uk style essay

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Essay and dissertation writing skills

Planning your essay

Writing your introduction

Structuring your essay

Writing essays in science subjects
Brief video guides to support essay planning and writing
Writing extended essays and dissertations
Planning your dissertation writing time

Structuring your dissertation

Top tips for writing longer pieces of work

Advice on planning and writing essays and dissertations

University essays differ from school essays in that they are less concerned with what you know and more concerned with how you construct an argument to answer the question. This means that the starting point for writing a strong essay is to first unpick the question and to then use this to plan your essay before you start putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard).

A really good starting point for you are these short, downloadable Tips for Successful Essay Writing and Answering the Question resources. Both resources will help you to plan your essay, as well as giving you guidance on how to distinguish between different sorts of essay questions.

You may find it helpful to watch this seven-minute video on six tips for essay writing which outlines how to interpret essay questions, as well as giving advice on planning and structuring your writing:

Different disciplines will have different expectations for essay structure and you should always refer to your Faculty or Department student handbook or course Canvas site for more specific guidance.

However, broadly speaking, all essays share the following features:

Essays need an introduction to establish and focus the parameters of the discussion that will follow. You may find it helpful to divide the introduction into areas to demonstrate your breadth and engagement with the essay question. You might define specific terms in the introduction to show your engagement with the essay question; for example, ‘This is a large topic which has been variously discussed by many scientists and commentators. The principal tension is between the views of X and Y who define the main issues as…’ Breadth might be demonstrated by showing the range of viewpoints from which the essay question could be considered; for example, ‘A variety of factors including economic, social and political, influence A and B. This essay will focus on the social and economic aspects, with particular emphasis on…..’

Watch this two-minute video to learn more about how to plan and structure an introduction:

The main body of the essay should elaborate on the issues raised in the introduction and develop an argument(s) that answers the question. It should consist of a number of self-contained paragraphs each of which makes a specific point and provides some form of evidence to support the argument being made. Remember that a clear argument requires that each paragraph explicitly relates back to the essay question or the developing argument.

Conclusion: An essay should end with a conclusion that reiterates the argument in light of the evidence you have provided; you shouldn’t use the conclusion to introduce new information.
References: You need to include references to the materials you’ve used to write your essay. These might be in the form of footnotes, in-text citations, or a bibliography at the end. Different systems exist for citing references and different disciplines will use various approaches to citation. Ask your tutor which method(s) you should be using for your essay and also consult your Department or Faculty webpages for specific guidance in your discipline.

Essay writing in science subjects

If you are writing an essay for a science subject you may need to consider additional areas, such as how to present data or diagrams. This five-minute video gives you some advice on how to approach your reading list, planning which information to include in your answer and how to write for your scientific audience – the video is available here:

A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.

Short videos to support your essay writing skills

There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing, including:

Approaching different types of essay questions
Structuring your essay
Writing an introduction
Making use of evidence in your essay writing
Writing your conclusion

Extended essays and dissertations

Longer pieces of writing like extended essays and dissertations may seem like quite a challenge from your regular essay writing. The important point is to start with a plan and to focus on what the question is asking. A PDF providing further guidance on planning Humanities and Social Science dissertations is available to download.

Planning your time effectively

Try not to leave the writing until close to your deadline, instead start as soon as you have some ideas to put down onto paper. Your early drafts may never end up in the final work, but the work of committing your ideas to paper helps to formulate not only your ideas, but the method of structuring your writing to read well and conclude firmly.

Although many students and tutors will say that the introduction is often written last, it is a good idea to begin to think about what will go into it early on. For example, the first draft of your introduction should set out your argument, the information you have, and your methods, and it should give a structure to the chapters and sections you will write. Your introduction will probably change as time goes on but it will stand as a guide to your entire extended essay or dissertation and it will help you to keep focused.

The structure of extended essays or dissertations will vary depending on the question and discipline, but may include some or all of the following:

The background information to - and context for - your research. This often takes the form of a literature review.
Explanation of the focus of your work.
Explanation of the value of this work to scholarship on the topic.
List of the aims and objectives of the work and also the issues which will not be covered because they are outside its scope.

The main body of your extended essay or dissertation will probably include your methodology, the results of research, and your argument(s) based on your findings.

The conclusion is to summarise the value your research has added to the topic, and any further lines of research you would undertake given more time or resources.

Tips on writing longer pieces of work

Approaching each chapter of a dissertation as a shorter essay can make the task of writing a dissertation seem less overwhelming. Each chapter will have an introduction, a main body where the argument is developed and substantiated with evidence, and a conclusion to tie things together. Unlike in a regular essay, chapter conclusions may also introduce the chapter that will follow, indicating how the chapters are connected to one another and how the argument will develop through your dissertation.

For further guidance, watch this two-minute video on writing longer pieces of work .

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Subject Guides

Academic writing: a practical guide

Academic writing
The writing process
Academic writing style
Structure & cohesion
Criticality in academic writing
Working with evidence
Referencing
Assessment & feedback
Dissertations
Reflective writing
Examination writing
Academic posters
Feedback on Structure and Organisation
Feedback on Argument, Analysis, and Critical Thinking
Feedback on Writing Style and Clarity
Feedback on Referencing and Research
Feedback on Presentation and Proofreading

Showing your understanding of a topic and the critical arguments that relate to it.

What are essays?

Most degree programmes include essays. They are the most common form of written assignment and so for most students, being good at essays is essential to gaining good marks, which lead to good grades, which lead to the degree classification desired. Essays are both a particular method of writing and a collection of sub-skills that students need to master during degree studies.

Find out more:

Essays: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [interactive tutorial] | Essays: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [Google Doc]

General essay writing

You have an essay to write... what next .

Read the assessment brief carefully to find out what the essay is about, what you are required to do specifically. What instructions are you given (discuss, explain, explore)? What choices do you need to make?
Work through the practical guide to essays above. This will help you to think about what an essay is and what is required of you.
Look at the assignment writing process . How will you produce your essay?
Make a plan for when, where, and how you will research, think, draft, and write your essay.
Execute your plan .
Finish early. Leave a couple of spare days at the end to edit and proofread .
Hand it in and move on to the next challenge!

Features of essay writing

Essays vary lots between disciplines and specific tasks, but they share several features that are important to bear in mind.

They are an argument towards a conclusion. The conclusion can be for or against a position, or just a narrative conclusion. All your writing and argumentation should lead to this conclusion.
They have a reader. It is essential that you show the logic of your argument and the information it is based on to your reader.
They are based on evidence . You must show this using both your referencing and also through interacting with the ideas and thinking found within the sources you use.
They have a structure. You need to ensure your structure is logical and that it matches the expectations of your department. You should also ensure that the structure enables the reader to follow your argument easily.
They have a word limit. 1000 words means 'be concise and make decisions about exactly what is important to include' whereas 3500 words means 'write in more depth, and show the reader a more complex and broad range of critical understanding'.
They are part of a discipline/subject area, each of which has conventions . For example, Chemistry requires third person impersonal writing, whereas Women's Studies requires the voice (meaning experiential viewpoint) of the author in the writing.

Types of essay

Each essay task is different and consequently the information below is not designed to be a substitute for checking the information for your specific essay task. It is essential that you check the assessment brief, module handbook and programme handbook, as well as attend any lectures, seminars and webinars devoted to the essay you are working on.

Essays in each subject area belong to a faculty (science, social sciences, arts and Humanities). Essays within the same faculty tend to share some features of style, structure, language choice, and scholarly practices. Please click through to the section relevant to your faculty area and if you want to be curious, the other ones too!

Arts & Humanities essays

Arts and Humanities is a faculty that includes a huge range of subject areas, from Music to Philosophy. Study in the arts and humanities typically focuses on products of the human mind, like music, artistic endeavour, philosophical ideas, and literary productions. This means that essays in the arts and humanities are typically exploring ideas, or interpreting the products of thinking (such as music, art, literature).

There are a range of essay writing styles in arts and humanities, and each subject area has its own conventions and expectations, which are explained and built into modules within each degree programme. Typically, each essay explores an idea, using critical engagement with source material, to produce an argument.

There is typically more reliance on the interpretation of ideas and evidence by the student than in the sciences and social sciences. For the student, the challenge is to understand and control the ideas in each essay, producing a coherent and logical argument that fulfils the essay brief. As with all essays, careful structure, word choices, and language use are essential to succeeding.

Department-specific advice for essays in Arts and Humanities

Some departments provide web-based advice:

English and Related Literature essay writing advice pages
Philosophy essay writing advice pages
Music Department 'House Style' guidance for essay writing
Language and Linguistic Science style guide

If your department does not appear above, do ask your supervisor or other academic staff what specific guidance is available.

Key Features of Arts and Humanities essays

They are based on evidence . It is important that ideas used in essays are derived from credible and usable sources to root your essay in the scholarly materials of the subject that you are writing about.
There is usually a thesis statement. This appears towards the end of your introductory paragraph, concisely outlining the purpose and the main argument of the essay. It is short (once sentence), concise, and precise. Though the essay may have multiple sub-arguments, all must tie into the thesis statement. This means it is important to know, state and stick to the primary focus set out in your thesis statement.
They require you to interpret evidence. It is unlikely that you will find a source that directly answers the essay question set. You will typically be required to interpret primary and secondary evidence. Primary evidence includes the manuscript of a novel, or a letter describing an historical event. Secondary evidence includes academic books and peer reviewed articles.
They require you to apply ideas. Many essays will ask you to apply an abstract idea to a scenario, or interpretation of something. For example, you could be asked to apply a Marxist ideology upon Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights or Post-Colonialist theories upon Shakespeare's The Tempest.
Essays vary greatly in terms of length, required depth of thinking and purpose. You must carefully read the assessment brief and any supporting materials provided to you. It is also important to complete formative tasks that prepare you for an essay, as these will help you to become use to the requirements of the summative essay.
They must show criticality. When interpreting evidence, or applying ideas in your essay you must be aware that there is more than one possible understanding. Through exploring multiple sources and showing the limits and interconnectedness of ideas you show criticality. More information on criticality can be found on the Criticality page of this guide .

Example extract of an arts and humanities essay

Essay Title: Liturgical expression and national identity during the reign of Æthelred the Unready

This essay is from English studies and shows typical features of an arts and humanities essay. It is examining two ideas, namely 'national identity' and 'liturgical expression' and applying them both to a period of history. The essay does this by analysing linguistic choices, using interpretation from the literature base to create an argument that addresses the essay title.

It also has the feature of the student using sources of evidence to offer an interpretation that may disagree with some published sources. This use of evidence to create an argument that is novel to the student and requires interpretation of ideas is typical of arts and humanities writing. '"engla God", these liturgical verses themselves both signify and enact a ritualised unity with God.' is an example from the essay extract that shows the careful language choices used to create a concise and precise argument that clearly conveys complex thought to the reader from the author.

One way of thinking about a good arts and humanities essay is that it is like you are producing a garment from threads. The overall piece has a shape that people can recognise and understand, and each word, like each stitch, builds the whole piece slowly, whilst some key threads, like core ideas in your argument, run through the whole to hold it all together. It is the threading together of the strands of argument that determines the quality of the final essay, just as the threading of strands in a garment determine the quality of the final piece.

Good arts and humanities essay writing is...

Based on evidence sources,
built on the interpretation and application of ideas, evidence and theories,
a clearly expressed, logical argument that addresses the essay question,
carefully constructed to guide the reader in a logical path from the introduction to the conclusion,
filled with carefully chosen language to precisely and accurately convey ideas and interpretations to the reader,
built on rigorous, careful and close analysis of ideas,
constructed using careful evaluation of the significance of each idea and concept used,
readable, meaning it is clear and logical, using clearly understandable English,
rewarded with high marks.

Common mistakes in arts and humanities essay writing

Not answering the question posed. It is very easy to answer the question you wished had been asked, or drift away from the question during your writing. Keep checking back to the question to ensure you are still focussed and make a clear plan before writing.
Moving beyond the evidence. You are required to interpret ideas and evidence that exist, this requires some application and novelty, but should not be making up new ideas/knowledge to make your argument work; your writing must be rooted in evidence.
Using complex and long words where simpler word choices would convey meaning more clearly. Think of the reader.
Leaving the reader to draw their own conclusion s, or requiring the reader to make assumptions. They must be able to see your thinking clearly on the page.
Using lots of direct quotes . There are times when using quotes is important to detail lines from a novel for example, but you need to use them carefully and judiciously, so that most of your writing is based on your use of sources, for which you gain credit.

Social Science essays

Social Sciences, as the name suggests, can be thought of as an attempt to use a 'scientific method' to investigate social phenomena. There is a recognition that applying the strict rules of the level of proof required in science subjects is not appropriate when studying complex social phenomena. But, there is an expectation of as much rigour as is possible to achieve in each investigation.

Consequently, there is a huge variation in the types of essays that can be found within the social sciences. An essay based on the carbon dating of human remains within Archaeology is clearly very different from an essay based on the application of an ethical framework in Human Resources Management. The former is likely to be much more like a science essay, whilst the latter may edge towards a Philosophy essay, which is part of arts and humanities.

Key features of social science essays

They are evidence-based. It is crucial to use the evidence in a way that shows you understand how significant the evidence used is.
They require interpretation of evidence . By its nature, evidence in social sciences may be less definite than in sciences, and so interpretation is required. When you interpret evidence, this too must be based on evidence, rather than personal opinion or personal observation.
They often require the application of abstract theories to real-world scenarios . The theories are 'clean and clear' and the real world is 'messy and unclear'; the skill of the student is to make plausible judgements. For example,
The level of detail and breadth of knowledge that must be displayed varies greatly, depending on the length of the essay. 1000 word essays need concise wording and for the student to limit the breadth of knowledge displayed in order to achieve the depth needed for a high mark. Conversely, 5000 word essays require both breadth and depth of knowledge.
They should show criticality. This means you need to show uncertainty in the theories and ideas used, and how ideas and theories interact with others. You should present counter-facts and counter-arguments and use the information in the literature base to reach supported conclusions and judgements.

Example extract of a social science essay

Essay Title: Who Gets What in Education and is that Fair?

Education in the western world has historically favoured men in the regard that women were essentially denied access to it for no other reason than their gender (Trueman,2016) and even though it would seem there is certainly “equality on paper” (Penny, 2010,p1.) when looking at statistics for achievement and gender, the reality is that the struggles facing anyone who does not identify as male require a little more effort to recognise. An excellent example of this can be found in the 2014 OECD report. In the UK women significantly outnumbered men in their application for university places- 376,860 women to 282,170 men (ICEF,2014)- but when observed closer men are applying for places at higher ranking universities and often studying in fields that will eventually allow them to earn better salaries. The same report praised women for the ability to combine their studies with family life and having higher aspirations than boys and therefore likely as being more determined to obtain degrees (ICEF, 2014), yet in reality women have very little choice about coping with the stressful burdens placed on them. The concepts of double burden and triple shift where women are expected to deal with housework and earning an income, or housework, raising children and earning an income (Einhorn, 1993) could in this case relate to the pressure for women to work hard at school to allow them to be able to provide for their families in future. Even women who do not necessarily have their own families or children to care for must face the double burden and triple shift phenomenon in the workplace, as women who work in the higher education sector almost always have the duty of a more pastoral and caring role of their students than male counterparts (Morley,1994).

Education is a social science subject. Some studies within it follow a scientific method of quantitative data collection, whilst others are more qualitative, and others still are more theoretical. In the case of this extract it is about gendered effects in university applications. This is an inevitably complex area to write about, intersecting as it does with social class, economic status, social norms, cultural history, political policy... To name but a few.

The essay is clearly based on evidence, which in places in numerical and in places is derived from previously written papers, such as 'triple shift where women are expected to deal with housework and earning an income, or housework, raising children and earning an income (Einhorn, 1993)', where the concept of triple shift is derived from the named paper. It is this interleaving of numerical and concrete facts with theoretical ideas that have been created and/or observed that is a typical feature in social sciences. In this case, the author has clearly shown the reader where the information is from and has 'controlled' the ideas to form a narrative that is plausible and evidence-based.

When compared to science writing, it can appear to be more wordy and this is largely due to the greater degree of interpretation that is required to use and synthesise complex ideas and concepts that have meanings that are more fluid and necessarily less precise than many scientific concepts.

Good social science essay writing is...

filled with clearly articulated thinking from the mind of the author,
well structured to guide the reader through the argument or narrative being created,
focussed on answering the question or addressing the task presented,
filled with carefully chosen evaluative language to tell the reader what is more and less significant,
readable - sounds simple, but is difficult to achieve whilst remaining precise,

Common mistakes in social science essay writing

Speculating beyond the limits of the evidence presented . It is important to limit your interpretation to that which is supported by existing evidence. This can be frustrating, but is essential.
Using complex words where simpler ones will do. It is tempting to try to appear 'clever' by using 'big words', but in most cases, the simplest form of writing something is clearer. Your aim is to clearly communicate with the reader.
Giving your personal opinion - this is rarely asked for or required.
Not answering the question or fulfilling the task . This is possibly the most common error and largely comes from letting one's own ideas infect the essay writing process.
Not being critical. You need to show the limits of the ideas used, how they interact, counter-arguments and include evaluation and analysis of the ideas involved. If you find yourself being descriptive, ask why.
Using lots of direct quotes, particularly in first year writing . Quotes should be rare and used carefully because they are basically photocopying. Use your words to show you have understood the concepts involved.

Science essays

Science essays are precise, logical and strictly evidence-based pieces of writing. They employ cautious language to accurately convey the level of certainty within the scientific understanding that is being discussed and are strictly objective. This means that the author has to make the effort to really understand the meaning and significance of the science being discussed.

In a science essay, your aim is to summarise and critically evaluate existing knowledge in the field. If you're doing your own research and data collection, that will be written up in a report instead.

The skill of the student is to thread together the ideas and facts they have read in a logical order that addresses the task set. When judgements are made they must be justified against the strength and significance of the theories, findings, and ideas being used. Generally, the student should not be undertaking their own interpretation of the results and facts, but instead be using those of others to create a justifiable narrative.

Example extract of a science essay

Essay title: To what extent has Ungerleider and Mishkin’s notion of separate ‘what’ and ‘where’ pathways been vindicated by neuropsychological research?

Van Polanen & Davare (2015) showed that the dorsal stream and ventral streams are not strictly independent, but do interact with each other. Interactions between dorsal and ventral streams are important for controlling complex object-oriented hand movements, especially skilled grasp. Anatomical studies have reported the existence of direct connections between dorsal and ventral stream areas. These physiological interconnections appear to gradually more active as the precision demands of the grasp become higher.

However, cognition is a dynamic process, and a flexible interactive system is required to coordinate and modulate activity across cortical networks to enable the adaptation of processing to meet variable task demands. The clear division of the dorsal and ventral processing streams is artificial, resulting from experimental situations, which do not reflect processing within the natural environment (Weiller et al., 2011). Most successful execution of visual behaviours require the complex collaboration and seamless integration of processing between the two systems.

Cloutman (2013) had stated that dorsal and ventral streams can be functionally connected in three regards: (1) the independent processing account – where they remain separate but terminate on the same brain area, (2) the feedback account – where feedback loops from locations downstream on one pathway is constantly providing input to the other and (3) the continuous cross-talk account – where information is transferred to and from the system constantly when processing.

Indeed, the authors found that there were numerous anatomical cross-connections between the two pathways, most notably between inferior parietal and inferior temporal areas. For example, ventral regions TE and TEO have been found to have extensive connectivity with dorsal stream areas, demonstrating direct projections with areas including V3A, MT, MST, FST and LIP (Baizer et al., 1991; Disler et al., 1993).

The first obvious comment is that it is not going to win a prize for literary entertainment! The writing is what one might call 'dry'. This is because it is good scientific writing. It is clearly evidence-based, and is explaining complex interrelationships in a way that is clear, leaves little for the reader to assume and that uses carefully graded language to show the significance of each fact.

The language choices are carefully aligned with the strength of the evidence that is used. For example, 'have been found to have extensive interconnectivity' is graded to convey that many connections have been detailed in the evidence presented. Similarly, 'Most successful execution of visual behaviours require the complex collaboration' is graded carefully to convey meaning to the reader, derived from the evidence used. The sample displays many examples of controlled word choices that leave the reader in no doubt regarding the meaning they are to take from reading the piece. This concise, controlled, evidence-based and carefully considered writing is typical of that found in the science essays.

Good science essay writing is...

evidence-based,
cohesive due to language choices,
well-structured to help the reader follow the ideas,
carefully planned,
filled with carefully chosen evaluative and analytical language,
rewarded with high grades.

Common mistakes in science essay writing

The most common mistake is a lack of accuracy in the language used to convey meaning. This can be due to inadequate reading or a lack of understanding of the subject matter, or alternatively, due to not giving sufficient care to word choice. 'Increased greatly' is different to 'increased', which is different again to 'increased significantly'; it is very important that you understand what you are writing about in enough detail that you can accurately convey an understanding of it accurately to the reader.
Trying to put 'you' into the essay. It is highly unlikely that you will be required to refer to your own viewpoints, opinions or lived experience within scientific essay writing. Science is impersonal, it deals in fact, and so you are a third person, impersonal author who is interpreting and curating facts and knowledge into an essay that makes sense to the reader.
Going beyond the facts. It is rare that you will be asked to speculate in a science essay. When you are, you will be asked to extrapolate from known understanding in the relevant literature. Stick to the facts and to their meaning and significance.
Not placing understanding in context . Each scientific idea sits within a bigger discipline and interacts with other ideas. When you write about ideas, you need to acknowledge this, unless you are specifically told to only focus on one idea. An example would be genomics of viral pathogens, which is currently a much discussed area of activity. This sits within public health, virology, and genomics disciplines, to name a few. Depending on how it is to be written about, you may need to acknowledge one or more of these larger areas.

Using evidence in essays

Sources of evidence are at the heart of essay writing. You need sources that are both usable and credible, in the specific context of your essay.

A good starting point is often the materials used in the module your essay is attached to. You can then work outwards into the wider field of study as you develop your thinking, and seek to show critical analysis, critical evaluation and critical thought in your essay.

Discover more about using evidence in your assignments:

Structuring an essay

Clear structure is a key element of an effective essay. This requires careful thought and you to make choices about the order the reader needs the information to be in.

These resources contain advice and guides to help you structure your work:

You can use these templates to help develop the structure of your essay.

Go to File > Make a copy... to create your own version of the template that you can edit.

Structuring essay introductions

Play this tutorial in full screen

Explain the different functions that can be fulfilled by an introduction.
Provide examples of introductions from the Faculties of Social Sciences, Sciences, and Arts and Humanities.
Evaluating your own introductions.
Matching elements of an introduction to a description of their purpose.
Highlighting where evidence is used to support elements of the introduction.
Highlighting how introductions can make clear links to the essay question.

• • • • • • • • • • • •

In this section, you will learn about the functions and key components of an essay introduction.

An introduction can fulfill the functions below. These often move from a broad overview of the topic in context to a narrow focus on the scope of the discussion, key terms and organisational structure.

Click on each function to reveal more.

It can establish the overall topic and explain the relevance and significance of the essay question to that topic
What is the topic?
Why is the essay question worth exploring? Why is the essay worth reading?
How is it relevant to wider / important / current debates in the field?
It can briefly explain the background and context and define the scope of the discussion
Is it helpful to mention some background, historical or broader factors to give the reader some context?
Is the discussion set in a particular context (geographical; political; economic; social; historical; legal)?
Does the essay question set a particular scope or are you going to narrow the scope of the discussion?
It can highlight key concepts or ideas
Are the key concepts or ideas contentious or open to interpretation?
Will the key concepts need to be defined and explained?
It can signpost the broad organisational structure of the essay
Indicate what you will cover and a brief overview of the structure of your essay
points made should be supported by evidence
clear links should be made to the question

Note: Introductions may not cover all of these elements, and they may not be covered in this order.

Useful Link: See the University of Manchester’s Academic Phrasebank for useful key phrases to introduce work.

• • • • • • • • • • • •

In this activity, you will review and evaluate introductions you have written, identifying areas for improvement.

Find some examples of introductions you have written for essays.

Which of the features do they use?
Are any elements missing?
How might you improve them?

For the following tasks, you will be using an example introduction from one of the following three faculties. Select a faculty to use an introduction from a corresponding subject.

In this activity, you will look at examples of introductions, identifying key features and their purpose.

Here is an example question:

Sociology: Examine some of the factors that influence procrastination in individuals, exploring and evaluating their impact. Identify an area(s) for future research, justifying your choice.

And here is a sample introduction written for this question:

Procrastination is a complex concept which manifests itself in different types of behaviour yet is experienced by individuals universally. A useful definition of procrastination is ‘the voluntary delay of important, necessary, and intended action despite knowing there will be negative consequences for this delay’ (Ferrari and Tice, 2000, Sirois and Pychyl, 2013 cited in Sirois and Giguère, 2018). The influences on procrastination are multi-faceted, which makes their study incredibly challenging. Researchers are now producing a body of work dedicated to procrastination; including meta-analyses such as those by Varvaricheva (2010) and Smith (2015). Influences on procrastination can be considered in two categories, factors with external, environmental, sources and factors with internal sources due to individual differences. However, these external and environmental categories are not completely independent of one another and this essay will seek to explore the complexities of this interdependence. This essay will discuss how different factors influence individual procrastination, by first examining how gender, age and personality affect the procrastination trait under internal factors, before discussing the external factors; how task aversiveness, deadlines and the internet affect procrastination behavioural outcomes. This will be followed by a brief exploration of how the two interact. Finally there a number of gaps in the literature, which suggest avenues for future research.

Click on the Next arrow to match each section of this introduction with a description of its purpose.

Procrastination is a complex concept which manifests itself in different types of behaviour yet is experienced by individuals universally.

Signposts the broad organisational structure of the essay

Narrows the topic and explains its relevance or significance to current debates

Defines the scope of the discussion

Establishes the topic and explains its broad significance

Defines key concepts

That's not the right answer

Have another go.

Yes, that's the right answer!

A useful definition of procrastination is ‘the voluntary delay of important, necessary, and intended action despite knowing there will be negative consequences for this delay’ (Ferrari and Tice, 2000, Sirois and Pychyl, 2013 cited in Sirois and Giguère, 2018).

The influences on procrastination are multi-faceted, which makes their study incredibly challenging. Researchers are now producing a body of work dedicated to procrastination; including meta-analyses such as those by Varvaricheva (2010) and Smith (2015).

Influences on procrastination can be considered in two categories, factors with external, environmental, sources and factors with internal sources due to individual differences. However, these external and environmental categories are not completely independent of one another and this essay will seek to explore the complexities of this interdependence.

This essay will discuss how different factors influence individual procrastination, by first examining how gender, age and personality affect the procrastination trait under internal factors, before discussing the external factors; how task aversiveness, deadlines and the internet affect procrastination behavioural outcomes. This will be followed by a brief exploration of how the two interact. Finally there a number of gaps in the literature, which suggest avenues for future research.

In this activity, you will identify how introductions make links to the question.

Here is the question again:

Click to highlight the places where the introduction below links closely to the question.

Have another go. You can remove the highlighting on sections by clicking on them again.

Those are the parts of the introduction that link closely to the question.

In this activity, you will consider how introductions make use of supporting evidence.

Define key concepts
Establish the topic and explain its relevance or significance

Click to highlight the places where the introduction below supports points with evidence .

Those are the parts of the introduction that use evidence to support points.

Congratulations! You've made it through the introduction!

Click on the icon at the bottom to restart the tutorial.

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Nursing: Drawing on your own experiences and understanding gained from the module readings, discuss and evaluate the values, attributes and behaviours of a good nurse.

The Nursing and Midwifery Council’s (NMC) (2015) Code states that a nurse must always put the care of patients first, be open and honest, and be empathic towards patients and their families. Student nurses are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the need for these key skills even at the interview stage and then gain the experiences to develop certain fundamental attributes, values and behaviours in order to advance through the stages of nursing. This assignment will highlight a variety of values, attributes and behaviours a good nurse should have, focusing on courage in particular. Views of courage from political, professional, and social perspectives will be considered, alongside a comparison between the attribute courage and a student nurse’s abilities. This will be demonstrated using observations from practice, appropriate theorists such as Sellman (2011), Lachman (2010) and philosophers including Aristotle and Ross (2011).

The Nursing and Midwifery Council’s (NMC) (2015) Code states that a nurse must always put the care of patients first, be open and honest, and be empathic towards patients and their families.

Explains the context to the discussion, with reference to the workplace

Defines the scope of the discussion by narrowing it

Defines relevant key concepts or ideas

Student nurses are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the need for these key skills even at the interview stage and then gain the experiences to develop certain fundamental attributes, values and behaviours in order to advance through the stages of nursing.

This assignment will highlight a variety of values, attributes and behaviours a good nurse should have, focusing on courage in particular.

Views of courage from political, professional, and social perspectives will be considered, alongside a comparison between the attribute courage and a student nurse’s abilities. This will be demonstrated using observations from practice, appropriate theorists such as Sellman (2011), Lachman (2010) and philosophers including Aristotle and Ross (2011).

Define relevant key concepts or ideas
Signpost the broad organisational structure of the essay, making a clear link to the question

Archaeology: Explain some of the ways in which Star Carr has been re-interpreted since the initial discovery in the 1940s. Briefly evaluate how the results of recent excavations further dramatically affect our understanding of this site.

Star Carr has become the ‘best known’ Mesolithic site in Britain (Conneller, 2007, 3), in part because of its high levels of artefact preservation due to waterlogging, as the site was once on the Eastern edge of the ancient Lake Flixton, close to a small peninsula (Taylor, 2007). First excavated by Grahame Clark in 1949-51, there was a further invasive investigation in 1985 and 1989, again in 2006-8, and 2010. An impressive haul of artefacts have been excavated over the years, including bone and antler tools, barbed points, flint tools and microliths, and enigmatic red deer frontlets (Milner et al., 2016). Since Clark’s first published report in 1954 there have been numerous re-examinations of the subject, including by Clark himself in 1974. Resulting interpretations of the site have been much debated; it has been classified as ‘in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition’ (Taylor et al., 2017). This discussion will explore the ways in which the site has been variously re-interpreted during this time period, and consider how more recent study of the site has prompted new perspectives.

Explains the background to the discussion and its significance

Establishes the topic

Explains the scope of the topic and highlights key interpretations

First excavated by Grahame Clark in 1949-51, there was a further invasive investigation in 1985 and 1989, again in 2006-8, and 2010. An impressive haul of artefacts have been excavated over the years, including bone and antler tools, barbed points, flint tools and microliths, and enigmatic red deer frontlets (Milner et al., 2016).

Since Clark’s first published report in 1954 there have been numerous re-examinations of the subject, including by Clark himself in 1974. Resulting interpretations of the site have been much debated; it has been classified as ‘in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition’ (Taylor et al., 2017).

This discussion will explore the ways in which the site has been variously re-interpreted during this time period, and consider how more recent study of the site has prompted new perspectives.

Establish the topic, explains the background and significance
Explains the significance of the topic
Highlights key interpretations

Structuring essay conclusions

In this section you will consider the different functions a conclusion can fulfil, look at examples of conclusions, and identify key features and their purpose.

• • • • • • • • •

A conclusion can fulfil the functions below. These often move from a narrow focus on the outcomes of the discussion to a broad view of the topic's relevance to the wider context.

Summary of the main points in relation to the question

This might involve restating the scope of the discussion and clarifying if there any limitations of your discussion or of the evidence provided
This may include synthesising the key arguments and weighing up the evidence

Arrive at a judgement or conclusion

Having weighed up the evidence, come to a judgement about the strength of the arguments

Restate the relevance or significance of the topic to the wider context

Make it clear why your conclusions - which are based on your discussion through the essay - are important or significant in relation to wider/current debates in the field

Make recommendations or indicate the direction for further study, if applicable

Recommendations may be for further research or for practice/policy
What further research/investigation would be necessary to overcome the limitations above?
What are the implications of your findings for policy/practice?

Note: Conclusions may not cover all of these elements, and they may not be covered in this order.

Clear links should be made to the question
Do not make new points in the conclusion

Useful Link: See the University of Manchester’s Academic Phrasebank for useful key phrases to conclude work.

• • • • • • • • •

In this activity, you will look at an example conclusion, identifying key features and their purpose.

In this task, you will be using an example conclusion from one of the following three faculties. Select a faculty to use a conclusion from a corresponding subject.

And here is a sample conclusion written for the question:

In conclusion procrastination is a complex psychological phenomenon that is influenced by a number of factors, both internal and external. However it has a hugely multifaceted nature and the factors that influence it are not truly independent of one another. Character traits and the environmental impact on behaviour are interrelated; for example similar procrastination outcomes may arise from a highly conscientious individual in a distracting environment and an individual low in conscientiousness in a non-distracting setting. This means that future studies need to be very considered in their approach to separating, or controlling for, these factors. These further studies are important and urgently needed as the impact of procrastination on society is far-reaching. For instance: individuals delay contributing to a pension, meaning that old age may bring poverty for many; couples put off entering into formal contracts with each other, potentially increasing disputes over child custody and inheritance; and indeed women delay starting a family and increasing age leads to decreased fertility, thus leading to higher societal costs of providing assisted fertilisation. Furthermore one could expand the scope to include the effects on children of being born to older parents (such as risks of inherited genetic defects). These are themselves wide fields of study and are mentioned merely to illustrate the importance of further research. Until the nature of influences on procrastination is fully understood, our development of approaches to reduce procrastination is likely to be hindered.

Click on the Next arrow to match each section of the conclusion with a description of its purpose.

In conclusion procrastination is a complex psychological phenomenon that is influenced by a number of factors, both internal and external.

Synthesises the key arguments and weighs up the evidence

Indicates limitations

Restates the scope of the discussion

Indicates the direction and significance for further study

Summary of the main point in relation to the question

However it has a hugely multifaceted nature and the factors that influence it are not truly independent of one another.

Character traits and the environmental impact on behaviour are interrelated; for example similar procrastination outcomes may arise from a highly conscientious individual in a distracting environment and an individual low in conscientiousness in a non-distracting setting.

This means that future studies need to be very considered in their approach to separating, or controlling for, these factors. These further studies are important and urgently needed as the impact of procrastination on society is far-reaching. For instance: individuals delay contributing to a pension, meaning that old age may bring poverty for many; couples put off entering into formal contracts with each other, potentially increasing disputes over child custody and inheritance; and indeed women delay starting a family and increasing age leads to decreased fertility, thus leading to higher societal costs of providing assisted fertilisation. Furthermore one could expand the scope to include the effects on children of being born to older parents (such as risks of inherited genetic defects). These are themselves wide fields of study and are mentioned merely to illustrate the importance of further research.

Until the nature of influences on procrastination is fully understood, our development of approaches to reduce procrastination is likely to be hindered.

Opportunities for nurses to display courage occur every day, although it is at the nurse’s discretion whether they act courageously or not. As discussed in this assignment, courage is likewise an important attribute for a good nurse to possess and could be the difference between good and bad practice. It is significantly important that nurses speak up about bad practice to minimize potential harm to patients. However nurses do not need to raise concerns in order to be courageous, as nurses must act courageously every day. Professional bodies such as the RCN and NMC recognise that courage is important by highlighting this attribute in the RCN principles. The guidelines for raising concerns unite the attribute courage with the RCN’s principles of nursing practice by improving nurses’ awareness of how to raise concerns. Lachman’s (2010) CODE is an accessible model that modern nurses could use as a strategy to help them when raising concerns. Although students find it difficult to challenge more senior nursing professionals, they could also benefit from learning the acronym to help them as they progress through their career. For nursing students, courage could be seen as a learning development of the ability to confront their fear of personal emotional consequences from participating in what they believe to be the right action. On the whole a range of values, attributes and behaviours are needed in order to be a good nurse, including being caring, honest, compassionate, reliable and professional. These qualities are all important, but courage is an attribute that is widely overlooked for nurses to possess but vitally fundamental.

Arrives at an overall judgement or conclusion

Make recommendations for practice

Professional bodies such as the RCN and NMC recognise that courage is important by highlighting this attribute in the RCN principles. The guidelines for raising concerns unite the attribute courage with the RCN’s principles of nursing practice by improving nurses’ awareness of how to raise concerns. Lachman’s (2010) CODE is an accessible model that modern nurses could use as a strategy to help them when raising concerns.

Although students find it difficult to challenge more senior nursing professionals, they could also benefit from learning the acronym to help them as they progress through their career. For nursing students, courage could be seen as a learning development of the ability to confront their fear of personal emotional consequences from participating in what they believe to be the right action.

On the whole a range of values, attributes and behaviours are needed in order to be a good nurse, including being caring, honest, compassionate, reliable and professional. These qualities are all important, but courage is an attribute that is widely overlooked for nurses to possess but vitally fundamental.

Star Carr is one of the most fascinating and informative Mesolithic sites in the world. What was once considered to be the occasional winter settlement of a group of hunter-gatherer families, now appears to be a site of year-round settlement occupied over centuries. Since its initial discovery and excavation in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a great deal of further data has been collected, altering interpretations made by the primary excavators who pioneered analysis of the site. What once was considered a typical textbook Mesolithic hunting encampment is now theorized to be a site of ritual importance. The site has produced unique findings such as a multitude of barbed points, twenty one antlered headdresses and the earliest known example of a permanent living structure in Britain. These factors will combine to immortalise the site, even when its potential for further research is thoroughly decayed, which tragically could be very soon (Taylor et al. 2010).

Star Carr is one of the most fascinating and informative Mesolithic sites in the world.

Synthesise the main points

Limitations and implications for future research

Restate the significance of the topic to the wider context

What was once considered to be the occasional winter settlement of a group of hunter-gatherer families, now appears to be a site of year-round settlement occupied over centuries. Since its initial discovery and excavation in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a great deal of further data has been collected, altering interpretations made by the primary excavators who pioneered analysis of the site. What once was considered a typical textbook Mesolithic hunting encampment is now theorized to be a site of ritual importance. The site has produced unique findings such as a multitude of barbed points, twenty one antlered headdresses and the earliest known example of a permanent living structure in Britain.

These factors will combine to immortalise the site, even when its potential for further research is thoroughly decayed, which tragically could be very soon (Taylor et al. 2010).

Congratulations! You've made it through the conclusion!

Click on the icon below to restart the tutorial.

• • • • • • • • •

Other support for essay writing

Online resources.

The general writing pages of this site offer guidance that can be applied to all types of writing, including essays. Also check your department guidance and VLE sites for tailored resources.

Other useful resources for essay writing:

Appointments and workshops

There is lots of support and advice for essay writing. This is likely to be in your department, and particularly from your academic supervisor and module tutors, but there is also central support, which you can access using the links below.

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Last Updated: Jul 25, 2024 6:25 PM
URL: https://subjectguides.york.ac.uk/academic-writing

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Essay Writing Tips

Improving your Essay Writing Skills

IELTS Study Tips

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Essays provide the opportunity to craft thoughtful arguments on complex topics within the confines of a prescribed and often restrictive word count. As an international student at a UK university , the biggest challenge in essay writing is making each one a little bit better than the last, especially if you must write them regularly.

So, how do you take your essays to the next level and go from great to brilliant? Learn more about six great essay tips and techniques that will improve your essay writing below and if you're getting ready to apply to study in the UK , make sure to arrange a free consultation with SI-UK to learn more about the best universities , courses and how to make sure your IELTS score is high enough.

Six Essay Writing Tips for International Students

1. read other people’s essays.

Starting a study group is a great way to exchange essays, which will help you develop your essay-writing style. Read as many as you can from fellow students and academics on a variety of subjects and different disciplines, and as you do so, be critical: what do you like and dislike about them? How persuasive are the arguments presented? Is the argument a balanced one, with points adequately supported with evidence?

2. Build your vocabulary and use it properly

A good vocabulary will allow you to express exactly what you mean as clearly and concisely as possible. Economy with words is a characteristic of all good essays, so try to be precise and clear with arguments and points.

Read fiction and nonfiction widely and refer to a dictionary for words you don’t know; this way, you’ll learn about new words and know how to use them properly.
Use a thesaurus – you will add variety to your language and avoid re-using the same words.
Learn prefixes, suffixes and roots – many roots come from Latin and Greek words and it’s often possible to deduce the meaning of a new word if you know its root and read it in context.
Start a vocabulary book by using a notepad and collecting new words and their meanings. The act of writing down the definition will help you remember it.

Do not use big words just for the sake of it though. Your essay should not contain meaningless meanderings, so review each sentence and remove any words or paragraphs that don’t add anything to your argument.

3. Words to help develop an argument

Like the above, avoid repeating yourself and focus on using language effectively to help build an argument and create a sense of structure. Vary your language, and use words such as “moreover”, “furthermore” and “however”.

4. Elevator pitching and planning

Make an essay plan before you begin and understand your argument. Only then can you start writing the structure for an essay that builds up to your overall conclusion?

To condense what you’re trying to say into a short, snappy summary, try making an ‘Elevator Pitch’ - a technique salespeople use when condensing an argument - to surmise what you intend to write and why readers should be interested in it.

5. Tell the reader what other people say

When writing essays it is extremely important to cite other people’s opinions, and sources, on what you’re writing about. Contrasting views should be sought; it’s unlikely that everyone agrees on the topic, so show you’ve looked at all the possible angles.

It’s fine to disagree with a scholar you quote, provided you can give evidence and reasoning. This shows that you have thought about it and made your own mind up; this is a good way of demonstrating strong critical reasoning skills.

6. Syntax, punctuation and tone of voice

A sophisticated sentence structure makes a world of difference to your argument. Make your essay easy for readers to understand by using a variety of sentence structures, long and short, and be precise so that your sentences don’t become too long or difficult to read. Poor grammar makes an essay harder to read.

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If you need to improve your reading or writing before applying to study at a UK university, SI-UK London provides IELTS preparation lessons and an IELTS Practice Test to learn your current ability. Enquire with our international education consultants and teachers to get started today.

You might also be interested in...

Blog 10 mistakes to avoid as an international student in the uk, blog the best ielts textbooks for international students, blog the academic ielts test format, blog improving your essay writing skills, blog homophones: the english words that create confusion, blog group ielts vs private ielts lessons – which is better.

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How to Write an Academic Essay With CIPD

Our guide to helping you write effective academic essays.

An academic essay is a piece of writing in a formal style which answers the question or statement posed in the essay title. The essay will be based on your research and, possibly, your own experience. You’ll need to reflect on your findings and present your ideas in an analytical or critical style.

The essay marker will be looking for your ability to read around a topic, evaluate what you’ve read, and present a coherent argument. You’ll be expected to be make connections between the different ideas and practices relevant to the subject, and to add your own views and conclusions within the context of the question. For example, if the question relates to recruitment and asks you to evaluate current methods of recruitment practice and the methods used by your own organisation, it would be expected that you had read a number of articles, texts, journals and course materials, as well as considering discussions during your face-to-face course sessions, and be able to compare and contrast the views and practices you discover.

The key differences between an academic essay and a business report are:

An essay may be more free-flowing than a structured report, although it will still be broken into relevant sections to explore the topic and lead the reader through the ‘story’ you’re building.
As an academic piece of writing, you’ll be expected to ‘cite’ all the sources you’ve used to support your ideas and list them at the end as a reference list or bibliography.
An essay is usually written solely as an assignment as part of a course, not for a wider audience.

Read the question carefully – what are the outcomes required? What supporting evidence will be needed? What are the action words? Are you being asked to describe something, evaluate several different approaches, or compare and contrast a couple of concepts or practices, or a range? Refer to the question on the assignment brief, but also to the criteria for the unit which often give more clues on what is required in terms of detail. Lastly, review any student guidance provided either written, or from your notes from the Unit session. If you’re unsure what the question is requiring you to do, ask your personal tutor.

It’s important that you know what the expectations are for word count, and whether this is exact, or within a range (this should be stated clearly on the assignment brief). There may also be particular requirements on layout and formatting of your essay.

Specific requirements for a r eferences list (which lists sources you have used or quoted from directly) and/or a b ibliography (which lists other material you have found useful but not drawn on specifically) will be highlighted on the assignment brief.

In our guide: How to study effectively , it’s suggested that you have a system in place to gather your notes, your references, and the materials, textbooks and various website resources to hand when you sit down to plan. You’ll also need the assignment brief and any guidance sheets provided. Make sure you have a good hour at least for this ’thinking‘ work, as it will form the basis for your research and initial writing.

Note the deadline, and work backwards, planning for an initial draft, a second draft, and then time to tidy up your final draft. Leave plenty of time if you’re working in a busy environment, as unexpected work pressures may overturn your plan.

Taking into account the question and the requirements for evidence or examples, start to consider your current knowledge, your latest learning, your knowledge of your organisation’s approach to the topic (or where you may get this from if you’re not employed or you can’t use information from your organisation), and any comparative views you heard, read or are aware of from wider research. What practices does your organisation have, and what do competitors or relevant third parties do? What is the context in which you are responding to the question – internal and external factors? Start with broad considerations, then narrow down to the precise issues and approach to be discussed.

What other sources (journals, texts, internal documents) will you need to refer to, and how might your appendix (if permitted) support your essay? It’s essential that you make a full record of anything you read when researching your topic, or you can waste valuable time looking for that perfect quote you found, but didn’t write down the page number or source document! While researching for your essay, you’re likely to do a lot of reading and note-taking – our guide on How to study effectively has more on reading and note-taking skills.

The introduction will start with a brief summary of the context of the question, with an outline of the topic, and a statement of how you intend to address the question; whether you’ll be using primary or secondary research or both, and referring to other sources of key information which you’ll rely on.

The main body of the essay will be your findings, your personal views, and the views of others (from your reading or quotes from individuals if you’re using primary research). You may break this into relevant sub sections, and you may decide to use some subheadings to guide the reader through your ideas. Any sources you refer to and any quotes you use should be given in the appropriate format in your essay text – see more on citing sources in the paragraph below on references.

Finally, the conclusion will contain a summary of the outcomes and the reasons why you’ve reached your viewpoint. If recommendations are required, they would usually be given after the conclusion – there is often guidance on whether recommendations are part of your essay requirements.

The way you refer to your sources in your essay text (known as ‘citing’ your sources) and your list of references and/or bibliography needs to done in a specific way. The majority of CIPD courses use the Harvard referencing style – see our guide on How to set out references . The guidance in  Cite them Right!  also follows the Harvard style and is used by many colleges and universities. Marks are often awarded for good referencing as they show how widely you have read as well as allowing others to check your sources. They are also important to avoid claims of plagiarism (presenting other people’s work as your own).

Where your essay refers to a particular report, or key document, you may choose to include a small amount, often in diagrammatic form, in an appendix to your essay, if this will provide relevant information which cannot be contained in the word count. You should refer to the appendix at a relevant point in the main body of the essay, and make sure you state the source clearly in the appendix and include the source in your references list.

A poorly presented piece of work may distract the marker from the points you are making, or indeed make it difficult for them to follow your thinking.

Some key tips:

Always get someone else to read your work. Can they follow it? If no, why not?
Check your spelling and grammar – this is important when writing business documents as well.
Check consistency of headings and text layout.
Have you referred to anything in the essay which needs to be numbered, or put into a matching appendix?
Where you have used quotes, tables or diagrams from elsewhere, have you quoted your source and put it into the Reference list?
Using a front page for your essay is usually recommended as it allows you to state your essay title, course, name or candidate number, date of submission as well as word count and any other information required.
Last but not least; don’t leave it to the last minute, as this final preparation all takes time. Keep the submission date in mind, and plan to finish several days beforehand. Submitting late can carry penalties, and may lead to your work only being marked once, with no opportunity for improvement.

Open University – skills for study

Palgrave Macmillan Study Skills

COTTRELL, S. (2013) The study skills handbook. 4th ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

HORN, R. (2009) The business skills handbook. London: Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development.

HORN, R. (2012) Researching and writing dissertations: a complete guide for business and management students. 2nd ed. London: Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development.

MCMILLAN, K. and WEYERS, J. (2007) How to write essays and assignments. Harlow: Pearson Education.

SOLES, D. (2005) The academic essay. Bishops Lydeard: Studymates Ltd.

Visit the CIPD Store to see all our priced publications currently in print.

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Essay writing: Formatting

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Essays are formal documents and should look professional Advice from the Skills Team

Whilst there are no hard rules about how you format essays, there are some conventions and common practices that are best to follow. If you use the settings on this page, you will produce an acceptably formatted essay.

Document layout

Visual display of the information on this page.

Margins - between 2 cm and 2.54 cm (1 inch) all around.

Line spacing - either 1.5 or double-line spacing.

Paragraph spacing - either 1 clear line between or at least 8 pt space after each paragraph (more if double-line spaced)

Alignment - left aligned (fully justified with a straight right-edge is not recommended as this reduces readability and accessibility). Some longer essays may require subheadings which should also be left-aligned.

Indents - no indents on first lines of paragraphs are needed.

It is also good practice to put your student number and module number in the header of the document and a page number at the bottom of the page.

Text formatting

Font - the default font that comes with MS Word (currently Calibri) is fine for academic work. You may see persistent advice in handbooks that suggests you should use Times New Roman or Arial. If you prefer these, you can change it - but this is no longer a requirement.

Font size - fonts should be 11 or 12 point.

Font style - headings and subheadings, if they are required (most essays will not use them), are usually formatted in bold and should be at least 2 point sizes larger than the standard text. Underlining should be avoided as this is seen as rather dated. Some text can be formatted in italics - see our page Italics, when to use them , for guidance.

Shorter quotations in the text do not need to be italicised and should have double-quotations marks "like this" to indicate they are direct quotations. Longer quotations (what counts as this differs depending on your referencing style) should be created in their own paragraph, single spaced and indented by 1cm from both left and right margins:

For example:

Graduate attributes for employability are described as:

a set of achievements – skills, understandings and personal attributes – that makes graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits themselves, the workforce, the community and the economy. (Yorke, 2006)

The main change in this definition compared to the earlier definition of graduate attributes from Bowden (2000) is that that the attributes are no longer ...

UoH Harvard/APA

Your reference list should be in alphabetical order (by author surname) and single line spaced. There should be a clear line space (or at least 6 pt space) between each reference. All references should be left-aligned with no indentation. For information about how to format individual references, see the Harvard Hull Referencing Guide.

UoH Footnotes

Your reference list should be in alphabetical order (by first author surname) and single line spaced. All references should be left-aligned and have a hanging indent (all but the first line are indented by approx. 1cm). For information about how to format individual references, see the Footnotes Hull Referencing Guide.

Other referencing styles

Please see your individual departmental guidance.

We provide here a Microsoft Word template that can be used for your essays. It has the correct layout and formatting, including useful styles.

Essay template

Download this template to somewhere you can access easily. When you click to open it, it will open a new document based on the template , leaving the original intact.

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Last Updated: Jul 4, 2024 10:15 AM
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Academic writing

Thinking about grammar
Correct punctuation
Introduction

Write formally and with clarity

Write concisely and with precision, write for a purpose.

Descriptive, analytical and reflective writing
Effective proof reading

Useful links for academic writing

Study Advice Helping students to achieve study success with guides, video tutorials, seminars and appointments.
Improve your understanding of grammar and punctuation an excellent site with clear explanations and plenty of online exercises to test your understanding (University of Bristol).
Academic Phrasebank Use this site for examples of linking phrases and ways to refer to sources.
Learn English (British Council) High quality resources to help improve your English
English for Uni (University of Adelaide) Engaging learning resources which aim to make difficult grammar and academic writing concepts easier to understand
Grammar Resource Course on aspects of English grammar which are often a problem for students (University of Hull)
English for Academic Purposes: Grammar Detailed explanation of how English grammar works with lots of exercises to put your knowledge into practice.

- formal, because informal writing is not always understood in the same way by every reader;

- structured, because complex ideas need to be controlled to produce an unambiguous statement;

- precise, so that none of its ideas can be challenged;

- appropriate, so that it communicates to its audience in the most effective way.

As different subject areas have their own conventions, do refer to programme handbooks for specialist guidance. You can also look at publications, such as research journals, in your area to see their writing style. If English is not your first language, or you would like to access more information and activities on academic writing, you can also get more advice from the links below. If you are a University of Reading student and English is not your first language, the Academic English Programme (AEP) provides training courses in academic writing skills, speaking skills, and pronunciation practice.

Academic English Programme (AEP) If you are studying in English as a second or additional language, the Academic English Programme offers courses, webinars and 1:1 consultations to help you improve your academic English while you study. The Academic English Programme (AEP) is free to all fee-paying international/EU students.

Writing should be formal, but it does not need to be pompous. To maintain formality, there are various colloquialisms and shortened forms to avoid:

Avoid shortened forms:

Shouldn't, it's for it is

Avoid popular phrases or cliches such as:

at the end of the day; in a nutshell; when it comes to the crunch

Replace with: finally, in summary, in a crisis

Avoid casual everyday words such as :

really, okay, maybe.

One recent poll of students at a US university found that an average student in the class would write 42 pages for class in a semester but the equivalent of more than 500 pages of content online.

In our everyday lives we are used to communicating by writing texts and instant messages. These have their own conventions, such as using abbreviations ("txt"), using symbols (" :>)"), figures (4 rather than four) and not writing in sentences. When writing formal essays and reports we have to take extra care that our texting and emailing habits do not creep in by accident.

Correct use of grammar and punctuation is important. They show that you care about your work and have adopted a disciplined attitude to writing academically. They also help to make sure your meaning is understood. The most common mistakes by inexperienced writers include:

incomplete sentences (missing a verb or needing information in the previous sentence to make sense;
the wrong use of semicolons and colons;
the wrong use of apostrophes (check whether the s is there to indicate possession or a plural);
nouns and verbs where singular /plural do not agree (try proof reading aloud to spot this);
and inconsistent use of tenses (always use the past tense when you are reporting on something that was done).

See the pages on Grammar and Punctuation in this guide for more on this.

Good writing makes a point clearly and may illustrate it to help the reader's understanding. To avoid rambling, plan the points that you wish to convey and the evidence that you will use to illustrate. Include only necessary detail.

When presenting a point of view, such as a line of argument for an essay, decide on the main points that you want to communicate. Plan one main point per paragraph. A paragraph can be planned (like a mini-essay) using the PEIL format:

P: Sentence introducing the point with any necessary detail.

E: Illustration of point using evidence : research example, case study, figures, etc.

I: Interpretation of the evidence. What does it mean?

L: Concluding sentence summing up the point and linking to the question or your argument.

Where abbreviations and acronyms are required to avoid repetition, ensure that, on first mention, the unabbreviated term appears together with the abbreviation or acronym, for example:

First mention: "An article in the American Journal of Philology (AJPh) reported..."

Subsequent mention: "Writing in the AJPh, Brown concluded that..."

In academic writing you are responsible for the writing you produce. If you are using research or ideas based on work by others (books, journals, websites) you must reference everything fully and in the correct way for your assignment (check your instructions for this). If you fail to do this, you are implying that the ideas etc. are your own and then you may be accused of plagiarism.

Do not be tempted to use complex language or expressions that are not your own, just to make your writing appear "academic". Use straightforward language. Your reader needs to understand the information or ideas that you are conveying.

Communicate succinctly without losing vital information or meaning. It is often easier to write fluently and then to edit out unnecessary words and phrases.

1. Go through a paragraph that you have written and cross out any words, or phrases or even a sentence that may be unnecessary. (Or 'grey it out' – change the text colour of the words you might remove to light grey.) Read it again to see if you have lost anything essential to the information or meaning. If you have not, then delete it permanently.

2. Replace phrases with single words meaning the same:

The researcher wanted to find out <--replace with--> The researcher enquired

3. To cut down larger amounts of word count, try writing one sentence which sums up each paragraph. Then read through and rank in importance to your overall answer to the question. Take out the paragraphs that are least important.

Some academic writing, such as scientific research methodology, needs to be especially precise. A reader may need to have all the information required to understand exact conditions of a scientific study and to replicate it. Using simple sentences can be helpful.

Avoid using non-quantifiable descriptions, such as:

The company's production rate was high <--replace with--> The company produced 16,00 units per week.

The wind was strong <--replace with--> The wind measured 6 on the Beaufort scale.

Structure is also important in academic writing - it helps to make your ideas clear, guides the reader's comprehension and can strengthen your arguments. Some academic writing, such as scientific reports, has a given structure. Just find out what is required under each heading and keep to it. Other writing (such as essays) requires the writer to select and organise the material they are writing and so develop a structure.

Usually in the introduction the writer sets out the structure so that the reader knows what to expect and the order in which it will be presented. The order in which information is presented should be logical so that the reader can follow the thinking, ideally with just one point or idea per paragraph. In addition the ideas should flow or be linked so that the reader is drawn through an explanation or argument, rather than stopping and starting at each new point.The conclusion to the piece should draw together all the points or ideas and come to a conclusion.

Academic writing has a purpose. It may provide background information, the results of other peoples' research, the critique of other peoples' research, your own research findings, your own ideas based on academic research conducted by others, etc. It may be a combination of a few of these.

Decide on your purpose and what you intend to convey. If there is a brief, follow it. If there is a given question, make sure that you answer what has been asked. Write down your main points.(Mind-mapping can help with this.)
Decide on the audience for whom you are writing. If you are writing a university assignment, pretend that you are writing for an intelligent colleague from a related academic field, rather than for your tutor who knows more about the topic.

For most subject areas the writing is expected to be objective. For this the first person (I, we, me, my) should be avoided.

So I analysed the data becomes The data was analysed

However, writing passively isn't always suitable. For instance, if you are asked to write a reflective piece, you will need to refer to your own actions and experiences. The important thing is to consider the purpose of your writing - that will help you to decide how to write it.

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Academic writing style

Improving your writing

Explore these key points to keep your writing academic and professional, and to improve your work

You'll need an academic writing style for your most assignments at uni.

Different disciplines and subject areas have specific writing styles. This page outlines some basic elements of academic writing but you should research the writing style for your subject area too.

What is academic style?

There's no final definition of 'academic' writing, but you can develop and academic style with the advice below.

Qualities that contribute to academic writing:

Objective

Be formal – avoid common, colloquial or spoken language

Avoid casual language in your assignments such as:

words like ‘stuff’, ’really’ and ‘things’
phrases like ‘a bit’ and ‘sort of’
sentence fragments and contractions including 'isn’t', 'didn’t', 'couldn’t', 'wouldn’t' and 'it’ll'
'etc.' to stand for et cetera – it is better to say 'for example...'
using questions – try to structure your point as a full sentence

Be objective – stand back from others' work and your own

There are a few key way to remains objective in your writing:

critique your own work as well as others’
write in an impersonal or neutral style
avoid using 'I'
include and tackle material you disagree with or that challenges your work

This critical approach might not be appropriate for all assignments, but you usually need to demonstrate you've engaged objectively with all of your source material. This means standing back from your own ideas, perspective, assumptions and beliefs.

Be cautious – not too black and white

Academic writing is usually cautious because it discusses complex knowledge. Academic work is open-minded and enquiring – so as a student you should question arguments rather than being too certain. Beware of words like ‘should’, ‘ought’ and ‘must’, and think carefully about using words like ‘definitely’ which suggest now room for debate around a statement.

Cautious words to use in academic writing:

Be succinct – not too wordy

People reading your assignment need to understand exactly what you mean, in as few words as possible. Check that you've been as precise and concise as you can when you reread your work. You'll need to actively decide what to keep and cut from your assessment to make sure you've included all necessary information and detail.

Be impersonal – write in an impartial style

You should use an impersonal style in your essays and reports. Avoid using 'I', 'my', 'me' or 'us'. Instead of writing 'I am surprised that …', you could write: 'It is surprising that …'

Exceptions to this rule include reflective writing assignments and portfolios – these reflective assignments often require you to evaluate your own experiences or attitudes so a more personal style is appropriate.

Examples of colloquial and academic writing styles

Colloquial writing.

There’s a lot of arguing about the Spinnaker. Because it’s so tall you can see it from all around, but does this mean it’s a good thing for the economy? It’s really late. It was meant to be ready for the Millenium (so much for the “Millenium Tower”, it’s just been costing us money all that time too) and it’s not going to employ as many people as lost their jobs in the dockyard over the years. And it’ll take ages for them to get back the cost from people who go up it.

Academic writing

Portsmouth’s Spinnaker Tower is controversial in financial terms. At 170 metres (The Spinnaker Tower, 2014), it dominates the city’s harbourside and was expected to have a positive impact on the local economy. However, income from visitors to the tower, and the expected boost to the local economy from increased tourism and employment, was lost because the project was delayed several times (Dyckhoff, 2005, p. 14). It may take twenty-five years for income from visitors to equal the cost of construction (Dyckhoff, 2005, p. 15), and the local economy will probably be unable to recoup the lost income.

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Key features of academic reports

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UK vs. US English

UK vs. US English | Difference, Spelling & Examples

When writing your dissertation , research paper or essay, you will have to consistently follow the conventions of a specific style of English. The most commonly used forms are:

American English
British English
Australian English

Although these dialects follow many of the same rules, they also have some important differences in spelling , punctuation and word choice .

Check US or UK English for free

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Us vs. uk spelling, us vs. uk punctuation, us vs. uk verb conjugation, us vs. uk abbreviations, consistency is key, why is it so complicated.

As the table below shows, the difference between UK and US spelling usually relates to just one or two letters.

US	UK	Australia
uses (e.g., , analyze)	prefers (e.g., realise, analyse), but is flexible	almost always uses
(e.g., , meter)	(e.g., theatre, metre)	usage
uses (e.g., , , splendor)	uses (e.g. honour, colour, splendour)	usage
uses (e.g., connection)	acceptable to use (e.g., connexion), but this is increasingly rare	usage
often for word modifications (e.g., judge to , live to livable)	generally – for word modifications (e.g., judge to judgement, live to liveable)	(e.g., judgement), like British; but sometimes (e.g., livable)
usually prefers (e.g., pediatrician, leukemia)	uses (e.g., paediatrician, leukaemia)	usage
usually prefers one “l” to double “ll” (e.g., canceled, traveled)	uses double “ll” instead of one “l” “(e.g., cancelled, travelled)	usage ( , )

The following cheat sheet outlines the preferred spelling of some words that are commonly used in academic writing .

Verbs
US	UK	Australia
analyze	analyse	analyse
apologize	apologise	apologise
capitalize	capitalise	capitalise
categorize	categorise	categorise
characterize	characterise	characterise
colonize	colonise	colonise
endeavor	endeavour	endeavour
enroll	enrol	enrol
	fulfil	fulfil
globalize	globalise	globalise
honor	honour	honour
hypothesize	hypothesise	hypothesise
inquire	enquire	enquire
install	instal	install
legalize	legalise	legalise
maneuver	manoeuvre	manoeuvre
maximize	maximise	maximise
minimize	minimise	minimise
mold	mould	mould
neutralize	neutralise	neutralise
optimize	optimise	optimise
paralyze	paralyse	paralyse
plow	plough	plough
privatize	privatise	privatise
randomize	randomise	randomise
realize	realise	realise
recognize	recognise	recognise

Past-tense verbs
US	UK	Australia
canceled	cancelled	cancelled
channeled	channelled	channelled
labeled	labelled	labelled
modeled	modelled	modelled
traveled	travelled	travelled

Nouns
US	UK	Australia
acknowledgment	acknowledgement	acknowledgment or acknowledgement
aluminum	aluminium	aluminium
artifact	artefact	artefact
	behaviour	behaviour
caliber	calibre	calibre
center	centre	centre
color	colour	colour
cooperation	co-operation	cooperation or co-operation
councilor	councillor	councillor
counselor	counsellor	counsellor
defense	defence	defence
estrogen	oestrogen	oestrogen
fetus	foetus	foetus
fiber	fibre	fibre
flavor	flavour	flavour
	humour	humour
judgment	judgement	judgement
	labour	labour
leukemia	leukaemia	leukaemia
license	licence	licence
liter	litre	litre
meter	metre	metre
neighbor	neighbour	neighbour
	organisation	organisation
paleontology	palaeontology	palaeontology
program	programme (but program if computer-related)	program
sulfur	sulphur	sulphur
theater	theatre	theatre
tire	tyre	tyre
vapor	vapour	vapour

Adjectives
US	UK	Australia
aging	ageing	ageing
	favourite	favourite
	grey	grey
livable	liveable	livable
movable	moveable	moveable
orthopedic	orthopaedic	orthopaedic
salable	saleable	saleable
skeptical	sceptical	sceptical
somber	sombre	sombre

Check US or UK English

Use the best grammar checker available to check that you're writing consistently in one variant of English.

The main punctuation differences relate to single and double quotation marks and where to place other punctuation in relation to quotations.

US	UK	Australia
(“x”), but alternate with single for quotations within quotations	(‘x’), but alternate with double for quotations within quotations	UK usage
Punctuation … … rather than the speaker’s quotation	Punctuation … … when the punctuation is part of the original rather than the speaker’s sentence.	UK usage

Australia

(“x”), but alternate with single for quotations within quotations

(‘x’), but alternate with double for quotations within quotations

UK usage

Punctuation …

… rather than the speaker’s quotation

Punctuation …

… when the punctuation is part of the original rather than the speaker’s sentence.

UK usage

There are some differences in subject-verb agreement with collective nouns (nouns referring to a group of individual things as a unified whole) and in past tense verb forms .

US	UK	Australia
Tends to treat as singular.	Tends to treat .	US usage
for and … … with the exception of common	Verbs take for simple past tense and past participles, … … and irregular verbs are conjugated the same	UK usage

Australia

Tends to treat as singular.

Tends to treat .

US usage

for and …

… with the exception of common

Verbs take for simple past tense and past participles, …

… and irregular verbs are conjugated the same

UK usage

There is also disagreement over how to use periods in abbreviations .

US	UK	Australia
Most title abbreviations take a period.	Title abbreviations take a period only if the abbreviation does not end on the last letter of the full word	UK usage

Most importantly, each individual word must be spelled the same throughout your document. However, it’s also best to avoid mixing US English and UK English .

The defense minister first travelled to China in 2013.
The defense minister first traveled to China in 2013.
The defence minister first travelled to China in 2013.

In addition, the same spelling should generally be used for all forms of a word.

The organization is headquartered in Osaka, but it usually organises workshops in Tokyo.
The organization is headquartered in Osaka, but it usually organizes workshops in Tokyo.
The organisation is headquartered in Osaka, but it usually organises workshops in Tokyo.

If you use our proofreading and editing service , you can request a specific style of English (US or UK).

After winning their independence from the British, Americans used language as a way to create their own identity. This led to many variations in spelling and punctuation, among other things. Australia also developed its own written conventions, which lie somewhere between those of the US and the UK (although they tend to be more British).

Of the three, Australian English is generally the most flexible, and US English is the least flexible. Bear in mind that the rules are not always very firm: there are many exceptions, and the preferred conventions are constantly changing.

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Academic Writing Skills

What is academic writing? Academic writing can be defined as a formal type of writing that aims to clearly communicate complex ideas through clear and concise means. It should be clearly focused, logically structured and supported by credible evidence such as data, facts, quotations, arguments, statistics, research and theories. It is commonly acknowledged that academic writing uses a range of specific academic features such as academic style, academic referencing, subject specific vocabulary, exemplification, analytical and evaluative language and academic grammar conventions (Wilson, 2022) .

Academic Writing skills for academic English students at university. All the important elements / functions of writing academically.

Academic Phrases

Academic style [1], academic style [2], academic style [3], academic style [4], academic word list , writing websites, error correction, hedging [1], hedging [2], nominalisation, noun phrases [1], noun phrases [2], the syllabus, referencing, in-text referencing, harvard ref. [1], harvard ref. [2], apa ref. [1], apa ref [2], ref. generators, reference list, reporting verbs, credible sources, evaluating sources, 'me' in writing, academic integrity, writing skills, paraphrasing [1], paraphrasing [2], paraphrase (quotes), summary writing , summary language, critical thinking, critical response new, analysis & evaluation, fact vs opinion, argument essays, spse essays, sentence str. [1], sentence str. [2], sentence str. [3], academic posters, structure , essay structure, introductions, thesis statements, paragraphing, paragraphs: quotes, topic sentences [1], topic sentences [2], definitions, exemplification , conclusions, linking words, parallelism, punctuation, marking criteria, introduction to academic writing: top 10 features.

Students can use this independently or teachers can use it with their classes in either guided lessons or in a workshop type scenario.

1. Writing Features new

2. passive grammar new, 3. hedging language new, 4. academic vocab new, 5. noun phrases new, 6. complex sentences new, 7. cause & effect new, 8. parallelism new, 9. coherence new, 10. cohesion new, 10x lesson booklet new, paragraph writing with quotations.

Students select a number of quotations based on a topic that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise.

Paragraph Analysis

Paragraph structure, capitalism new, chatgpt new, circular economy new, eco cities new, energy drinks new, generation gap new, social media new, surveillance new, self-study / project lessons.

Helping students to become independent autonomus learners.

Self-assessment

Questionnaires new, e-portfolios new, independent, the reflective.

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An Introduction to Academic Writing

Academic writing workbook: 10x lessons, academic writing workbook: 10x lessons (new 2024).

This academic writing workbook will enable students to improve their writing skills by introducing them to ten important areas of good academic writing style. Each area includes instructions, rules with examples, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. The 10 areas are: 1) Academic style. 2) Passive grammar. 3) Hedging. 4) AWL. 5) Noun phrases. 6) Complex sentence structure. 7) Cause & effect. 8) Parallelism. 9) Coherence. 10) Cohesion . Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Individual Lesson Downloads

1. features and language to avoid in academic writing, features and language to avoid in academic writing worksheet 1 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to the features and language to avoid when writing in an academic style. It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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2. Passive Grammar

Academic writing: passive grammar worksheet 2 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to the passive voice. It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

3. Hedging / Cautious Language

Academic writing: hedging / cautious language worksheet 3 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to hedging. It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

4. Academic Word List (AWL)

Academic writing: the academic word list (awl) worksheet 4 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to the academic wordlist (AWL). It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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5. Noun Phrases

Academic writing: noun phrases worksheet 5 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to noun phrases. It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

6. Complex Sentence Structure

Academic writing: complex sentence structure worksheet 6 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to complex sentence structure. It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study . Example. Level: ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

7. Cause and Effect

This worksheet introduces students to the language of cause and effect. It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study . Example. Level: ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

8. Parallelism

Academic writing: parallelism worksheet 8 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to parallelism. It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study. Example. Level: ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

9. Coherence

Academic writing: coherence worksheet 9 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to coherence. It includes instructions, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

10. Cohesion

Academic writing: cohesion worksheet 10 (new 2024).

This worksheet introduces students to cohesion. It includes teacher’s notes, rules, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. This worksheet can be used on its own or as part of our academic writing booklet and is suitable for classroom use or self-study. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

This academic writing workbook will enable students to improve their writing skills by introducing them to ten important areas of good academic writing style. Each area includes instructions, rules with examples, plenty of practice activities within the context of the UN SDGs and an answer key. The 10 areas are: 1) Academic style. 2) Passive grammar. 3) Hedging. 4) AWL. 5) Noun phrases. 6) Complex sentence structure. 7) Cause & effect. 8) Parallelism. 9) Coherence. 10) Cohesion. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Writing Vocabulary

Academic Style 1: 20 key features to writing

This lesson brainstorms academic style / formality in writing. Teacher conducts feedback by using visual highlighting & explaining the concepts. There are also 10x practice transformation exercises from informal to formal ( Example). It includes a PowerPoint: PPT Link in download. Webpage link. Time: 60mins. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] / / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic style 2: paragraph analysis, comparison & discussion

This lesson compares two paragraphs on CSR (informal and formal), discusses the conventions of academic style & finishes with a sentence re-writing activity. . ( Example) Time: 60mins. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] / Webpage link. TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Style 3: Vocabulary (AWL & Nominalisation)

This lesson is for general academic English classes. It focuses on two key areas of academic writing: AWL and nominalisation. There are three worksheets comprising of a number of different activities to practise categorisation and reformulation at sentence and paragraph level. ( Example) Time: 60mins. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] / Webpage link. TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Style 4: STEM Vocabulary 2 (AWL & Nominalisation)

This lesson is for STEM classes (Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths). It focuses on two key areas of academic writing: AWL and nominalisation. There are three worksheets comprising of a number of different activities to practise categorisation and reformulation at sentence and paragraph level. ( Example) Time: 60mins. / Webpage link / Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic writing: useful websites for writing

Here are some good websites we recommend to our students when writing essays or doing written work in class. These sites help with key skills of paraphrasing & summarising. Webpage link TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Correction code

Teachers: This code can be used to correct student’s work. Underline the mistake & use one of the symbols to indicate the problem. Students correct the mistake using the code & return to the teacher to check. TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Error correction code: practice & answers

Some EAP teachers use an error correction code when marking students’ work. This practice sheet help students identify the mistake & use the correction code to correct it. Webpage link . TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Error correction code 2: challenging error correction practice & answers

Teachers or students: This is a much harder worksheet of 12 sentences with 3 or 4 mistakes in each sentence. Students identify the mistake & try to correct it. Webpage TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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QuickMarks for Turnitin: 42 Prepared QuickMarks

Download an Academic English QuickMarks file. 42 Quickmarks on the correction code, organisation & academic conventions. Each QuickMark includes a description. More information: QuickMarks webpage link ( example ). TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Hedging #1: cautious l anguage exercises

This worksheet is for t eachers or students. It provides an overview of hedging / cautious language and 8 exercises to practise using hedging language to demonstrate caution. ( see worksheet example) . Webpage link . Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] . TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Hedging #2: cautious / tentative language

This lesson supports students in their understanding & use of cautious / tentative language.The lesson includes six tasks of guided practice & two tasks of freer practice ( see worksheet example ). Webpage link . Time: 60mins & homework. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] . TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Academic Referencing

Harvard Referencing Guide
APA 7th Edition Referencing Guide

Referencing Guide: Harvard

This is a basic reference guide to citing and creating a reference list or a bibliography. It shows the correct way to create in-text citations and reference lists for books, journals, online newspapers and websites. Web page link . TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Referencing Guide: APA 7th Edition

Referencing: harvard referencing worksheet 1 .

Two part worksheet that is a paragraph and reference list. Students have to put in the correct in-text reference. The second part is a reference list exercise where students have to put the sections in the correct order. A nice lesson to introduce students to referencing and becoming aware of key referencing principles. Level ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] Example / Webpage link / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Referencing: Harvard Referencing Worksheet 2

This lesson supports students in their understanding and use of Harvard referencing. It contains six worksheets: a discussion on referencing, a noticing activity, a reordering task, an error identification exercise, a sentence completion task, a gap-fill activity and a reference list task. Teacher’s notes and key are provided.. Level ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] Example / Webpage link / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

This lesson supports students in their understanding and use of APA referencing. It contains six worksheets: a discussion on referencing, a noticing activity, a reordering task, an error identification exercise, a sentence completion task, a gap-fill activity and a reference list task. Teacher’s notes and key are provided. Level ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] Example / Webpage link / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

How to use www.citethisforme.com

This lesson is an introduction to using an online reference generator: www.citethisforme.com. It begins by providing a step-by-step guide to using the application and its many functions. The lesson is a task-based activity where students use the reference generator to create bibliography citations. Worksheet example Time: 60mins. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] / Video / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Reading & research skills: what is a credible source?

This lesson highlights the key components of identifying credible & reliable resources. It includes a check list on 20 different sources & students have to decide whether these are credible. Page link Level ** *** [ B1/B2] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Reporting verbs w orksheet

Use the verbs in the box to put into the sentences in the worksheet. Each sentence has a description of the type of verb needed. Check the grammar of the verb too! Web page link . TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

The C.R.A.A.P test: a guide to evaluating sources – UoSA

This University of South Australia video explains what the C.R.A.A.P Test is and how to use it to evaluate all types of information. This worksheet helps students to understand what is considered to be a ‘credible’ source and how to check this using an evaluation tool Example . Level: ** * ** [B2/C1] / Video [03.17] / MP3 /

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The academic journal peer review process NC State University

This NC State university video explains how an academic scholar submits a research paper to a journal publishing company & the full process the article goes through before it is published. This listening & worksheet helps students to understand what is considered to be a credible source & why. Example / Video [03.15] / MP3 / Webpage link / Level: ** * ** [B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic voice worksheet

Sometimes students wonder what academic stance / voice is & find it difficult to identify how it is used. This document provides a clear example of how a writer adds their own voice through language. Webpage link. TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Integrity – Discussion Lesson

This is a great speaking lesson on the values and principles of academic integrity. it begins with defining ‘academic integrity’, followed by a kinaesthetic speaking activity on the key terms of academic misconduct and finishes with a yes/no questionnaire on professional proofreading (see example ). level *** ** [b2/c1] more information . teacher membership / institutional membership, academic plagiarism .

This lesson is designed to improve students’ understanding of academic plagiarism. It introduces students to university plagiarism definitions and asks them to create a ‘how to avoid plagiarism’ list. The lesson also includes a section on the university plagiarism system ‘Turnitin’ and a range of tasks on using plagiarism checker websites . Example . Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1/C2 ] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Writing Skills

Paraphrasing lesson 1 – how to paraphrase effectively.

It starts by discussing the differences between quotation, paraphrase and summary. It takes students through the basics of identifying keywords, finding synonyms and then changing the grammatical structure. There is plenty of practice, all with efficient teacher’s notes. Level ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] Example / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paraphrasing Lesson 2 – improve your paraphrasing skills

This lesson helps students to improve their paraphrasing skills. The guided learning approach includes a text analysis activity where students identify the paraphrasing strategies, five sentence-level tasks to practise the strategies and two paragraph-level exercises to build on the previous tasks.. Level ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] Example / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Writing a paragraph – using quotes about smoking

Students are given a worksheet with nine quotes taken from The New Scientist, BBC News, The Economist, etc… and choose only three. They use these three quotes to write a paragraph trying to paraphrase the quotes and produce a cohesion piece of writing. Level ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] Example / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paraphrasing writing worksheet

This worksheet provides paraphrasing practice. There are five sentences taken from an academic text & students paraphrase the sentences keeping the meaning the same. Includes possible answers. Webpage link. TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Writing Skills summary writing

Here are six summary lessons based around 3 topics: general academic, business and stem (science, technology, engineering and mathematics). each topic has two lessons: introduction to summary writing and improve your summary writing. .

Lesson 1A: Introduction to Summary Writing
Lesson 2A: Improve your summary writing

Introduction to Summary Writing: 1A General Academic [new 2022]

Suitable for students beginning their academic studies, this lesson supports students through the summary writing process. It includes an introductory worksheet, an information guide and five practice tasks which are based on general academic themes. Sample notes and sample summaries are also provided . Example Level ** ** * [B1/ B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Improve your Summary Writing: 2A General Academic [new 2022]

Following on from summary writing 1A, this lesson provides students with further practice on the summary writing process. It includes a review worksheet, two practice tasks which are based on general academic subjects and a peer feedback checklist. Sample notes and sample summaries are also provided . Example Level *** ** [B1/ B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Lesson 1B: Introduction to Summary Writing
Lesson 2B: Improve your summary writing

Introduction to Summary Writing: 1B Business [new 2022]

Suitable for students beginning their academic studies, this lesson supports students through the summary writing process. It includes an introductory worksheet, an information guide and five practice tasks which are based on a range of business topics. Sample notes and sample summaries are also provided . Example Level ** ** * [B1/ B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Improve your Summary Writing: 2B Business [new 2022]

Following on from summary writing 1B, this lesson, this lesson provides students with further practice on the summary writing process. It includes a review worksheet, two practice tasks which are based on business topics and a peer feedback checklist. Sample notes and sample summaries are also provided . Example Level *** ** [B1/ B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Lesson 1C: Introduction to Summary Writing
Lesson 2C: Improve your summary writing

Introduction to Summary Writing: 1C STEM [new 2022]

Suitable for students beginning their academic studies, this lesson supports students through the summary writing process. It includes an introductory worksheet, an information guide and five practice tasks which are based on STEM topics. Sample notes and sample summaries are also provided . Example Level ** ** * [B1/ B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Improve your Summary Writing: 2C STEM [new 2022]

Following on from summary writing 1C, this lesson, this lesson provides students with further practice on the summary writing process. It includes a review worksheet, two practice tasks which are based on STEM subjects and a peer feedback checklist. Sample notes and sample summaries are also provided . Example Level *** * * [B1/ B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Summary writing: the causes of the 2008 Financial Crisis

The text discusses the background history of the financial crash through focusing on prime & sub-prime mortgage lending. It then explores the key reasons behind the profitable trading systems of that time, highlighting the collapse & then the following banking regulations that were introduced in 2009/2010. Webpage link. /

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5x Academic Writing Summaries

Amazing value – buy all these texts and summary writings in one book. all these tests have been written by academic english uk. webpage link..

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Argument essay: home education

Question: ‘Should parents educate their children at home?’ This is the full lesson from the images above. The essay can be used in a number of different ways – see the lesson plan. Words: 440 Level ** *** [ C2/B1] / Webpage link. TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Argument essay: university

Question: Is a university degree worth the cost? This essay investigates the positive aspects of university life & qualifications against high debt & competitive job markets. Example . Words: 633 / Webpage link . / Level ** *** [ B1/B2] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic argument essay: climate change

Question: Is Climate Change a result of human activities? This essay investigates the key research behind climate change & the arguments that claims that this research is bias & exaggerated. Sources:7 / Words:680 / Example / ] Webpage lin k / Level *** ** [B2/C1 TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

5x General Argument Essays

Amazing value – buy these general essay lessons in one pdf book. example. webpage link.

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Critical t hinking : q uestions to support critical reading

This information sheet provides a range of questions that should be applied when reading any academic text. The answers to these questions should be then applied to writing. Webpage link. TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Critical review: structure information sheet

This information sheet provides information on how to structure a critical review. It includes the differences between descriptive & evaluative writing. Monash University / Webpage Link . TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Critical review: model essay analysis

This information sheet provides information on what makes a good critical review. It analyses a sample essay & highlights critical review academic style & conventions. Monash University / Webpage Link . TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic description, analysis & evaluation

This lesson helps to improve students’ awareness and understanding of the difference between description, analysis and evaluation. It includes paragraph analysis, a detailed language review reference sheet and graph and sentence level quotation analysis. – see worksheet example. Time: 120mins. Level *** ** [ B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Fact versus Opinion [new 2022]

This lesson helps to improve students’ critical reading and academic writing skills by being able to identify and use fact and opinion. It includes a reflection exercise, a language review sheet and many guided and freer practice activities at sentence and paragraph level (worksheet example) Time: 120mins. Level *** ** [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Sentence structure 1: simple, compound, complex & complex compound

This lesson supports students in their understanding & practice of the four types of sentence structure: simple, compound, complex & complex-compound. It includes noticing, guided & freer practice. ( see worksheet example ) / Webpage link / Time: 60mins / Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1]

Sentence structure 2: fragment, run-on & comma splice sentences

This lesson helps improve students’ sentence structure through identifying & rewriting fragment, run-on & comma splice sentences. It includes noticing, guided & freer practice. ( see worksheet example ) Time: 60mins. / Webpage link / Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Sentence Structure 3: complex sentence structure (STEM)

This lesson is to support students in their understanding and practice of complex sentence structure. The worksheets focus on three structures: adverbial, adjective and noun clauses and contain key explanations and sentence and paragraph-level practice within a STEM context ( see worksheet example) Time: 90mins. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Posters 1: An Introduction (new 2023)

This lesson is designed to help students to understand what an academic poster is and what the features of an academic poster are. It contains a range of exercises to help them as well as an activity where they analyse a first draft poster for things to improve and a final draft poster for its strengths and weaknesses. The students then create their own posters using a given topic and template . Example. Level: ** * ** [B1/B2/C1] / PPT Slides (link in paid download) TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Posters 2: Academic Poster Guidelines (new 2023)

This lesson provides a detailed set of guidelines to create an academic poster. it includes a first draft scientific poster with 10 mistakes and a final draft for comparison. the students can then create an academic poster based on these guidelines. example. level: ** * ** [b1/b2/c1] / video / ppt slides (link in paid download) / teacher membership / institutional membership, academic writing structure, introductions: how to write an academic introduction.

This lesson / worksheet presents the key sections to an academic introduction. It then focuses on highlighting those key sections in three model introductions with particular attention to the thesis (question / topics / stance). It finishes with writing an introduction. / Example / Website link Level: ** *** [B1/B2/C1] /

Thesis Statements: How to write a thesis statement

This lesson / worksheet presents the key sections to an academic introduction. It focuses on different writing structures using words like however, although, despite and then includes a writing task. Students write three thesis statements using the introduction models. Example Level: ** *** [B1/B2/C1] / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph analysis : corporate social responsibility (CSR)

This worksheet provides a step-by-step guide to the key components of a paragraph. It analyses a basic paragraph on corporate social responsibility (CSR) through structure, topic, cohesion, referencing and stance. It also includes a writing practice on globalisation. Example. Level: ** * ** [B1/B2/C1]

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Analysis Lesson
Reading & Writing Lesson
Topic-based lesson

Academic paragraph analysis: block or point-by-point

This lesson helps students identify the key elements in paragraph writing . it focuses on two paragraph structures: block & point-by-point. students analyse each paragraph for structure, controlling ideas & key terms, in-text referencing, cohesion & author’s stance. it also includes two writing practice exercises. example. level: ** * * * [b2/c1] teacher membership / institutional membership.

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Reading & Writing Argument: Essay [Mergers & Acquisitions]

Topic: Mergers & Acquisitions . Two short texts (included) – students read the texts, make notes of key arguments , and write a 400-600 word essay using in-text referencing and paraphrasing. The essay should follow (block / point-by-point structure) more info . Lesson includes teacher notes, outline & a model essay. Example Level **** * [ B2/C1] / Webpage link. / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP

Economic Inequality Lesson PDF Book

Amazing value – five lessons in one book. introduction, definition, reading test & summary writing, 1 x lecture listening, [extra reading text] & seminar / example [ teacher membership ].

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Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Artificial Intelligence (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students to select a number of quotations based on AI that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: ChatGPT (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students to select a number of quotations based on ChatGPT that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Capitalism (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students select a number of quotations based on capitalism that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Circular Economy (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students to select a number of quotations based on the circular economy that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Ecological Cities (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students to select a number of quotations based on eco cities that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Energy Drinks (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students select a number of quotations based on energy drinks that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

T his lesson has been designed to help students select a number of quotations based on GDP that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Generation Gap (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students to select a number of quotations based on generation gap that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** ** * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Social Media (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students to select a number of quotations based on social media that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Surveillance Technology (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students select a number of quotations based on surveillance technology that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Paragraph Writing with Quotations: Vaping (new 2024)

T his lesson has been designed to help students select a number of quotations based on vaping that they paraphrase and reference as part of a paragraph writing exercise. The worksheet includes ten quotations to choose from as well as a sample paragraph to analyse. Example. Level: ** * * * [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Topic sentences: t he basics

This lesson takes students through ‘noticing’ how a topic sentence links to development. It includes writing topic sentences from the content of four paragraphs & writing a paragraph from a given topic sentence. ( Example ) Time: 60mins Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Topic sentences: academic

This lesson takes students through ‘noticing’ how a topic sentence links to development. This is followed by writing topic sentences from the content of four academic paragraphs & then writing a paragraph from a given topic sentence. ( Example ) Time: 60mins Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1]

Academic definitions

This lesson is designed to help students to write short and extended definitions. It contains a prior knowledge discussion, seven guided learning activities, two language reviews, a freer practice writing task, peer feedback checklist, homework task and teacher’s notes and key. All content is based on STEM topics.. see worksheet example Time: 120mins. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Examples: exemplification

This lesson is designed to support students in their understanding and use of exemplification. It includes noticing the language in context, a language review with examples, four guided practice activities, a freer practice paragraph writing task with model answer and teacher’s notes and key… see worksheet example Time: 120mins. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Conclusions: t he basics

This is a great lesson to introduce & practice writing conclusions. It begins with identifying key components of a conclusion, then offers valuable writing practice of summarising key points, restating a thesis & creating ideas for a future focus. It finishes with using an essay outline to write a conclusion. ( Example ) Time: 180mins Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Reading & writing argument essay [mergers & acquisitions]

Topic: Mergers & Acquisitions . Two short texts (included). Students read the texts, make notes of key arguments & write a 400-600 word essay using in-text referencing & paraphrasing. The essay should follow (block / point-to-point structure) more info . Lesson includes teacher’s notes, outline & a model essay. Example Level **** * [ B2/C1] / Webpage link. / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Linking words lesson: free download

This lesson provides valuable practice in improving formal linking words. Students start by discussing formal linking words, followed by a kinaesthetic matching activity & finishing with sentence worksheet. Level: ** * ** [B1/B2/C1] webpage link TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Cohesion & coherence worksheet AEUK

This worksheet helps to consolidate what cohesion is with a focus on pronouns, word forms & summary nouns. It also includes a coherence sheet on key connections & two practice activities. Example Level: ** * ** [B2/C1] / Webpage Link / TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Parallelism worksheet: 8 exercises

This worksheet provides an explanation of the key concepts of ‘parallelism’ and provides an error correction exercise to practise the key concepts. An awareness of this writing element really helps establish unity and readability in sentence structure. See Example worksheet. Level: ** * ** [B1/B2/C1]

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Punctuation [updated 2023]

This lesson helps improve students’ awareness of punctuation . It includes a punctuation review section, lots of guided practice and freer paragraph writing practice ( s ee worksheet example ) Time: 60mins. Level *** ** [ B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Academic Writing Criteria

Writing criteria x 2.

There are two writing criterion in this download. One is a basic marking criteria that can be used to mark students’ general writing and the other criteria includes the use of sources. They are divided into three sections of TASK / ORGANISATION / LANGUAGE and have five grade levels A-F. It is a word document so you can add or change any of the rubric to suit your writing test. Example Level: ** * ** [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Marking criterion: writing, seminar & presentation criteria

This i s a booklet of three marking criterion. It includes a writing criteria (two types: basic / academic sources), seminar criteria (two types: basic / academic sources) and presentation criteria. These are word documents so they can be adapted to your specific requirements. Example / Level: ** *** [B1/B2/C1]

Argument Essay Titles

To what extent do you agree? .

University should be free
Animal testing is necessary
Prisons don’t work
Video games encourage violence
Euthanasia should be legal
Nuclear power is a bad investment
Governments are over-spending
Marriage is becoming old-fashioned
Money is the key to happiness
Consumerism is negative
Social media is changing how we communicate
Military service should be compulsory
Education is the key to reduce crime
Parents should choose the careers for their children
Brexit is a mistake.
There is no other life in the universe
GMOs are dangerous and should be banned
More should be done to control Superstar Corporations
Climate Change is a myth
Academic research can’t be trusted

SPSE Essay Titles

Plagiarism at university
Artificial intelligence
Global Migration
Climate Change
Unemployment
Cyber crime
Food security
Discrimination
Gender inequality
Off-shore banking
Superstar Companies

More Writing Resources

In-text referencing, apa ref [1], reference lists, writer's voice , argument essays, spse essays, sentence str. [1], sentence str. [3], topic sentences [1], more digital resources and lessons.

online resources

Medical English

New for 2024

DropBox Files

Members only

Instant Lessons

OneDrive Files

Topic-lessons

Feedback Forms

6-Week Course

Free Resources

Charts and graphs

AEUK The Blog

12-Week Course

Advertisement:.

Our Process

How to Write an Essay: A Step-By-Step Guide

Are you looking for a guide on how to write an essay You are certainly in the right place. You will be provided with the complete guidelines required to write an impeccable essay here.

What is an Essay?

An essay is the most popular form of academic writing that presents an argument or narrative through explanation, analysis, and evidence.

An academic essay aims to persuade readers to agree to a certain point of view or a position through informed arguments. An academic essay’s length depends on the academic level, subject of study, and course guidelines. High school essays are much shorter in length when compared to Bachelor’s and Master’s level essays.

Types of Essays

There are many types of essays that you might be asked to write about during your course. The most notable types are descriptive , argumentative , narrative , and expository .

Descriptive Essay

A descriptive essay is a type of essay that expects the writer to describe something. The description could be of anything, from the Earth to an Ant. It promotes writing detailed accounts of a particular experience.

“Describe a place you go to soothe your mind”

Argumentative Essay

In argumentative essays, you use claims and facts to back your opinion on a particular topic and convince the reader to agree with your opinion.

“Who is responsible for the abusive language used in the comments on the web?”

Expository Essay

An expository essay is based on an investigation of an idea, and an argument is placed to resolve the idea in a clear and concise manner.

“Define the main elements of a healthy relationship.”

Narrative Essay

A narrative essay only has a single motif around which the narration revolves. It allows the essayist to colour the picture, from his personal experience, in the form of a short story. A narrative essay helps you create a marvellous piece of art using nothing but your imagination and creativity.

“The most impactful person in my life.”

A Step-By-Step Guide to Essay Writing

The essay writing process consists of three steps:

Planning: Conduct desk-based research to find topics that match your requirements. Develop an essay outline on the chosen topic.
Writing: Provide background to the topic, write the thesis statement or your central argument in the introduction, back your argument with evidence in the main body, and briefly summarise key arguments in the conclusion.
Proofreading and editing: Proofread the essay to fix mistakes relating to structure, coherence, transitioning, grammar, spelling, and organisation of your essay.

This essay writing guide takes you through an essay’s most important components, including the introduction, main body, and conclusion.

The aforementioned steps of the essay writing process apply to all types of essays regardless of the academic level and subject of study. However, the time and effort required to complete each step depend on the type of essay.

For example, a university-level argumentative essay assignment will require you to spend most of your time researching the topic , developing a central theme, and finding the supporting evidence material to back your argument. On the other hand, you will spend more time on the writing process for a high school expository essay.


Conduct research		Check your work for language mistakes
	Write the paragraphs of the main body	Check the relevancy and accuracy of content in each paragraph.
Develop the	Summarise the key points in the	Improve the overall organisation of the essay
Write an		Remove plagiarism if any

Planning is an essential aspect of the essay writing process. Before you start writing, make sure you know the question you aim to address and how you will do it. The following topics can help you better prepare for the writing stage. Carefully read the essay brief: Read the assignment brief to make sure you understand the requirements, such as the deadline and the expected length.

Select a topic:

Most high schools require students to write on a pre-assigned topic. However, if you have the freedom to choose your own topic, make sure your selection aligns with your interests. It will be an uphill challenge to write on a topic that you find boring.

Conduct research:

Explore and read academic sources (both primary and secondary) to decide your position on the topic. These sources will also be used as evidence in the main body of the essay.

Develop the thesis statement:

Write the thesis statement to express the central argument of the essay. The thesis statement should make a claim, directly answering a question.

Write an outline: Develop an essay outline to orchestrate the rough structure of your essay. This makes the writing part convenient and keeps you on the right track.

Introduction of an Essay

The introduction paragraph allows you to grab the attention of the readers. It provides background information about the topic and informs the readers of what the essay will be about.

The introduction typically comprises 10-15% of the total essay word count. Familiarise yourself with the critical objectives of the introduction before starting to write.

One of the critical requirements of the introduction paragraph is to be engaging enough to attract the reader’s curiosity. The first sentence of the introduction, also known as the hook, is used to grab the reader’s attention. Use quotes, suspenseful phrases, surprising facts, or bold statements to emphasise the significance of researching the topic.

For example, if we are writing an essay about “Donald Trump’s victory in the 2016 US elections”, then a hook in the opening statement of the essay can be written as below:

“Donald Trump’s victory in the 2016 US election was nothing short of a revolution”.

Background of the Topic

Once you have captured the readers’ interest through a strong and engaging first statement, the next step is to contextualise the background so the reader can understand your argument. This could involve providing facts and statistics, explaining complicated terms, or analysing an important academic paper or debate. Refrain from getting into details at this stage. You will be able to provide an additional explanation in the main body.

Thesis Statement

The last sentence of the introduction chapter comprises the thesis statement, which is the central argument you will present. The thesis statement allows the author to take a focused position on the topic. An example of a thesis statement from the essay “Donald Trump’s victory in 2016 US elections” would be:

Donald Trump died all expectations from the very beginning of his presidential campaign. Significantly few people believed that he could run for an election and win any primaries. But he proved his critics wrong by winning a sweeping victory in the presidential race.

Main Body Paragraphs

This is the portion of the essay where you present your arguments, support them through evidence, and formulate your ideas. Here, you are expected to back your argument by analysing and interpreting the academic sources used.

How long should be the main body text?

Most high school essays follow the standard three-paragraph approach. Undergraduate and Masters’s level essays, on the other hand, are much longer. For example, the body of a graduate-level argumentative essay can comprise 5000-6000 words. Likewise, for an International Baccalaureate Programme extended essay of 4000 words, the body can take up 5-6 pages.

Paragraph Structure

The main body should follow a clear and logical structure. This means that paragraphs are of utmost importance, and each should focus on a specific idea or argument.

Use topic sentences to introduce each paragraph of the body. Each topic sentence expresses the main of the paragraph in which it occurs and forms a transition from the preceding paragraph. Make sure to create a link between sentences with the help of transition words.

Provide quotes, examples, and primary or secondary data as evidence. Make sure to evaluate the evidence material to show how it helped in formulating the central argument of your essay.

Example Paragraph from Essay’s Main Body

The Democrat’s last stand largely rested on Mrs. Clinton’s strength in the Midwest. Those were states that had gone Democrat for decades, based in part on the support of black and working-class white voters. Those working-class white people, particularly ones without a college education – men and women – deserted the party in droves. Rural voters turned out in high numbers, as the Americans who felt overlooked by the establishment and left behind by the coastal elite made their voices heard. While places like Virginia and Colorado held fast, Wisconsin fell – and Mrs. Clinton’s presidential hopes with it. When all is said and done, Mrs. Clinton may end up winning the popular vote on the back of strong support in places like California and New York and closer-than-expected losses in solid-red states like Utah. The Trump wave hit in the places it had to, however. And it hit hard.

The Conclusion of an Essay

This is the essay’s last paragraph, where the writer concludes the composition. The length of the conclusion should generally be 10-15% of the total text. If you want to write a perfect conclusion for your essay , you must be mindful of the following.

Connect the dots between the points discussed in the main body of the essay.
Discuss the upshot of your rationalisation. Spell out how it contributes to a new insight.
Signify the relevance and magnitude of your hypothesis.
Don’t forget to finish the conclusion with a catchy and noteworthy statement that leaves a strong final impression on the reader.

What not to Include in the Conclusion

To make the conclusion as impressive as possible, always refrain from making the following mistakes;

Introducing new evidence or arguments.
Contradicting your previously made points.
Weakening your point by mentioning other approaches and hypotheses.
Incorporating concluding phrases like “To summarise”, “Finally”, or “To sum up”.

Now that you are familiar with the guidelines of how to write an essay, you are ready to start writing. Make sure to take your time and research the topic for better results!

Proofreading and editing

Check your work for language mistakes
Check the relevancy and accuracy of content in each paragraph.
Improve the overall organisation of the essay
Remove plagiarism if any

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Top tips for perfecting your essay writing style

(Last updated: 29 May 2024)

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We have helped 10,000s of undergraduate, Masters and PhD students to maximise their grades in essays, dissertations, model-exam answers, applications and other materials. If you would like a free chat about your project with one of our UK staff, then please just reach out on one of the methods below.

Whether you are just starting to essay write, or working on writing a dissertation or a masters dissertation, students are often frustrated by the amount of mistakes markers pick up in their essay writing format because they didn't know these aspects of their essay writing were not approved of. This post will target and explain some of the most common essay writing blunders to avoid so that you can improve your essay writing style, and your marks, for good!

Essay writing style: sentence structure

An important way to check on the style of your essay writing is to monitor your sentence structure. Many students will be surprised to be marked down for repetitive sentence structure, because they haven't actually made any technical or grammatical mistakes. However keeping your sentences varied and syntactically diverse is essential to maintaining an academic and formal tone as you essay write.

This is easy to monitor - as you are essay writing, check back at the end of each paragraph. If you have started several sentences with the same words and they have the same rhythms and length, then you need to vary your style. Try inverting the syntax of a sentence, for example:

Instead of " the boy kicked the dog" , try " the dog was kicked by the boy" .

You can also use conjunctions (words which join two clauses together) to create a longer, more complex sentence. Leave other sentences shorter and more punchy to create a contrast in your essay writing style.

Writing an essay: starting sentences

Another common mistake students don't seem to be aware of is the use of words such as and , but and because to start sentences. These words are conjunctions, or joining words, intended to join together two different parts of a sentence. They don't belong at the beginning of the sentence because that would suggest that the full stop before them was unnecessary.

For example:

The American painters didn't use shorter brush strokes at that time. Because this technique hadn't yet arrived from Europe.

Top essay writing tip

The most common essay examples of this mistake are using the word ' because ' and ' but ' to start sentences where a pause does feel appropriate.

' Because of the lack of political direction, Hitler was able to rise quickly to power'.

' But the apparent lack of political direction was in fact far from the truth'.

A quick top tip for these situations is to replace ' because ' with ' as a result of' and ' but ' with ' however '.

Follow these top essay writing tips when you are writing your essay or dissertation and leave behind those frustrating lost marks for good!

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Referencing

A Quick Guide to Referencing | Cite Your Sources Correctly

Referencing means acknowledging the sources you have used in your writing. Including references helps you support your claims and ensures that you avoid plagiarism .

There are many referencing styles, but they usually consist of two things:

A citation wherever you refer to a source in your text.
A reference list or bibliography at the end listing full details of all your sources.

The most common method of referencing in UK universities is Harvard style , which uses author-date citations in the text. Our free Harvard Reference Generator automatically creates accurate references in this style.

Harvard referencing example
	(Smith, 2013)
	Smith, J. (2013) . 2nd ed. London: Penguin.

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Referencing styles, citing your sources with in-text citations, creating your reference list or bibliography, harvard referencing examples, frequently asked questions about referencing.

Each referencing style has different rules for presenting source information. For in-text citations, some use footnotes or endnotes , while others include the author’s surname and date of publication in brackets in the text.

The reference list or bibliography is presented differently in each style, with different rules for things like capitalisation, italics, and quotation marks in references.

Your university will usually tell you which referencing style to use; they may even have their own unique style. Always follow your university’s guidelines, and ask your tutor if you are unsure. The most common styles are summarised below.

Harvard referencing, the most commonly used style at UK universities, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical bibliography or reference list at the end.

In-text citation	Sources should always be cited properly (Pears and Shields, 2019).
Reference list	Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2019) . 11th edn. London: MacMillan.

Harvard Referencing Guide

Vancouver referencing, used in biomedicine and other sciences, uses reference numbers in the text corresponding to a numbered reference list at the end.

In-text citation	Sources should always be cited properly (1).
Reference list	1. Pears R, Shields G. Cite them right: The essential referencing guide. 11th ed. London: MacMillan; 2019.

Vancouver Referencing Guide

APA referencing, used in the social and behavioural sciences, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical reference list at the end.

In-text citation	Sources should always be cited properly (Pears & Shields, 2019).
Reference list	Pears, R., & Shields, G. (2019). (11th ed.). London, England: MacMillan.

APA Referencing Guide APA Reference Generator

MHRA referencing, used in the humanities, uses footnotes in the text with source information, in addition to an alphabetised bibliography at the end.

In-text citation	Sources should always be cited properly.
Footnote	1. Richard Pears and Graham Shields, , 11th edn (London: MacMillan, 2019).
Bibliography	Pears, Richard and Graham Shields, , 11th edn (London: MacMillan, 2019).

MHRA Referencing Guide

OSCOLA referencing, used in law, uses footnotes in the text with source information, and an alphabetical bibliography at the end in longer texts.

In-text citation	Sources should always be cited properly.
Footnote	1. Richard Pears and Graham Shields, (11th edn, MacMillan 2019).
Bibliography	Pears R and Shields G, (11th edn, MacMillan 2019).

OSCOLA Referencing Guide

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

In-text citations should be used whenever you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source (e.g. a book, article, image, website, or video).

Quoting and paraphrasing

Quoting is when you directly copy some text from a source and enclose it in quotation marks to indicate that it is not your own writing.

Paraphrasing is when you rephrase the original source into your own words. In this case, you don’t use quotation marks, but you still need to include a citation.

In most referencing styles, page numbers are included when you’re quoting or paraphrasing a particular passage. If you are referring to the text as a whole, no page number is needed.

In-text citations

In-text citations are quick references to your sources. In Harvard referencing, you use the author’s surname and the date of publication in brackets.

Up to three authors are included in a Harvard in-text citation. If the source has more than three authors, include the first author followed by ‘ et al. ‘

Number of authors	Harvard in-text citation example
1 author	(Jones, 2017)
2 authors	(Jones and Singh, 2017)
3 authors	(Jones, Singh and Smith, 2017)
4+ authors	(Jones et al., 2017)

The point of these citations is to direct your reader to the alphabetised reference list, where you give full information about each source. For example, to find the source cited above, the reader would look under ‘J’ in your reference list to find the title and publication details of the source.

Placement of in-text citations

In-text citations should be placed directly after the quotation or information they refer to, usually before a comma or full stop. If a sentence is supported by multiple sources, you can combine them in one set of brackets, separated by a semicolon.

If you mention the author’s name in the text already, you don’t include it in the citation, and you can place the citation immediately after the name.

Another researcher warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’ (Singh, 2018, p. 13) .
Previous research has frequently illustrated the pitfalls of this method (Singh, 2018; Jones, 2016) .
Singh (2018, p. 13) warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’.

The terms ‘bibliography’ and ‘reference list’ are sometimes used interchangeably. Both refer to a list that contains full information on all the sources cited in your text. Sometimes ‘bibliography’ is used to mean a more extensive list, also containing sources that you consulted but did not cite in the text.

A reference list or bibliography is usually mandatory, since in-text citations typically don’t provide full source information. For styles that already include full source information in footnotes (e.g. OSCOLA and Chicago Style ), the bibliography is optional, although your university may still require you to include one.

Format of the reference list

Reference lists are usually alphabetised by authors’ last names. Each entry in the list appears on a new line, and a hanging indent is applied if an entry extends onto multiple lines.

Different source information is included for different source types. Each style provides detailed guidelines for exactly what information should be included and how it should be presented.

Below are some examples of reference list entries for common source types in Harvard style.

Chapter of a book
Journal article

Harvard book citation
Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) . City: Publisher.
Example	Saunders, G. (2017) . New York: Random House.

Harvard book chapter citation
Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Chapter title’, in Editor name (ed(s).) . City: Publisher, page range.
Example	Berman, R. A. (2004) ‘Modernism and the bildungsroman: Thomas Mann’s Magic Mountain’, in Bartram, G. (ed.) . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 77–92.

Harvard journal article citation
Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , Volume(Issue), page range.
Example	Adair, W. (1989) ‘ and : Hemingway’s debt to Thomas Mann’, , 35(4), pp. 429–444.

Harvard web page citation
Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) . Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Google (2019) . Available at: https://policies.google.com/terms?hl=en-US (Accessed: 2 April 2020).

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Your university should tell you which referencing style to follow. If you’re unsure, check with a supervisor. Commonly used styles include:

Harvard referencing , the most commonly used style in UK universities.
MHRA , used in humanities subjects.
APA , used in the social sciences.
Vancouver , used in biomedicine.
OSCOLA , used in law.

Your university may have its own referencing style guide.

If you are allowed to choose which style to follow, we recommend Harvard referencing, as it is a straightforward and widely used style.

References should be included in your text whenever you use words, ideas, or information from a source. A source can be anything from a book or journal article to a website or YouTube video.

If you don’t acknowledge your sources, you can get in trouble for plagiarism .

To avoid plagiarism , always include a reference when you use words, ideas or information from a source. This shows that you are not trying to pass the work of others off as your own.

You must also properly quote or paraphrase the source. If you’re not sure whether you’ve done this correctly, you can use the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker to find and correct any mistakes.

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

	Harvard style	Vancouver style
In-text citation	Each referencing style has different rules (Pears and Shields, 2019).	Each referencing style has different rules (1).
Reference list	Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2019). . 11th edn. London: MacMillan.	1. Pears R, Shields G. Cite them right: The essential referencing guide. 11th ed. London: MacMillan; 2019.

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Chancellor statement on public spending inheritance

On Monday 29 July 2024, the Chancellor delivered a statement to the House of Commons on immediate public spending pressures facing the government.

The full text of the Chancellor’s statement can be found here .

The press notice accompanying the launch can be found here .

As part of the statement, the Chancellor announced:

the results of an audit of public spending undertaken by HM Treasury, immediate action to find savings in response, and long-term reforms to restore public spending control and improve public services
the date of the next Budget as Wednesday 30 October 2024 and formally commissioned an OBR forecast for this date
the launch of the next Spending Review which will settle 25-26 budgets alongside the Budget and conclude the multi-year Spending Review in spring 2025
acceptance of the recommendations of the independent Pay Review Bodies for public sector workers’ pay
the publication of next steps and draft legislation on priority tax commitments ahead of full announcement and costing at the Budget
29 July 2024
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Office of Manpower Economics

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The Best-Dressed Men at the 2024 Paris Olympics (So Far)

The biggest sporting event in the world has finally kicked off and everyone's dressing for the occasion

best dressed men at the paris olympics 2024

But it's not just the Olympians that you should be looking out for. A-listers, like Tom Cruise , Jeremy Allen White and Taika Waititi, have descended upon Paris and dressed up for the occasion. Could this be the most fashionable games yet? Keep checking our best-dressed as we update it daily, to see for yourself.

Tom Daley and Noah Williams

On the winners podium after the Men’s Synchronised 10m Final

Carracher Izac

During Beach Volleyball men's preliminary phase

Thomas Ceccon

On the winners podium after the Men’s 100m Backstroke Final

Rafael Nadal

During the Men's Singles second round match

Jeremy Allen White

Wearing Louis Vuitton at The Prelude To The Olympics

Ibrahim Kamara

At The Prelude To The Olympics

Jayson Tatum

Alexandre Mattiussi

LeBron James

John Mulaney

Pierpaolo Piccioli

Tyrese Haliburton

Taika Waititi

Wearing Dior at The Prelude To The Olympics

Anna Wintour and Baz Luhrmann

At the Opening Ceremony

Chrissy Teigen and John Legend

Pharrell Williams

Sir Chris Hoy

At the artistic gymnastics event on day two.

Tina Kunakey and Vincent Cassel

At Opening Ceremony

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NeurIPS 2024

Conference Dates: (In person) 9 December - 15 December, 2024

Homepage: https://neurips.cc/Conferences/2024/

Call For Papers

Abstract submission deadline: May 15, 2024

Full paper submission deadline, including technical appendices and supplemental material (all authors must have an OpenReview profile when submitting): May 22, 2024

Author notification: Sep 25, 2024

Camera-ready, poster, and video submission: Oct 30, 2024 AOE

Submit at: https://openreview.net/group?id=NeurIPS.cc/2024/Conference

The site will start accepting submissions on Apr 22, 2024

Subscribe to these and other dates on the 2024 dates page .

The Thirty-Eighth Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2024) is an interdisciplinary conference that brings together researchers in machine learning, neuroscience, statistics, optimization, computer vision, natural language processing, life sciences, natural sciences, social sciences, and other adjacent fields. We invite submissions presenting new and original research on topics including but not limited to the following:

Applications (e.g., vision, language, speech and audio, Creative AI)
Deep learning (e.g., architectures, generative models, optimization for deep networks, foundation models, LLMs)
Evaluation (e.g., methodology, meta studies, replicability and validity, human-in-the-loop)
General machine learning (supervised, unsupervised, online, active, etc.)
Infrastructure (e.g., libraries, improved implementation and scalability, distributed solutions)
Machine learning for sciences (e.g. climate, health, life sciences, physics, social sciences)
Neuroscience and cognitive science (e.g., neural coding, brain-computer interfaces)
Optimization (e.g., convex and non-convex, stochastic, robust)
Probabilistic methods (e.g., variational inference, causal inference, Gaussian processes)
Reinforcement learning (e.g., decision and control, planning, hierarchical RL, robotics)
Social and economic aspects of machine learning (e.g., fairness, interpretability, human-AI interaction, privacy, safety, strategic behavior)
Theory (e.g., control theory, learning theory, algorithmic game theory)

Machine learning is a rapidly evolving field, and so we welcome interdisciplinary submissions that do not fit neatly into existing categories.

Authors are asked to confirm that their submissions accord with the NeurIPS code of conduct .

Formatting instructions: All submissions must be in PDF format, and in a single PDF file include, in this order:

The submitted paper
Technical appendices that support the paper with additional proofs, derivations, or results
The NeurIPS paper checklist

Other supplementary materials such as data and code can be uploaded as a ZIP file

The main text of a submitted paper is limited to nine content pages , including all figures and tables. Additional pages containing references don’t count as content pages. If your submission is accepted, you will be allowed an additional content page for the camera-ready version.

The main text and references may be followed by technical appendices, for which there is no page limit.

The maximum file size for a full submission, which includes technical appendices, is 50MB.

Authors are encouraged to submit a separate ZIP file that contains further supplementary material like data or source code, when applicable.

You must format your submission using the NeurIPS 2024 LaTeX style file which includes a “preprint” option for non-anonymous preprints posted online. Submissions that violate the NeurIPS style (e.g., by decreasing margins or font sizes) or page limits may be rejected without further review. Papers may be rejected without consideration of their merits if they fail to meet the submission requirements, as described in this document.

Paper checklist: In order to improve the rigor and transparency of research submitted to and published at NeurIPS, authors are required to complete a paper checklist . The paper checklist is intended to help authors reflect on a wide variety of issues relating to responsible machine learning research, including reproducibility, transparency, research ethics, and societal impact. The checklist forms part of the paper submission, but does not count towards the page limit.

Please join the NeurIPS 2024 Checklist Assistant Study that will provide you with free verification of your checklist performed by an LLM here . Please see details in our blog

Supplementary material: While all technical appendices should be included as part of the main paper submission PDF, authors may submit up to 100MB of supplementary material, such as data, or source code in a ZIP format. Supplementary material should be material created by the authors that directly supports the submission content. Like submissions, supplementary material must be anonymized. Looking at supplementary material is at the discretion of the reviewers.

We encourage authors to upload their code and data as part of their supplementary material in order to help reviewers assess the quality of the work. Check the policy as well as code submission guidelines and templates for further details.

Use of Large Language Models (LLMs): We welcome authors to use any tool that is suitable for preparing high-quality papers and research. However, we ask authors to keep in mind two important criteria. First, we expect papers to fully describe their methodology, and any tool that is important to that methodology, including the use of LLMs, should be described also. For example, authors should mention tools (including LLMs) that were used for data processing or filtering, visualization, facilitating or running experiments, and proving theorems. It may also be advisable to describe the use of LLMs in implementing the method (if this corresponds to an important, original, or non-standard component of the approach). Second, authors are responsible for the entire content of the paper, including all text and figures, so while authors are welcome to use any tool they wish for writing the paper, they must ensure that all text is correct and original.

Double-blind reviewing: All submissions must be anonymized and may not contain any identifying information that may violate the double-blind reviewing policy. This policy applies to any supplementary or linked material as well, including code. If you are including links to any external material, it is your responsibility to guarantee anonymous browsing. Please do not include acknowledgements at submission time. If you need to cite one of your own papers, you should do so with adequate anonymization to preserve double-blind reviewing. For instance, write “In the previous work of Smith et al. [1]…” rather than “In our previous work [1]...”). If you need to cite one of your own papers that is in submission to NeurIPS and not available as a non-anonymous preprint, then include a copy of the cited anonymized submission in the supplementary material and write “Anonymous et al. [1] concurrently show...”). Any papers found to be violating this policy will be rejected.

OpenReview: We are using OpenReview to manage submissions. The reviews and author responses will not be public initially (but may be made public later, see below). As in previous years, submissions under review will be visible only to their assigned program committee. We will not be soliciting comments from the general public during the reviewing process. Anyone who plans to submit a paper as an author or a co-author will need to create (or update) their OpenReview profile by the full paper submission deadline. Your OpenReview profile can be edited by logging in and clicking on your name in https://openreview.net/ . This takes you to a URL "https://openreview.net/profile?id=~[Firstname]_[Lastname][n]" where the last part is your profile name, e.g., ~Wei_Zhang1. The OpenReview profiles must be up to date, with all publications by the authors, and their current affiliations. The easiest way to import publications is through DBLP but it is not required, see FAQ . Submissions without updated OpenReview profiles will be desk rejected. The information entered in the profile is critical for ensuring that conflicts of interest and reviewer matching are handled properly. Because of the rapid growth of NeurIPS, we request that all authors help with reviewing papers, if asked to do so. We need everyone’s help in maintaining the high scientific quality of NeurIPS.

Please be aware that OpenReview has a moderation policy for newly created profiles: New profiles created without an institutional email will go through a moderation process that can take up to two weeks. New profiles created with an institutional email will be activated automatically.

Venue home page: https://openreview.net/group?id=NeurIPS.cc/2024/Conference

If you have any questions, please refer to the FAQ: https://openreview.net/faq

Abstract Submission: There is a mandatory abstract submission deadline on May 15, 2024, six days before full paper submissions are due. While it will be possible to edit the title and abstract until the full paper submission deadline, submissions with “placeholder” abstracts that are rewritten for the full submission risk being removed without consideration. This includes titles and abstracts that either provide little or no semantic information (e.g., "We provide a new semi-supervised learning method.") or describe a substantively different claimed contribution. The author list cannot be changed after the abstract deadline. After that, authors may be reordered, but any additions or removals must be justified in writing and approved on a case-by-case basis by the program chairs only in exceptional circumstances.

Ethics review: Reviewers and ACs may flag submissions for ethics review . Flagged submissions will be sent to an ethics review committee for comments. Comments from ethics reviewers will be considered by the primary reviewers and AC as part of their deliberation. They will also be visible to authors, who will have an opportunity to respond. Ethics reviewers do not have the authority to reject papers, but in extreme cases papers may be rejected by the program chairs on ethical grounds, regardless of scientific quality or contribution.

Preprints: The existence of non-anonymous preprints (on arXiv or other online repositories, personal websites, social media) will not result in rejection. If you choose to use the NeurIPS style for the preprint version, you must use the “preprint” option rather than the “final” option. Reviewers will be instructed not to actively look for such preprints, but encountering them will not constitute a conflict of interest. Authors may submit anonymized work to NeurIPS that is already available as a preprint (e.g., on arXiv) without citing it. Note that public versions of the submission should not say "Under review at NeurIPS" or similar.

Dual submissions: Submissions that are substantially similar to papers that the authors have previously published or submitted in parallel to other peer-reviewed venues with proceedings or journals may not be submitted to NeurIPS. Papers previously presented at workshops are permitted, so long as they did not appear in a conference proceedings (e.g., CVPRW proceedings), a journal or a book. NeurIPS coordinates with other conferences to identify dual submissions. The NeurIPS policy on dual submissions applies for the entire duration of the reviewing process. Slicing contributions too thinly is discouraged. The reviewing process will treat any other submission by an overlapping set of authors as prior work. If publishing one would render the other too incremental, both may be rejected.

Anti-collusion: NeurIPS does not tolerate any collusion whereby authors secretly cooperate with reviewers, ACs or SACs to obtain favorable reviews.

Author responses: Authors will have one week to view and respond to initial reviews. Author responses may not contain any identifying information that may violate the double-blind reviewing policy. Authors may not submit revisions of their paper or supplemental material, but may post their responses as a discussion in OpenReview. This is to reduce the burden on authors to have to revise their paper in a rush during the short rebuttal period.

After the initial response period, authors will be able to respond to any further reviewer/AC questions and comments by posting on the submission’s forum page. The program chairs reserve the right to solicit additional reviews after the initial author response period. These reviews will become visible to the authors as they are added to OpenReview, and authors will have a chance to respond to them.

After the notification deadline, accepted and opted-in rejected papers will be made public and open for non-anonymous public commenting. Their anonymous reviews, meta-reviews, author responses and reviewer responses will also be made public. Authors of rejected papers will have two weeks after the notification deadline to opt in to make their deanonymized rejected papers public in OpenReview. These papers are not counted as NeurIPS publications and will be shown as rejected in OpenReview.

Publication of accepted submissions: Reviews, meta-reviews, and any discussion with the authors will be made public for accepted papers (but reviewer, area chair, and senior area chair identities will remain anonymous). Camera-ready papers will be due in advance of the conference. All camera-ready papers must include a funding disclosure . We strongly encourage accompanying code and data to be submitted with accepted papers when appropriate, as per the code submission policy . Authors will be allowed to make minor changes for a short period of time after the conference.

Contemporaneous Work: For the purpose of the reviewing process, papers that appeared online within two months of a submission will generally be considered "contemporaneous" in the sense that the submission will not be rejected on the basis of the comparison to contemporaneous work. Authors are still expected to cite and discuss contemporaneous work and perform empirical comparisons to the degree feasible. Any paper that influenced the submission is considered prior work and must be cited and discussed as such. Submissions that are very similar to contemporaneous work will undergo additional scrutiny to prevent cases of plagiarism and missing credit to prior work.

Plagiarism is prohibited by the NeurIPS Code of Conduct .

Other Tracks: Similarly to earlier years, we will host multiple tracks, such as datasets, competitions, tutorials as well as workshops, in addition to the main track for which this call for papers is intended. See the conference homepage for updates and calls for participation in these tracks.

Experiments: As in past years, the program chairs will be measuring the quality and effectiveness of the review process via randomized controlled experiments. All experiments are independently reviewed and approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Financial Aid: Each paper may designate up to one (1) NeurIPS.cc account email address of a corresponding student author who confirms that they would need the support to attend the conference, and agrees to volunteer if they get selected. To be considered for Financial the student will also need to fill out the Financial Aid application when it becomes available.

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Essay and dissertation writing skills
A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.. Short videos to support your essay writing skills. There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing ...
PDF Essay Writing Handout
Answer the question; keep it relevant. Develop a logical and clearly structured argument. Support and illustrate your argument. Go beyond description to demonstrate critical thinking. Practice writing and proofreading. 3. Plan Your Essay. Every essay needs a strong and clear structure, organized around an argument.
Subject Guides: Academic writing: a practical guide: Essays
These resources contain advice and guides to help you structure your work: Tips for structuring an essay. A checklist of essay-writing tips. Structure in academic writing. General advice for creating clear, well-structured writing that guides the reader through your argument. You can use these templates to help develop the structure of your essay.
How to write an English essay
Research. The most important thing for you to do is to get to know the subject matter of your essay. Always keep in mind that what makes a good English essay is a personal response to the subject matter. 3. Know the text. Read the text. While doing so, keep the topic of your essay in mind.
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The most basic skill that is needed in academic life is that of writing a good essay and a fundamental part of that is essay structure.Yet, despite the importance of writing an essay that is clear, well-argued and strongly structured, very little time is spent on assisting students to structure an essay.This brief guide to how to structure an essay aims to help with that so read on and find ...
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Six Essay Writing Tips for International Students. 1. Read other people's essays. Starting a study group is a great way to exchange essays, which will help you develop your essay-writing style. Read as many as you can from fellow students and academics on a variety of subjects and different disciplines, and as you do so, be critical: what do ...
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ACADEMIC STYLE GUIDE. When you write essays, you must include a bibliography at the end showing what you have read, and in the body of the essay you must indicate the precise source of any information and ideas not your own, even if you are paraphrasing them. Such referencing enables the reader to engage with your argument fully and also ...
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CPD. An academic essay is a piece of writing in a formal style which answers the question or statement posed in the essay title. The essay will be based on your research and, possibly, your own experience. You'll need to reflect on your findings and present your ideas in an analytical or critical style. The essay marker will be looking for ...
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Typical layout for an essay is as shown here: Margins - between 2 cm and 2.54 cm (1 inch) all around. Line spacing - either 1.5 or double-line spacing. Paragraph spacing - either 1 clear line between or at least 8 pt space after each paragraph (more if double-line spaced) Alignment - left aligned (fully justified with a straight right-edge is ...
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The purpose of academic writing is to communicate complex ideas in a way that makes them least likely to be challenged. So it's important to avoid any ambiguity. That means that academic writing must be: - formal, because informal writing is not always understood in the same way by every reader; - structured, because complex ideas need to be ...
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Reading & Writing Argument: Essay [Mergers & Acquisitions] Topic: Mergers & Acquisitions. Two short texts (included) - students read the texts, make notes of key arguments, and write a 400-600 word essay using in-text referencing and paraphrasing. The essay should follow (block / point-by-point structure) more info. Lesson includes teacher ...
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Sources with multiple authors in the reference list. As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ' et al. ': Number of authors. Reference example. 1 author. Davis, V. (2019) …. 2 authors. Davis, V. and Barrett, M. (2019) …. 3 authors.
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A Step-By-Step Guide to Essay Writing. The essay writing process consists of three steps: Planning: Conduct desk-based research to find topics that match your requirements. Develop an essay outline on the chosen topic. Writing: Provide background to the topic, write the thesis statement or your central argument in the introduction, back your argument with evidence in the main body, and briefly ...
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NeurIPS 2024 Call for Papers
Call For Papers Abstract submission deadline: May 15, 2024. Full paper submission deadline, including technical appendices and supplemental material (all authors must have an OpenReview profile when submitting): May 22, 2024. Author notification: Sep 25, 2024. Camera-ready, poster, and video submission: Oct 30, 2024 AOE

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