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Structure of Earth

The Earth’s structure is a fascinating and complex arrangement of layers that make up our planet’s interior. Understanding this structure is crucial for geologists and scientists as it provides insights into the Earth’s composition, behavior, and the processes that shape our planet. This knowledge is also essential for various fields, including geology, seismology, and plate tectonics , as it helps explain natural phenomena like earthquakes , volcanoes , and the formation of continents and ocean basins.

Interior of the Earth: Crust, Mantle and Core

What should you understand about the interior of the earth, sources of information about the interior of the earth, structure of the earth’s interior, composition of earth, temperature, pressure and density of the earth’s interior, temperature, earth’s magnetic field.

The Earth’s interior can be divided into three main layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core. These layers have distinct properties and compositions, which play a significant role in shaping our planet’s geology and behavior.

• The Earth’s crust is the outermost layer and the one we interact with directly. It varies in thickness, with oceanic crust being thinner (about 4-7 miles or 6-11 kilometers) and continental crust being thicker (averaging about 19 miles or 30 kilometers).
• The crust is primarily composed of solid rock, with different types of rock prevailing in continental and oceanic regions. Continental crust is mostly made up of granitic rocks , while oceanic crust is primarily composed of basaltic rocks.
• The Earth’s crust is where we find the Earth’s landforms , such as mountains, valleys, and plains, as well as the ocean floor.
• The mantle is located beneath the Earth’s crust and extends to a depth of about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers). It is the thickest layer of the Earth.
• The mantle is composed of solid rock, primarily silicate minerals . Although it is solid, the mantle behaves like a very viscous or plastic material over geological timescales. This property allows the mantle to flow slowly, leading to the movement of tectonic plates and the associated geological phenomena like earthquakes and volcanoes.
• The heat generated from the Earth’s interior and the decay of radioactive elements contribute to the high temperatures within the mantle.
• The Earth’s core is divided into two parts: the outer core and the inner core.
• The outer core is located beneath the mantle, beginning at a depth of about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) and extending to around 3,500 kilometers below the surface.
• It is primarily composed of molten iron and nickel . The high temperatures and pressures in the outer core keep these materials in a liquid state.
• The motion of molten iron in the outer core is responsible for generating the Earth’s magnetic field through the geodynamo process.
• The inner core is situated at the very center of the Earth, starting at a depth of about 3,500 kilometers.
• It is primarily composed of solid iron and nickel. Despite the extremely high temperatures at this depth, the inner core remains solid due to the tremendous pressure.
• The inner core’s solid nature is important for understanding the Earth’s internal dynamics, including how seismic waves pass through it.

The Earth’s structure and the interactions between these layers are responsible for various geological phenomena, including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the movement of tectonic plates. The knowledge of the Earth’s interior structure is crucial for understanding and predicting these natural events, as well as for exploring the planet’s history and geology.

• It is not possible to know about the earth’s interior by direct observations because of the huge size and the changing nature of its interior composition.
• It is an almost impossible distance for the humans to reach till the centre of the earth (The earth’s radius is 6,370 km).
• Through mining and drilling operations we have been able to observe the earth’s interior directly only up to a depth of few kilometers.
• The rapid increase in temperature below the earth’s surface is mainly responsible for setting a limit to direct observations inside the earth.
• But still, through some direct and indirect sources, the scientists have a fair idea about how the earth’s interior look like.

Direct Sources:

• Rocks from mining area
• Volcanic eruptions

Indirect Sources

• By analyzing the  rate of change of temperature and pressure  from the surface towards the interior.
• Meteors , as they belong to the same type of materials earth is made of.
• Gravitation , which is greater near poles and less at the equator.
• Gravity anomaly , which is the change in gravity value according to the mass of material, gives us information about the materials in the earth’s interior.
• Magnetic sources .
• Seismic Waves : the shadow zones of body waves (Primary and secondary waves) give us information about the state of materials in the interior.

Structure of earth’s interior is fundamentally divided into three layers –  crust, mantle and core .

• It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
• It is brittle in nature.
• Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made of the crust.
• The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different. Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust (about 30kms).
• Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is often termed as  SIAL  (Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the region comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
• The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
• The discontinuity between the  hydrosphere and crust  is termed as the  Conrad Discontinuity.

• The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
• The discontinuity between the  crust and mantle  is called as the  Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
• The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
• Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by the mantle.
• The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it is also termed as  SIMA .
• The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
• The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust constitute the  Lithosphere .
• The  asthenosphere  (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile,  deforming region of the upper mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
• The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which the lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).
• The discontinuity between the  upper mantle and the lower mantle  is known as  Repetti Discontinuity .
• The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and asthenosphere, but above the core is called as  Mesosphere .
• It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
• The  core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s Discontinuity .
• It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as  NIFE .
• The core constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass.
• The core is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
• The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
• The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-liquid).
• The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as  Lehmann Discontinuity.
• Barysphere  is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the whole interior.

Major Elements and Minerals in Earth’s Composition:

• Oxygen (O): Oxygen is the most abundant element in Earth’s composition, making up approximately 46.6% of the Earth’s crust by weight. It is a crucial component of minerals and compounds, such as silicates and oxides.
• Silicon (Si): Silicon is the second most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, accounting for about 27.7% of its composition. It is a key component in various silicate minerals, which are the primary building blocks of the Earth’s crust.
• Aluminum (Al): Aluminum makes up around 8.1% of the Earth’s crust. It is often found in minerals like feldspar , bauxite , and various silicates.
• Iron (Fe): Iron is another essential element in Earth’s composition, constituting approximately 5% of the Earth’s crust. It is found in various minerals, including hematite and magnetite .
• Calcium (Ca): Calcium makes up about 3.6% of the Earth’s crust and is commonly found in minerals like calcite and gypsum .
• Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K): Sodium and potassium together account for around 2.8% of the Earth’s crust. These elements are typically found in minerals like feldspar.
• Magnesium (Mg): Magnesium constitutes about 2.1% of the Earth’s crust and is found in minerals such as olivine and serpentine .
• Titanium (Ti): Titanium makes up approximately 0.57% of the Earth’s crust and is present in minerals like ilmenite and rutile .
• Hydrogen (H): While hydrogen is not a major component of the Earth’s crust, it is a significant element in the Earth’s overall composition, mainly in the form of water (H2O).
• Other Elements: Various other elements, including sulfur , carbon, phosphorus, and many trace elements, are present in smaller amounts in the Earth’s composition.

Distribution of Elements Within Earth’s Layers:

• Crust: The Earth’s crust is primarily composed of silicate minerals, including quartz , feldspar, mica , and various types of rock. Silicon and oxygen are the most abundant elements in the crust, forming the backbone of these minerals.
• Mantle: The mantle is composed mainly of silicate minerals, with iron and magnesium as dominant elements. Olivine, pyroxenes, and garnet are common minerals found in the mantle.
• Outer Core: The outer core is primarily composed of liquid iron and nickel. This layer is responsible for generating Earth’s magnetic field, with iron being the dominant element.
• Inner Core: The inner core is composed of solid iron and nickel. Despite the extremely high temperatures, the intense pressure keeps these elements in a solid state.

The distribution of elements within Earth’s layers is a result of the differentiation and separation of materials during the Earth’s early history. The layered structure of the Earth is a consequence of the physical and chemical processes that have occurred over billions of years, including planetary accretion, differentiation, and geological activity.

• A rise in temperature with increase in depth is observed in mines and deep wells.
• These evidence along with molten lava erupted from the earth’s interior supports that the temperature increases towards the centre of the earth.
• The different observations show that the rate of increase of temperature is not uniform from the surface towards the earth’s centre. It is faster at some places and slower at other places.
• In the beginning, this rate of increase of temperature is at an average rate of 1C for every 32m increase in depth.
• While in the upper 100kms, the increase in temperature is at the rate of 12C per km and in the next 300kms, it is 20C per km. But going further deep, this rate reduces to mere 10C per km.
• Thus, it is assumed that the  rate of increase of temperature beneath the surface is decreasing   towards the centre  (do not confuse rate of increase of temperature with increase of temperature.  Temperature is always increasing from the earth’s surface towards the centre ).
• The temperature at the centre is estimated to lie somewhere between 3000C and 5000C, may be that much higher due to the chemical reactions under high-pressure conditions.
• Even in such a high temperature also, the materials at the centre of the earth are in solid state because of the heavy pressure of the overlying materials.
• Just like the temperature, the  pressure is also increasing from the surface towards the centre  of the earth.
• It is due to the huge weight of the overlying materials like rocks.
• It is estimated that in the deeper portions, the pressure is tremendously high which will be nearly 3 to 4 million times more than the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level.
• At high temperature, the materials beneath will melt towards the centre part of the earth but due to heavy pressure, these molten materials acquire the properties of a solid and are probably in a plastic state.
• Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials like Nickel and Iron towards the centre, the  density of earth’s layers also gets on increasing towards the centre .
• The average density of the layers gets on increasing from crust to core and it is nearly 14.5g/cm3 at the very centre.

Earth’s magnetic field is a crucial and complex feature that surrounds our planet. It plays a significant role in our daily lives and has several important functions. Here’s an overview of Earth’s magnetic field:

1. Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field:

• Earth’s magnetic field is primarily generated by the movement of molten iron and nickel in the outer core of the planet. This process is known as the geodynamo.
• The geodynamo is driven by the heat generated from the decay of radioactive isotopes in the Earth’s interior and the cooling of the core.

2. Magnetic Polarity:

• Earth’s magnetic field has a north and south magnetic pole, similar to a bar magnet. However, these magnetic poles are not aligned with the geographic North and South Poles.
• The positions and orientations of Earth’s magnetic poles can change over geological time, and these reversals in polarity are recorded in rocks as “magnetic striping.”

3. Magnetic Field Components:

• Earth’s magnetic field is characterized by its strength, inclination, and declination.
• Magnetic Strength: This represents the intensity of the magnetic field at a specific location on Earth’s surface.
• Inclination: It refers to the angle at which the magnetic field lines intersect the Earth’s surface, varying from near-vertical at the magnetic poles to horizontal at the equator.
• Declination: This is the angle between true north (geographic north) and magnetic north.

4. Magnetic Field Function and Importance:

• It serves as a protective shield, deflecting harmful charged particles from the Sun, such as solar wind and cosmic rays. This shield is known as the magnetosphere and helps protect the atmosphere and life on Earth.
• It enables navigation and orientation for migratory animals, including birds and sea turtles, that use the magnetic field as a compass.
• Compasses rely on Earth’s magnetic field for navigation and orientation.
• The magnetic field is used in various scientific and geological studies, including paleomagnetism (the study of ancient magnetic fields recorded in rocks) to understand Earth’s history and the movement of tectonic plates.
• The magnetic field is essential for modern technology, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medicine and various applications in geophysical exploration.

5. Changes in Earth’s Magnetic Field:

• The Earth’s magnetic field is not constant and can undergo changes over time, including secular variation (gradual changes) and geomagnetic reversals (flips in magnetic polarity).
• Researchers monitor these changes, and recent observations have shown that the magnetic North Pole is shifting at a faster rate than in the past.

Understanding Earth’s magnetic field is essential for various scientific, technological, and environmental reasons. It is an integral part of the planet’s geology and plays a vital role in maintaining the conditions necessary for life on Earth.

Jijo Sudarsan  , Interior of the Earth: Crust, Mantle and Core(2018) ,https://www.clearias.com/interior-of-the-earth/

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Structure of the Earth!

Join us on our journey to the centre of the earth.

Get ready to dig deep, gang, and join us on a fascinating journey to the centre of the Earth…

The secrets buried inside our planet are revealed by recording and studying things called seismic waves . Caused by things like earthquakes, explosions and the movement of our oceans, there are two types of seismic wave – a shear wave , which won’t travel through liquid; and a pressure wave , which moves through both liquid and solids. These waves show that the Earth is made from five layers: the inner and outer core, the lower and upper mantle, and the crust.

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Temperature:  5,000°C – 6,000°C State : Solid Composition : iron and nickel

The Earth’s inner core is a huge metal ball, 2,500km wide. Made mainly of iron, the temperature of the ball is 5,000°C to 6,000°C – that’s up to 6,000 times hotter than our atmosphere and scorching enough to make metal melt! The metal at the inner core stays solid because of the incredible pressure surrounding it.

Temperature : 4,000°C – 6,000°C State : Liquid Composition : iron, nickel, sulphur and oxygen

This liquid layer of iron and nickel is 5,150km deep. The outer core flows around the centre of the Earth, and the movement of the metals creates our planet’s magnetic field.

Lower Mantle

Temperature : 3,000°C State : solid Composition : iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium and aluminium

The lower mantle is found between 670km and 2,890km below the surface, and is made from solid rock. The rock is hot enough to melt, but is solid because of the pressure pushing down on it.

Upper Mantle

Temperature : 1,400°C – 3,000°C State : liquid / solid Composition : iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium and aluminium

This layer is up to 670km below the Earth’s surface. The lower part of the upper mantle is made from both solid and melted rock (liquid), while the rock in the upper region is stiffer, because it’s cooler.

Temperature : Around 22°C State : Solid Composition : Oceanic crust made up of iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium and aluminium. Continental crust made up of granite, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

The Earth’s surface is covered by its thinnest layer, the crust. Land is made of continental crust , which is 8km to 70km thick and made mostly from a rock called granite. The layer beneath the ocean bed is made of oceanic crust , which is about 8km thick and made mainly from a rock called basalt.

By studying rocks and meteorites (rocks from space ), scientists believe the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old!

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Origin and Structure of the Earth

Published by Susana Potter Modified over 9 years ago

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Structure of the Earth

Structure of the earth earth s interior is divided into 3 layers that have very different properties: crust mantle core our knowledge of these layers has come ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• Earths Interior is divided into 3 layers that have very different properties
• Our knowledge of these layers has come mainly from the study of earthquake waves.
• The crust is the outer-most layer of the Earth.
• It is between 5 and 100 kilometers thick.
• It is the thinnest of the Earths layers.
• It is where we live.
• The crust is made up mostly of oxygen, silicon aluminum.
• There are two types of crust
• Oceanic crust
• Continental crust
• Oceanic crust is the crust that lies below the Earths oceans.
• It consists mostly of basalt a dark, dense igneous rock with a fine-grained texture.
• Continental crust forms the continents and consists mostly of granite - a less dense igneous rock with larger crystals that is usually light in color.
• The next layer after the crust is the mantle.
• It lies from about 40 to 2,900 kilometers below the surface.
• It is much thicker than the crust.
• It contains about 67 of the Earths mass.
• It is a layer of hot rock.
• The mantle is denser than the crust.
• It consists of a number of zones.
• The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are very similar. They are both rigid.
• Together they are called the lithosphere.
• Litho means stone.
• The lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick.
• As you go deeper into the mantle, heat and pressure increase.
• This makes the rock less rigid.
• It has the consistency
• of tar and can bend much like plastic (semi molten).
• This plastic-like layer of the mantle is called the asthenosphere.
• The lithosphere floats on top of the asthenosphere.
• Beneath the asthenosphere solid mantle material extends all the way to Earths core.
• This lower solid part of the mantle is called the mesosphere.
• The layer of the Earth that extends below the mantle to the center of the Earth is the core.
• The core makes up about 1/3 of the Earths mass.
• It has two layers
• A liquid outer core
• A solid inner core
• Both are made of iron and nickel.
• Despite enormous pressure, the molten metal of the outer core behaves like a thick liquid.
• The inner core is a dense ball of solid metal.
• The pressure is so great that the iron atoms cannot spread out and become a liquid.
• Currents in the liquid outer core cause the solid inner core to spin.
• The inner core spins at a slightly faster rate than the rest of the planet.
• This movement creates the Earths magnetic field, which causes the entire Earth to act like a giant bar magnet.
• The Earth is made of three basic layers.
• The crust and the top, rigid part of the mantle make up the lithosphere.
• The plastic-like layer of the mantle is called the asthenosphere.
• The innermost rigid part of the mantle is called the mesosphere.
• The core has two parts.
• The outer core is liquid.
• The inner core is solid.

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Formation and Structure of the Earth

Jan 06, 2020

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Formation and Structure of the Earth. Standards. Recognize that radiometric data indicate that Earth is at least 4 billion years old and that Earth has changed during that period. Describe the internal structure of Earth (e.g., core, mantle, crust) and the structure of Earth’s plates.

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Standards • Recognize that radiometric data indicate that Earth is at least 4 billion years old and that Earth has changed during that period. • Describe the internal structure of Earth (e.g., core, mantle, crust) and the structure of Earth’s plates. • Describe how waves are used for practical purposes (e.g., seismic data). • Know that Earth’s systems are driven by internal (i.e., radioactive decay and gravitational energy) and external (i.e., the sun) sources of energy.

Formation of the Universe • Our universe began approximately 13.7 Ga (billion years ago) with a cosmic “explosion” called the BigBang. • Before the Big Bang, all matter and energy were compacted into a single, inconceivably dense point called a singularity.

Formation of the Universe • We don’t know what happened during the Big Bang or for the first fraction of a second after it. • But, during the billions of years that followed, the universe has expanded and gas, dust, stars and galaxies have formed.

The Big Bang Photo: http://oz.plymouth.edu/~sci_ed/Turski/Courses/Earth_Science/Intro.html

Formation of the SolarSystem • Earth formed along with the rest of the solar system (at the same time). • Our solar system formed from the collapse of an interstellar cloud (condensation theory).

Condensation Theory • Our model for the formation of the solar system. • A large cloud of interstellar (between stars) gas began to collapse under the influence of its own gravity. • As it contracted, it became denser and hotter, with most of its matter forming the sun at its center.

Condensation Theory 3. The rest of the matter formed into a flatteneddisk around the sun, hotter in the inner region where more of the matter accumulated, than in the less dense outer regions. 4. Gravitational attraction caused dust and cooling gas in the disk to collide and accrete (clump together) as small chunks called planetismals.

Condensation Theory 5.The planetismals continued to collide and accrete to form the planets and their moons. 6. Some planetismals did not clump together, and now form asteroids and meteorites.

Condensation Theory of Solar System Formation Photo: http://oz.plymouth.edu/~ sci_ed/Turski/Courses/Earth_ Science/Intro.html

Condensation Theory • This all happened 4.6 Ga (billion years ago). • But, how do we know when this occurred?

Dating the Solar System • Meteorites (the original planetismals) sometimes fall to Earth. • We can get an age for the meteorites by radioactive dating (more on this later). • The meteorites, which are left over pieces from the formation of the solar system, have an average age of 4.6 Ga. Photo: http://www.nizwa.net/env/meteorites/meteorites.html

Formation of the Earth • Early earth was rocky and uniform in composition and density throughout. • Then it began to heat up and melt. Photo: http://www.escepticospr.com/ images/early_earth.jpg

3 Sources of Heat • Gravitationalcollapse – as earth contracted, it heated up. • Radioactivedecay – thermal energy released by the decay of radioactive elements. • Surface bombardment by meteorites – the early solar system contained many more meteorites than today.

Differentiation Occurs • As Earth heated it became partially molten. • 30 – 65% of the Earth formed an outer magmaocean hundreds of kilometers thick. • The interior of the Earth became soft. • The heaviest elements sank to the middle and the lightest elements floated on top. • This caused the formation of distinct layers in the Earth, called differentiation.

Compositional Layers of the Earth • Layers defined by what they are made of • The innermost layer of the Earth is the core (inner & outer) • The next layer is the mantle • The top layer is the crust

Core • Made of iron and nickel • Inner core: • Solid • Even though its hot, there is too much pressure for it to be liquid • 1255 km thick • Outer core: • Liquid • Rotates around the inner core (this gives us our magnetic field) • 2220 km thick

Mantle • Region surrounding the core • Makes up the bulk of the Earth • Made of peridotite (rock containing iron & magnesium) • Is a solid that flows • 2900 km thick

Crust • Thin outer layer of the Earth • Solid • Two types: 1. Continental crust • made of granite • 20 – 70 km thick 2. Oceanic crust • made of basalt • thinner than continental crust • 7 – 10 km thick

Mechanical Layers of Earth • Layers defined by how they behave • Lithosphere • Asthenosphere

Lithosphere • Layer that includes the crust and uppermostmantle. • Lithospheric Plates - The lithosphere is broken up into plates that move over the partially molten mantle (plate tectonics)

Asthenosphere • Part of mantle directly below the lithosphere, on which the plates move.

How do We Know the Earth’s Structure? • Drilling has only been done to a few kilometers depth in the crust. • How then do we know that the Earth is layered?

Seismic Waves • Vibrations that travel through the Earth. • Produced by earthquakes and surface explosions.

Seismic Waves • An earthquake generates waves that spread out in all directions, like light from a light bulb. • Seismograph stations detect all of the waves that arrive at that location. • We can learn about the deep interior of Earth by: • Recognizing what kind of waves have arrived • Knowing exactly when they arrived • Calculating when and where the earthquake occurred

Seismic Waves • Seismic waves refract (bend) and reflect when they pass from one material into another material. • They refract and reflect at the boundaries in the Earth because the layers are made of different materials. • They can also change in acceleration when passing from one material to another.

Seismic Waves • Mohorovičić Discontinuity • Moho for short • Boundary between the crust and mantle • Where seismic waves accelerate as they pass from the lower density crust into the higher density mantle

Types of Seismic Waves • There are two main types of seismic waves: • Surface waves • Body waves

Surface Waves • Travel on the Earth’s surface. • Can’t be used to determine structure.

Body Waves • Travel through Earth, so can be used to determine structure. • Two types of body waves: • Primary or P waves • Secondary or S waves

Primary or P waves • First to arrive at seismograph station • Compressional waves – particle motion is in same direction as wave travel • Can travel through both solids and liquids

Secondary or S Waves • Arrive after P waves • Shear waves – particle motion is perpendicular to wave motion. • Can travel through solids but not liquids. • They do not travel through the outer core, therefore we know the outer core is liquid.

S-Wave Shadow Zone • Zone in which no S waves are recorded by seismic stations (because of the outer liquid core).

Continents • Continental growth: began soon after differentiation & has continued through geologic time. • The less dense materials on Earth’s surface accrete (clump together) to form the continents.

Continents • Continents are made up of large regions of stable, ancient crystalline rocks (igneous and metamorphic rocks), called shields. • The shields are surrounded or buried by sedimentary rocks called platforms. • Shields and platforms make up the stable (no longer undergoing deformation) parts of the continents, called cratons.

Earth’s Atmosphere Today • Breathable by humans • Mixture of gases: • 78% nitrogen • 21% oxygen • Trace amounts of argon, carbon dioxide & water vapor • Large amount of oxygen makes Earth’s atmosphere unique in solar system.

Origin of Earth’s Atmosphere • Atmosphere of early Earth made up of gasesmost common in solar system (hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia & water vapor) • Escaped into space • Secondary atmosphere was outgassed (expelled) from planet’s interior by volcanoes • Surface temperature fell and water vapor condensed, forming oceans • Life appeared in oceans and began to produce oxygen • Oxygen in present-day atmosphere is direct consequence of evolution of life on Earth.

Earth Systems • The Earth system is composed of all the parts of our planet that work together. • These are the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and cryosphere • It is an open system that exchanges energy and mass with its surroundings.

Earth Systems • Earth systems are driven by both external and internal sources of energy. • The external source of energy is our sun. • The sun’s energy drives climate and weather, and energizes the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and biosphere.

Earth Systems • The internal sources of energy are gravitational (trapped heat from Earth’s formation) and heat from the decay of radioactive elements. • Internal energy drives plate tectonics and the geodynamo (interaction between inner and outer core) and energizes the lithosphere, asthenosphere, deep mantle, and inner & outer core.

Our Changing Earth • Earth is dynamic - it is always changing • It continues to change even as we speak • Change is natural and unstoppable

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