ethnobotany research papers pdf

Vol. 25 (2023)

Ethnomedicinal plants uses for the treatment of respiratory disorders in tribal district north waziristan, khyber pakhtunkhawa, pakistan, indigenous knowledge and conservation status of wild plants collected in garyaum, north waziristan, pakistan, antimalarial and mosquito repellent plants: insights from burundi, quantitative ethnobotanical exploration of wild medicinal plants of arang valley, district bajaur, khyber pakhtunkhwa, pakistan: a mountainous region of the hindu kush range, the diversity and traditional knowledge of wild edible fruits in bengkulu, indonesia, comparative assessment of ethnobotany and antibacterial activity of moringa oleifera lam. in nepal, quantitative ethnomedicinal study of the flora of tehsil lahor, district swabi, khyber pakhtunkhwa, pakistan, the singularity of the medicinal knowledge of the huni kuĩ people from the western brazilian amazon, quantitative ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the indigenous communities of shawal valley, district north waziristan, pakistan, quantitative ethnobotanical appraisal of shawal valley, south waziristan, khyber pakhtunkhwa, pakistan, ethno-medicinal plants of indigenous people: a case study in khatling valley of western himalaya, india, ethnomedicinal plant resources of tamang community in the konjyosom rural municipility, central nepal, resilience processes and positioning of agroecological farmers in an urban horticultural fair in northwest patagonia, medicinal plants used in treatment of various diseases in the rwenzori region, western uganda, digestive plants of the patagonian steppe: multidimensional variables that affect their knowledge and use, ethnoveterinary use of medicinal plants among the tribal populations of district malakand, khyber pakhtunkhwa, pakistan, ethnomedicinal and conservation evaluation of the traditional medicinal plant species employed by the van gujjar tribe in the dehradun shivalik hills, uttarakhand, india, ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants traditionally used against erectile dysfunction in tabora region, tanzania, a study on different plant species of the rosaceae family and their ethnobotanical uses among the local communities at swat district, pakistan, diversity and socio-cultural importance of wild food herbs and cyanobacteria in the lake chad basin (niger), ethnobotanical documentation of harike wildlife sanctuary (ramsar site), punjab: a case study, application of ethnobotanical indices to document the use of plants in traditional medicines in rawalpindi district, punjab-pakistan, quantitative ethnobotanical study and conservation status of herbal flora of koh-e-suleman range, razmak valley, north waziristan, pakistan, ethnobotanical research under the covid-19 pandemic: assessing a remote method for documenting indigenous plant-related knowledge, uses of oldeania alpina (k. schum.) stapleton (poaceae) and local perceptions of its spatio-temporal dynamics in lubero cool highlands region (dr congo), ethnobotanical study on plant resources from sacred groves of dakshin dinajpur district, west bengal, india, ethnobotanical study of plant resources in dhurkot rural municipality, gulmi district nepal, ethnoveterinary study of the medicinal plants of khar, dheri, julagram, tari, and totakan villages of tehsil batkhela, malakand, northern pakistan, diversity and assessment of economic plants of tehsil takht bhai, district mardan, pakistan, palatability status of the flora of koh-e-safaid range upper kurram valley, khyber pakhtunkhwa north west pakistan, large-scale ethnomedicinal inventory and therapeutic applications of medicinal and aromatic plants used extensively in folk medicine by the local population in the middle atlas and the plain of saiss, morocco, ethnobotanical importance and conservation status of citrullus colocynthis (l.) schrad in division mirpur, kashmir himalaya., traditional knowledge in medicinal plants and intermedicality in urban environments: a case study in a popular community in southern brazil, an ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat and manage diabetes mellitus in ede, osun state nigeria, armillaria mellea (vahl. : fr.) p. kumm. - a non-timber forest resource in the ñhöñho culture: promoting sustainable development and ethnomycotourism, ethnobotanical survey of plants used in magico-religious practices in kullu district of himachal pradesh, india., use value of indigenous range grass species in pastoral northern kenya, medicinal plants used against gynecological disorders by the local inhabitants of district budgam, kashmir himalaya, medicinal plants used against anxiety and hypertension by the indigenous people of sargodha division and allied areas, pakistan, potential of wild edible fruits for nutrition in indigenous communities of northwest himalaya, india, ethnobotanical applications of spathodea campanulata p. beauv. (african tulip tree) in ghana, medicinal plants and their use by an ethnic minority jirel in dolakha district, central nepal, ethno-pharmacological evaluation of plants resources of district malakand, pakistan, new evidence regarding the role of previous disease experiences on people’s knowledge and learning of medicinal plants and biomedical drugs, quantitative analysis of ethnomedicinal plants of tehsil khuiratta, ajk, pakistan, molecular and morphological analyses of plants with ethnomedicinal uses in northeastern peru, diversity of wild edible plants and fungi consumed by semi-nomadic gaddi and sippi tribes in doda district of union territory of jammu and kashmir, microscopic evaluation, ethnobotanical and phytochemical profiling of a traditional drug viola odorata l. from pakistan, ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants used in treating some liver diseases in the al-haouz rehamna region (morocco)., application of ethnobotanical indices for ethnopharmacology and ethnobotany of the family lamiaceae used by population in national talassemtane park (north of morocco), cross-cultural studies of important ethno-medicinal plants among four ethnic groups of arunachal pradesh, northeast india, perception of medical health care practitioners and health care consumers towards traditional health care systems in western ladakh, india, ethnobotany of fruit species native to paramos and cloud forests of northern peru, quantitative ethnobotanical appraisal of plants used by inhabitants of jelar valley, dir upper, northern pakistan, medicinal uses of the asteraceae family in zimbabwe: a historical and ecological perspective, a panoramic review on ethnomedicinal, therapeutic, phytochemical, and advance attributes, of the genus ziziphus mill., native to pakistan, medicinal plants of lesotho: a review of ethnomedicinal, pharmacological and conservation studies lesotho medicinal plants, a review of traditional uses and current applications of cordia spp. (boraginaceae) in the development of food and pharmaceutical products, a review on mitigation of various ailments via a bioactive component of tribulus terrestris l. - a medicinally important herb, distribution status and ethnomedicinal importance of genus rosa l. (rosaceae) in india, ferns and lycophytes: an ethnobotany review for brazil, databases and inventories, ethnobotanical inventory and medicinal applications of plants used by the local people of cholistan desert, pakistan, ethnomedicinal plant use value in lower swat, pakistan, the ethnobotanical and therapeutic application of plants with the altitudinal description of lar sadin and bar amadak, tehsil salarzai, bajaur, pakistan, notes on ethnobotany, ferula tadshikorum pimenov - introduction, chemical composition and use in folk medicine, a note on an edible fern of nepal: blechnum orientale l., anatomical and phytochemical studies and ethnomedicinal uses of colchicum autumnale l., repatriation of ethnobotanical studies, conhecimento tradicional sobre plantas medicinais e intermedicalidade em ambientes urbanos: estudo de caso em uma comunidade popular do sul do brasil - traditional knowledge in medicinal plants and intermedicality in urban environments: a case study in a popular community in southern brazil, current issue, information.

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• v.2022; 2022

Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Human and Animal Diseases in Sedie Muja District, South Gondar, Ethiopia

Amare bitew mekonnen.

Bahir Dar University, Department of Biology, P.O.Box 76, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Ali Seid Mohammed

Abeba kassa tefera, associated data.

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

A variety of traditional medicinal plants has been widely used by different indigenous people in Ethiopia for many human and livestock ailments. This study was conducted to investigate and document the use of medicinal plants in the Sedie Muja district. Sixteen key informants were selected purposively and 72 informants were selected randomly from 5 wards. Data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires, group discussions, and field observation. Besides descriptive statistics, the data were analyzed using some ethnobotanical analysis tools like preference ranking, paired comparison, direct matrix ranking, informant consensus factor, and fidelity level index. A total of 89 species of medicinal plants were identified and collected with 82 genera and 44 families. Out of these, 60 species (67.42%) were used against human ailments, 10 species (11.24%) were used against livestock ailments, and 19 species (21.34%) were used to treat both human and livestock ailments. Herbs constituted the largest growth habit (40 species) followed by shrubs (33 species). The most frequently used plant part was leaves (39.9%), followed by roots (23.83%), and the condition of preparation was fresh plant materials (70.98%). The most widely used method of preparation was crushing (22.8%) followed by crushing-squeezing (11.39%). The most common route of administration was oral (49.74%) followed by dermal (30.05%). Ruta chalepensis was the predominant medicinal plant cited by most of the informants 62 (70%) followed by Ocimum lamiifolium 59 (67%). The disease category with the highest ICF value (0.90) was the evil eye. There was a high preference for Euphorbia abyssinica to treat stomachache. Ocimum lamiifolium was the most preferred species for the treatment of febrile illness. Anthropogenic factors are the major threats to medicinal plants. In general, the study area is rich in medicinal plants that have a significant role in the management of various human and livestock diseases.

1. Introduction

Ethnobotany is the study of interrelations between humans and plants, including plants used as food, medicines, and for other economic applications [ 1 ]. One of the aims of ethnobotanists is to explore the importance of plants that are used as food, clothing, shelter, fodder, fuel, furniture, and medicinal use [ 1 ]. Therefore, ethnobotanical studies are useful in identifying, disseminating, and documenting indigenous knowledge and the application of plant diversity for human and livestock ailments [ 2 ]. Traditional medicine has been defined as health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs in plant, animal, and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises to treat, diagnose and prevent illness or maintain wellbeing [ 3 ]. Traditional medicine is the main source to treat both human and livestock diseases which still play a vital role to cover the basic health needs in developing countries [ 4 ]. This is because the use of medicinal plants has much lower cost than modern public health services and it is a culturally linked tradition [ 5 ].

Trends in the use of traditional and complementary medicine are increasing in many developed and developing countries. According to [ 6 ], traditional remedies are the most important and sometimes the only source of therapeutics for nearly 80% of the worldwide population. For instance, about 85% of world population uses herbal medicines for prevention and treatment of diseases and the demand is increasing in developed and developing countries [ 7 , 8 ]. About 500 million people in south Asian countries alone are reported to seek health security from plants [ 9 ]. In Africa, more than 80% of the population uses traditional medicine for their health care practices [ 3 ].

Traditional medicine remains the main source for a large majority of people in Ethiopia, about 80% of the human population and 90% of livestock depend on traditional medicines treating health problems [ 10 , 11 ]. Ethiopia is a home of diversity, having diverse flora as well as ethnic groups, each having different ways of utilization and manipulation of medicinal plants. In addition, the people of Ethiopia have many languages, cultures, and beliefs, which have in turn contributed to the high diversity of traditional knowledge and practices of plant resource uses, management, and conservation [ 7 , 8 ]. The Ethiopian people use traditional medicine over the past period and categorize plant species indigenously [ 12 ]. However, the indigenous knowledge about traditional medicinal plants is transferred secretly from generation to generation orally in developing countries like Ethiopia. Therefore, there were many misconceptions on the efficacy of medicinal plants because of lack of interest of modern society and way of knowledge transfer by elders [ 13 ].

The traditional medicine in Ethiopia is facing a problem of sustainability due to loss of taxa, loss of habitat, and loss of indigenous knowledge. The plant species reduced extremely because of environmental degradation, agricultural expansion, loss of forests and woodlands, over-harvesting, fire, overgrazing, firewood collection, and urbanization appear to be the major threats to the medicinal plants of Ethiopia [ 14 ]. These factors require urgent attention, to conserve and optimize the use of medicinal plants in primary health care systems of humans and livestock. Moreover, The indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants is getting lost due to migration from rural to urban areas, industrialization, rapid loss of natural habitats, and changes in life style [ 15 ]. As a result, the documentation of traditional use of medicinal plants is important to preserve the indigenous knowledge. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to identify the major types of medicinal plants used to treat both human and livestock disease, to document indigenous knowledge, and to identify major threats and conservation methods to keep the balance between availability and utilization of traditional medicinal plants by the community in the Sedie Muja district.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. description of the study area.

The study was conducted in the Amhara Region, South Gondar zone in Sedie Muja district. The district has 21 kebeles of which 19 rural and 2 urban. Robit is the capital city of the district which is 774 km far from Addis Ababa and 207 km from Bahir Dar. Geographically the district is situated between 11°30′ 0″ North Latitude and 38°30′ 0″ East Longitude ( Figure 1 ). The altitude of the district ranges from 1500 to 2900 meters above sea level (masl). The district has three climatic zones; these are 11% highland, 41% midland, and 48% low land. The primary wet season extends from April to October; among these, July and August are the wettest months. The mean annual rainfall is 1000–1500 mm and the mean annual temperature is 16°C–24°C [ 16 ].

Study area map.

The total population of the district is 116,525, of which 55,605 are males and 60,920 are females [ 16 ]. According to [ 16 ], the number of livestock found in the study area was cattle 68,008, sheep 39,193, goats 55,130, donkeys 12,316 and others. The major common human diseases found in the district include malaria, acute respiratory disease, diarrhea, skin disease, eye disease, tonsillitis, wound, and other infectious and parasitic diseases. These diseases mostly affect people living in the rural areas where the health services are in shortage, they are unable to afford the high cost of modern drugs and are far from the health center [ 16 ]. Animals have also suffered from the most common diseases in the Sedie Muja district which include black leg, anthrax, pasturalisis, and salmonellosis, rabies, lumpy skin disease, sheep and goat pox, Newcastle, dermatophytosis, trypanosomiasis, and other parasitic diseases [ 16 ].

2.2. Selection of Study Sites and Informants

Five kebeles were selected purposely for ethnobotanical data collection based on vegetation distribution, altitudinal range, availability of traditional healers and recommendation from, local authorities, and developmental agents. The 5 selected kebeles such as Ziwa, Gedam Mikael, Anfargie, Keta, and Tara Arbatu ( Figure 1 ) cover the three agro-climatic zones.

A total of 88 informants (33 females and 55 males) between the age of 22 and 85 were selected randomly by lottery method from the local people following [ 2 ]. From these informants, 16 key informants were purposely selected based on recommendation from local administrators, health extension workers, and around 3–4 key informants were selected per each 5 kebeles. The equation: N  =  Z 2 P (1− P )/C2 is used to determine the number of informants, where “N” is the sample size; “Z” is the standard normal value at 95% of confidence level (i.e., Z  = 1.96); “ P ” is the proportion of households practicing traditional medicine; and “C” is the marginal error. Therefore ( P =0.5) at 5% marginal error ( C  = 0.05) and 95% confidence interval.

2.3. Data Collection Methods

Ethnobotanical data were collected from March to August 2020. These data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires, field observation, and group discussion. Data of indigenous knowledge on the uses and application of traditional medicine and the threats and conservation status of medicinal plants were collected. According to [ 2 ] and [ 17 ], ethnobotanical information like the use of these plants to treat common human and animal diseases, methods of preparation, condition of preparation, ways of application, dosage, routes of administration, conservation, and threats of medicinal plants were collected.

Field observations were also conducted in areas where most of the medicinal plants are grown or cultivated. This method was used to obtain actual information from the informants about identification (species local names, habit, and habitat), distribution, conservation status, and threats of medicinal plants.

According to [ 2 ], group discussions were briefly conducted at each kebele with 5–7 informants and residents in seeking the traditional medicinal system of the people and its management and to know how knowledge is maintained and transferred from one generation to other generations. Discussions took place based on the checklist of questions such as use, major threats, status of availability, strategies they use for the conservation of medicinal plants, and uses of the plants other than medicine and related data were recorded.

2.4. Medicinal Plant Specimen Collection and Identification

Medicinal plant species which were not identified in the field were pressed and dried for voucher specimen to be identified in Ethiopian national Herbarium in Addis Ababa University or by comparing published volumes of flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea edited by [ 18 , 19 ], and [ 20 ]. Some of these medicinal plants' images were collected for further identification ( Figure 2 ).

Images of some medicinal plants with scientific name and corresponding local name recorded from the district.

2.5. Data Analysis

The data were analyzed and summarized by descriptive statistical analysis by using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet software. The data were also analyzed by some ethnobotanical analysis tools including informant consensus factor (ICF), preference ranking, paired comparisons, direct matrix ranking, and fidelity level index (FL) techniques.

2.5.1. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

According to [ 2 ], informant consensus factor was used for categories of diseases to identify the agreement of informants on the reported cures for the group of diseases.

The ICF was calculated as follows: ICF = Nur–Ns/(Nur – 1) Where Nur is the number of use reports from informants for a particular plant-usage category and Ns are the number of species that were used for the plant-usage category. The factor provides a range of 0 to 1, where a high value acts as a good indicator for a high rate of informant consensus.

2.5.2. Preference Ranking

A preference ranking was conducted following [ 2 ] to determine the most preferred medicinal plant by key informants report. Accordingly, eight key informants were purposively selected for ranking seven most important traditional medicinal plants that can treat stomachache. Informants identify the best-preferred medicinal plant species for treatment of stomachache. Each informant was expected to assign the highest value (seven) for plant species most preferred, against this illness and the lowest value (one) for the least preferred plant and in accordance of their order for the remaining ones. Then values were summed up and ranks were given to each plant species.

2.5.3. Paired Comparisons

Paired comparisons to indicate the efficacy and popularity of five medicinal plant species used to treat febrile illness were employed as described by [ 2 ]. A list of the pairs of selected items with all possible combinations was presented to the selected informant and their responses were recorded and total value was summarized. The number of pairs are calculated by the formula, n ( n −1)/2, where n is the number of items. An item with highest frequency of choices has the highest score.

2.5.4. Direct Matrix Ranking

Direct matrix ranking method was used for commonly reported multipurpose medicinal plants to assess their relative importance to the local people and the extent of the existing threats related to their use values following the method of [ 2 ]. Six most widely utilized multipurpose plant species and eight use values of these plants were selected and identified. Five selected key informants were allowed to give status of use (5 = best, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = less used, 1 = least used, and 0 = not used). Then use values of each species were taken and the values of each species were summed up and ranked.

2.5.5. Fidelity Level Index

Fidelity level (FL) was calculated for each medicinal plant reported to be used against human and livestock diseases to estimate its relative healing potential using the formula below. FL (%) = (Np/N) x 100. Where Np is the number of informants that claim the use of a plant species to treat a particular disease and N is the number of informants that use the plants as a medicine to treat any disease as stated by [ 2 ].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. distribution and diversity of medicinal plants of the study area.

A total of 89 medicinal plant species belonging to 82 genera and 44 families were identified and documented from the study area. Among these, the family Asteraceae constituted the highest number of medicinal plant species 8 (8.9%) followed by Solanaceae and Fabaceae 7 (7.9%) species each. Family Aloaceae contributed the least that constituted only 1 species ( Table 1 ). The families had shown the presence of high utilization of various medicinal plants for health care system in the study area. This result agrees with the finding of [ 21 – 23 ], and [ 24 ] in which Asteraceae is the dominant family and the study area is relatively richer in medicinal plant species.

List of medicinal plants used to treat only human diseases ∗∗∗ , only livestock diseases ∗ , both human and livestock diseases ∗∗ in the study area: scientific name, local name, habit, habitat, disease treated, parts used, and conditions of preparation, method of preparation, dosage form, and route of administration.

Key : habit (Ha): (Herb (H); shrub (S); tree (T); climber (Cl)). Habitat (Hab): Hg = home garden, Wd = wild; Bo = both parts used (Pu); (B = bark, La = latex, Bu = bulb, R = root, L = leaf, Fr = fruit, Fl = flower, Se = seed, St = stem; L + St = leaf and stem together, Fr + L= fruit and leaf together; Fr + Se = fruit and seed together); Route of administration (RA): (O-oral, D-dermal, N-nasal, Oc-ocular, E-ear, A-anal, F-fumigate).

3.1.1. Habitat of Medicinal Plants in the Study Area

Residents of the Sedie Muja district collect and prepare medicinal plants from different habitats. Most of the medicinal plants in the district 53 (59.55%) inhabited in the wild and 29 (32.58%) in home garden and 7 (7.87%) were found both in the wild and home garden. This evidence indicates that the residents mostly depend on medicinal plants inhabited in the wild to prepare remedies in the study area. Moreover, the local people's potential and ability to cultivate around their home garden is mostly very low. According to [ 12 , 15 , 25 , 26 ] and [ 8 ] explanation, it can be confirmed that the majority of the medicinal plants are found in their wild habitat.

3.1.2. Habit of Medicinal Plants in the Study Area

Medicinal plants that were collected in the district have different habit or growth forms. From the recorded plant species, herbs 40 (44.94%) were the leading growth habit in the study area followed by shrub 33 (37.08%) and tree 8 (8.99%). Very few numbers of medicinal plants have growth form of climbing 8 (8.99%) ( Figure 3 ). This result showed that the most widely used medicinal plants habit in the study area were herbs followed by shrubs. This is because the local communities simply get the herb species plant and the plant species were found high in number in the study area. A similar result was found and the above idea was supported by the findings of [ 23 , 24 , 27 , 28 ], and [ 8 ]. On the contrary, other researchers such as [ 29 ] showed that shrubs were the abundant growth form.

Growth habit of medicinal plants in the study area.

3.2. Plant Parts Used

The society uses different parts of the plant for medicinal purposes. The local communities mostly used leaves which 77 (39.9%) followed by roots 46 (23.83%), seed 26 (13.47%), latex 12 (6.22%), stem 9 (4.66%) and others ( Table 1 ). This result showed that leaf is the most commonly used plant part in preparation of remedies. The reason is, it is easy for preparation and collection. However, harvesting the root causes loss of the whole plant since physiological activities are stopped. This finding agrees with the results of other ethnomedicinal studies by [ 10 , 22 , 24 , 30 ], and [ 31 ] who reported that leaves were the most cited plant part used in remedy preparations. On the other hand, the work of [ 28 , 32 ], and [ 33 ] showed that the root was a widely used plant part.

3.3. Methods of Preparation

Regarding to the preparation of traditional medicine, the local people apply various methods of preparations of traditional medicines for different types of ailments. The preparations vary based on the type of disease treated and the actual site of the ailment. The result of this study revealed that the highest proportion of preparations of ethnomedicinal plants employed is by crushing 44 (22.8%), crushing and squeezing 22 (11.39%), pounding and powdering and unprocessing 18 (9.33), powdering 15 (7.78%), concoction 14 (7.25%), squeezing 12 (6.23%), and others. To give immediate response for the diseases and recover from illness, the society mostly applies the method of crushing to extract the bioactive elements of the plant part. Majority of the remedies were prepared using a single plant part of the same plant and few remedies are prepared mixtures of different organs of the same plant or mixture of organs from different plants in the study area. This result is agreed with the findings of [ 22 , 27 , 34 ], and [ 26 ] who reported that crushing was the most dominant method of remedy preparations.

3.4. Solvents and Additives

The local people use some other products as additives in their preparations. These are water 53 (69.74%), butter and tea 5 (6.58%) and others ( Table 2 ). This result implied that water contains the highest percentage of solvent or additives in the preparation of remedies. The local people reported that some of the additives used to improve the flavor and reduce adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhea, so that the efficacy of the traditional medicine would be increased. A previous research study performed by [ 32 ] also reported such additives.

Solvents and Additives used in medicinal preparation.

3.5. Conditions of Preparation from Plant Materials

The result of the study indicated that, the local people prepared the remedies from fresh, dry, and both fresh and dry materials. In this case, out of 193 preparations, 137 (70.98%) are in fresh form, 51 (26.43%) are dried, and 5 (2.59%) are both dried and fresh. The above data showed that the local people prepared the remedies dominantly from fresh materials. This might be due to the fresh medicinal plant part contents that are presented for a long period before use and effective to treat diseases in the study area compared to the dried form. Similar results obtained by [ 7 , 23 , 25 , 35 ], and [ 8 ] showed that using fresh material was preferable than dry material for remedy preparation. The dependency of local people on fresh materials of the plant is a potential threat for the loss of these medicinal plants.

3.6. Route of Administration

Regarding the route of administration, oral 96 (49.74%) administration was reported as the most common route of administration followed by dermal 58 (30.05%) administration ( Figure 4 ). This might be due to the reason that oral and dermal routes are more effective because the prepared medicines will react quickly with the physiology of pathogens and increase its curative power. The other reason is related with the presence of the wide spread of the internal diseases in the study area. This finding is agreed with some previous reports such as [ 25 , 32 ], and [ 31 ] which indicated that oral was the most common route of administration.

Route of administration of medicinal plants in the study area.

3.7. Application of Prepared Remedies

The largest parts of prepared remedies are applicable by drinking 62 (32.12%) followed by eating 27 (13.98) and painting constituted 19 (9.84%) each and others ( Figure 5 ). This result agrees with the work of [ 15 , 22 ] in which drinking accounted the largest percentage of application of prepared remedies. Internal ailments were commonly treated by making the patient drink medication preparations; tooth infection was treated by crushing and applying the remedial plant part on the tooth surface; skin infections caused due to ringworms were treated by painting herbal preparations on the infected skin, and are applied on swollen body parts to cure swelling. Some plants do have different applications for different disease types. This preparation is used for different diseases by diverse application techniques.

Ways of application of medicinal plants in the study area.

3.8. Dosage Administered and Unit of Measurement

The effectiveness of healing particular human diseases is depending on the dosage of prepared medicinal plant. According to informants' response, the dose of plant remedies differed among traditional healers even in treating the same health problems. The plant remedies in the study area were prescribed with units of traditional dosage measurement such as Mankia (teaspoon), one hand, Fingal (coffee cup), Birchiko (teacup), Tassa (water cup), and Atiq (a third of finger length) which were commonly used. However, some prepared medicinal plants used by guessing (estimation) without being quantified by appropriate measuring instruments. About 52 (59.1%) of informants reported that the amount of dosage given to children and weak individuals are less than that of adults. However, measurements used to determine the dosages are not standardized. The amount of medicine prescribed by healers differs from place to place or from healers to healers and there is no standard dose as that of modern medicine [ 36 ]. According to [ 5 ], in most cases, the measurements are rough, lack precision, and dosage given to the patient has no strict specification. According to [ 37 ], the lack of precision is one of the shortcomings for the credit of the traditional healthcare system.

The majority of informants 62 (70.45%) reported that the medicine that they prepare and apply to treat the different health problems have no clear side effects on patients. Nevertheless, some of informants 23 (26.1%) have in fact informed noticeable side effects like vomiting, nausea, severe headache, diarrhea, gastric, burning wounded skin, loss of weight, and temporary unconsciousness that frequently occur while using medicinal plants against hepatitis, gonorrhea, wound, and rabies. Informants report temporary irritation on patients of hemorrhoids and skin infection. Pregnant women are also not given excess amount of medicinal plants that were poisonous to humans with observable adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhea. This finding agreed with the finding of other studies by [ 38 , 39 ].

3.9. Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Human and Livestock Diseases in the Study Area

A total of 89 medicinal plants were collected in the study area. Out of which 60 plant species (67.42%) were reported to treat the human diseases exclusively, 19 species (21.35%) were reported to treat both livestock and human diseases, and 10 species (11.23%) were reported to treat only livestock diseases. This result showed that the local people give more attention and have more traditional knowledge to treat human diseases than livestock diseases in the study area. Similar results were documented in other study sites of Ethiopia [ 15 , 27 , 28 , 34 ], and [ 22 ].

3.9.1. Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Only for Human Diseases

Medicinal plants that were collected in the study area that used for human health problems were 60 species. Among these 60 medicinal plant species, 54 genera and 33 families were recorded and identified. The family Fabaceae is the dominance family and constituted 6 species followed by Solanaceae which constituted 5 species, and Asteraceae constituted only 4 species. This result agrees with the work of [ 7 , 8 ], which showed the dominance of family Fabaceae for the treatment of human diseases. However, dominance of family Asteraceae for the treatment of human diseases was reported in the work of [ 4 , 15 ].

3.9.2. Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Only for Livestock Diseases

Medicinal plants that are collected and identified in the study area used to treat livestock disease only are 10 species. They are grouped in 10 genera and 10 families. The total ten families constituted one species each. This result showed that only a few number of medicinal plant species are available as remedies for the treatment of livestock diseases as compared to the number of plant species used to cure human diseases. Furthermore, the local people have less traditional knowledge and practice to treat livestock diseases than human diseases in the study area. Majority of these medicinal plants are collected from wild vegetation. This result agreed with the work of [ 15 ] in which majority of medicinal plants were collected from the wild vegetation.

3.9.3. Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Both Human and Livestock Diseases

Medicinal plants that are collected and identified in the study area used for both human and livestock health problems are 19 species. They are grouped in 18 genera and 16 families. Asteraceae constituted 3 species; Sapindaceae constituted 2 species; the rest of the family constituted one species each. Majority of these medicinal plants are wild. This result agrees with the work of [ 15 ] in which majority of medicinal plants were collected from the wild vegetation.

3.9.4. Major Human Diseases and Plant Species Used to Treat Them

In the study area, totally 50 human diseases which were reported to be treated by 79 plant species (60 plant species treated only human diseases, 19 plant species treated both human and livestock diseases) were recorded. Some diseases were reported to be treated by more than one medicinal plant species and one medicinal plant species was reported to treat more than one human disease. Information from informants showed that stomachache is treated by 14 species; febrile illness is treated by 9 species; wound, evil eye, and eye diseases can be treated by 8 plant species each; common cold and skin rash are treated by 7 and 6 species, respectively. The rest of the diseases are treated by one to five medicinal plants. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plant that treats more than one disease could be widely known (more popular) than the medicinal plant that treats only one disease. This is because of the fact that different people had the probability of getting indigenous knowledge and they use a particular medicinal plant to treat at least one common human ailment. Human ailment treated by more than one plant species can easily treated by local people. In a previous ethnobotanical study, for example, [ 4 ] reported 47 human diseases treated by 48 plant species, [ 21 ] reported 53 human diseases treated by 62 plant species, [ 27 ] reported 55 human diseases treated by 82 plant species, and [ 22 ] reported 44 human diseases treated by 50 plant species. Similarly, [ 31 ] found that stomachache can be treated by 14 medicinal plant species.

3.9.5. Major Livestock Diseases and Plant Species Used to Treat Them

According to this study, in the Sedie Muja district, 17 livestock diseases treated by a total of 29 plant species (10 plant species treated only livestock aliments, 19 plant species treated both human and livestock aliments) were recorded. Like human ailments, more than one medicinal plant can treat livestock ailments and one medicinal plant can treat more than one livestock diseases. Eye diseases and wound were the leading, which were treated by 6 medicinal plant species, diarrhea followed by 4 species and the rest diseases are treated by one to three medicinal plants.

Number of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases are very less than medicinal plants used for the treatment of human diseases. This could be due to the reason that local people gave more attention (priority) to their own diseases than diseases of livestock and only medicinal plants subscribed to livestock's up on identification of diseases by symptoms. In addition, the respondents have limited knowledge about the treatment of livestock diseases compared to human ailments since livestock's lead sedentary way of life and residents are not pastoralists. Similarly, the related idea also reflected in other part of Ethiopia by [ 4 ] reported 34 livestock problems treated by 27 medicinal plants, [ 21 ] 17 livestock problems treated by 14 medicinal plants, [ 27 ] reported 14 livestock problems treated by 16 medicinal plants, and [ 22 ] reported 13 livestock problems treated by 3 medicinal plants.

3.10. Transfer of Medicinal Plants Knowledge

Currently, the local people of the study area that have indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants are older age generations. This could make the ethnomedicinal knowledge to be eroded due to the death of elderly knowledgeable members of the community. As most informants reported; modern medication, modern education, religious beliefs, and modernization (rapid changes in people's life style) contributed to the loss of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in the study area. A major problem observed at the study area was that very old age traditional healers kept their knowledge a secret, because they assume in such a way that the knowledge of medicinal plant is one means of income generating, and the healing power of the plant remedy decreases if the secret is out. In addition, traditional healers were locally said to be “Debtera'” and “Tenquay”. They were also called as “sir mash” (root excavators), and “kitelbetash'” (leaf cutter). Therefore, traditional healers had forced to keep their knowledge and practices in secret.

This study found that the main sources of traditional medicinal plant knowledge transfer are parents (56.8%) followed by elder son (18.2%), from relatives (11.4%), from religious book (9.1%) and others (4.5%) mostly descended orally ( Figure 6 ). This oral transfer of knowledge without documentation ceases the knowhow of future generation about different traditional medicinal plant usage in the study area. Most respondents transfer their knowledge to their family. This means that most of the traditional knowledge of medicinal plant is passed along the family line. First-born children in the family are the main holder of responsibility in keeping the information and they are successor of their parents as well. Few others share the traditional knowledge to trustworthy and lovely neighbors and other blood relation persons.

Transfer of medicinal plants knowledge.

3.11. Importance of Medicinal Plants in the Study Area

3.11.1. informant consensus.

The result of this study showed that all informants do not uniformly know medicinal plants. Some medicinal plants are more popular than others. This may be due to easy access, effectiveness of medicinal plant, and wider occurrence of disease to be treated. Among medicinal plants in the district, Ruta chalepensis is predominant to be cited by most of the informants 62 (70%) followed by Ocimum lamiifolium 59 (67%). This plant is widely used for the treatment of evil eye, febrile illness, and headache. Ocimum lamiifolium, Allium sativum, and Euphorbia abyssinica were placed 2nd, 3 rd , and 4th ranks, respectively, in accordance with the number of informants citing. With this, other highly used medicinal plants mentioned by 8 or more informants, scoring percentage greater or equal to 9% are listed as shown in ( Table 3 ). Similarly, study conducted by [ 23 ] in Debre-Libanos district, Central Ethiopia showed that Ruta chalepensis took the lead popularity followed by Ocimum lamiifolium . Acording to [ 40 ], the result implies that those listed medicinal plants with high informant consensus are important and could be prioritized for their pharmacological values.

Lists of medicinal plant species cited by more than 8 of informants (≥9%).

3.11.2. Informant Consensus Factor

The highest ICF value was obtained from diseases categories Evil eye (0.90) followed by abdominal pain, gastritis, and constipation (0.87). Common cold and cough showed relatively low ICF value (0.37) ( Table 4 ). Unlike this, the study of medicinal plants in Debre Libanos showed common cold is the highest with ICF value of 89% [ 23 ]. The highest calculated ICF values indicate the best agreement among informants on the use of human medicinal plant species for treating a certain disease. Similarly, the study conducted by [ 15 ] in the Goma District, Jima Zone of Oromia Region showed that Evil eye had highest ICF value from disease categories. According to [ 2 ], high ICF values are important to identify plants of particular interest in the search for bioactive compounds.

ICF for the given diseases category.

Key : Nur: is the number of use reports from informants for a particular plant-usage category, Ns: is the number of species used by informants, and ICF: informant consensus factor.

3.11.3. Preference Ranking

Analysis by preference ranking was carried out on seven selected medicinal plants, which were employed by key informants for the treatment of stomachache, common ailment of the district. Eight key informants were asked to give rank or order for those selected medicinal plants based on their degree of treating stomachache. The result of this study showed that Euphorbia abyssinica, Otostegia intergrifolia, and Zingiber officinale were ranked first, second, and third, respectively, based on its degree of treating stomachache. Brassica nigra and Lepidium sativum medicinal plants were used for stomachache treatment purpose though they were least preferred ( Table 5 ). Euphorbia abyssinica was widely available in the study area. So, residents have been using this plant for treating stomachache. The study by [ 29 ] in the Berber district, Bale Zone of Oromia Region indicates that the preference ranking of medicinal plants used to treat stomachache showed that Stephania abyssinica was the most preferred one followed by Solanium incanum .

Preference ranking of medicinal plants used to treat stomachache.

3.11.4. Paired Comparison

A paired comparison was made to determine the most preferred medicinal plants among the five species that were used to treat febrile illness in the study area. The responses of 6 key informants showed that Ocimum lamiifolium ranked first followed by Zehneria scabra while Clematis simensis is the least favored over the other plant species cited in treating febrile illness ( Table 6 ). A study by [ 22 ] in the Debark district, North Gondar and the result of paired comparison indicate that Zehneria scabra is much favored in treating febrile illness followed by Otostegia intergrifolia.

Paired comparison of medicinal plants used to treat febrile illness.

3.11.5. Direct Matrix Ranking

The result showed that Olea europaea sub sp. , Carissa spinarum, and Brucea antidysenterica were ranked first, second, and third, respectively. Calpurnia aurea and Ficus vasta were medicinal plants that were used less for those stated under use categories ( Table 7 ). Olea europaea sub sp. plant was available in the forest and home garden in the study area. The plant easily burnt for firewood and charcoal, and it was strong for furniture making and fencing, hence, it was preferred and widely used in the study area. The more utilized plant species ( Olea europaea sub sp.) for multiple uses renders scarcity of species unless replantation, whereas least used species have a chance to be conserved. The result agrees with the work of [ 27 ] in the Ofla district, Southern zone of Tigray which indicates that Olea europaea sub sp. is the most widely used multipurpose medicinal plant.

Direct matrix ranking of medicinal plants with different uses.

Key : Med. = medicinal, F. W  = firewood, Fod. = fodder, Char. = charcoal, Cons. = construction, Fen. = fencing, Fur. = furniture.

3.11.6. Fidelity Level Index

Analysis of percentage of informants claiming the uses of a certain plant species for the same major purposes could not be taken as the only criteria in proving the efficacious of plant species. Furthermore, fidelity level index could be calculated to see the medicinal use values of species. The medicinal plants that are widely used by the local people to treat one or very few ailments will have higher FL values than those that are less popular. In this study, Allium sativum and Croton macrostachyus were reported by many informants to treat evil eye and stomachache, respectively, though they have low value of informant consensus ( Table 8 ). Hence, informant consensus could not be taken as the measure of the potential efficacy of medicinal plants in the fidelity level index analysis. For example, Ruta chalepensis, being reported by 70% of informants, with FL value of 0.37 is found to be the third species, next to Allium sativum (0.7) and Carissa spinarum (0.53) to treat evil eye.

Fidelity level index for some plant species.

3.12. Threats and Conservation Status of Medicinal Plants

People need plants for their daily life activity. This result showed that only a few number of medicinal plant species are available as remedies for the treatment of livestock diseases as compared to the number of plant species used to cure human diseases. The cause of threats to medicinal plants can be generally grouped into natural and human-induced factors. However, in the study area as reported by the informants, most of the causes for the threats to medicinal plant are the anthropogenic factors such as agricultural expansion, fire wood collection, fence, construction, and medicine. Some natural factors that are well known factors in the study area are drought and wildfire. To rank these threats of medicinal plants based on the degree of damage, seven key informants were selected for the preference ranking exercise for seven most threatening factors. Ranking of threats on medicinal plants (values 1–5: 1 is the least destructive threat and 5 is the most destructive one) was also conducted and values were summed up and ranks were given to each threat. According to informants' response in the study area, agricultural expansion scoring 32 was the most threatened factor followed by fire wood collection scoring 28 and charcoal scoring 25 ( Table 9 ). A similar result was obtained by [ 21 ] in the Seru district, Arsi zone showed that agricultural expansion is the most threatened factor for medicinal plants. Moreover, the local people are highly dependent on the fresh leaves and roots of medicinal plants; these greatly threaten the medicinal plants, since there is no habit of preservation or storage of plant parts for later use [ 23 ].

Ranking of threats on medicinal plants.

Conservation of natural resources in general and medicinal plants in particular maximizes the benefit of creatures. This conservation practice whatever in-situ (in their natural habitat) or/and ex-situ (out of their natural habitat) has been practiced. The source of most medicinal plants in the district is wild (59.55%), so low conservation of wild medicinal plants cause scarcity. Though conservation approaches were not sufficient, people of the district have been practiced in variety of wise use aspects such as nursery sites: such site propagates and distributes various plant species to increase wealth of plant resource. Protected areas: mainly in mountains and religious practice centers in forests are protected and reserved. The reason why Churches and Mosques preferably harbor plant diversity is because, their thought prohibited to cut plant resources from these sacred groves. This possibly preserves both medicinal plants as well as indigenous knowledge. In the Sedie Muja district, patchy remnants of old-aged Afromontane forests that contain many medicinal plants can be found mainly around Churches and Mosques. According to [ 41 ] a study in the Farta district showed that no one tries to cut a single tree from churches because of the culture of the people. Forestation: the habit of replantation in every rainy season contributed for the wealth of plants since the deforested trees had been replaced. Terracing: widely practiced to protect soil erosion and increase plant growth. According to [ 42 ], conservation of medicinal plants in home garden is strategic and ideal.

4. Conclusion and Recommendations

4.1. conclusion.

Based on the result, it can be concluded that the study area is rich in diversity of medicinal plant species and largely from wild vegetation 53 (59.55%). People of the study area highly depend on medicinal plant resource for themselves and their livestock health care. Totally 50 ailments of human and 17 ailments of livestock were reported to be treated by traditional medicinal plants of the area. These also show the depth of indigenous knowledge and practice on medicinal plants to treat ailments. This indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants is owned by older age people.

It can also be concluded as herbs constitute the main source of traditional remedies followed by shrubs and tree species. Leaves were also found to be the most frequently used plant parts followed by roots for preparation of human and livestock remedies. The wide use of some medicinal plants, their various parts, and use of fresh plant materials leads to be the potential threats for the loss of medicinal plants in the study area. Medicinal plants mainly threatened by anthropogenic factors such as firewood collection, overgrazing, charcoal production, changing wild vegetation to farm land, and overpopulation have all been recognized as contributing factors to the loss of plant taxa. The oral-based knowledge transfer, refusal of young next generation to gain the indigenous knowledge, the influence of modern education, and lack of awareness were the major threats to vacant indigenous knowledge.

4.2. Recommendations

Based on the conclusions and findings of the study, the following recommendations are given:

• Local people should participate in cultivating medicinal plants in home gardens mixing with crops in the farmlands and live fences in addition to wild.
• We need to raise awareness to improve local community's knowledge on the importance, conservation, and management of medicinal plants largely to consider in-situ conservation of wild medicinal plants to ensure their sustainable use.
• The government should give recognitions and encourage the local herbal medicine practitioners to enhance the use of traditional medicine through licensing or certification and other incentives or by organizing them at community or district level, which popularizes their indigenous knowledge and medicinal plants use value.
• Training should be given to local people to have positive attitude toward traditional healers and to give prior emphasis to medicinal plants and multipurpose use tree species.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia, for financial support during data collection. Special thanks go to informants, key informants and traditional healers in Sedie muja district for providing us valuable information in the discussion and questionnaires. The authors would like to thank Eskedar Abebe, who helped a lot in writing the manuscript to have such structure.

Data Availability

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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Ethnobotany and Its Relevance in Contemporary Research

2017, Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies 5(3):123-129

Plants resources have served not only for the primary human needs but also for health care, since time immemorial. Indigenous knowledge is being recognized worldwide owing to their intrinsic value as well as potential instrumental connotation to phytodiversity conservation and modern drug development. Ethnobotany has played important role in the development of new drugs for many centuries and becoming increasingly important in defining strategies and actions for conservation or recuperation of residual forests. There is greater interest in ethnobotany today, than at any time in the discipline's history. This article analyses the relevance of ethnobotany in current scenario. It is anticipated that, in the future, ethnobotany may play an increasingly important role in sustainable development and biodiversity conservation. Introduction Ethnobotany-An Introduction People of all cultures have always depended on plants for their primary needs (food, shelter, warmth, medicines, etc.), and have naturally learned diverse applications of plants. In the course of nomadic roaming, this knowledge was exchanged with neighboring tribes, friends and foe, and was gradually expanded upon. Thus, plant knowledge has been passed around the world since the beginning of time, and frequently, the actual plants themselves have spread along as well. The investigation of plants and their uses is one of the most primary human concerns and has been practiced by all cultures since generations, though it wasn't called 'Ethnobotany'. The term "Ethnobotany" was coined by US botanist John William Harshberger in 1895. Ethnobotany is coined with two terms i.e., "ethno"-study of people and "botany"-study of plants; per se it is the study of the relationship between plants and people. It is considered as a branch of ethnobiology and is a multidisciplinary science defined as the interaction between plants and people. The relationship between plants and human cultures is not limited to the use of plants for food, clothing and shelter but also includes their use for religious ceremonies, ornamentation and health care (Schultes, 1992) [21]. The focus of ethnobotany is on how plants have been or are used, managed and perceived in human societies and includes plants used for food, medicine, divination, cosmetics, dyeing, textiles, for building, tools, currency, clothing, rituals, social life and music. The relationship between people and plants has always been profoundly important. Plants play an important role in every aspect of our lives and without them life is not possible. Plants not only regulate the concentration of gases in the air, but also the only organisms capable of transforming sunlight into food energy on which all other forms of life ultimately depend upon. Given their extensive range of knowledge of medicinal plants, indigenous people remain the ultimate resource for retrieving this information for the purpose of application, particularly in modern medicine. Ethnobotany can be categorized in two major groups. First is basic ethnobotany that includes compilation and organization of information about biota obtained from indigenous and other peoples, such as obtaining data about useful plants and animals, understanding how peoples manage their environments and learning about their lexicons and classifications. This is what we try to do in the best possible way, directly in the field from original sources. These results can then be organized in many ways once species determinations are completed. They may Basic quantitative and experimental ethnobotany includes basic documentation, quantitative evaluation of use and management and experimental assessment.

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Ethnobotany is a subfield of botany that studies the relationships between traditional societies and the plants in their environments. In its widest sense, ethnobotany is the study of how plants have shaped the worldviews and historical narratives of indigenous peoples, as well as how these people evaluate the efficacy of modern scientific knowledge. Ethnobotanical research may provide light on the complex relationships between plants and indigenous peoples, both in the past and the present. While modern society may look down on our ancestors as primitive and barbaric, they really helped us advance by teaching us how to utilize plants for food, medicine, chemicals, colors, wood products, textiles, and so on. As this study progressed, it became abundantly evident that the vast body of past studies on rural and tribal medicines in North Eastern India had just scratched the surface. There is still plenty to do and write down before it's all gone forever. Interviews and on-location observations were used extensively in this study's investigation. The information on medicinal plants and interview notes were written down in field notebooks. Traditional plant knowledge and the usage of curative wild herbs by the Marakwet people were the focus of a study. As a result of interviews with traditional healers and community people, a list of the plants' traditional names was developed. As much as sixty percent of plant names are same, it is clear that traditional names for medicinal plants are vanishing. Nearly all locals (94.8 percent) knew which traditional medicinal herbs were best for treating stomach problems, followed by diarrhea (70.7 percent), chest discomfort (65.5 percent), and typhoid (63.3 percent). Locals have a low knowledge index (23.6%) of curative plants, according to traditional healers.

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Background: Traditional knowledge on ethnomedicinal plant is slowly eroding. The exploration, identification and documentation on utilization of ethnobotanic resources are essential for restoration and preservation of ethnomedicinal knowledge about the plants and conservation of these species for greater interest of human society. Methods: The study was conducted at fringe areas of Chilapatta Reserve Forest in the foothills of the eastern sub-Himalayan mountain belts of West Bengal, India, from December 2014 to May 2016. Purposive sampling method was used for selection of area. From this area which is inhabited by aboriginal community of Indo-Mongoloid origin, 400 respondents including traditional medicinal practitioners were selected randomly for personal interview schedule through open-ended questionnaire. The questionnaire covered aspects like plant species used as ethnomedicines, plant parts used, procedure for dosage and therapy.

Eve Emshwiller

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• Published: 27 October 2020

Ethnobotanical survey of the medicinal flora of Harighal, Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan

• Muhammad Shoaib Amjad 1 ,
• Ujala Zahoor 1 ,
• Rainer W. Bussmann 2 ,
• Muhammad Altaf 3 ,
• Syed Mubashar Hussain Gardazi 1 &
• Arshad Mehmood Abbasi 4  

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume  16 , Article number:  65 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The present study is the first quantitative ethnobotanical evaluation of Harighal, an inaccessible and unexplored area of District Bagh Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJK). The exploration, quantification, and comparison of ethnobotanical knowledge among different rural communities of the study area were mainly focused during field survey.

Methodology

In total, 79 informants (49 men and 34 women) were selected randomly to collect data using a semi-structured questionnaire. Various quantitative indices, including use value, relative frequency of citation, relative importance, fidelity level, and informant consent factor, were employed to evaluate the gathered information. Furthermore, primary data were also compared with twenty-two papers published from adjoining areas.

A total of 150 medicinal plants belonging to 98 genera and 60 families were documented. Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Rosaceae were the dominant families having 15 species each. Of these, 76 species were indigenous, 74 exotic, 136 were collected in the wild, 10 cultivated, and 4 both wild-collected and cultivated. Herbaceous taxa were the most used life form, and leaves were the most exploited plant part. Decoctions were the most preferred method used in preparation of herbal recipes. Three species viz. Mentha longifolia , Berberis lycium , and Galium aparine had the highest use value (1.05), relative frequency of citation (0.81), and relative importance value (96), respectively. The highest informant consensus factor (ICF) was reported for digestive disorders. Mentha longifolia , Punica granatum , Zanthoxylum alatum , and Olea ferruginea had 100% fidelity values. The Jaccard index revealed that uses of plants were more similar in two neighboring areas, i.e., Pearl Valley and Toli Peer.

Local inhabitants still prioritize herbal medicines as an effective way to treat a wide variety of ailments. Elders and health practitioners of the study area are well aware of indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants, but young people are not much interested in herbal practices. Thus, valuable knowledge about the use of plants is on the verge of decline.

Ethnobotanical surveys focus on the complex connection between local inhabitants and local plants, including practices and cultural beliefs associated with different forms of uses [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. These studies are important in highlighting the value of native plant species, e.g., for discovering novel drugs [ 5 ]. Medicinal plants are imperative for the livelihoods of underprivileged communities across the world [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Globally, 35,000–70,000 plant species are used in folk medicine [ 12 ]. In developing countries, 60–80% of the population is still relying on plant-based medicines because they are economical and safe alternative to often inaccessible allopathic medicine [ 13 , 14 ]. Even in the developed world, herbal remedies are extensively used, e.g., 30–50% of the population in China, 40–50% in Germany, 48% in Australia, 42% in the USA, and 49% in France reported using herbal medicine as supplementary health care [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. About 25% of modern allopathic drugs are derived directly from plants or synthetic analogues of different compounds isolated from medicinal plants [ 18 ]. Plant-based drugs are effective and often have less side effects. This can be best explained by comparison between the extract bark of important medicinal plant Salix alba (white willow) with the synthetic drug aspirin which has more reported side effects. Different studies confirmed that extract of Salix alba bark can avoid the side effects caused by aspirin [ 19 ].

The traditional knowledge of medicinal plants is held by many rural communities even in our times [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. Such knowledge is transmitted from generation to generation [ 5 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]. Differences and similarities in traditional knowledge and practice among two different cultural groups living within the same ecological region are fascinating, as they can provide understanding of how cultural reflection can change individual viewpoints about the environment and also guide interactions between human beings and resources in the ecosystem [ 28 ]. However, traditional knowledge on plant species is decreasing gradually across the globe [ 29 ]. This knowledge is usually held by hakims (traditional healers) and elderly people and be passed to the next generation via verbal communication only [ 30 ]; thus, there is a serious danger of knowledge loss due to the progression in the modern health care system, rapid urbanization, and poor relations between younger and old generation [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. The documentation of traditional ethnomedicinal knowledge is of high importance and may contribute to the development of new drugs. Furthermore, this may also contribute to the maintenance of indigenous culture and natural resource management.

Pakistan has a large wealth of medicinal and aromatic plants due to its diverse habitat, climate, and soil types and harbors about 6000 wild plant species [ 35 ]. Among them, 400–600 species are used for therapeutic purposes. Eighty percent of this medicinal flora is restricted in Northwestern areas of Pakistan and Azad Kashmir [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. In the early 1950s, 84% of population of Pakistan depended upon plants for treating various ailments; but nowadays, this practice is restricted to remote areas due to modernization and rapid change in lifestyle [ 39 ]. Previously, different ethnobotanical studies were conducted to document the traditional knowledge about medicinal plants and herbal recipes in remote areas of Pakistan and Azad Jammu & Kashmir [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ]. However, Tehsil Harighal of District Bagh is still unexplored ethnobotanically, especially due to topographical challenges like hilly terrain and steep slopes, and cultural and religious restrictions that limits researcher access to document ethnobotanical knowledge. We hypothesized that due to the remoteness of the area, the ethnobotanical knowledge of Harighal would considerably differ from other areas of Pakistan. This study was planned with the objective to document the indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants used for primary health care particularly focusing on methods of preparation and administration of herbal recipes. The data was further analyzed by using various numerical indices and compared with previous studies to determine the novelty of work.

Materials and methods

Harighal (33° 54′ 34° 08′ N to 73° 01′ 73° 38′ E), a Tehsil of District Bagh, is located in western Himalayan foothills of Pirpanjal, with altitude ranges between 900 and 2300 m (Fig. 1 ) [ 45 ]. It is 155 km away from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan and 98 km away from the Muzaffarazad, the capital of Azad Jammu & Kashmir. The total area of Harighal is 712 km 2 and its population is about 120,000 according to the 2017census. The climate is subtropical-temperate with about 1500 mm average annual precipitation. The summers are hot with temperature ranges between 21 and 40 °C while winters is cold with temperatures around 2 °C during January (Fig. 2 ) [ 46 ]. The vegetation is mainly dominated by Olea ferruginea at lower altitudes, Pinus roxbughaii and Quercus incana at mid altitudes, and Pinus wallichiana at higher altitude of the forest belt. Most of the area is occupied by open grassland.

Map of the study area

Precipitation and temperature of the study area

The region has a diverse and complex ethnic composition with Rajputs, Maldial, Sudhan, Khawaja, Gujar, and Jat. Rajput tribes spread across the region and the Maldial tribe is regarded as the most influential ethnic group in Harighal, Azad Kashmir. Almost all of the inhabitants are Muslims. Popular languages are Pahari, Hindko, Gojri, and Kashmiri, but most inhabitants are also familiar with Urdu.

The area is remote, with difficult mountainous terrain and quite far from urban centers. Local inhabitants have poor socioeconomic conditions, lacking government services, and modern healthcare facilities. The roads and other infrastructure are poorly developed, and many inhabitants are dedicated to agriculture, livestock, and their own small-scale business. Some are educated and are government servants, while very few are serving abroad. Agriculture is mainly dependent upon rain-fed cropping system and maize is the main crop of the region. Basic health facilities are mainly provided by few public health dispensaries in the region, but locals residing at higher altitudes have very limited access to them and are mainly dependent upon herbal preparations for curing most ailments. Indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge is mostly in the hand of elder people and health practitioners.

Data collection

Ethnomedicinal data was collected from 79 informants including 45 men and 34 women during April 2017 to March 2018, using semistructured interviews and group discussions, after obtaining prior informed consent from the participants. Informants were selected randomly by convenience sampling (i.e., a sampling method in which units are selected based on easy access or availability) [ 47 ] and sometimes by using a snowball method [ 14 ]. Questionnaires were prepared according to Edward et al. [ 48 ]. The ethical guidelines provided by International Society of Ethnobiology ( http://www.ethnobiology.net/ ) were strictly followed. The ethical approval to conduct the study was given before initiating surveys from the Ethics Committee of the Women University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Bagh. In addition to this, legal permission to conduct interviews was given by members of municipality committee. A prior informed consent form (PIC) was signed by all the informants after explaining the objective and consequence of study. The PIC was translated into local Pahari language. Sample size was determined by following Kadam and Bhalerao [ 49 ].

Plant collection and identification

The medicinal plants were collected dried, pressed, and mounted on standard herbarium sheets following standard taxonomic methods [ 50 ]. The specimens were identified with the help of plant taxonomist and confirmed using flora of Pakistan (https:// http://www.efloras.org ) [ 51 , 52 ]. Further verification of identified specimens was done at the Herbarium of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in AJ&K established by the Pakistan Agriculture and Research Council (PARC). APG IV (2016) [ 53 ] was used for family taxonomy while The Plant List (2013) [ 54 ] was used to verify scientific names. The final voucher specimens were deposited in herbarium of the Women University of AJ&K, Bagh.

Ethnobotanical indices

The homogeneity and validation of collected ethnomedicinal data was checked by applying following quantitative indices.

Informant consensus factor

Emic use types were grouped in to 16 etic use categories following International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) with some modification [ 55 ]. The agreement between the respondents about usage of plants for curing various groups of ailments was checked by informant consent factor. It was calculated by following Heinrich et al. [ 56 ] using given formula:

Nur = use-reports in selected group of diseases, Nt = species used for treating various diseases of that group. Informant consensus factor (ICF) values varied from 0 to 1, where value (close to 1) indicates that plant species are selected by using well-defined criteria or information and its uses are extremely exchanged among the informants and low values (close to 0) are obtained when plant species are chosen randomly or information about their use are not exchange among informants [ 20 ].

Relative frequency of citation

The harmony between respondents on medicinal uses of plants in the study area was determined by relative frequency of citation (RFC). It was calculated by following Vijayakumar et al. [ 57 ] using the given formula:

FC = informants reporting use of a given species, N = total number of informants. This index is used to identify the most utilized/preferred plants in the area. FC value varies from 0 (when a plant species is not under any use in that area) to 1 (if all the informants refer plant species as useful). FC exhibits the local importance of each species without considering the use categories [ 31 , 58 ].

Use value index

The use value of plant species was determined by following Vijayakumar et al. [ 57 ] using the given formula:

Ui = use reports cited by each respondent for given species, N = total number of respondents. Use value reflects the relative importance of reported plant species in area. High use value shows that plant species have many use reports and is important in the region, whereas low use value (approach to 0) shows that species have few use reports related to its use. However, use report is not meaningful to differentiate whether a plant species is used for single or manifold purposes [ 20 ].

Relative importance

It was calculated following Khan et al. [ 6 ] by using the given formula.

PH = pharmacological attribute of the selected plant, Rel PH = relative pharmacological attributes of a given plant.

BS = body systems treated by selected plant species, Rel BS = relative body systems treated by selected species.

• Fidelity level

Fidelity level indicates the preference of particular plant species by informants to treat specific disease. It was calculated following Alexiades and Sheldon, [ 59 ] by using the given formula

Np = informants reporting use of particular plant species for a specific disease category, N = total number of informants who mentioned uses for a specific plant species for all disease category. High fidelity level (FL) value shows maximum frequency of use by the informants to treat a particular disease [ 20 ].

Jaccard index

The similarity of knowledge between different communities was determined by comparing the findings of the current study with 22 published peer reviewed papers at regional, national, and global level by applying Jaccard index. These includes 9 studies from Azad Jammu & Kashmir, 7 form Khyber Paktunkhawa, and 3 from other areas of Pakistan. The studies conducted on the areas with similar, vegetation, climatic condition, and culture were consider for comparison. Further, the findings were also compared with 3 studies conducted in other developing counties including Nepal, India, and Ethopia. Jaccard index (JI) was calculated following Gonza et al. [ 60 ] by using the given formula:

a = species of the study area, b = species of the neighboring area, and c = number of species common to both area.

Results and discussion

Demography and knowledge variation.

A total of 79 informants were interviewed to collect medicinal plant knowledge based on their gender, age, and education (Table 1 ). The first category used for classification of informants was gender and 45 men and 34 women were interviewed. The easier availability and approachability to male informants and the prohibition of interaction of women with strangers, as well as and veiling ( parda ) forced us to interview more men than women. Demographic data demonstrates that women (average known species = 5.72; average cited uses = 9.38) had more knowledge about plants than men (average known species = 4.98; average cited uses = 8.05). Division of labor between genders in the area may be one reason for this difference, as men generally manage the fieldwork and earning, while women manage the indoor activities and domestic life, which are highly associated with herbal preparations to keep the family healthy. Similar findings were reported by other studies including Qaseem et al. [ 40 ] from Kotli, Ahmad et al. [ 44 ] from Neelum valley, and Kyani et al. [ 20 ] from Abbottabad. Age was used as second classification criterion and informants were classified into three major categories, i.e., above 60, between 40 and 60 and less than 40. Elders (age above 60) had more knowledge about plants than young people (age less than 40). Another reason for lower knowledge of young informants was their limited interest in herbal preparations due to changes in lifestyle with advent of industrialization and modernization. These findings were supported by other reports including Qaseem et al. [ 40 ] from Kotli and Umair et al. [ 61 ] from Hafizabad. Education was a third influential factor. Uneducated informants had a vast ethnobotanical knowledge, while tan educated informants had a more limited knowledge of plants. Likewise, traditional health practitioners had a broad traditional knowledge about medicinal uses of plants compared to other professions. Highly educated informants usually relied on allopathic medicines for their immediate healthcare, and had least knowledge about herbal medicines and their preparation methods. These finding are supported nationally by Kayani et al. [ 20 ], Yaseen et al. [ 22 ], and internationally by Giday et al. [ 62 ] and Tugume et al. [ 63 ].

Diversity of ethnomedicinal flora

A total of 150 medicinal plants belonging to 60 families and 98 genera were reported from study area (Table 2 ). Out of total 150 species, 76 were endemic or native and 74 exotic and among them, 136 plant species were wild, 10 were cultivated, and 4 were both wild-collected and cultivated (Table 1S ). The herbaceous life form was dominantly (78 sp.; 52%) used in herbal preparation followed by shrubs (27 sp.; 18%), trees (25 sp.; 16.6 %), grasses (12 sp.; 8%), ferns (5 sp.; 3.3%), and epiphytes or climbers (Fig. 3 ). These findings are in accordance with previous reports [ 40 , 41 , 79 , 80 ]. The predominance of the herbaceous habit in mountainous areas is a common ecological phenomena throughout the world [ 17 , 44 , 81 ]. The reason might be the high rainfall and moisture content at higher altitudinal areas [ 20 , 41 , 47 ].

Life form distribution pattern of the reported plant species in the study area

Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Rosaceae were the dominant families having 15 species each, followed by Lamiaceae and Poaceae having 12 species each (Fig. 4 ). Our results are in accordance with Amjad et al. [ 41 ], Kayani et al. [ 20 ], and Tariq et al. [ 21 ]. The prevalence of these families might be due to their abundance and easy accessibility in the study area. Moreover, majority of the reported species of these families possess significant pharmaceutical, pharmacological and organoleptic properties [ 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 ].

Family contribution of medicinal flora in the study area

Plant part(s) used

Herbal recipes were prepared using different plant parts in investigated area. As shown in Table 2 , leaves, whole plant, and roots were the most preferred plant parts used in herbal preparations (30.2, 16.6, and 14.4%, respectively). These findings were similar as reported earlier from Pakistan and other countries [ 40 , 44 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 ]. Local preference of leaves in herbal recipes is because of their collection and availability. Leaves, whole plant, and roots are rich in health beneficial secondary metabolites that contribute significantly in the prevention and treatment of various health disorders [ 6 , 44 , 90 , 91 , 92 ]. Though, local inhabitants prefer to use whole plant and roots but their use is not recommended, as exploitation of whole plant species or their uprooting could cause harmful effect on regeneration and may cause species extension [ 93 , 94 ].

Method of preparation and administration

Different recipes were prepared from medicinal plants by using different methods based on the actual site and type of disease treated. Decoction was the most common method (41 sp.; 17%) for preparation of herbal recipes, followed by paste (36 sp.; 15%), powder (30 sp.; 13%), extract (28 sp.; 12%), and juice (30 pp.; 13%) (Fig. 5 ). Our findings are supported by previous documentation [ 17 , 40 , 41 , 80 , 95 , 96 ]. Ease of preparation might be a reason for the extensive use of decoctions to treat aliments, as it can be prepared by mixing specific part of plants with soup, tea, water, honey, milk, and butter [ 97 ]. The availability of active metabolic compounds might increase due to the fact of heating which speed up the biological reactions [ 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 ]. Sometimes, whole plants were used in herbal preparations. Most of the herbal recipes were prepared using single plant species assuming non-toxicity, palatability, and high efficacy. Some recipes were based on application of two or more plants to attain maximum therapeutic effects. The amount of medicinal plants and frequency of dose are based on patient condition, health, age, and disease severity. In the study area, constipation was commonly treated using the fruits of Ficus carica , and for adults 4–5 fruits were used, while 2–3 were regarded as effective for children. The frequent mode of application was internal (76.2%) and only few preparations were applied topically (Table 2 ), as paste, body wash, or rubbed on the affected body parts. These findings were comparable to previous reports [ 20 , 40 , 44 ].

Method of preparation of herbal recipes

A total 127 emic use reports were categorized in to 16 etic use categories (Table 2S ). The informant consensus factor was analyzed based on disease categories, as a single plant might be used to treat 3–4 or more disease categories. A high informant consensus factor (ICF) value reflects high dependence of local inhabitants on medicinal plants [ 102 ] and low ICF values indicate less consistency of informant’s knowledge. Ailments were classified in to 18 categories to develop informant consensus. The ICF value ranged from 0.23 to 0.95. The maximum value of ICF was estimated for digestive disease category (0.95) followed by skin problems and respiratory disorders (Fig. 6 ). This was strongly supported by Qaseem et al. [ 40 ], Umari et al. [ 78 ], Ullah et al. [ 42 ], Amjad et al. [ 41 ], Ahmad et al. [ 44 ], and Bib et al. [ 17 ] who also reported the maximum ICF for digestive diseases in their investigated area. ICF values are generally influenced by the number of informants and are more significant when calculated for uses cited by many informants. In general, ICF values were high in our study, revealing that the informants tend to agree on which plants used in the treatment of common illnesses. According to Heinrich [ 103 ], high ICF can help in identifying potentially effective medicinal plants. It was observed that in our study, the highest agreement level was recorded for diseases reported as the most widespread in rural communities of the Bagh district and other areas of Pakistan. The digestive disorder was also reported as first use class by other ethnic communities across world [ 102 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 ]. The prevalence of digestive disorders among the local inhabitant might be due to inadequate availability of hygienic food and drinking water and also the common inhalation of fuel wood’s smoke [ 40 , 42 , 110 , 111 ]. Moreover, the devastating earthquake of 2005 caused extensive damage to water resources (freshwater springs) and water supply schemes, causing the drinking water quality to be very poor, with local communities usually using contaminated water. The second highest ICF was recorded for respiratory disorders which may be due to prevalence of cold and moist conditions at high altitude Kayani et al. [ 20 ]. Besides, study area is a rich source of flowering plants and mushrooms and the prevalence of pollen and spore present in air also cause respiratory problem. Skin disorders also have high ICF value, and UV radiations, unhygienic conditions, and combine family systems (where many members live together in one room or home even some time with domesticated animals) could be the possible reasons of the prevalence of skin infections in the study area.

Informant consensus factor of diseases with use reports and total number of species used. Ntax total species used by all the informants for group of ailments, UR total number of use reports in each group of disease, ICF informant consensus factor, MTD mouth-throat diseases, EED eye and ear diseases, D diabetes, RD respiratory diseases, MJD muscular and joint diseases, DLS digestive system and liver diseases, SD skin diseases, CSD circulatory system diseases, URD urinary and reproductive system diseases, F fever, C cancer, HP hair problem, NSD nervous system disorder, BLSD blood and lymphatic system diseases, A antidotes, O others

Relative frequency of citation and use value

Relative frequency of citation (RFC) is used to identify the highly important species in various ailments as cited by local people [ 31 ]. The value of RFC ranged between 0.93 and 0.04. Berberis lycium had highest RFC value (0.81). Other plant species with significant RFC value were Ajuga bracteosa , Prunella vulgaris , Adiantum capillus-veneris , Desmodium polycarpum , Pinus roxburgii , Rosa brunonii , Punica granatum , Zanthoxylum armatum , and Jasminum mesnyi (Table 3 ). The plants species with high RFC value were abundant in the area therefore the local people were much familiar with them particularly with reference to ethnomedicinal perspective over a long time period. Likewise, the plants with special properties to cure particular disease were well known among the local culture; therefore, their precise properties to treat particular disease have got famous and deep rooted. The plant species with high RFC values would be interesting for phytochemical and pharmacological profiling and possible future drug discovery, as well as authentication at a commercial level [ 20 , 40 , 44 , 112 ].

Use value reflects the relative importance of every species with reference to more use reports cited by local informants. The use value ranged between 1.05 and 0.08. Mentha longifolia (1.05), Olea ferouginea (1.02), and Zanthoxylum armatum (1.01) had high use value while other species with significantly high use value were Solanum villosum (0.93), Cynoglossom lanceolatum (0.94), Rosa indica (0.95), and Punica granatum (0.97) (Table 3 ) . UV value is directly related with use reports. Plant species with more use reports have high use value and vice versa [ 40 , 41 , 95 ]. These plant species are used in repetitive manner and are biologically more active [ 113 ]. It is not necessary that the plant which has low UV value become unimportant or not biologically active as the RFC and UV are constant in particular area but they may be change according to the variation in the knowledge of indigenous people from area to area or within area.

Species with high RFC and UV show high healing potential for particular disease. Species with high RFC and UV were often overharvested by inhabitants, so they are prioritized for conservation and sustainable use; otherwise, they will be extinct from the area in near future [ 20 , 44 , 114 ]. The ethnomedicinal knowledge is at risk because there might be no resource left for younger generations. The main reason for this is that the local inhabitants of the area, especially young generations, have little interest and understanding or knowledge about ethnomedicinal plants, and are already dependent upon allopathic medicine for their healthcare [ 47 , 114 , 115 ].

Relative importance value is used to determine the diversity of a species for treating various ailments. Galium aparine (96) and Mimosa pudica (91) had highest RI values while Verbena officinalis (81.5), Fragaria nubicola (81), Verbascum thapsus (79), and Melia azadirachta (73) had high RI values (Table 3 ). It was observed that species with high RI value was used frequently for treating several ailments. The natives have too much ethnomedicinal knowledge regarding these plants. Therefore, importance of these species increase as the number of treated systems increases [ 41 , 114 , 116 ].

The fidelity value reflects the preference of particular plant species as reported by local people for curing particular ailment in the area. The FL value of reported species ranged from 18.2 to 100%. Fidelity values of four plant species viz Mentha longifolia , Punica granatum , Zanthoxylum armatum , and Olea ferruginea were found 100%, and these species were used to cure stomachache, dysentery, rheumatism, and other digestive disorders. Other medicinal plants having high FL value were Solanum villosum (93.8), Cynoglossum lanceolatum (91.8), Dalbergia sissoo (83.8), Bidens biternata (85.7%), Rubus ellipticus (86.5%), and Melia azadirachta (84.6%) (Fig. 7 ). These species were mostly used to cure the digestive problems like diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion, stomach-ache and gastrointestinal pain, etc. High FL of a species reflects extensive use of a specific plant species to treat a specific disease dominant in area [ 13 , 17 , 114 ]. Species with high FL value are important model plants which can be subjected to further pharmacological studies [ 20 , 44 , 118 ]. Some other studies in literature also recoded high fidelity level for species used to cure digestive problems [ 13 , 114 , 119 ]. The species with low FL values were not well known by the natives in term of ethnomedicinal knowledge. This forecast that may be in upcoming generation the ethnobotanical knowledge about these plant species may be completely depleted [ 44 , 114 , 120 ] (Table 4 ).

Top ranked plant species with above 80% fidelity

In this study, we compared our results with 22 published papers from adjoining and areas with similar vegetation across Pakistan and world. The highest values for the Jaccard Index (JI) were result of the studies published by Amjad et al. [ 41 ] and Shaheen et al. [ 47 ] on Toil peer (AJK) and Perl valley respectively. The least value for JI was found in the studies of Jadhava et al. [ 72 ] on Sangli, Maharashtra, India, and Gidey et al. [ 73 ] on the Kunama ethnic group in Northern Ethiopia. High similarity reflects similar culture, traditions vegetation, and geography among the areas along with high level of cross-cultural exchange of traditional knowledge among the community while high differences or least value of JI reflects that areas do not share common cultural values. Further, the ethno-ecological knowledge is often specifically influenced by origin and culture of indigenous communities.

The comparative study of current findings with reported research revealed some novel uses which were not reported earlier from this region. These included the use of the extract of the whole plant of Crepis multicaulis and Maytenus nemorosa to treat eye infections. An extract of the aerial parts of Swertia cordata was used to treat hepatic disorders. Leaves of Cotoneaster racemiflora were used to stop bleeding and pus. The root extract of Spiraea canescens is was to as enema to treat venereal conditions. A bark infusion of Dichanthium annulatum was used to cure cough. A pasted based on the whole plant of Polygonum ramosissimum was used to treat urinary tract infections. The seeds of Persicaria maculosa were used in powdered form to treat cholera.

Threats to medicinal plants and indigenous knowledge

The majority of the local inhabitant in the rural areas of Harighal are illiterate and their main source of income are agriculture and livestock. Some of them collect medicinal plants and sell them at very low prices to local herb sellers. The herbal sellers export herbs to pharmaceutical companies. Over-exploitation of medicinal plant species by untrained collectors, e.g., uprooting of medicinal plants, forest fires, deforestation, over-grazing, and urbanization, are contributing significantly toward the decline of medicinal plant species of the study area, and may finally lead to their extinction. Therefore, authorities should take strict control over protection, conservation, and sustainable utilization of economic plants of the study area. Furthermore, universities, agriculture extension department, and local management may contribute significantly to promote the cultivation of medicinal plants in the area; this will definitely improve the socioeconomic condition of local people of the area.

The traditional practices are highly affected by exposure to modern pharmaceuticals and changing lifestyles. The traditional knowledge about medicinal plants in the study area is gradually declining because this knowledge is now mainly restricted to the older members of the community members which are passing away. The younger generation is not interested in learning about traditional plant use, and makes more use of allopathic medicine. The traditional health practitioners ( Hakeems ) have profound traditional knowledge, but many are not willing to share it with other people. These factors may lead to the erosion of traditional medicinal knowledge among the rural communities of area.

This study is the first to report the traditional uses of indigenous medicinal plants from the remote areas of tehsil Harighal, Bagh. The documented data reflect that local people are still highly dependent on medicinal plants for treating various diseases, as public health facilities are hard to reach, and still have a large knowledge of medicinal plants. The traditional knowledge is mainly in the hand of elder people and health practitioners (hakims), but the young generation is not much interested in herbal recipes. This lack of interest, as well as impacts like overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion, are reducing the medicinal flora in the area, and strategies related to resource conservation and further ethnobotanical and pharmacological research are highly recommended for the conservation of this precious treasure.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the local inhabitants of the area for sharing knowledge. Taxonomical assistance provided by Dr. M. Ilyas is also duly acknowledged.

No funding was provided by any source to conduct this survey

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Department of Botany, Women University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Bagh, 12500, Pakistan

Muhammad Shoaib Amjad, Ujala Zahoor & Syed Mubashar Hussain Gardazi

Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Rainer W. Bussmann

Department of Zoology, Women University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Bagh, 12500, Pakistan

Muhammad Altaf

Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Abbottabad, 22060, Pakistan

Arshad Mehmood Abbasi

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MSA, UZ, and AMA designed project, involve in data collection, analysis, and prepared final draft of manuscript. MA and SMHG helped in statistical analysis. RBU completely revised and commented the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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The present research is purely based on field surveys. The ethical approval to conduct the study was given by the Ethics Committee of the Women University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Bagh before initiating the surveys. In addition to this, legal permission to conduct interviews was given by members of municipality committee. A Prior Informed Consent form (PIC) was signed by all the informants after explaining the objective and consequence of study. The PIC was translated into local Pahari language. The ethical guidelines provided by the International Society of Ethnobiology ( http://www.ethnobiology.net/ ) were strictly followed.

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Additional file 1:..

Appendix I: Cultivation status and endemism of medicinal flora of Tehsil Harighal.

Additional file 2:.

Appendix II: Emic and etic use reports of medicinal flora of Harighal.

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Amjad, M.S., Zahoor, U., Bussmann, R.W. et al. Ethnobotanical survey of the medicinal flora of Harighal, Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 16 , 65 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00417-w

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Received : 19 May 2020

Accepted : 06 October 2020

Published : 27 October 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00417-w

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