are studying and collect and analyze data until you can form a fully-fledged theory from the information. 

Example: A company wants to improve its brand and marketing strategies. The company performs a grounded theory approach to solving this problem by conducting interviews and surveys with past, current, and prospective customers. The information gathered from these methods helps the company understand what type of branding and marketing their customer-base likes and dislikes, allowing the team to inductively craft a new brand and marketing strategy from the data. 

Action Research

Action research is one part study and one part problem-solving. Through action research, analysts investigate a problem or weakness and develop practical solutions. The process of action research is cyclical —- researchers assess solutions for efficiency and effectiveness and create further solutions to correct any issues found. 

Example: A manager notices her employees struggle to cooperate on group projects. She carefully reviews how team members interact with each other and asks them all to respond to a survey about communication. Through the survey and study, she finds that guidelines for group projects are unclear. After changing the guidelines, she reviews her team again to see if there are any changes to their behavior.  

>>MORE: Explore how action research helps consultants serve clients with Accenture’s Client Research and Problem Identification job simulation .

Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research investigates a phenomenon in depth, looking at people’s experiences and understanding of the situation. This sort of study is primarily descriptive and seeks to broaden understanding around a specific incident and the people involved. Researchers in phenomenological studies must be careful to set aside any biases or assumptions because the information used should be entirely from the subjects themselves. 

Example : A researcher wants to better understand the lived experience of college students with jobs. The purpose of this research is to gain insights into the pressures of college students who balance studying and working at the same time. The researcher conducts a series of interviews with several college students, learning about their past and current situations. Through the first few interviews, the researcher builds a relationship with the students. Later discussions are more targeted, with questions prompting the students to discuss their emotions surrounding both work and school and the difficulties and benefits arising from their situation. The researcher then analyzes these interviews, and identifies shared themes to contextualize the experiences of the students. 

Ethnography

Ethnography is an immersive study of a particular culture or community. Through ethnographic research, analysts aim to learn about a group’s conventions, social dynamics, and cultural norms. Some researchers use active observation methods, finding ways to integrate themselves into the culture as much as possible. Others use passive observation, watching closely from the outside but not fully immersing themselves. 

Example: A company hires an external researcher to learn what their company’s culture is actually like. The researcher studies the social dynamics of the employees and may even look at how these employees interact with clients and with each other outside of the office. The goal is to deliver a comprehensive report of the company’s culture and the social dynamics of its employees. 

Case Studies

A case study is a type of in-depth analysis of a situation. Case studies can focus on an organization, belief system, event, person, or action. The goal of a case study is to understand the phenomenon and put it in a real-world context. Case studies are also commonly used in marketing and sales to highlight the benefits of a company’s products or services. 

Example: A business performs a case study of its competitors’ strategies. This case study aims to show why the company should adopt a specific business strategy. The study looks at each competitor’s business structure, marketing campaigns, product offerings, and historical growth trends. Then, using this data on other businesses, the researcher can theorize how that strategy would benefit their company. 

>>MORE: Learn how companies use case study interviews to assess candidates’ research and problem-solving skills. 

Qualitative research methods are great for generating new ideas. The exploratory nature of qualitative research means uncovering unexpected information, which often leads to new theories and further research topics. Additionally, qualitative findings feel meaningful. These studies focus on people, emotions, and societies and may feel closer to their communities than quantitative research that relies on more mathematical and logical data. 

However, qualitative research can be unreliable at times. It’s difficult to replicate qualitative studies since people’s opinions and emotions can change quickly. For example, a focus group has a lot of variables that can affect the outcome, and that same group, asked the same questions a year later, may have entirely different responses. The data collection can also be difficult and time-consuming with qualitative research. Ultimately, interviewing people, reviewing surveys, and understanding and explaining human emotions can be incredibly complex. 

Showcase new skills

Build the confidence and practical skills that employers are looking for with Forage’s free job simulations.

While qualitative research deals with data that isn’t easily manipulated by mathematics, quantitative research almost exclusively involves numbers and numerical data. Quantitative studies aim to find concrete details, like units of time, percentages, or statistics. 

Besides the types of data used, a core difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the idea of control and replication. 

“Qualitative is less subject to control (as in lab studies) and, therefore, less statistically measurable than quantitative approaches,” says King.

One person’s interview about a specific topic can have completely different responses than every other person’s interview since there are so many variables in qualitative research. On the other hand, quantitative studies can often be replicated. For instance, when testing the effects of a new medication, quantifiable data, like blood test results, can be repeated. Qualitative data, though, like how people feel about the medication, may differ from person to person and from moment to moment. 

JPMorgan Quantitative Research

Discover how bankers use quantitative methods to analyze businesses and industry trends with this free job simulation.

Avg. Time: 4-6 hours

Skills you’ll build: Programming, data analysis, Python, critical thinking, statistics, dynamic programming

You can show your experience with qualitative research on your resume in your skills or work experience sections and your cover letter . 

In your skills section, you can list types of qualitative research you are skilled at, like conducting interviews, performing grounded theory research, or crafting case studies. 

You can highlight specific examples in the description of your past work or internship experiences. For example, you can talk about a time you used action research to solve a complex issue at your last job. 

Your cover letter is an excellent place to discuss in-depth qualitative research projects you’ve completed. For instance, say you spent a summer conducting ethnographic research or a whole semester running focus groups to get feedback on a product. You can talk about these experiences in your cover letter and note how these skills make you a great fit for the job. 

Grow your skills and explore your career options with Forage’s free job simulations . 

Image credit: Canva

Related Posts

6 negotiation skills to level up your work life, how to build conflict resolution skills: case studies and examples, what is github uses and getting started.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analysing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organise your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, January 30). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 24 June 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/introduction-to-qualitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

An Overview of Qualitative Research Methods

Direct Observation, Interviews, Participation, Immersion, Focus Groups

• Research, Samples, and Statistics
• Key Concepts
• Major Sociologists
• News & Issues
• Recommended Reading
• Archaeology

Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help understand social life through the study of targeted populations or places.

People often frame it in opposition to quantitative research , which uses numerical data to identify large-scale trends and employs statistical operations to determine causal and correlative relationships between variables.

Within sociology, qualitative research is typically focused on the micro-level of social interaction that composes everyday life, whereas quantitative research typically focuses on macro-level trends and phenomena.

Key Takeaways

Methods of qualitative research include:

• observation and immersion
• open-ended surveys
• focus groups
• content analysis of visual and textual materials
• oral history

Qualitative research has a long history in sociology and has been used within it for as long as the field has existed.

This type of research has long appealed to social scientists because it allows the researchers to investigate the meanings people attribute to their behavior, actions, and interactions with others.

While quantitative research is useful for identifying relationships between variables, like, for example, the connection between poverty and racial hate, it is qualitative research that can illuminate why this connection exists by going directly to the source—the people themselves.

Qualitative research is designed to reveal the meaning that informs the action or outcomes that are typically measured by quantitative research. So qualitative researchers investigate meanings, interpretations, symbols, and the processes and relations of social life.

What this type of research produces is descriptive data that the researcher must then interpret using rigorous and systematic methods of transcribing, coding, and analysis of trends and themes.

Because its focus is everyday life and people's experiences, qualitative research lends itself well to creating new theories using the inductive method , which can then be tested with further research.

Qualitative researchers use their own eyes, ears, and intelligence to collect in-depth perceptions and descriptions of targeted populations, places, and events.

Their findings are collected through a variety of methods, and often a researcher will use at least two or several of the following while conducting a qualitative study:

• Direct observation : With direct observation, a researcher studies people as they go about their daily lives without participating or interfering. This type of research is often unknown to those under study, and as such, must be conducted in public settings where people do not have a reasonable expectation of privacy. For example, a researcher might observe the ways in which strangers interact in public as they gather to watch a street performer.
• Open-ended surveys : While many surveys are designed to generate quantitative data, many are also designed with open-ended questions that allow for the generation and analysis of qualitative data. For example, a survey might be used to investigate not just which political candidates voters chose, but why they chose them, in their own words.
• Focus group : In a focus group, a researcher engages a small group of participants in a conversation designed to generate data relevant to the research question. Focus groups can contain anywhere from 5 to 15 participants. Social scientists often use them in studies that examine an event or trend that occurs within a specific community. They are common in market research, too.
• In-depth interviews : Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher approaches the interview with a predetermined list of questions or topics for discussion but allows the conversation to evolve based on how the participant responds. Other times, the researcher has identified certain topics of interest but does not have a formal guide for the conversation, but allows the participant to guide it.
• Oral history : The oral history method is used to create a historical account of an event, group, or community, and typically involves a series of in-depth interviews conducted with one or multiple participants over an extended period.
• Participant observation : This method is similar to observation, however with this one, the researcher also participates in the action or events to not only observe others but to gain the first-hand experience in the setting.
• Ethnographic observation : Ethnographic observation is the most intensive and in-depth observational method. Originating in anthropology, with this method, a researcher fully immerses themselves into the research setting and lives among the participants as one of them for anywhere from months to years. By doing this, the researcher attempts to experience day-to-day existence from the viewpoints of those studied to develop in-depth and long-term accounts of the community, events, or trends under observation.
• Content analysis : This method is used by sociologists to analyze social life by interpreting words and images from documents, film, art, music, and other cultural products and media. The researchers look at how the words and images are used, and the context in which they are used to draw inferences about the underlying culture. Content analysis of digital material, especially that generated by social media users, has become a popular technique within the social sciences.

While much of the data generated by qualitative research is coded and analyzed using just the researcher's eyes and brain, the use of computer software to do these processes is increasingly popular within the social sciences.

Such software analysis works well when the data is too large for humans to handle, though the lack of a human interpreter is a common criticism of the use of computer software.

Pros and Cons

Qualitative research has both benefits and drawbacks.

On the plus side, it creates an in-depth understanding of the attitudes, behaviors, interactions, events, and social processes that comprise everyday life. In doing so, it helps social scientists understand how everyday life is influenced by society-wide things like social structure , social order , and all kinds of social forces.

This set of methods also has the benefit of being flexible and easily adaptable to changes in the research environment and can be conducted with minimal cost in many cases.

Among the downsides of qualitative research is that its scope is fairly limited so its findings are not always widely able to be generalized.

Researchers also have to use caution with these methods to ensure that they do not influence the data in ways that significantly change it and that they do not bring undue personal bias to their interpretation of the findings.

Fortunately, qualitative researchers receive rigorous training designed to eliminate or reduce these types of research bias.

• How to Conduct a Sociology Research Interview
• Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic
• What Is Participant Observation Research?
• Pilot Study in Research
• Conducting Case Study Research in Sociology
• How to Understand Interpretive Sociology
• What Is Ethnography?
• Understanding Secondary Data and How to Use It in Research
• Social Surveys: Questionnaires, Interviews, and Telephone Polls
• Research in Essays and Reports
• What Is Naturalistic Observation? Definition and Examples
• Definition and Overview of Grounded Theory
• A Review of Software Tools for Quantitative Data Analysis
• Content Analysis: Method to Analyze Social Life Through Words, Images
• The Sociology of the Internet and Digital Sociology
• Immersion Definition: Cultural, Language, and Virtual

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis .

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded .

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Mixed methods research
• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

Related Articles

Research Methodology

Mixed Methods Research

Conversation Analysis

Discourse Analysis

Phenomenology In Qualitative Research

Ethnography In Qualitative Research

Narrative Analysis In Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research: Methods

• Getting Started
• Focus Groups
• Observation
• Case Studies
• Data Collection
• Cleaning Text
• Analysis Tools
• Institutional Review

Table of Contents: Methods Section

Duke resources.

Duke's Office of Assessment:

Assessment Resources (qualitative and quantitative)

Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector's Field Guide Downloadable how-to guide covers the mechanics of data collection for applied qualitative research; appropriate for novice and experienced researchers.

In qualitative research, only a sample (subset) of a population is selected for any given study.Three of the most common sampling methods are:

• Purposive sampling Participants are grouped according to preselected criteria relevant to a particular research question; sample sizes often determined by theoretical saturation (new data doesn't bring additional insights)
• Quota sampling While designing a study, it is determined how many people with which characteristics need to be included as participants
• Snowball sampling Participants or informants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other people who could potentially participate in the study, often used to find and recruit “hidden populations"

Choosing a Method for Collecting Qualitative Data

Table was adapted from the Basic Guide to Program Evaluation, http://www.managementhelp.org/evaluatn/fnl_eval.htm#anchor1585345

• << Previous: Getting Started
• Next: Surveys >>
• Last Updated: Mar 1, 2024 10:13 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.duke.edu/qualitative-research

Services for...

• Faculty & Instructors
• Graduate Students
• Undergraduate Students
• International Students
• Patrons with Disabilities

• Harmful Language Statement
• Re-use & Attribution / Privacy
• Support the Libraries

• Search Menu
• Sign in through your institution
• Advance articles
• Themed Collections
• Editor's Choice
• Ilona Kickbusch Award
• Supplements
• Author Guidelines
• Submission Online
• Open Access Option
• Self-Archiving Policy
• About Health Promotion International
• Editorial Board
• Advertising and Corporate Services
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

Article Contents

Introduction, challenging some common methodological assumptions about online qualitative surveys, ten practical tips for designing, implementing and analysing online qualitative surveys, acknowledgements, conflict of interest statement, data availability, ethical approval.

• < Previous

Methodological and practical guidance for designing and conducting online qualitative surveys in public health

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data

Samantha L Thomas, Hannah Pitt, Simone McCarthy, Grace Arnot, Marita Hennessy, Methodological and practical guidance for designing and conducting online qualitative surveys in public health, Health Promotion International , Volume 39, Issue 3, June 2024, daae061, https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daae061

• Permissions Icon Permissions

Online qualitative surveys—those surveys that prioritise qualitative questions and interpretivist values—have rich potential for researchers, particularly in new or emerging areas of public health. However, there is limited discussion about the practical development and methodological implications of such surveys, particularly for public health researchers. This poses challenges for researchers, funders, ethics committees, and peer reviewers in assessing the rigour and robustness of such research, and in deciding the appropriateness of the method for answering different research questions. Drawing and extending on the work of other researchers, as well as our own experiences of conducting online qualitative surveys with young people and adults, we describe the processes associated with developing and implementing online qualitative surveys and writing up online qualitative survey data. We provide practical examples and lessons learned about question development, the importance of rigorous piloting strategies, use of novel techniques to prompt detailed responses from participants, and decisions that are made about data preparation and interpretation. We consider reviewer comments, and some ethical considerations of this type of qualitative research for both participants and researchers. We provide a range of practical strategies to improve trustworthiness in decision-making and data interpretation—including the importance of using theory. Rigorous online qualitative surveys that are grounded in qualitative interpretivist values offer a range of unique benefits for public health researchers, knowledge users, and research participants.

Public health researchers are increasingly using online qualitative surveys.

There is still limited practical and methodological information about the design and implementation of these studies.

Building on Braun and Clarke (2013) , Terry and Braun (2017) and Braun et al . (2021) , we reflect on the methodological and practical lessons we have learnt from our own experience with conducting online qualitative surveys.

We provide guidance and practical examples about the design, implementation and analysis processes.

We argue that online qualitative surveys have rich potential for public health researchers and can be an empowering and engaging way to include diverse populations in qualitative research.

Public health researchers mostly engage in experiential (interpretive) qualitative approaches ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ). These approaches are ‘centred on the exploration of participants’ subjective experiences and sense-making’ [( Braun and Clarke, 2021c ), p. 39]. Given the strong focus in public health on social justice, power and inequality, researchers proactively use the findings from these qualitative studies—often in collaboration with lived experience experts and others who are impacted by key decisions ( Reed et al ., 2024 )—to advocate for changes to public health policy and practice. There is also an important level of theoretical, methodological and empirical reflection that is part of the public health researcher’s role. For example, as qualitative researchers actively construct and interpret meaning from data, they constantly challenge their assumptions, their way of knowing and their way of ‘doing’ research ( Braun and Clarke, 2024 ). This reflexive practice also includes considering how to develop more inclusive opportunities for people to participate in research and to share their opinions and experiences about the issues that matter to them.

While in-depth interviews and focus groups provide rich and detailed narratives that are central to understanding people’s lives, these forms of data collection may sometimes create practical barriers for both researchers and participants. For example, they can be time consuming, and the power dynamics associated with face-to-face interviews (even in online settings) may make them less accessible for groups that are marginalized or stigmatized ( Edwards and Holland, 2020 ). While some population subgroups (and contexts) may suit (or require) face-to-face qualitative data collection approaches, others may lend themselves to different forms of data collection. Young people, for example, may be keen to be civically involved in research about the issues that matter to them, such as the climate crisis, but they may find it more convenient and comfortable using anonymized digital technologies to do so ( Arnot et al ., 2024b ). As such, part of our reflexive practice as public health researchers must be to explore, and be open to, a range of qualitative methodological approaches that could be more convenient, less intimidating and more engaging for a diverse range of population subgroups. This includes thinking about pragmatic ways of operationalizing qualitative data collection methods. How can we develop methods and engagement strategies that enable us to gain insights from a diverse range of participants about new issues or phenomenon that may pose threats to public health, or look at existing issues in new ways?

Advancements in online data collection methods have also created new options for researchers and participants about how they can be involved in qualitative studies ( Hensen et al ., 2021 ; Chen, 2023 ; Fan et al ., 2024 ). Online qualitative surveys—those surveys that prioritize qualitative values and questions—have rich potential for qualitative researchers. Braun and Clarke (2013 , p. 135) state that qualitative surveys:

…consist of a series of open-ended questions about a topic, and participants type or hand-write their responses to each question. They are self-administered; a researcher-administered qualitative survey would basically be an interview.

While these types of studies are increasingly utilized in public health, researchers have highlighted that there is still relatively limited discussion about the methodological and practical implications of these surveys ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ). This poses challenges for qualitative public health researchers, funders, ethics committees and peer reviewers in assessing the purpose, rigour and contribution of such research, and in deciding the appropriateness of the method for answering different research questions.

Using examples from online qualitative surveys that we have been involved in, this article discusses a range of methodological and practical lessons learnt from developing, implementing and analysing data from these types of surveys. While we do not claim to have all the answers, we aim to develop and extend on the methodological and practical guidance from Braun and Clarke (2013) , Terry and Braun (2017) and Braun et al . (2021) about the potential for online qualitative surveys. This includes how they can provide a rigorous ‘wide-angle picture’ [( Toerien and Wilkinson, 2004 ), p. 70] from a diverse range of participants about contemporary public health phenomena.

Figure 1 aims to develop and extend on the key points made by Braun and Clarke (2013) , Terry and Braun (2017) and Braun et al . (2021) , which provide the methodological and empirical foundation for our article.

: Methodological considerations in conducting online qualitative surveys.

Harnessing interpretivist approaches and qualitative values in online qualitative surveys

Online qualitative surveys take many forms. They may be fully qualitative or qualitative dominant—mostly qualitative with some quantitative questions ( Terry and Braun, 2017 ). There are also many different ways of conducting these studies—from using a smaller number of questions that engage specific population groups or knowledge users in understanding detailed experiences  ( Hennessy and O’Donoghue, 2024 ), to a larger number of questions (which may use market research panel providers to recruit participants), that seek broader opinions and attitudes about public health issues ( Marko et al ., 2022a ; McCarthy et al ., 2023 ; Arnot et al ., 2024a ). However, based on our experiences of applying for grant funding and conducting, publishing and presenting these studies, there are still clear misconceptions and uncertainties about these types of  surveys.

One of the concerns raised about online qualitative surveys is how they are situated within broader qualitative values and approaches. This includes whether they can provide empirically innovative, rigorous, rich and theoretically grounded qualitative contributions to knowledge. Our experience is that online qualitative surveys have the most potential when they harness the values of interpretivist ‘Big Q’ approaches to collect information from a diverse range of participants about their experiences, opinions and practices ( Braun et al ., 2021 ). The distinction between positivist (small q) and interpretivist (Big Q) approaches to online qualitative surveys is an important one that requires some initial methodological reflection, particularly in considering the (largely unhelpful) critiques that are made about the rigour and usefulness of these surveys. These critiques often overlook the theoretical underpinnings and qualitative values inherent in such surveys. For example, while there may be a tendency to think of surveys and survey data as atheoretical and descriptive, the use of theory is central in informing online qualitative surveys. For example, Varpio and Ellaway (2021 , p. 343) explain that theory can ‘offer explanations and detailed premises that we can wrestle with, agree with, disagree with, reject and/or accept’. This includes the research design, the approach to data collection and analysis, the interpretation of findings and the conclusions that are drawn. Theory is also important in helping researchers to engage in reflexive practice. The use of theory is essential in progressing online qualitative surveys beyond description and towards in-depth interpretation and explanations—thus facilitating a deeper understanding of the studied phenomenon ( Collins and Stockton, 2018 ; Jamie and Rathbone, 2022 ).

Considering the assumptions that online qualitative surveys can only collect ‘thin’ data

The main assumptions about online qualitative surveys are that they can only collect ‘thin’ textual data, and that they are not flexible enough as a data collection tool for researchers to prompt or ask follow-up questions or to co-create detailed and rich data with participants ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Clarke, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ). While we acknowledge that the type of data that is collected in these types of studies is different from those in in-depth interview studies, these surveys may be a more accessible and engaging way to collect rich insights from a diverse range of participants who may otherwise not participate in qualitative research ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ). Despite this, peer reviewers can question the depth of information that may be collected in these studies. Assumptions about large but ‘thin’ datasets may also mean that researchers, funders and reviewers take (and perhaps expect) a more positivist approach to the design and analytical processes associated with these surveys. For example, the multiple topics and questions, larger sample sizes, and the generally smaller textual responses that online qualitative surveys generate may lead researchers to approach these surveys using more descriptive and atheoretical paradigms. This approach may focus on ‘measuring’ phenomena, using variables, developing thinner analytical description and adding numerical values to the number of responses for different categories or themes.

We have found that assumptions can also impact the review processes associated with these types of studies, receiving critiques from those with both positivist and interpretivist positions. Positivist critiques focus on matters associated with whether the samples are ‘representative’, and the flaws associated with ‘self-selecting convenience’ samples. Critiques from interpretivist colleagues question why such large sample sizes are needed for qualitative studies, seeing surveys as a less rigorous method for gaining rich and meaningful data. For example, we have had reviewers query the scope and depth of the analysis of the data that we present from these studies because they are concerned that the type of data collected lacks depth and does not fully contextualize and explain how participants think about issues. We have also had reviewers request that we should return to the study to collect quantitative data to supplement the qualitative findings of the survey. They also question how ‘representative’ the samples are of population groups. These comments, of course, are not unique to online qualitative surveys but do highlight the difficulty that reviewers may have in placing and situating these types of studies in broader qualitative approaches. With this in mind, we have also found that some reviewers can ask for additional information to justify both the use of online qualitative surveys and why we have chosen these over other qualitative approaches. For example, reviewers have asked us to justify why we have chosen an online qualitative survey and also to explain what we may have missed out on by not conducting in-depth interviews or quantitative or mixed methods surveys instead.

Requests for ‘numbers’ and ‘strategies to minimize bias’

While there is now a general understanding that attributing ‘numbers’ to qualitative data is largely unhelpful and inappropriate ( Chowdhury, 2015 ), there may be expectations that the larger sample sizes associated with online qualitative surveys enable researchers to provide numerical indicators of data. Rather than focusing on the ‘artfully interpretive’ techniques used to analyse and construct themes from the data ( Finlay, 2021 ), we have found that reviewers often ask us to provide numerical information about how many people provided different responses to different questions (or constructed themes), and the number at which ‘saturation’ was determined. Reviewer feedback that we have received about analytical processes has asked for detailed explanations about why attempts to ‘minimize bias’ (including calculations of inter-rater reliability and replicability of data quality) were not used. This demonstrates that peer reviewers may misinterpret the interpretivist values that guide online qualitative surveys, asking for information that is essentially ‘meaningless’ in qualitative paradigms in which researchers’ subjectivity ‘sculpts’ the knowledge that is produced ( Braun and Clarke, 2021a ).

The benefits and limitations of online qualitative surveys for participants, researchers and knowledge users

As well as a ‘wide-angle picture’ [( Toerien and Wilkinson, 2004 ), p. 70] on phenomenon, online qualitative surveys can also: (i) generate both rich and focused data about perceptions and practices, and (ii) have multiple participatory and practical advantages—including helping to overcome barriers to research participation ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ). For researchers , online qualitative surveys can be a more cost-effective alternative ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 )—they are generally more time-efficient and less labour-intensive (particularly if working with market research companies to recruit panels). They are also able to reach a broad range of participants—such as those who are geographically dispersed ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ), and those who may not have internet connectivity that is reliable enough to complete online interviews (a common issue for individuals living in regional or rural settings) ( de Villiers et al ., 2022 ). We are also more able to engage young people in qualitative research through online surveys, perhaps partly due to extensive panel company databases but also because they may be a more accessible and familiar way for young people to participate in research. The ability to quickly investigate new public health threats from the perspective of lived experience can also provide important information for researchers, providing justification for new areas of research focus, including setting agendas and advocating for the need for funding (or policy attention). Collecting data from a diverse range of participants—including from those who hold views that we may see as less ‘politically acceptable’, or inconsistent with our own public health reasoning about health and equity—is important in situating and contextualizing community attitudes towards particular issues.

For participants , benefits include having a degree of autonomy and control over their participation, including completing the survey at a time and place that suits them, and the anonymous nature of participation (that may be helpful for people from highly stigmatized groups). Participants can take time to reflect on their responses or complete the survey, and may feel more able to ‘talk back’ to the researcher about the framing of questions or the purpose of the research ( Braun et al ., 2021 ). We would also add that a benefit of these types of studies is that participants can also drop out of the study easily if the survey does not interest them or meet their expectations—something that we think might be more onerous or uncomfortable for participants in an interview or focus group.

For knowledge users, including advocates, service providers and decision-makers, qualitative research provides an important form of evidence, and the ‘wide-angle picture' [( Toerien and Wilkinson, 2004 ), p. 70] on issues from a diverse range of individuals in a community or population can be a powerful advocacy tool. Online qualitative surveys can also provide rapid insights into how changes to policy and practice may impact population subgroups in different ways.

There are, of course, some limitations associated with online qualitative surveys ( Braun et al ., 2021 ; Marko et al ., 2022b ). For example, there is no ability to engage individuals in a ‘traditional’ conversation or to prompt or probe meaning in the interactive ways that we are familiar with in interview studies. There is less ability to refine the questions that we ask participants in an iterative way throughout a study based on participant responses (particularly when working with market research panel companies). There may also be barriers associated with written literacy, access to digital technologies and stable internet connections ( Braun et al ., 2021 ). They may also not be the most suitable for individuals who have different ways of ‘knowing, being and doing’ qualitative research—including Indigenous populations [( Kennedy et al ., 2022 ), p. 1]. All of these factors should be taken into consideration when deciding whether online qualitative surveys are an appropriate way of collecting data. Finally, while these types of surveys can collect data quickly ( Marko et al ., 2022b ), there can also be additional decision-making processes related to data preparation and inclusion that can be time-consuming.

There are a range of practical considerations that can improve the rigour, trustworthiness and quality of online qualitative survey data. Again, developing and expanding on ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ), Figure 2 gives an overview of some key practical considerations associated with the design, implementation and analysis of these surveys. We would also note that before starting your survey design, you should be aware that people may use different types of technology to complete the survey, and in different spaces. For example, we cannot assume that people will be sitting in front of a computer or laptop at home or in the office, with people more likely to complete surveys on a mobile phone, perhaps on a train or bus on the way to work or school.

: Top ten practical tips for conducting online qualitative surveys.

Survey design

Creating an appropriate and accessible structure

The first step in designing an online qualitative survey is to plan the structure of your survey. This step is important because the structure influences the way that participants interact with and participate through the survey. The survey structure helps to create an ‘environment’ that helps participants to share their perspectives, prompt their views and develop their ideas ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ). Similar to an interview study, the structure of the survey guides participants from one set of questions (and topics) to the next. It is important to consider the ordering of topics to enable participants to complete a survey that has a logical flow, introduces participants to concepts and allows them to develop their depth of responses.

Before participants start the survey, we provide a clear and simple lay language summary of the survey. Because many individuals will be familiar with completing quantitative surveys, we include a welcoming statement and reiterate the qualitative nature of the survey, stating that their answers can be about their own experiences:

Thank you for agreeing to take part in this survey about [topic] . This survey involves writing responses to questions rather than checking boxes.

We then clearly reiterate the purpose of the survey, providing a short description of the topic that we are investigating. We state that we do not seek to collect any data that is identifiable, that we are interested in participants perspectives, that there are no right or wrong answers, and that participants can withdraw from the survey at any time without giving a reason.

Similar to Braun et al . (2021) , we start our surveys with questions about demographic and related characteristics (which we often call ‘ participant/general characteristics ’). These can be discrete choice questions, but can also utilize open text—for example, in relation to gender identity. We have found that there is always a temptation with surveys to ask many questions about the demographic characteristics of participants. However, we caution that too many questions can be intrusive for participants and can take away valuable time from open-text questions, which are the core focus of the survey. We recommend asking participant characteristic and demographic questions that situate and contextualize the sample ( Elliott et al ., 1999 ).

We generally start the open-text sections of these surveys by asking broad introductory questions about the topic. This might include questions such as: ‘Please describe the main reasons you drink alcohol ’, and ‘W hat do you think are the main impacts of climate change on the world? ’ We have found that these types of questions get participants used to responding to open-text questions relevant to the study’s research questions and aims. For each new topic of investigation (which are based on our theoretical concepts and overall study aims and research questions), we provide a short explanation about what we will ask participants. We also use tools and text to signpost participant progress through the survey. This can be a valuable way to avoid high attrition rates where participants exit the survey because they are getting fatigued and are unclear when the survey will end:

Great! We are just over half-way through the survey.

We ask more detailed questions that are more aligned with our theoretical concepts in the middle of the survey. For example, we may start with broad questions about a harmful industry and their products (such as gambling, vaping or alcohol) and then in the middle of the survey ask more detailed questions about the commercial determinants of health and the specific tactics that these industries use (for example, about product design, political tactics, public relations strategies or how these practices may influence health and equity). In relation to these more complex questions, it is particularly important that we reiterate that there are no wrong answers and try to include encouraging text throughout the survey:

There are no right or wrong answers—we are curious to hear your opinions .

We always try to end the survey on a positive. While these types of questions depend on the study, we try to ask questions which enable participants to reflect on what could be done to address or improve an issue. This might include their attitudes about policy, or what they would say to those in positions of power:

What do you think should be done to protect young people from sports betting advertising on social media? If there was one thing that could be done to prevent young people from being exposed to the risks associated with alcohol, cigarettes, vaping, or gambling, what would it be? If you could say one thing to politicians about climate change, what would it be?

Finally, we ask participants if there is anything we have missed or if they have anything else to add, sometimes referred to as a ‘clean-up’ question ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ). The following provides a few examples of how we have framed these questions in some of our studies:

Is there anything you would like to say about alcohol, cigarettes, vaping, and gambling products that we have not covered? Is there anything we haven’t asked you about the advertising of alcohol to women that you would like us to know?

Considering the impact of the length of the survey on responses

The length of the survey (both the number of questions and the time it takes an individual to complete the survey) is guided by a range of methodological and practical considerations and will vary between studies ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ). Many factors will influence completion times. We try to give individuals a guide at the start of the survey about how long we think it will take to complete the survey (for example, between 20 and 30 minutes). We highlight that it may take people a little longer or shorter and that people are able to leave their browser open or save the survey and come back to finish it later. For our first few online qualitative surveys, we found that we asked lots of questions because we felt less in control of being able to prompt or ask follow-up questions from participants. However, we have learned that less is more! Asking too many questions may lead to more survey dropouts, and may significantly reduce the textual quality of the information that you receive from participants ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Clarke, 2017 ). This includes considering how the survey questions might lead to repetition, which may be annoying for participants, leading to responses such as ‘like I’ve already said’ , ‘I’ve already answered that’ or ‘see above’ .

Providing clear and simple guidance

When designing an online qualitative survey, we try to think of ways to make participation in the survey engaging. We do not want individuals to feel that we are ‘mining’ them for data. Rather we want to demonstrate that we are genuinely interested in their perspectives and views. We use a range of mechanisms to do this. Because there is no opportunity to verbally explain or clarify concepts to participants, there is a particular need to ensure that the language used is clear and accessible ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Clarke, 2017 ). If language or concepts are complex, you are more likely to receive ‘I don’t know’ responses to your questions. We need to remember that participants have a range of written and comprehension skills, and inclusive and accessible language is important. We also never try to assume a level of knowledge about an issue (unless we have specifically asked for participants who are aware and engaged in an issue—such as women who drink alcohol) ( Pitt et al ., 2023 ). This includes avoiding highly technical or academic language and not making assumptions that the individuals completing the survey will understand concepts in the same way that researchers do ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ). Clearly explaining concepts or using text or images to prompt memories can help to overcome this:

Some big corporations (such as the tobacco, vaping, alcohol, junk food, or gambling industries) sponsor women's sporting teams or clubs, or other events. You might see sponsor logos on sporting uniforms, or at sporting grounds, or sponsoring a concert or arts event.

At all times, we try to centre the language that we use with the population from which we are seeking responses. Advisory groups can be particularly helpful in framing language for different population subgroups. We often use colloquial language, even if it might not be seen as the ‘correct’ academic language or terminology. Where possible, we also try to define theoretical concepts in a clear and easy to understand way. For example, in our study investigating parent perceptions of the impact of harmful products on young people, we tried to clearly define ‘normalization’:

In this section we ask you about some of the perceived health impacts of the above products on young people. We also ask you about the normalisation of these products for young people. When we talk about normalisation, we are thinking about the range of factors that might make these products more acceptable for young people to use. These factors might include individual factors, such as young people being attracted to risk, the influence of family or peers, the accessibility and availability of these products, or the way the industry advertises and promotes these products.

Using innovative approaches to improve accessibility and prompt responses

Online qualitative surveys can include features beyond traditional question-and-answer formats ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ). For example, we often use a range of photo elicitation techniques (using images or videos) to make surveys more accessible to participate in, address different levels of literacy, and overcome the assumption that we are not able to ‘prompt’ responses. These types of visual methodologies enable a collaborative and creative research experience by asking the participant to reflect on aspects of the visual materials, such as symbolic representations, and discuss these in relation to the research objectives ( Glaw et al ., 2017 ). The combination of visual images and clear descriptions helps to provide a focus for responses about different issues, as well as prompting nuanced information such as participant memories and emotions ( Glaw et al ., 2017 ). We use different types of visuals in our studies, such as photographs (including of the public health issues we’re investigating); screenshots from websites and social media posts (including newspaper headlines) and videos (including short videos from social media sites such as TikTok) ( Arnot et al ., 2024b ). For example, when talking about government responses to the climate crisis, we used a photograph of former Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison holding a piece of coal in the Australian parliament to prompt participants’ thinking about the government’s relationship with fossil fuels and to provide a focal point for their answer. However, we would caution against using any images that may be confronting for participants or deliberately provocative. The purpose of using visuals must always be in the interests of the participants—to clarify, prompt and reflect on concepts. Ethics committees should carefully review the images used in surveys to ensure that they have a clear purpose and are unlikely to cause any discomfort.

Survey implementation

Thinking carefully about your criteria for recruitment

Determining the sample size of online qualitative studies is not an exact science. The sample sizes for recent studies have ranged from n = 46 in a study about pregnancy loss ( Hennessy and O’Donoghue, 2024 ), to n = 511 in a study with young people about the climate crisis ( Arnot et al ., 2023b ). We follow ‘rules of thumb’ [( Braun and Clarke, 2021b ), p. 211] which try to balance the needs of the research and data richness with key practical considerations (such as funding and time constraints), funder expectations, discipline-specific norms and our knowledge and experience of designing and implementing online qualitative surveys. However, we have found that peer reviewers expect much more justification of sample sizes than they do for other types of qualitative research. Robust justification of sample sizes are often needed to prevent any ‘concerns’ that reviewers may raise. Our response to these reviews often reiterates that our focus (as with all qualitative research) is not to produce a ‘generalisable’ or ‘representative’ sample but to recruit participants who will help to provide ‘rich, complex and textured data’ [( Terry and Braun, 2017 ), p. 15] about an issue. Instead of focusing on data saturation, a contested concept which is incongruent with reflexive thematic analysis in particular ( Braun and Clarke, 2021b ), we find it useful to consider information power to determine the sample size for these surveys ( Malterud et al ., 2016 ). Information power prioritizes the adequacy, quality and variability of the data collected over the number of participants.

Recruitment for online qualitative surveys can be influenced by a range of factors. Monetary and time constraints will impact the size and, if using market research company panels, the specificity of participant quotas. Recruitment strategies must be developed to ensure that the data provides enough information to answer the research questions of the study. For our research purposes, we often try to ensure that participants with a range of socio-demographic characteristics are invited to participate in the sample. We set soft quotas for age, gender and geographic location to ensure some diversity. We have found that some population subgroups may also be recruited more easily than others—although this may depend on the topic of the survey. For example, we have found that quotas for women and those living in metropolitan areas may fill more quickly. In these scenarios, the research team must weigh up the timelines associated with recruitment and data collection (e.g. How long do we want to run data collection for? How much of our budget can be spent on achieving a more equally split sample? Are quotas necessary?) versus the purpose and goals of the research (i.e. to generate ideas rather than data representativeness), and the study-specific aims and research questions.

There are, of course, concerns about not being able to ‘see’ the people that are completing these surveys. There is an increasing focus in the academic literature on ‘false’ respondents, particularly in quantitative online surveys ( Levi et al ., 2021 ; Wang et al ., 2023 ). This will be an important ongoing discussion for qualitative researchers, and we do not claim to have the answers for how to overcome these issues. For example, some individuals may say that they meet the inclusion criteria to access the survey, while others may not understand or misinterpret the inclusion criteria. There is also a level of discomfort about who and how we judge who may be a ‘legitimate’ participant or not. However, we can talk practically about some of the strategies that we use to ensure the rigour of data. For example, we find that screening questions can provide a ‘double-check’ in relation to inclusion criteria and can also help with ensuring that there is consistency between the information an individual provides about how they meet the inclusion criteria and subsequent responses. For example, in a recent survey of parents of young people, a participant stated that they were 18 years old and were a parent to a 16-year-old and 15-year-old. Their overall responses were inconsistent with being a parent of children these ages. Similarly, in our gambling studies, people may tick that they have gambled in the last year but then in subsequent questions say they have not gambled at all. This highlights the importance of checking data across all questions, although it should be noted that time and cost constraints associated with comprehensively scanning the data for such responses are not always feasible and can result in overlooking these participants.

Ensuring that there are strategies to create agency and engage participants in the research

One of the benefits of online qualitative surveys compared to traditional quantitative surveys is the scope for participants to explain their answers and to disagree with the research team’s position. An indication that participants are feeling able to do this is when they are asked for any additional comments at the end of the survey. For example, in a survey about women’s attitudes towards alcohol marketing, the following participant concluded the survey by writing: ‘I think you have covered everything. I think that you need to stop shaming women for having fun’. Other participants demonstrate their engagement and interest in the survey by reaffirming the perspectives they have shared throughout the survey. For example, in a study with young people on climate, participants responded at the end that ‘it’s one of the few things I actually care about’ , while another commented on the quality of the survey questions, stating, ‘I think this survey did a great job with probing questions to prompt all the thoughts I have on it’ .

We also think that online qualitative surveys may lead to less social desirability in participants’ responses. Participants seem less wary about communicating less politically correct opinions than they may do in a face-to-face interview. For example, at times, participants communicate attitudes that may not align with public health values (e.g. supporting personal responsibility, anti-nanny state, and neoliberal ideologies of health and wellbeing), that we rarely see communicated to us in in-depth interview or focus group studies. We would argue that these perspectives are valuable for public health researchers because they capture a different community voice that may not otherwise be represented in research. This may show where there is a lack of support for health interventions and policy reforms and may indicate where further awareness-raising needs to occur. These types of responses also contribute to reflexive practice by challenging our assumptions and positions about how we think people should think or feel about responses to particular public health issues. Examples of such responses from our surveys include:

"Like I have already said, if you try to hide it you will only make it more attractive. This nanny-state attitude of the elite drives me crazy. People must be allowed to decide for themselves."

Ethical issues for participants and researchers

Researchers should also be aware that some of the ethical issues associated with online qualitative surveys may be different from those in in-depth interviews—and it is important that these are explained in any ethical consideration of the study. Providing a clear and simply worded Plain Language Statement (in written or video form) is important in establishing informed consent and willingness to participate. While participants are given information about who to contact if they have further questions about the study, this may be an extra step for participants, and they may not feel as able to ask for clarification about the study. Because of this, we try to provide multiple examples of the types of questions that we will ask, as well as providing downloadable support details (for example, for mental health support lines). A positive aspect of surveys is that participants are able to easily ignore recruitment notices to participate in the study. They are also able to stop the survey at any time by exiting out of the browser if they feel discomfort without having to give a reason in person to a researcher.

While the anonymous nature of the survey may be empowering for some participants ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al. , 2021 ), it can also make it difficult for researchers to ascertain if people need any further support after completing the survey. Participants may also fill in surveys with someone else and may be influenced about how they should respond to questions (with the exception of some studies in which people may require assistance from someone to type their responses). Because of the above, some researchers, ethics committees and funders may be more cautious about using these studies for highly sensitive subjects. However, we would argue that the important point is that the studies follow ethical principles and take the lack of direct contact with participants into the ethical considerations of the study. It is also important to ensure that platforms used to collect survey data are trusted and secure. Here, we would argue that universities have an obligation to investigate and, where possible, approve survey providers to ensure that researchers are using platforms that meet rigorous standards for data and privacy.

It is also important to note that there may be responses from participants that may be challenging ( Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun and Clarke, 2021 ). Online spaces are rife with trolling due to their anonymous nature, and online surveys are not immune to this behaviour. Naturally, this leads to some silly responses—‘ Deakin University is responsible for all of this ’, but researchers should also be aware that the anonymity of surveys can (although in our experience not often) lead to responses that may cause discomfort for the researchers. For example, when asked if participants had anything else to add to a climate survey ( Arnot et al ., 2024c ), one responded ‘ nope, but you sure asked a lot of dumbass questions’ . Just as with interview-based studies, there must be processes built into the research for debriefing—particularly for students and early career researchers—as well as clear decisions about whether to include or exclude these types of responses when preparing the dataset for analysis and in writing up the results from the survey.

The importance of piloting the survey

Because of the lack of ability to explain and clarify concepts, piloting is particularly important ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al. , 2021 ) to ensure that: (i) the technical aspects of the survey work as intended; (ii) the survey is eliciting quality responses (with limited ‘nonsensical’ responses such as random characters); (iii) the survey responses indicate comprehension of the survey questions; and (vi) there is not a substantial number of people who ‘drop-out’ of the study. Typically, we pilot our survey with 10% of the intended sample size. After piloting, we often change question wording, particularly to address questions that elicit very small text responses, the length of the survey and sometimes refine definitions or language to ensure increased comprehension. Researchers should remember that changes to the survey questions may need to be reviewed by ethics committees before launching the full survey. It is important to build in time for piloting and the revision of the survey to ensure you get this right as once you launch the full survey, there is no going back!

Survey analysis and write-up

Preparing the dataset

Once launching the full survey, the quality of data and types of responses you receive in these types of surveys can vary. There is very limited transparency around how the dataset was prepared (more familiar to some as ‘data cleaning’) in published papers, including the decisions about which (if any) participants (or indeed responses) were excluded from the dataset and why. Nonsensical responses can be common—and can take a range of forms ( Figure 3 ). These can include random numbers or letters, a chunk of text that has been copied and pasted from elsewhere, predictive text or even repeat emojis. In one study, we had a participant quote the script of The Bee Movie in response to questions.

: Visual examples of nonsensical responses in online qualitative surveys.

Part of our familiarization with the dataset [Phase One in Braun and Clarke’s reflexive approach to thematic analysis ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Braun et al ., 2021 )] includes preparing the dataset for analysis. We use this phase to help make decisions about what to include and exclude from the final dataset. While a row of emojis in the data file can easily be spotted and removed from the dataset, sometimes responses can look robust until you read, become familiar and engage with the data. For example, when asked about what they thought about collective climate action ( Arnot et al ., 2023a , 2024c ), some participants entered random yet related terms such as ‘ plastic ’, or repeated similar phrases across multiple questions:

“ why do we need paper straws ”, “ paper straws are terrible ”, “ papers straws are bad for you ”, “ paper straws are gross .”

Participants can also provide comprehensive answers for the first few questions and then nonsensical responses for the rest, which may also be due to question fatigue [( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ), p. 138]. Therefore, it is important to closely go through each participant’s response to ensure they have attempted to provide bone-fide responses. For example, in one of our young people and climate surveys ( Arnot et al ., 2023a , 2024c ), one participant responded genuinely to the first half of the survey before their quality dropped dramatically:

“I can’t even be bothered to read that question ”, “ why so many questions ”, “ bro too many sections. ”

Some market research panel providers may complete an initial quality screen of data. However, this does not replace the need for the research teams’ own data preparation processes. Researchers should ensure they are checking that responses are coherent—for example, not giving information that contradicts or is not credible. In our more recent studies, we have increasingly seen responses cut and pasted from ChatGPT and other AI tools—providing a new challenge in assessing the quality of responses. If you are seeing these types of responses, it might be an opportunity to think about the style and suitability of the questions being asked. For example, the use of AI tools might suggest that people are finding it difficult to answer questions or may feel that they have to present a ‘correct’ answer. We would also note that because of the volume of data in these surveys, the preparation of data involves multiple members of the team. In many cases, decisions need to be made about participants who may not have provided authentic responses across the survey. The research team should make clear in any paper their decisions about their choices to include or exclude participants from the study. There is a careful balancing act that can require assessing the quality of the participants’ responses across the whole dataset to determine if the overall quality of responses contributes to the research.

Navigating the volume of data and writing up results

Finally, discussions about how to navigate the volume of data that these types of studies produce could be a standalone paper. In general, principles of reflexive practices apply to the analysis of data from these studies. However, as a starting point, here are a few considerations when approaching these datasets.

We would argue that online qualitative surveys lend themselves to some types of analytical approaches over others—for example, reflexive thematic analysis, as compared to grounded theory or interpretive phenomenological analysis (though it can be used with these) ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ).

While initial familiarization, coding and analysis can focus on specific questions and associated responses, it is important to analyse the dataset as a whole (or as clusters associated with particular topics) as participants may provide relevant data to a topic under multiple questions ( Terry and Braun, 2017 ). We initially focus our coding on specific questions or a group of survey questions under a topic of investigation. Once we have developed and constructed preliminary themes from the data associated with these clusters of questions, we then move to looking at responses across the dataset as we review themes further.

Researchers should think carefully about how to manage the data—which may not be available as ‘individual participant transcripts’ but rather as a ‘whole’ dataset in an Excel spreadsheet. Some may prefer qualitative data analysis software (QDAS) to manage and navigate data. However, many of us find that Excel (and particularly the use of labelled Tabs) is useful in grouping data and moving from codes to constructing themes.

As with all rigorous qualitative research, coding and theme development should be guided by the research questions. A clear record of decision-making about analytical choices (and being reflexive about these) should be kept. In any write-up, we would recommend that researchers are clear about which survey questions they used in the analysis [researchers could consider providing a supplementary file of some or all of the survey questions—see, for example Hennessy and O’Donoghue (2024) ].

In writing up the results, researchers should still seek to present a rich description of the data, as demonstrated in the presentation of results in the following papers ( Marko et al ., 2022a , 2022b ; McCarthy et al ., 2023 ; Pitt et al ., 2023 ; Hennessy and O’Donoghue, 2024 ). We have found the use of tables with additional examples of quotes as they relate to themes and subthemes can be a practical way of providing the reader with further examples of the data, particularly when constrained by journal word count limits [see, for example, Table 2 in Arnot et al ., (2024c) ]. However, these tables do not replace a full and complete presentation of the interpretation of the data.

This article offers methodological reflections and practical guidance around online qualitative survey design, implementation and analysis. While online qualitative surveys engage participants in a different type of conversation, they have design features that enable the collection of rich data. We recognize that we have much to learn and that while no survey of ours has been perfect, each new experience with developing and conducting online qualitative surveys has brought new understandings and lessons for future studies. In recognizing that we are learning, we also feel that our experience to date could be valuable for progressing the conversation about the rigour of online qualitative surveys and maximizing this method for public health gains.

H.P. is funded through a VicHealth Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. S.M. is funded through a Deakin University Faculty of Health Deans Postdoctoral Fellowship. G.A. is funded by an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. M.H. is funded through an Irish Research Council Government of Ireland Postdoctoral Fellowship Award [GOIPD/2023/1168].

The pregnancy loss study was funded by the Irish Research Council through its New Foundations Awards and in partnership with the Irish Hospice Foundation as civil society partner [NF/2021/27123063].

S.T. is Editor in Chief of Health Promotion International, H.P. is a member of the Editorial Board of Health Promotion International, S.M. and G.A. are Social Media Coordinators for Health Promotion International, M.H. is an Associate Editor for Health Promotion International. They were not involved in the review process or in any decision-making on the manuscript.

The data used in this study are not available.

Ethical approval for studies conducted by Deakin University include the climate crisis (HEAG-H 55_2020, HEAG-H 162_2021); parents perceptions of harmful industries on young people (HEAG-H 158_2022); women and alcohol marketing (HEAG-H 123_2022) and gambling (HEAG 227_2020).

Arnot , G. , Pitt , H. , McCarthy , S. , Cordedda , C. , Marko , S. and Thomas , S. L. ( 2024a ) Australian youth perspectives on the role of social media in climate action . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health , 48 , 100111 .

Google Scholar

Arnot , G. , Pitt , H. , McCarthy , S. , Cordedda , C. , Marko , S. and Thomas , S. L. ( 2024b ) Australian youth perspectives on the role of social media in climate action . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health , 48 , 100111 .

Arnot , G. , Thomas , S. , Pitt , H. and Warner , E. ( 2023a ) Australian young people’s perceptions of the commercial determinants of the climate crisis . Health Promotion International , 38 , daad058 .

Arnot , G. , Thomas , S. , Pitt , H. and Warner , E. ( 2023b ) ‘It shows we are serious’: young people in Australia discuss climate justice protests as a mechanism for climate change advocacy and action . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health , 47 , 100048 .

Arnot , G. , Thomas , S. , Pitt , H. and Warner , E. ( 2024c ) Australian young people’s perspectives about the political determinants of the climate crisis . Health Promotion Journal of Australia , 35 , 196 – 206 .

Braun , V. and Clarke , V. ( 2013 ) Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Beginners . Sage , London .

Google Preview

Braun , V. and Clarke , V. ( 2021a ) One size fits all? What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) thematic analysis ? Qualitative Research in Psychology , 18 , 328 – 352 .

Braun , V. and Clarke , V. ( 2021b ) To saturate or not to saturate? Questioning data saturation as a useful concept for thematic analysis and sample-size rationales . Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health , 13 , 201 – 216 .

Braun , V. and Clarke , V. ( 2021c ) Can I use TA? Should I use TA? Should I not use TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern‐based qualitative analytic approaches . Counselling and Psychotherapy Research , 21 , 37 – 47 .

Braun , V. and Clarke , V. ( 2024 ) A critical review of the reporting of reflexive thematic analysis in Health Promotion International . Health Promotion International , 39 , daae049 .

Braun , V. , Clarke , V. , Boulton , E. , Davey , L. and McEvoy , C. ( 2021 ) The online survey as a qualitative research tool . International Journal of Social Research Methodology , 24 , 641 – 654 .

Chen , J. ( 2023 ) Digitally dispersed, remotely engaged: interrogating participation in virtual photovoice . Qualitative Research , 23 , 1535 – 1555 .

Chowdhury , M. F. ( 2015 ) Coding, sorting and sifting of qualitative data analysis: debates and discussion . Quality & Quantity , 49 , 1135 – 1143 .

Collins , C. S. and Stockton , C. M. ( 2018 ) The central role of theory in qualitative research . International Journal of Qualitative Methods , 17 , 160940691879747 .

de Villiers , C. , Farooq , M. B. and Molinari , M. ( 2022 ) Qualitative research interviews using online video technology—challenges and opportunities . Meditari Accountancy Research , 30 , 1764 – 1782 .

Edwards , R. and Holland , J. ( 2020 ) Reviewing challenges and the future for qualitative interviewing . International Journal of Social Research Methodology , 23 , 581 – 592 .

Elliott , R. , Fischer , C. T. and Rennie , D. L. ( 1999 ) Evolving guidelines for publication of qualitative research studies in psychology and related fields . British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 38 , 215 – 229 .

Fan , H. , Li , B. , Pasaribu , T. and Chowdhury , R. ( 2024 ) Online interviews as new methodological normalcy and a space of ethics: an autoethnographic investigation into Covid-19 educational research . Qualitative Inquiry , 30 , 333 – 344 .

Finlay , L. ( 2021 ) Thematic analysis: the ‘good’, the ‘bad’ and the ‘ugly’ . European Journal for Qualitative Research in Psychotherapy , 11 , 103 – 116 .

Glaw , X. , Inder , K. , Kable , A. and Hazelton , M. ( 2017 ) Visual methodologies in qualitative research: autophotography and photo elicitation applied to mental health research . International Journal of Qualitative Methods , 16 , 160940691774821 .

Hennessy , M. and O’Donoghue , K. ( 2024 ) Bridging the gap between pregnancy loss research and policy and practice: insights from a qualitative survey with knowledge users . Health Research Policy and Systems , 22 , 15 .

Hensen , B. , Mackworth-Young , C. R. S. , Simwinga , M. , Abdelmagid , N. , Banda , J. , Mavodza , C. et al. . ( 2021 ) Remote data collection for public health research in a COVID-19 era: ethical implications, challenges and opportunities . Health Policy and Planning , 36 , 360 – 368 .

Jamie , K. and Rathbone , A. P. ( 2022 ) Using theory and reflexivity to preserve methodological rigour of data collection in qualitative research . Research Methods in Medicine & Health Sciences , 3 , 11 – 21 .

Kennedy , M. , Maddox , R. , Booth , K. , Maidment , S. , Chamberlain , C. and Bessarab , D. ( 2022 ) Decolonising qualitative research with respectful, reciprocal, and responsible research practice: a narrative review of the application of Yarning method in qualitative Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health research . International Journal for Equity in Health , 21 , 134 .

Levi , R. , Ridberg , R. , Akers , M. and Seligman , H. ( 2021 ) Survey fraud and the integrity of web-based survey research . American Journal of Health Promotion , 36 , 18 – 20 .

Malterud , K. , Siersma , V. D. and Guassora , A. D. ( 2016 ) Sample size in qualitative interview studies: guided by information power . Qualitative Health Research , 26 , 1753 – 1760 .

Marko , S. , Thomas , S. , Pitt , H. and Daube , M. ( 2022a ) ‘Aussies love a bet’: gamblers discuss the social acceptance and cultural accommodation of gambling in Australia . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health , 46 , 829 – 834 .

Marko , S. , Thomas , S. L. , Robinson , K. and Daube , M. ( 2022b ) Gamblers’ perceptions of responsibility for gambling harm: a critical qualitative inquiry . BMC Public Health , 22 , 725 .

McCarthy , S. , Thomas , S. L. , Pitt , H. , Warner , E. , Roderique-Davies , G. , Rintoul , A. et al. . ( 2023 ) ‘They loved gambling more than me’. Women’s experiences of gambling-related harm as an affected other . Health Promotion Journal of Australia , 34 , 284 – 293 .

Pitt , H. , McCarthy , S. , Keric , D. , Arnot , G. , Marko , S. , Martino , F. et al. . ( 2023 ) The symbolic consumption processes associated with ‘low-calorie’ and ‘low-sugar’ alcohol products and Australian women . Health Promotion International , 38 , 1 – 13 .

Reed , M. S. , Merkle , B. G. , Cook , E. J. , Hafferty , C. , Hejnowicz , A. P. , Holliman , R. et al. . ( 2024 ) Reimagining the language of engagement in a post-stakeholder world . Sustainability Science .

Terry , G. and Braun , V. ( 2017 ) Short but often sweet: the surprising potential of qualitative survey methods . In Braun , V. , Clarke , V. and Gray , D. (eds), Collecting Qualitative Data: A Practical Guide to Textual, Media and Virtual Techniques . Cambridge University Press , Cambridge .

Toerien , M. and Wilkinson , S. ( 2004 ) Exploring the depilation norm: a qualitative questionnaire study of women’s body hair removal . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 1 , 69 – 92 .

Varpio , L. and Ellaway , R. H. ( 2021 ) Shaping our worldviews: a conversation about and of theory . Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice , 26 , 339 – 345 .

Wang , J. , Calderon , G. , Hager , E. R. , Edwards , LV , Berry , A. A. , Liu , Y. et al. . ( 2023 ) Identifying and preventing fraudulent responses in online public health surveys: lessons learned during the COVID-19 pandemic . PLOS Global Public Health , 3 , e0001452 .

Email alerts

Citing articles via.

• Recommend to Your Librarian
• Journals Career Network

Affiliations

• Online ISSN 1460-2245
• Print ISSN 0957-4824
• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Qualitative Research Design

Ai generator.

Qualitative Research Design is a method focused on understanding and interpreting the experiences of individuals or groups. Unlike quantitative research , which quantifies data and identifies patterns through statistical analysis, Qualitative Research Design explores phenomena in depth using interviews, focus groups, and observations. This approach gathers rich narratives that provide insights into thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, uncovering underlying reasons and motivations. Essential in fields like social sciences, education, and health, a strong Qualitative Research Proposal or Qualitative Research Plan must carefully consider the Research Design and relevant Research Terms for a comprehensive approach.

What is Qualitative Research Design?

Qualitative Research Design is a method that aims to understand and interpret the meaning and experiences of individuals or groups. It employs in-depth techniques like interviews, focus groups, and observations to gather detailed, rich narratives. Unlike quantitative research, which uses statistical analysis to identify patterns, qualitative research seeks to uncover the underlying reasons and motivations behind thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Types of Qualitative Research Design

1. Ethnography

Ethnography involves the detailed study of cultures or social groups through direct observation and participation. Researchers immerse themselves in the group’s daily life to understand their customs, behaviors, and social interactions. This method is often used to study communities, workplaces, or organizations. Example : Observing and interviewing members of a remote community to understand their social practices and traditions.

2. Grounded Theory

Grounded theory aims to generate a theory grounded in the data collected from participants. Researchers gather data through interviews, observations, and other methods, then use coding techniques to develop a theory. This approach is useful for studying processes, actions, and interactions, such as developing a theory on how people cope with job loss. Example : Analyzing interviews with employees to develop a theory about workplace motivation.

3. Focus Groups

Focus groups involve guided discussions with a small group of participants to explore their perceptions, opinions, and attitudes towards a particular topic. This method allows researchers to gather a wide range of insights and observe group dynamics. Focus groups are commonly used in market research, social science studies, and product development. Example : Conducting focus groups with parents to understand their views on remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

4. Interviews

Interviews are one-on-one conversations between the researcher and the participant, designed to gather in-depth information on the participant’s experiences, thoughts, and feelings. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, allowing flexibility in exploring the research topic. This method is widely used across various qualitative research studies. Example : Conducting semi-structured interviews with veterans to explore their reintegration experiences into civilian life.

5. Narrative Research

Narrative research focuses on the stories and personal accounts of individuals. Researchers collect narratives through interviews, journals, letters, or autobiographies and analyze them to understand how people make sense of their experiences. This type of research might explore life stories, personal journeys, or historical accounts. Example : Collecting and analyzing life stories of refugees to understand their migration experiences.

6. Action Research

Action research is a participatory approach that involves researchers and participants working together to address a problem or improve a situation. This method focuses on practical solutions and often includes cycles of planning, action, observation, and reflection. It is commonly used in educational settings to improve teaching practices, school policies, or community development projects. Example : Teachers working together to implement and assess a new curriculum in their school.

Qualitative Research Design Methods

Interviews are one-on-one conversations designed to gather in-depth information about a participant’s experiences, thoughts, and feelings. They can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, allowing flexibility in exploring topics. Example : Semi-structured interviews with veterans to explore their reintegration experiences into civilian life.

Focus Groups

Focus groups involve guided discussions with small groups to explore their perceptions, opinions, and attitudes on a topic. This method gathers diverse insights and observes group dynamics. Example : Focus groups with parents to understand their views on remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Observational Studies

Observational studies involve systematically watching and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings without interference. Example : Observing children in a playground to study social development and peer relationships.

Discussion Boards

Discussion boards are online forums where participants post responses and engage in discussions. This method collects data from participants in different locations over time. Example : Analyzing posts on a discussion board for chronic illness patients to understand their coping strategies and support systems.

Difference between Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design

• Naturalistic Inquiry: Conducted in natural settings where participants experience the issue or phenomenon under study.
• Contextual Understanding: Emphasizes understanding the cultural, social, and historical contexts of participants.
• Participant Perspectives: Prioritizes the views, feelings, and interpretations of participants.
• Flexibility and Adaptiveness: Designs are flexible and can be adjusted as new insights emerge.
• Rich, Descriptive Data: Collects detailed data in words, images, and objects for comprehensive understanding.
• Inductive Approach: Develops theories and patterns from the data collected rather than testing predefined theories.
• Emergent Design: Research design evolves during the study based on emerging themes and insights.
• Multiple Data Sources: Uses various data sources like interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis.
• Subjectivity and Reflexivity: Researchers acknowledge their influence on the research process and examine their biases and assumptions.
• Holistic Perspective: Considers the entire phenomenon and its complexity, looking at interrelated components.
• Iterative Process: Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously in an iterative manner.
• Ethical Considerations: Ensures informed consent, confidentiality, and sensitivity to participants’ needs and well-being.
• Detailed Reporting: Results are reported in a detailed narrative style, often using direct quotes from participants.

How to Find Qualitative Research Design

1. identify the research problem.

Define the specific problem or phenomenon you want to study. For example, you might explore the experiences of first-generation college students.

2. Conduct a Literature Review

Review existing research to understand what has been studied and identify gaps. This helps to build a foundation for your research.

3. Formulate Research Questions

Create open-ended questions to guide your study. Example: “What challenges do first-generation college students face?”

4. Choose a Qualitative Research Approach

Select a methodology that fits your research question, such as phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, case study, or narrative research.

5. Select the Research Setting

Decide where you will conduct your study, such as a university campus or online forums relevant to your topic.

6. Identify and Recruit Participants

Determine criteria for participant selection and recruit individuals who meet these criteria, such as first-generation college students.

7. Choose Data Collection Methods

Select methods like interviews, focus groups, observations, or document analysis to gather rich data.

8. Collect and Analyze Data

Gather your data and analyze it by identifying patterns and themes. Use coding and software tools if necessary.

9. Validate Findings

Ensure the credibility of your research through techniques like triangulation, member checking, and peer debriefing.

FAQ’s

How does qualitative research differ from quantitative research.

Qualitative research focuses on understanding meaning and experiences, while quantitative research measures variables and uses statistical analysis to test hypotheses.

What is the purpose of qualitative research?

The purpose is to gain in-depth insights into people’s behaviors, motivations, and social interactions to understand complex phenomena.

What methods are commonly used in qualitative research?

Common methods include interviews, focus groups, participant observation, and content analysis of texts and media.

What is a case study in qualitative research?

A case study is an in-depth exploration of a single case or multiple cases within a real-life context to uncover detailed insights.

What is narrative research in qualitative research?

Narrative research explores the stories and personal accounts of individuals to understand how they make sense of their experiences.

How is data analyzed in qualitative research?

Data analysis involves coding and categorizing data to identify patterns, themes, and meanings, often using software like NVivo or manual methods.

What is the role of the researcher in qualitative research?

The researcher acts as a primary instrument for data collection and analysis, often engaging closely with participants and their contexts.

What are the strengths of qualitative research?

Strengths include rich, detailed data, the ability to explore complex issues, and flexibility in data collection and analysis.

What are the limitations of qualitative research?

Limitations include potential researcher bias, time-consuming data collection, and challenges in generalizing findings to larger populations.

How is validity ensured in qualitative research?

Validity is ensured through strategies like triangulation, member checking, prolonged engagement, and reflexivity to enhance credibility and trustworthiness.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

10 Examples of Public speaking

20 Examples of Gas lighting

(Stanford users can avoid this Captcha by logging in.)

• Send to text email RefWorks EndNote printer

Research design : qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches

Available online, at the library.

Law Library (Crown)

More options

• Find it at other libraries via WorldCat
• Contributors

Description

Creators/contributors, contents/summary.

• The selection of a research approach
• Review of the literature
• The use of theory
• Writing strategies and ethical considerations
• The introduction
• The purpose statement
• Research questions and hypotheses
• Quantitative methods
• Qualitative methods
• Mixed methods procedures

Bibliographic information

Browse related items.

• Stanford Home
• Maps & Directions
• Search Stanford
• Emergency Info
• Terms of Use
• Non-Discrimination
• Accessibility

© Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 .

	University of Houston
	Jun 29, 2024   2024-2025 Graduate Catalog (Catalog goes into effect at the start of the Fall 2024 semester)     2024-2025 Graduate Catalog (Catalog goes into effect at the start of the Fall 2024 semester) SOCW 8323 - Research Methods III: Qualitative Research UPCOMING [Jul 31]: TI Methods Speaker Series: Text Mining Systematic Reviews: New Directions for Qualitative Research Synthesis 28 Jun 2024 UPCOMING [Jul 31]: TI Methods Speaker Series: Text Mining Systematic Reviews: New Directions for Qualitative Research Synthesis TITLE:  Text Mining Systematic Reviews: New Directions for Qualitative Research Synthesis WHEN: Wednesday, July 31st, 2024 at 12:00 noon PDT [ convert to your local time ] WHERE: free online webinar. After you register you will receive a confirmation email including connection details. REGISTRATION: https://ubc.zoom.us/meeting/register/u5YpcOmtrzgoH91jsofdxcfUeHpTu3aSDLYu SPEAKER:  Dr. Caspar J. Van Lissa , Associate Professor of Social Data Science, Department of Methodology & Statistics, Tilburg University, and Chair of the Open Science Community Tilburg , Netherlands. About the topic:  As the number of publications in most fields continues to grow exponentially, it becomes increasingly unfeasible for scholars to remain informed about the entire literature. Moreover, narrative reviews are subjective and susceptible to a variety of biases, including confirmation bias. Innovations in the machine learning domain of text mining can be used to synthesize the burgeoning literature in a relatively objective and scalable manner. This presentation discusses pioneering work on Text Mining Systematic Reviews (TMSR, Van Lissa 2022). TMSR is an umbrella term for quantitatively aided qualitative research synthesis methods that use machine learning to extract knowledge from published scientific literature. I present two studies that used different TMSR pipelines to extract a latent nomological network from the literature in a particular subfield. These networks can serve as a useful starting point for theory development, help researchers find their bearings in the literature, and identify knowledge gaps. Furthermore, I present one application of TMSR that set out to identify causal claims in the literature. In fields where causal assumptions are rarely made explicit (especially social science), extracting the latent causal network from the published literature may advance a more explicit discussion about causality and formal theory. To conclude, I will reflect on general considerations regarding the use of text mining in research synthesis, based on my experience as associate editor of Research Synthesis Methods . About the speaker:   Dr. Caspar J. Van Lissa is Associate Professor of Social Data Science at Tilburg University, the Netherlands. He serves as chair of the local Open Science Community , and is Associate Editor for Research Synthesis Methods and statistical consulting editor for Child Development . His primary research line uses machine learning for rigorous exploration to complement blind spots in theory. His secondary research line centers on machine learning-based evidence synthesis: summarizing existing knowledge, e.g. through systematic reviews and meta-analysis. About the TI Methods Speaker Series: The TI Methods Speaker Series are offered free of charge and everyone is welcome. The event is usually held at noon on the last Wednesday of each month via Zoom videoconference. The presentations are recorded and the video recordings are posted online.  Click here to view the list of talks offered in 2024 . No Comments Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.   Notify me when new comments are added. An official website of the United States government The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. Publications Account settings Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now . Advanced Search Journal List J Grad Med Educ v.7(4); 2015 Dec Choosing a Qualitative Research Approach Associated data. Editor's Note: The online version of this article contains a list of further reading resources and the authors' professional information . The Challenge Educators often pose questions about qualitative research. For example, a program director might say: “I collect data from my residents about their learning experiences in a new longitudinal clinical rotation. If I want to know about their learning experiences, should I use qualitative methods? I have been told that there are many approaches from which to choose. Someone suggested that I use grounded theory, but how do I know this is the best approach? Are there others?” What Is Known Qualitative research is the systematic inquiry into social phenomena in natural settings. These phenomena can include, but are not limited to, how people experience aspects of their lives, how individuals and/or groups behave, how organizations function, and how interactions shape relationships. In qualitative research, the researcher is the main data collection instrument. The researcher examines why events occur, what happens, and what those events mean to the participants studied. 1 , 2 Qualitative research starts from a fundamentally different set of beliefs—or paradigms—than those that underpin quantitative research. Quantitative research is based on positivist beliefs that there is a singular reality that can be discovered with the appropriate experimental methods. Post-positivist researchers agree with the positivist paradigm, but believe that environmental and individual differences, such as the learning culture or the learners' capacity to learn, influence this reality, and that these differences are important. Constructivist researchers believe that there is no single reality, but that the researcher elicits participants' views of reality. 3 Qualitative research generally draws on post-positivist or constructivist beliefs. Qualitative scholars develop their work from these beliefs—usually post-positivist or constructivist—using different approaches to conduct their research. In this Rip Out, we describe 3 different qualitative research approaches commonly used in medical education: grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology. Each acts as a pivotal frame that shapes the research question(s), the method(s) of data collection, and how data are analyzed. 4 , 5 Choosing a Qualitative Approach Before engaging in any qualitative study, consider how your views about what is possible to study will affect your approach. Then select an appropriate approach within which to work. Alignment between the belief system underpinning the research approach, the research question, and the research approach itself is a prerequisite for rigorous qualitative research. To enhance the understanding of how different approaches frame qualitative research, we use this introductory challenge as an illustrative example. The clinic rotation in a program director's training program was recently redesigned as a longitudinal clinical experience. Resident satisfaction with this rotation improved significantly following implementation of the new longitudinal experience. The program director wants to understand how the changes made in the clinic rotation translated into changes in learning experiences for the residents. Qualitative research can support this program director's efforts. Qualitative research focuses on the events that transpire and on outcomes of those events from the perspectives of those involved. In this case, the program director can use qualitative research to understand the impact of the new clinic rotation on the learning experiences of residents. The next step is to decide which approach to use as a frame for the study. The table lists the purpose of 3 commonly used approaches to frame qualitative research. For each frame, we provide an example of a research question that could direct the study and delineate what outcomes might be gained by using that particular approach. Methodology Overview How You Can Start TODAY 1 Examine the foundations of the existing literature: As part of the literature review, make note of what is known about the topic and which approaches have been used in prior studies. A decision should be made to determine the extent to which the new study is exploratory and the extent to which findings will advance what is already known about the topic. 2 Find a qualitatively skilled collaborator: If you are interested in doing qualitative research, you should consult with a qualitative expert. Be prepared to talk to the qualitative scholar about what you would like to study and why . Furthermore, be ready to describe the literature to date on the topic (remember, you are asking for this person's expertise regarding qualitative approaches—he or she won't necessarily have content expertise). Qualitative research must be designed and conducted with rigor (rigor will be discussed in Rip Out No. 8 of this series). Input from a qualitative expert will ensure that rigor is employed from the study's inception. 3 Consider the approach: With a literature review completed and a qualitatively skilled collaborator secured, it is time to decide which approach would be best suited to answering the research question. Questions to consider when weighing approaches might include the following: • Will my findings contribute to the creation of a theoretical model to better understand the area of study? ( grounded theory ) • Will I need to spend an extended amount of time trying to understand the culture and process of a particular group of learners in their natural context? ( ethnography ) • Is there a particular phenomenon I want to better understand/describe? ( phenomenology ) What You Can Do LONG TERM 1 Develop your qualitative research knowledge and skills : A basic qualitative research textbook is a valuable investment to learn about qualitative research (further reading is provided as online supplemental material). A novice qualitative researcher will also benefit from participating in a massive online open course or a mini-course (often offered by professional organizations or conferences) that provides an introduction to qualitative research. Most of all, collaborating with a qualitative researcher can provide the support necessary to design, execute, and report on the study. 2 Undertake a pilot study: After learning about qualitative methodology, the next best way to gain expertise in qualitative research is to try it in a small scale pilot study with the support of a qualitative expert. Such application provides an appreciation for the thought processes that go into designing a study, analyzing the data, and reporting on the findings. Alternatively, if you have the opportunity to work on a study led by a qualitative expert, take it! The experience will provide invaluable opportunities for learning how to engage in qualitative research. Supplementary Material The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, the Department of the Navy, the Department of Defense, or the US government. References and Resources for Further Reading 476 IMAGES 6 Types of Qualitative Research Methods 6 Types of Qualitative Research Methods Understanding Qualitative Research: An In-Depth Study Guide Qualitative Research Methods What is Qualitative Research? Definition, Types, Examples, Methods, and Qualitative Research Methods VIDEO Exploring Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods and why you should use them How to Write a Scientific Research Paper Research Methods S6a Research Methods S6b Qualitative Research Methods Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods COMMENTS Qualitative Research Qualitative Research. Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus ... What Is Qualitative Research? Qualitative research methods. Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods.These are some of the most common qualitative methods: Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes. Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations. Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among ... How to use and assess qualitative research methods Abstract. This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions ... Planning Qualitative Research: Design and Decision Making for New While many books and articles guide various qualitative research methods and analyses, there is currently no concise resource that explains and differentiates among the most common qualitative approaches. We believe novice qualitative researchers, students planning the design of a qualitative study or taking an introductory qualitative research course, and faculty teaching such courses can ... Introduction to qualitative research methods INTRODUCTION. Qualitative research methods refer to techniques of investigation that rely on nonstatistical and nonnumerical methods of data collection, analysis, and evidence production. Qualitative research techniques provide a lens for learning about nonquantifiable phenomena such as people's experiences, languages, histories, and cultures. Chapter 1. Introduction Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Pearson. Although a good introduction to qualitative methods, the authors favor symbolic interactionist and dramaturgical approaches, which limits the appeal primarily to sociologists. Beginning. Marshall, Catherine, and Gretchen B. Rossman. 2016. 6th edition. Designing Qualitative Research. Definition Qualitative research is the naturalistic study of social meanings and processes, using interviews, observations, and the analysis of texts and images. In contrast to quantitative researchers, whose statistical methods enable broad generalizations about populations (for example, comparisons of the percentages of U.S. demographic groups who vote in particular ways), qualitative researchers use ... The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research, second edition, presents a comprehensive retrospective and prospective review of the field of qualitative research. Original, accessible chapters written by interdisciplinary leaders in the field make this a critical reference work. Filled with robust examples from real-world research; ample ... Qualitative research Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivation. This type of research typically involves in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observations in order to collect data that is rich in detail and context. What is Qualitative Research? Methods, Types, Approaches and Examples Types of qualitative research 3,4. The data collection methods in qualitative research are designed to assess and understand the perceptions, motivations, and feelings of the respondents about the subject being studied. The different qualitative research types include the following: . In-depth or one-on-one interviews: This is one of the most common qualitative research methods and helps the ... Qualitative Methods in Health Care Research The greatest strength of the qualitative research approach lies in the richness and depth of the healthcare exploration and description it makes. In health research, these methods are considered as the most humanistic and person-centered way of discovering and uncovering thoughts and actions of human beings. Table 1. Qualitative Research Methods: A Practice-Oriented Introduction The book aims at achieving e ects in three domains: (a) the. personal, (b) the scholarly, and (c) the practical. The personal goal. is to demystify qualitative methods, give readers a feel for ... Qualitative Research: Methods and Examples Qualitative research: methods and examples. Qualitative research is an excellent way to gain insight into real-world problems. This research type can explain various aspects of individuals in a target group, such as their traits, behaviors, and motivations. Qualitative research involves gathering and evaluating non-numerical information to ... Qualitative Research Methodologies Qualitative research methodologies seek to capture information that often can't be expressed numerically. These methodologies often include some level of interpretation from researchers as they collect information via observation, coded survey or interview responses, and so on. Qualitative research methods: when to use them and how to judge them The particular approach taken determines to a certain extent the criteria used for judging the quality of the report. However, research using qualitative methods can be evaluated (Dixon-Woods et al., 2006; Young et al., 2014) and there are some generic guidelines for assessing qualitative research (Kitto et al., 2008). What is Qualitative Research? Methods and Examples Qualitative research seeks to gain insights and understand people's experiences and perspectives by studying social organizations and human behavior. Data in qualitative studies focuses on people's beliefs and emotional responses. Qualitative data is especially helpful when a company wants to know how customers feel about a product or ... What Is Qualitative Research? Qualitative research methods. Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods.These are some of the most common qualitative methods: Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes. Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations. Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among ... Qualitative Research Definition and Methods Updated on February 02, 2020. Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help understand social life through the study of targeted populations or places. People often frame it in opposition to quantitative research, which uses ... Qualitative vs Quantitative Research: What's the Difference? The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze. Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. What is Qualitative in Qualitative Research A fourth issue is that the "implicit use of methods in qualitative research makes the field far less standardized than the quantitative paradigm" (Goertz and Mahoney 2012:9). Relatedly, the National Science Foundation in the US organized two workshops in 2004 and 2005 to address the scientific foundations of qualitative research involving ... Methods Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector's Field Guide Downloadable how-to guide covers the mechanics of data collection for applied qualitative research; appropriate for novice and experienced researchers. Sampling. In qualitative research, only a sample (subset) of a population is selected for any given study.Three of the most common ... Methodological and practical guidance for designing and conducting Harnessing interpretivist approaches and qualitative values in online qualitative surveys. Online qualitative surveys take many forms. They may be fully qualitative or qualitative dominant—mostly qualitative with some quantitative questions (Terry and Braun, 2017).There are also many different ways of conducting these studies—from using a smaller number of questions that engage specific ... Qualitative Research Design Qualitative Research Design is a method that aims to understand and interpret the meaning and experiences of individuals or groups. It employs in-depth techniques like interviews, focus groups, and observations to gather detailed, rich narratives. Unlike quantitative research, which uses statistical analysis to identify patterns, qualitative ... Research design : qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods Qualitative methods; Mixed methods procedures; Summary "The new edition of the best-selling text, 'Research Design : Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches' by John W. Creswell and co-author J. David Creswell, continues the pioneering tradition of providing clear and concise instruction for understanding research and developing ... Qualitative Study Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems.[1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences ... SOCW 8323 SOCW 8323 - Research Methods III: Qualitative Research Credit Hours: 3 Lecture Contact Hours: 3 Lab Contact Hours: 0. Prerequisite: Doctoral standing or permission from the instructor. Examines the range of methods involved in formulating and conducting qualitative social research, with an emphasis on building empirical knowledge for evidence ... Primary Market Research: Everything You Need to Know Selecting the appropriate research method is crucial and should be based on the objectives you have set. For instance, if detailed, qualitative insights are needed, focus groups or in-depth ... Therapeutics Initiative TMSR is an umbrella term for quantitatively aided qualitative research synthesis methods that use machine learning to extract knowledge from published scientific literature. I present two studies that used different TMSR pipelines to extract a latent nomological network from the literature in a particular subfield. These networks can serve as a ... Choosing a Qualitative Research Approach In this Rip Out, we describe 3 different qualitative research approaches commonly used in medical education: grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology. Each acts as a pivotal frame that shapes the research question (s), the method (s) of data collection, and how data are analyzed. 4, 5. Go to: Mother's perception of early introduction of complementary feeding Methods. Qualitative descriptive research with 16 semi-structured interviews with mothers attending the Child Welfare Clinic at Ejisu Hospital was conducted from June 2022 to May 2023. The study was guided by the Declaration of Helsinki, and all participants were instructed about informed consent for the study. Interviews and analysis were ... assignment essay homework paper phd report review speech thesis