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173 Creative Fashion Research Topics: Awesome List Of Ideas

The 21st century has amplified fashion such that even a newborn knows about it. However, the challenge of finding unique fashion topics always baffles both college and university students. That is why some of them end up copying whatever they find online or guess whatever comes to mind.

Do you want to save yourself all this unnecessary drama? Keep reading this exceptional guide.

Fashion Industry: Definition

Now, fashion refers to a form of expression at a given time, place, and culture. You may have heard of the latest smartphones, clothing, or even cars – well, that is part of fashion. It is not only limited to clothes and fine jewelry in the boutiques.

For something to be fashionable, it has to do with either new or dominant clothes, hairstyles, accessories, make-up, footwear, or lifestyle. A lot comes into play when it comes to fashion, and as such, it is always subject to change every time. Now that we have jogged your memory on the definition of fashion, let’s get into how to prepare and write a fashion-related thesis paper or art dissertation .

Getting Started With Your Fashion Research Paper

Before you engage in any undertaking, there is the planning process. That is what we want to cover in this section with regards to acing your fashion paper. Now, I know that thousands of websites guide me in writing a top-level research paper on fashion. However, ours is unique – we provide professional tips from our reliable writing service that you will never find anywhere else.

Stay with me as we start journeying through this together:

First, understand your research question on fashion: This is a critical step that will shape how you will answer the question. Break down the question into bits that will help you understand what your professor wanted from you. Second, dive into the research process: I know most lazy students would not want to hear about this step at all. However, it is also crucial in helping you determine the topic and content that will go into your fashion research paper. Select an appropriate topic: After looking at what others have done and identifying the gaps, pick a topic that best communicates your idea. Remember that the subject should be concise, catchy, and appealing to anyone at first sight. Proceed to write an engaging thesis statement about fashion: This is what drives the direction of your essay, and as such, it should be in-depth. A thesis statement on style should capture what you intend to talk about and set the objective for your paper. Draft informative topic sentences for your body paragraphs: Every topic sentence should marry with your thesis statement. A person reading your topic sentences should relate them to the question you posed in the thesis statement. The right topic sentences will give life to your dissertation on fashion in a fantastic way! Looking for supporting evidence: You should be able to back up your topic sentences with trustworthy examples and illustrations. These can either be statistics or case studies, depending on the fashion topic that you are handling. Find an exciting concluding remark: Never underestimate the power of the conclusion paragraph in any form of writing. It determines what the reader will take home after going through the long and tedious body paragraphs. Therefore, it should be as captivating as possible.

After tackling the preparation and writing part, I know you may be asking, ‘where can I find writing ideas for fashion research papers?’ Well, the answer is one scroll away, my friend:

Fashion magazines and books
News stories on fashion events
TV documentaries
Online fashion stores and blogs
This fantastic article (Did you think that I would leave it out?)

You are as ready as a horse prepared for the battle to crush any fashion assignment with all these. But for now, here are 173 of the most impressive fashion ideas for your inspiration.

Engaging Fashion Research Topics

What your fashion taste says about you and the psychological impact of fashion
How have women’s movements impacted today’s fashion?
What is the correlation between fashion and 20th-century women empowerment?
The brighter side of invisible branding in fashion
Tools used in fashion marketing
Understanding fashion cycles: From trendy to obsolescence
The impact of fashion in movies on the youth
The role of garments in prehistoric ages
The evolution of style from the 20th century
The role of class in promoting a culture
What influence does the military have on culture?
Understanding the fashion industry: A Multi-billion dollar industry
Fashion trends that were influenced by 1980s music.
The role of dressing in subculture identification
Fashion dressing in the golden age of Queen Elizabeth Era: What it meant ad how it defined social status.
Evaluate why women pay a close look at what they wear than men

In-Depth Fashion Topics For Students

What is the net profit and benefit of the fashion industry?
Fashion ideas that originated from the 80s and are still used in the modern society
The role of fashion in pushing for social agendas
Legalizing of Bhang: Is it just fashionable or a necessity?
Evaluate Retro fashion trends in the 21st century
Investigating the ethics of suing flesh and fur in high fashion
The science behind fashion trends
The Psychology of cross-dressing: What is fueling the massive cross-dressing in today’s society
Luxurious and Royal Fashion trends during the Cold War
Discuss how the media impacts what people wear
What is the relationship between art and high-end fashion
How is the LGBTQ community impacting the fashion industry today?
Icon case study: How music has influenced the successful running of Fenny Beauty
How significant is a celebrities influence on fashion trends: A case study of Beyoncé
Luxurious fashion companies and their impact on the general fashion trends
Investigating the influx of designer products in the fashion market: Have they come affordable, or is there a leak in the market?

Best Quality Fashion Topics To Discuss

The impact of fake luxurious products on the high-end fashion industry
Investigating working from home the new fashion lifestyle: What is the cost-benefit analysis of working from home
Examining The recent boom in the wig fashion industry
How big is the trending make-up industry ad what is its impact on the economy
How Celebrity events push fashion trends
How fashion translates the empowerment of the modern woman: A case study of Serena William
How masks evolved from protective gears to fashion statements and the danger in the prevailing Covid’19 pandemic
How fashion influences the psychology of its consumers
The role of style in music in influencing teen fashion taste: A case study of Taylor
Investigating the relationship between fashion and royalty during the Queen Elizabeth era.
Analysis of the development and growth of fashion: A case study of Australia
How Britney Spears pioneered the low rise jean fashion trend
Investigating the hair industry: Who are the leading suppliers of hair in the globe, and who are its consumers
How fashion can alter your look: How to look slimmer or curvier using fashion hacks.
Source of leather for your fashionable belt, shoes, and wallet
A study of the entry of trendy beard products into the hair industry

Excellent Fashion Topics To Write About Today

An analysis of sustainable and ethical fashion brands
The role of innovation and creativity in the running of the fashion industry
A complete guide for buying fashionable high-end textile materials
Understanding the concept of enclothed cognition: The impact your clothing choice has on your mental process
Smart Casual: The latest trendy office fashion
What is the role of fashion accessories in our dressing?
The fashion statement of a handbag in every woman’s life
Ten niches in a fashion that do not exist but should exist
A review of the book Queen of Fashion by Marie Antoinette: How has it influenced style as we know it today?
Investigating the impact of fashion trends in the running of a business
compare and contrast between the European and African fashion
Understanding denim as a fashion trend
How big is the Vlog mass industry, and what is its role in pushing fashion trends
How do age and gender affect what people wear?
Why you should consider the prevailing fashion trends before starting a business
Is Vlog a fashionable wave, or is it here to stay?
The role of Tik-Tok in creating fashion trends and propagating them
Understanding the Androgynous model: A case study of Willy Carter

Good Research Paper Topics-Fashion

How the online industry has changed fashion
Discuss the effects of various professions on what people wear
How successful was the rebranding of Abercrombie and Fintech in 2019
A study of the balance between style and functionality
How do Fashion High-Tea events influence people’s wardrobes?
Strategies to market luxurious fashion brands
How luxury fashion is branded and its importance
Discuss the effect of COVID-19 lockdowns on fashion
The role of style in celebrity branding
The rise of fashion in developing countries
The impact of trends on the psychology of the consumer
Analyzing the relationship between fashion and pop culture
The role of Jane Austen boos in defining fashion in the golden age
Style in the time of Jane Austen
How fashion affects the 21st-century movies and films
Understanding luxurious fashion advertisement
What are the challenges of the fashion industry?
How necessary is liquidity in the fashion industry

Quick Fashion Research Paper Topics

The role of photography in the marketing of fashion brands in today’s world
Marketing strategies of the fashion industry in the 80s
The role of digital print in today’s fashion marketing
The part of the color in fashionable dressing
Understanding fashion and feminist movements
Understanding fashion and Masculinity
How aesthetic is essential in fashion
Investigating colorism in fashion
The role of style in public relations
Investigating the role of class in politics
Did type exist in medieval times?
The importance of Red Carpet events in the fashion industry
Discuss the role of religion in what people wear
Factors that influence change in fashion trends
Global premium fashion brands and how they rose to the top
How fashion in the western world influences the rest of the globe
The relationship between style and symbolism
Investigating sexism in fashion advertisement campaigns

Best Fashion Prompts In 2023

The contribution of fashion to economic growth.
How racism is prevalent in fashion advertising
Traditional textile fashion designs and their reemergence in the 21st century
A study on the earliest American fashion
Effects of fashion on people’s self-esteem and self-worth
Understanding how fashion styles trend
The role of crossover fashion in comedy
Is crossover fashion the next big thing?
The mechanism of the fashion industry: How it works
Characterizing modern fashion dressing
The relationship between cancel culture and fashion
The role of culture in shaping social trends
Discuss the rising culture of fashion among the youth
Why it is essential to consider the style for a wedding ceremony
How the fashion industry has created employment
How different seasons of the year determine what people wear
The impact of covid-19 on our current lifestyle

Custom Fashion Discussion Topics

Did the pandemic have any impact on fashion trends?
Investigating the relationship between fashion, identity, and culture
What is the relationship between fashion and religion?
A list of celebrities considered fashion icons ad their contribution to fashion trends.
The relationship between plastic surgery and pushing fashion brand
Investigating the influence of fashion trends on the mental health of a community
The innovation of Nylon in the fashion industry
Investigating the decline of some fashionable attires. A case study of the tie
The concept of In cooperating fashion designs in school uniforms for expensive schools
Trade fairs in the fashion business
The role of women in the fashion industry
Challenges to expect as an entrepreneur in the fashion industry
Contrasting the use of men vs. women in marketing fashion designs
A guide on building a successful fashion business
The evolution of minimalism in fashion dressing
The necessary skills to learn before starting your fashion business
Top trendy fashion style by entrepreneurs
Relationship between liberalism and fashion
Understanding the influence of feminism on fashion

Top Fashion Marketing Writing Ideas

How are online stores promoting fashion in developed nations?
Emergent fashion trends following the pandemic
Impact of climate on fashion trends
Fashion trends for people with disabilities
A study of the baby clothing fashion industry
Understanding organic VS synthetic fashion trends in the market
Analyzing the direction of adults looking like children
A study in the origin of the motif
A study on the falling popularity of office wear in the workplace
How working at home has impacted the workplace office industry.
Understanding the decline in popularity of leather accessories
Investigating the sustainability of some fashion trends
Investigating the impact of fashion on the environment and its resources
The origin and evolution of beachwear
The understanding manner in the textile industry.
Where did waistcoats originate from in the US?
Checked Vs. plain fashion dressing
The trendy use of unconventional material for dressing: A case study of lady gaga

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5.2: Sample Student Research Essay- Fast Fashion

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Gabriel Winer & Elizabeth Wadell
Berkeley City College & Laney College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)

Reading: Student essay on fast fashion

The link below opens a version of the sample essay formatted in MLA 8th edition:

Fast Fashion sample student research essay.pdf

Maroua Abdelghani and Ruri Tamimoto

Professor X

Advanced Reading and Writing

22 February 2022

Deadly Fashion

My $9.99 t-shirt is no longer wearable after two washes: the shape of the shirt is so distorted that it does not fit me well anymore. One might say I got what I paid for, because the poorly constructed t-shirt is from a “fast fashion” store. Fast fashion is a term for the companies like H&M, Zara, and Uniqlo that sell clothes that copy the trendy appeal of high-end brands but at an affordable price, usually because they are made in countries with low labor costs like India, Bangladesh, Cambodia, and China. Fast fashion prices are so low, explains anthropologist and marketing professor Annamma Joy, that consumers feel encouraged to dispose of a garment after a few wearings and buy a new piece (274). This leads to an increase in sales for new clothing. In fact, According to journalist Rachel Monroe, “Worldwide, clothing production doubled from 2000 to 2015, while prices dropped: We were spending the same amount on clothes, but getting nearly twice as many items for it.” This increase in value for customers has a steep price, even if we can't see it in the store. Before tossing my t-shirt in a donation bag, I wonder about the person who sewed it. Who is this person? How good or bad are their working conditions? What about the cost of pollution? Although some defend the fast fashion industry’s aesthetic and economic contributions, it has devastating impacts on labor rights and the environment, and needs serious regulations by all nations to stop the damage.

One glaring consequence of the demand for cheap clothing is that factory workers get paid too little, while their requests for living wages are ignored. Cheap labor is a reason that many apparel corporations move their production overseas. As Adam Matthews reports, by 2016, only 3% of clothes sold in the U.S. were made in this country. This shift to foreign production is the direct result of lower labor costs. According to Deborah Drew, an associate at the World Resource Institute’s Center for Sustainable Business, women garment workers in Bangladesh are paid about $96 per month; however, the government estimates $336 dollars as a minimum level for workers to afford their basic needs. Based on these statistics, women are paid less than a third of a necessary living wage. Garment workers in other developing countries suffer similarly: they work long hours but remain in poverty. Business owners and their powerful organizations dismiss the demands of factory laborers for raises because they claim that paying more will lead to factory closures. In fact, in recent negotiations, some are trying to impose even worse pay. Ken Loo, secretary-general of the Garment Manufacturers Association of Cambodia, defended the employers’ proposal to reduce wages by 4.5 percent. He “pointed to the economic effects of COVID-19 and said garment industry employers can’t afford to spend more on labor” (Sovuthy). His statement reflects the belief that the workers’ lives and well-being are not important compared to the continuing profits of the owners and investors. Most reasonable people would not agree with that idea, but most of us still shop for cheap clothing. We can’t depend on the individual fairness of factory owners, or on individual consumers to solve this problem; that’s why regulations are critical.

Besides low wages, workers in the clothing factories also suffer terrible working conditions. Singular tragic events such as the Rana Plaza factory collapse in 2013 that killed over a thousand workers make worldwide news (Rahman and Rahman 1331), but the daily experiences of the people making cheap clothing are also unacceptable. According to Sadika Akhter, an anthropologist and doctor of Environmental Public Health and her colleagues, garment workers in Bangladesh typically work ten to twelve hours per day, inhaling fabric dust, enduring extreme heat, and getting repetitive motion injuries from using the machines. They are constantly in pain and exhausted. In their qualitative study of women garment workers’ experiences, Akhter et al. quote a machine operator who says, “We sew shirts with our tears and injure our fingers due to needle punctures. If you work at the garment factory it will give you some money but it will take your health. . . . No one can work in a factory more than ten years because you will lose your physical strength, energy and health . . . due to the nature of hard work in this industry." This statement emphasizes how exploited these workers are; their bodies are being damaged every day. The people, not just the clothing, are treated as if they are disposable.

It is true that the industry has made some progress in improving labor rights. Sociology professor Shahidur Rahman of BRAC University, and professor of Development Studies Kazi Mahmudur of University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh describe some attempts at reform following the Rana Plaza disaster in 2013 in their article in Development and Change . According to Rahman and Rahman, two major agreements, the Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh and the Alliance for Bangladesh Workers' Safety brought together business owners and governments to improve the safety of factory buildings (1332). The Bangladeshi government also made changes to labor laws to allow workers to organize, and other international unions and non-governmental organizations have campaigned for worker rights in the industry (Rahman and Rahman 1333). These developments are positive—at least workers are less likely to die in a fire or building collapse. However, the inhumane daily conditions and low pay remain, even eight years after these agreements were made.

Beyond the conditions inside the factories, the production of cheap clothing causes significant pollution. The problems begin with the raw materials: synthetic fibers are made from petroleum, and although plant fibers are considered more natural, growing plants to use for fabric has its own problems. Research scientist Luz Claudio writes that cotton is "one of the most water and pesticide dependent crops (A450). Despite the fact that more consumers are choosing organic produce over conventional because of the concern about pesticide residue on fruits and vegetables, this trend is not extending to crops grown for fabrics. In fact, pesticide use on cotton fields is actually growing, along with its negative impact on farm workers, according to an international team of scientists from Pakistan and Greece (Khan and Damala 9). This problem is not limited to the countries where clothing is sewn; the U.S. Department of Agriculture reports that the usage of pesticides to produce cotton is a quarter of the entire pesticide used in this country (qtd. in Claudio, A450). Furthermore, when fabric is processed and dyed in factories overseas it can lead to significant water pollution. According to investigative reporter Adam Matthews, water that runs off from the factories contaminates rivers that are the lifeline for farmers, killing crops and sickening local residents and animals. Yixiu Wu of Greenpeace points out that "the average pair of jeans requires 1,850 gallons of water to process; a t-shirt requires 715 gallons. And after going through the manufacturing process, all that water often ends up horribly polluted" (qtd. in Matthews). In addition to water pollution, the fashion industry produces at least a tenth of the world's carbon emissions, says journalist Dana Thomas (qtd. in Shatzman). Still, most retail corporations do little to address these harms, because their profits are higher when they spend less money ensuring that crops are grown without poisons and that the waste products are properly disposed of.

Despite the clear injustices and environmental harms of garment production, some argue that the fashion industry provides work to people with few better choices in developing countries. According to reporter Stephanie Vatz, companies began outsourcing clothing manufacturing jobs in the 1970s, and by 2013, only two percent of clothing was made in the U.S. The same lack of labor protections that allow terrible working conditions in developing countries also guarantees low labor costs that motivate U.S. companies to relocate their factory sources (Vatz). Some claim that this is actually a benefit to those workers. For example, Benjamin Powell, the director of the Free Market Institute, justifies sweatshop labor, insists that this model is "part of the process that raises living standards and leads to better working conditions and development over time (qtd. in Ozdamar-Ertekin 3). This argument is compelling from a distance, but even if it may be true to some degree when we look at the history of economic development, it disregards the humanity of current garment workers. These people continue to work long hours in brutal conditions, generating huge profits for the factory and retail owners. Making the excuse that their lives could be even worse without this exploitation is just a cynical justification for greed.

Fast fashion brands focus almost entirely on financial gain and ignore social responsibility and workers' human rights. They turn a blind eye to polluting rivers, the impact on farmland, and poor labor conditions. As a consumer of fast fashion brands, this is troubling. As a person considering fashion as a part of history, a form of art and self-expression, this is beyond sad. A bad sewing job is an inconvenience for me, but unethical practices are the real issue. If there is something we can change, that is our behavior as consumers: we need to buy second-hand clothes, look for companies making apparel here in the U.S., and be willing to pay more for higher-quality clothing that lasts. However, ultimately this is not just a question of our own purchasing decisions. Major changes are needed in the system, and for that we need stronger government regulations to ensure real change.

Works Cited

Akhter, Sadika, et al. “Sewing Shirts with Injured Fingers and Tears: Exploring the Experience of Female Garment Workers Health Problems in Bangladesh.” BMC International Health & Human Rights , vol. 19, no. 1, Jan. 2019. EBSCOhost , doi:10.1186/s12914-019-0188-4.

Claudio, Luz. "Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry." Environmental Health Perspectives , vol. 115, no. 9, Sept. 2007, pp. A448-A454.

Joy, Annamma, et al. "Fast Fashion, Sustainability, and the Ethical Appeal of Luxury Brands." Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture , vol. 16, no. 3, Sept. 2012, pp. 273-295. EBSCO host , doi:10.2752/175174112X13340749707123.

Khan, Muhammad and Christos A. Damalas. "Factors Preventing the Adoption of Alternatives to Chemical Pest Control among Pakistani Cotton Farmers." International Journal of Pest Management , vol. 61, no. 1, Jan-Mar 2015, pp. 9-16. EBSCO host , doi:10.1080/09670874.2014.984257.

Matthews, Adam. "The Environmental Crisis in Your Closet." Newsweek . Newsweek LLC, 13 Apr. 2016. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

Monroe, Rachel. “Ultra-Fast Fashion Is Eating the World.” Atlantic , vol. 327, no. 2, Mar. 2021, pp. 76–84. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.berkeley.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,url&db=a9h&AN=148607124&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Rahman, Shahidur, and Kazi Mahmudur Rahman. “Multi-actor Initiatives after Rana Plaza: Factory Managers’ Views.” Development & Change , vol. 51, no. 5, Sept. 2020, pp. 1331–1359. EBSCOhost , doi:10.1111/dech.12572.

Shatzman, Celia. "‘Fashionopolis’ Author Dana Thomas On How Fast Fashion Is Destroying the Planet and What You Can Do about It." Forbes , 4 Oct. 2019.

Sovuthy, Khy. "Minimum Wage to Be Moved to Vote after Third Meeting Fails to Find Joint Resolution." Cambodian Journalists Alliance Association News , Cambodian Journalists Alliance Association, 21 Sept. 2021.

Vatz, Stephanie. "Why America Stopped Making Its Own Clothes." The Lowdown . KQED, 24 May 2013. Web. 12 Apr. 2017.

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Cc licensed content: original.

Authored by Maroua Abdelghani and Ruri Tamimoto, Berkeley City College. License: CC BY NC.

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Bfa fashion design 2020 thesis collections.

BFA Fashion Design 2020 Graduate Collections shot by Chris Vidal Tenomaa and styled by Tuomas Laitinen

Models: Ellinor Arveryd, Kerkko Sariola – Nisch Management

Hair and make-up: Kevin Roux

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Human Impact — Fast Fashion

Essays on Fast Fashion

Prompt examples for fast fashion essays, the rise of fast fashion.

Discuss the evolution and growth of the fast fashion industry. How has it become a dominant force in the fashion world, and what are the key characteristics of fast fashion brands?

Sustainability and Environmental Impact

Analyze the environmental consequences of fast fashion. How does the rapid production and disposal of clothing contribute to issues like pollution, waste, and resource depletion?

Labor Practices and Ethical Concerns

Examine the labor practices and ethical concerns associated with fast fashion production. What are the working conditions for garment workers, and how do issues like sweatshops and exploitation intersect with the industry?

Consumer Culture and Fast Fashion

Discuss the role of consumer culture in driving the fast fashion industry. How do marketing strategies, consumer demand for low prices, and the "buy now, wear once" mentality contribute to its success?

Alternatives to Fast Fashion

Explore alternatives to fast fashion and sustainable fashion practices. What are some initiatives and movements aimed at promoting ethical and eco-friendly clothing choices?

Impact on Local Industries

Analyze how fast fashion affects local and traditional fashion industries. How do smaller businesses and artisans contend with the competition posed by large, fast fashion corporations?

Hook Examples for Fast Fashion Essays

Anecdotal hook.

Picture this: a whirlwind of shopping sprees, constant style changes, and overflowing closets. Fast fashion has transformed the way we consume clothing. Let's delve into this fashion frenzy.

Question Hook

Is fast fashion a blessing or a curse for the fashion industry and the environment? How does it impact our society's perception of clothing and its consequences?

Quotation Hook

"Fashion is the armor to survive the reality of everyday life." These words from Bill Cunningham highlight the role of fashion in our lives. But does fast fashion offer authentic armor or mere illusion?

Environmental Impact Hook

Behind the glamour of fast fashion lies a trail of environmental destruction. Explore the ecological footprint left by the industry and the urgent need for sustainable alternatives.

Consumer Behavior Hook

Fast fashion isn't just about clothes; it's a reflection of our changing consumer behavior. Analyze how the desire for instant gratification and constant novelty has fueled this phenomenon.

Labor and Ethics Hook

Beneath the fashionable exterior are stories of exploited labor and questionable ethics. Delve into the working conditions and ethical dilemmas associated with fast fashion production.

Alternatives and Solutions Hook

Amid the fast fashion frenzy, alternatives are emerging. Explore innovative approaches to fashion that prioritize sustainability, ethics, and a more mindful approach to dressing.

The Detrimental Effects of Fast Fashion on The Fashion Industry

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Fast Fashion and Its Effect on The Environment

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How Fast Fashion Manipulates People

Analysis of "the true cost" documentary: the consequences of fast fashion, fast fashion and its influence on the industry in the 21st century.

Fast fashion is a term used to describe the contemporary model of clothing production and consumption characterized by the rapid production of inexpensive, trendy garments that are quickly replicated and made available to consumers. It refers to the accelerated speed at which fashion trends are introduced and adopted by the market, resulting in a constant cycle of new styles and collections.

This phenomenon is fueled by the desire for affordable, up-to-date clothing, with brands often prioritizing low costs and quick turnover over quality and sustainability. Fast fashion companies often rely on outsourced labor and global supply chains to produce garments at a rapid pace, leading to concerns regarding working conditions and environmental impact. The term "fast fashion" encapsulates the mass production, consumption, and disposal of clothing, emphasizing the disposable nature of these garments. It represents a shift in the fashion industry, where trends are short-lived and clothing is viewed as a disposable commodity rather than an investment.

Fast fashion originated in the 1990s as a response to the increasing demand for affordable and trendy clothing. The concept emerged from a combination of factors, including advancements in technology, globalization, and changes in consumer behavior. One of the key developments was the advent of fast and efficient production techniques, such as outsourcing manufacturing to low-wage countries, where garments could be produced quickly and inexpensively. This allowed fashion brands to produce large quantities of clothing at a rapid pace, ensuring a constant flow of new styles and collections to the market. Globalization also played a significant role in the rise of fast fashion. It enabled companies to establish global supply chains, sourcing materials and labor from different parts of the world to cut costs and maximize profits. Additionally, advancements in transportation and communication facilitated the speedy movement of goods across borders, making it easier for fashion brands to respond quickly to changing consumer trends. Changes in consumer behavior, such as a desire for instant gratification and the influence of social media, further fueled the demand for fast fashion. Consumers wanted to keep up with the latest fashion trends without breaking the bank, leading to the rise of affordable, disposable clothing options. Over time, fast fashion has grown into a global industry, dominating the retail landscape and facing criticism for its negative social and environmental impacts.

Zara, H&M, Shein, C&A, Peacocks, ASOS, Forever 21, Uniqlo, Primark

Fast fashion has had a significant presence and impact in the United States. With its promise of affordable and on-trend clothing, fast fashion has gained popularity among consumers, leading to an increase in its prevalence across the country. One notable characteristic of fast fashion in the US is the abundance of fast fashion retailers. Numerous well-known brands have established a strong presence, offering a wide range of inexpensive clothing options to cater to the demand for affordable fashion. However, the fast fashion industry in the US is not without its concerns. Environmental sustainability is a pressing issue, as the fast fashion model relies on rapid production cycles and low-cost materials, which contribute to resource depletion, pollution, and waste generation. Additionally, the labor practices associated with fast fashion, such as outsourcing production to countries with lower labor standards, raise ethical concerns regarding worker rights and fair wages. Efforts to address the impact of fast fashion in the US are underway. Sustainable fashion initiatives, including eco-friendly materials, ethical production practices, and consumer awareness campaigns, aim to promote more responsible and conscious fashion consumption.

Public opinion on fast fashion is multifaceted and influenced by various factors. While some individuals appreciate the affordability and accessibility of fast fashion, others express concerns about its negative consequences. One common sentiment is the growing awareness of the environmental impact of fast fashion. People are becoming more conscious of the excessive waste, pollution, and resource depletion associated with the industry. This has led to an increased demand for sustainable and ethical alternatives. Moreover, there is a growing recognition of the social implications of fast fashion. Concerns about exploitative labor practices, unsafe working conditions, and low wages in garment factories have sparked public outrage. Consumers are increasingly demanding transparency and accountability from brands regarding their supply chain practices. However, despite these concerns, fast fashion continues to enjoy popularity due to its affordability and trend-driven nature. Some individuals may prioritize price and convenience over the ethical and environmental implications.

1. Affordability 2. Trendy Styles 3. Variety and Choice 4. Economic Impact

1. Environmental Impact 2. Exploitative Labor Practices 3. Disposable Culture 4. Lack of Transparency

Fast fashion has gained significant attention in the media, with various outlets exploring its impact on the environment, labor practices, and consumer behavior. Documentaries like "The True Cost" (2015) directed by Andrew Morgan shed light on the social and environmental consequences of fast fashion. It exposes the exploitative labor conditions in garment factories and the ecological damage caused by the industry. Media articles and news segments often discuss the unethical practices of fast fashion brands and the need for more sustainable alternatives. For instance, The Guardian published an article in 2021 titled "The Environmental Impact of Fast Fashion" that highlights the environmental toll of the industry and advocates for responsible fashion choices. Social media platforms also play a significant role in raising awareness about fast fashion. Influencers and activists use their platforms to educate their followers about the negative effects of fast fashion and promote sustainable alternatives. The #whomademyclothes and #slowfashion hashtags have gained popularity as consumers demand transparency and ethical practices from fashion brands.

1. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the fast fashion industry is responsible for around 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions, which is more than the emissions from international flights and maritime shipping combined. 2. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation estimates that the equivalent of one garbage truck full of textiles is landfilled or burned every second. This amounts to approximately 92 million tons of textile waste generated each year, with the majority coming from fast fashion production and consumption. 3. The fashion industry is the second-largest consumer of water worldwide, with estimates suggesting that it takes around 2,700 liters of water to produce a single cotton t-shirt.

Fast fashion is an important topic to explore in an essay due to its significant implications for the environment, society, and economy. The fashion industry's rapid production and consumption cycles have led to a range of detrimental effects that deserve attention and analysis. Firstly, the environmental impact of fast fashion is alarming, with high carbon emissions, water pollution, and massive textile waste. Understanding and addressing these issues are crucial for promoting sustainability and combating climate change. Secondly, fast fashion has social implications, as it often relies on exploitative labor practices in developing countries, leading to poor working conditions and low wages. Examining these ethical concerns helps raise awareness and promote fair labor practices. Lastly, the economic aspect of fast fashion cannot be ignored. The industry's emphasis on low-cost, disposable garments contributes to the devaluation of clothing and the exploitation of resources. Exploring alternatives and promoting a shift towards sustainable fashion practices can foster a more equitable and responsible economy.

1. Cline, E. L. (2012). Overdressed: The Shockingly High Cost of Cheap Fashion. Penguin. 2. Fletcher, K. (2014). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Journeys. Routledge. 3. Fuad-Luke, A. (2009). Design Activism: Beautiful Strangeness for a Sustainable World. Earthscan. 4. Gwilt, A., & Rissanen, T. (2011). Shaping Sustainable Fashion: Changing the Way We Make and Use Clothes. Earthscan. 5. Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (Eds.). (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why Now?: A Conversation Exploring Issues, Practices, and Possibilities. Fairchild Books. 6. Hess, M., & Slade, E. (Eds.). (2013). Sustainable Fashion: Past, Present, and Future. Bloomsbury Publishing. 7. Seo, J., & Taylor, A. (Eds.). (2020). Sustainable Fashion: Consumer Awareness and Education. Springer. 8. Shaw, D., & Hardie, B. (2017). Fashion Ethics. Routledge. 9. Sinclair, C. (2014). Sustainable Fashion: Past, Present and Future. Berg Publishers. 10. Tungate, M. (2014). Fashion Brands: Branding Style from Armani to Zara. Kogan Page.

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Deforestation
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Ocean Pollution
Climate Change
Global Warming
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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

Open access
Published: 22 November 2014

Dress, body and self: research in the social psychology of dress

Kim Johnson 1 ,
Sharron J Lennon 2 &
Nancy Rudd 3

Fashion and Textiles volume 1 , Article number: 20 ( 2014 ) Cite this article

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The purpose of this research was to provide a critical review of key research areas within the social psychology of dress. The review addresses published research in two broad areas: (1) dress as a stimulus and its influence on (a) attributions by others, attributions about self, and on one's behavior and (2) relationships between dress, the body, and the self. We identify theoretical approaches used in conducting research in these areas, provide an abbreviated background of research in these areas highlighting key findings, and identify future research directions and possibilities. The subject matter presented features developing topics within the social psychology of dress and is useful for undergraduate students who want an overview of the content area. It is also useful for graduate students (1) who want to learn about the major scholars in these key areas of inquiry who have moved the field forward, or (2) who are looking for ideas for their own thesis or dissertation research. Finally, information in this paper is useful for professors who research or teach the social psychology of dress.

Introduction

A few social scientists in the 19 th Century studied dress as related to culture, individuals, and social groups, but it was not until the middle of the 20 th Century that home economists began to pursue a scholarly interest in social science aspects of dress (Roach-Higgins 1993 ). Dress is defined as “an assemblage of modifications of the body and/or supplements to the body” (Roach-Higgins & Eicher 1992 , p. 1). Body modifications include cosmetic use, suntanning, piercing, tattooing, dieting, exercising, and cosmetic surgery among others. Body supplements include, but are not limited to, accessories, clothing, hearing aids, and glasses. By the 1950s social science theories from economics, psychology, social psychology, and sociology were being used to study dress and human behavior (Rudd 1991 , p. 24).

A range of topics might be included under the phrase social psychology of dress but we use it to refer to research that attempts to answer questions concerned with how an individual’s dress-related beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by others and one’s self. The social psychology of dress is concerned with how an individual’s dress affects the behavior of self as well as the behavior of others toward the self (Johnson & Lennon 2014 ).

Among several topics that could be included in a critical review of research addressing the social psychology of dress, we focused our work on a review of published research in two broad areas: (1) dress as a stimulus and its influence on (a) attributions by others, attributions about self, and on one’s own behavior and (2) relationships between dress, the body, and the self. Our goal was to identify theoretical approaches used in conducting research in these areas, provide an abbreviated background of research in these areas highlighting key findings, and to identify future research directions and possibilities. The content presented features developing topics within the social psychology of dress and is useful for undergraduate students who want an overview of the content area. It is also useful for graduate students (1) who want to learn about the major scholars in these key areas of inquiry who have moved the field forward, or (2) who are looking for ideas for their own thesis or dissertation research. Finally, information in this paper is useful for professors who research or teach the social psychology of dress.

Body supplements as stimulus variables

In studying the social psychology of dress, researchers have often focused on dress as a stimulus variable; for example, the effects of dress on impression formation, attributions, and social perception (see Lennon & Davis 1989 ) or the effects of dress on behaviors (see Johnson et al. 2008 ). The context within which dress is perceived (Damhorst 1984-85 ) as well as characteristics of perceivers of clothed individuals (Burns & Lennon 1993 ) also has a profound effect on what is perceived about others. In the remainder of this section we focus on three research streams that center on dress (i.e., body supplements) as stimuli.

Provocative dress as stimuli

In the 1980s researchers were interested in women’s provocative (revealing, sexy) dress and the extent to which men and women attributed the same meaning to it. For example, both Edmonds and Cahoon ( 1986 ) and Cahoon and Edmonds ( 1987 ) found ratings of women who wore provocative dress were more negative than ratings of women who wore non-provocative dress. No specific theory was identified by these authors as guiding their research. Overall, when wearing provocative dress a model was rated more sexually appealing, more attractive, less faithful in marriage, more likely to engage in sexual teasing, more likely to use sex for personal gain, more likely to be sexually experienced, and more likely to be raped than when wearing conservative dress. Cahoon and Edmonds found that men and women made similar judgments, although men’s were more extreme than women’s. Abbey et al. ( 1987 ) studied whether women’s sexual intent and interest as conveyed by revealing dress was misinterpreted by men. The authors developed two dress conditions: revealing (slit skirt, low cut blouse, high heeled shoes) and non-revealing (skirt without a slit, blouse buttoned to neck, boots). Participants rated the stimulus person on a series of adjective traits. As compared to when wearing the non-revealing clothing, when wearing the revealing clothing the stimulus person was rated significantly more flirtatious, sexy, seductive, promiscuous, sophisticated, assertive, and less sincere and considerate. This research was not guided by theory.

Taking this research another step forward, in the 1990s dress researchers began to investigate how women’s provocative (revealing, sexy) dress was implicated in attributions of responsibility for their own sexual assaults (Lewis & Johnson 1989 ; Workman & Freeburg 1999 ; Workman & Orr 1996 ) and sexual harassment (Johnson & Workman 1992 , 1994 ; Workman & Johnson 1991 ). These researchers tended to use attribution theories (McLeod, 2010 ) to guide their research. Their results showed that provocative, skimpy, see-through, or short items of dress, as well as use of heavy makeup (body modification), were cues used to assign responsibility to women for their sexual assaults and experiences of sexual harassment. For example, Johnson and Workman ( 1992 ) studied likelihood of sexual harassment as a function of women’s provocative dress. A model was photographed wearing a dark suit jacket, above-the-knee skirt, a low-cut blouse, dark hose, and high heels (provocative condition) or wearing a dark suit jacket, below-the-knee skirt, high-cut blouse, neutral hose, and moderate heels (non-provocative condition). As compared to when wearing non-provocative dress, when wearing provocative dress the model was rated as significantly more likely to provoke sexual harassment and to be sexually harassed.

Recently, researchers have resurrected the topic of provocative (revealing, sexy) dress. However, their interest is in determining the extent to which women and girls are depicted in provocative dress in the media (in magazines, in online retail stores) and the potential consequences of those depictions, such as objectification. These researchers have often used objectification theory to guide their research. According to objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts 1997 ) women living in sexually saturated cultures are looked at, evaluated, and potentially objectified and treated as objects valued for their use by others. Objectification theory focuses on sexual objectification as a function of objectifying gaze, which is experienced in actual social encounters, media depictions of social encounters, and media depictions that focus on bodies and body parts. The theory explains that objectifying gaze evokes an objectified state of consciousness which influences self-perceptions. This objectified state of consciousness has consequences such as habitual body and appearance monitoring and requires cognitive effort that can result in difficulty with task performance (Szymanski et al. 2011 ). In such an environment, women may perceive their bodies from a third-person perspective, treating themselves as objects to be looked at and evaluated.

Self-objectification occurs when people perceive and describe their bodies as a function of appearance instead of accomplishments (Harrison & Fredrickson 2003 ). Experimental research shows that self-objectification in women can be induced by revealing clothing manipulations such as asking women to try on and evaluate the fit of a swimsuit as compared to a bulky sweater (Fredrickson et al. 1998 ).

To examine changes in sexualizing (provocative) characteristics with which girls are portrayed in the media, researchers have content analyzed girls’ clothing in two magazines (Graff et al. 2013 ). Clothing was coded as having sexualizing characteristics (e.g., tightness, bare midriffs, high-heeled shoes) and childlike characteristics (e.g., frills, childlike print, pigtail hair styles). The researchers found an increase in sexualized aspects of dress in depictions of girls from 1971 through 2011. To determine the extent of sexualization in girls’ clothing, researchers have content analyzed girls’ clothing available on 15 retailer websites (Goodin et al. 2011 ). Every girl’s clothing item on each of the retailer websites was coded for sexualizing aspects; 4% was coded as definitely sexualizing. Ambiguously sexualizing clothing (25%) had both sexualizing and childlike characteristics. Abercrombie Kids’ clothing had a higher percentage of sexualizing characteristics than all the other stores (44% versus 4%). These two studies document that girls are increasingly depicted in sexualizing clothing in U.S. media and that they are offered sexualized clothing by major retailers via their websites.

Since girls are increasingly sexualized, to determine if sexualized dress affects how girls are perceived by others Graff et al. ( 2012 ) designed an experiment wherein they manipulated the sexualizing aspects of the clothing of a 5 th grade girl. There were three clothing conditions: childlike (a grey t-shirt, jeans, and black Mary Jane shoes), ambiguously sexualized (leopard print dress of moderate length), highly sexualized (short dress, leopard print cardigan, purse). In the definitely sexualized condition, undergraduate students rated the girl as less moral, self-respecting, capable, determined, competent, and intelligent than when she was depicted in either the childlike or the ambiguously sexualized conditions. Thus, wearing sexualized clothing can affect how girls are perceived by others, so it is possible that sexualized clothing could lead to self-objectification in girls just as in the case of women (Tiggemann & Andrew 2012 ).

Objectification theory has been useful in identifying probable processes underlying the association between women’s provocative dress and negative inferences. In a study using adult stimuli, Gurung and Chrouser ( 2007 ) presented photos of female Olympic athletes in uniform and in provocative (defined as minimal) dress. College women rated the photos and when provocatively dressed, as compared to the uniform condition, the women were rated as more attractive, more feminine, more sexually experienced, more desirable, but also less capable, less strong, less determined, less intelligent, and as having less self-respect. These results are similar to what had previously been found by researchers in the 1980s (Abbey et al. 1987 ; Cahoon & Edmonds 1987 ; Edmonds & Cahoon 1986 ). This outcome is considered objectifying because the overall impression is negative and sexist. Thus, this line of research does more than demonstrate that provocative dress evokes inferences, it suggests the process by which that occurs: provocative dress leads to objectification of the woman so dressed and it is the objectification that leads to the inferences.

In a more direct assessment of the relationship between provocative dress and objectification of others, Holland and Haslam ( 2013 ) manipulated the dress (provocative or plain clothing) of two models (thin or overweight) who were rated equally attractive in facial attractiveness. Since objectification involves inspecting the body, the authors measured participants’ attention to the models’ bodies. Objectification also involves denying human qualities to the objectified person. Two such qualities are perceived agency (e.g., ability to think and form intentions) and moral agency (e.g., capacity to engage in moral or immoral actions). Several findings are relevant to the research on provocative dress. As compared to models wearing plain clothing, models wearing provocative clothing were attributed less perceived agency (e.g., ability to reason, ability to choose) and less moral agency [e.g., “how intentional do you believe the woman’s behavior is?” (p. 463)]. Results showed that more objectified gaze was directed toward the bodies of the models when they were dressed in provocative clothing as compared to when dressed in plain clothing. This outcome is considered objectifying because the models’ bodies were inspected more when wearing provocative dress, and because in that condition they were perceived as having less of the qualities normally attributed to humans.

In an experimental study guided by objectification theory, Tiggemann and Andrew ( 2012 ) studied the effects of clothing on self-perceptions of state self-objectification, state body shame, state body dissatisfaction, and negative mood. However, unlike studies (e.g., Fredrickson et al. 1998 ) in which participants were asked to try on and evaluate either a bathing suit or a sweater, Tiggemann and Andrew instructed their participants to “imagine what you would be seeing, feeling, and thinking” (p. 648) in scenarios. There were four scenarios: thinking about wearing a bathing suit in public, thinking about wearing a bathing suit in a dressing room, thinking about wearing a sweater in public, and thinking about wearing a sweater in a dressing room. The researchers found main effects for clothing such that as compared to thinking about wearing a sweater, thinking about wearing a bathing suit resulted in higher state self-objectification, higher state body shame, higher state body dissatisfaction, and greater negative mood. The fact that the manipulation only involved thinking about wearing clothing, rather than actually wearing such clothing, demonstrates the power of revealing (provocative, sexy) dress in that we only have to think about wearing it to have it affect our self-perceptions.

Taking extant research into account we encourage researchers to continue to investigate the topic of provocative (sexy, revealing) dress for both men and women to replicate the results for women and to determine if revealing dress for men might evoke the kinds of inferences evoked by women wearing revealing dress. Furthermore, research that delineates the role of objectification in the process by which this association between dress and inferences occurs would be useful. Although it would not be ethical to use the experimental strategy used by previous researchers (Fredrickson et al. 1998 ) with children, it is possible that researchers could devise correlational studies to investigate the extent to which wearing and/or viewing sexualized clothing might lead to self- and other-objectification in girls.

Research on red dress

Researchers who study the social psychology of dress have seldom focused on dress color. However, in the 1980s and 1990s a few researchers investigated color in the context of retail color analysis systems that focused on personal coloring (Abramov 1985 ; Francis & Evans 1987 ; Hilliker & Rogers 1988 ; Radeloff 1991 ). For example, Francis and Evans found that stimulus persons were actually perceived positively when not wearing their recommended personal colors. Hilliker and Rogers surveyed managers of apparel stores about the use of color analysis systems and found some impact on the marketplace, but disagreement among the managers on the value of the systems. Abramov critiqued color analysis for being unclear, ambiguous, and for the inability to substantiate claims. Most of these studies were not guided by a psychological theory of color.

Since the 1990s, researchers have developed a theory of color psychology (Elliot & Maier 2007 ) called color-in-context theory. Like other variables that affect social perception, the theory explains that color also conveys meaning which varies as a function of the context in which the color is perceived. Accordingly, the meanings of colors are learned over time through repeated pairings with a particular experience or message (e.g., red stop light and danger) or with biological tendencies to respond to color in certain contexts. For example, female non-human primates display red on parts of their bodies when nearing ovulation; hence red is associated with lust, fertility, and sexuality (Guéguen and Jacob 2013 ). As a function of these associations between colors and experiences, messages, or biological tendencies, people either display approach responses or avoidance responses but are largely unaware of how color affects them. In this section we review studies that examine the effects of red in relational contexts such as interpersonal attraction. However, there is evidence that red is detrimental in achievement (i.e., academic or hiring) contexts (e.g., Maier et al. 2013 ) and that red signals dominance and affects outcomes in competitive sporting contests (e.g., Feltman and Elliot 2011 ; Hagemann et al. 2008 ).

Recently researchers have used color-in-context theory to study the effects of red dress (shirts, dresses) on impressions related to sexual intent, attractiveness, dominance, and competence. Some of these studies were guided by color-in-context theory. Guéguen ( 2012 ) studied men’s perceptions of women’s sexual intent and attractiveness as a function of shirt color. Male participants viewed a photo of a woman wearing a t-shirt that varied in color. When wearing a red t-shirt as compared to the other colors, the woman was judged to be more attractive and to have greater sexual intent. Pazda et al. ( 2014a , [ b ]) conducted an experiment designed to determine why men perceive women who wear red to be more attractive than those who wear other colors. They argued that red is associated with sexual receptivity due to cultural pairings of red and female sexuality (e.g., red light district, sexy red lingerie). Men participated in an online experiment in which they were exposed to a woman wearing either a red, black, or white dress. When wearing the red dress the woman was rated as more sexually receptive than when wearing either the white or the black dresses. The woman was also rated on attractiveness and by performing a mediation analysis the researchers determined that when wearing the red dress, the ratings of her attractiveness as a function of red were no longer significant; in other words, the reason she was rated as more attractive when wearing the red dress was due to the fact that she was also perceived as more sexually receptive.

Pazda et al. ( 2014a , [ b ]), interested in women’s perceptions of other women as a function of their clothing color, conducted a series of experiments. They reasoned that like men, women would also make the connection between a woman’s red dress and her sexual receptivity and perceive her to be a sexual competitor. In their first experiment they found that women rated the stimulus woman as more sexually receptive when wearing a red dress as compared to when she was wearing a white dress. In a second experiment the woman wearing a red dress was not only rated more sexually receptive, she was also derogated more since ratings of her sexual fidelity were lower when wearing a red dress as compared to a white dress. Finally, in a third experiment the stimulus woman was again rated more sexually receptive; this time when she wore a red shirt as compared to when she wore a green shirt. The authors assessed the likelihood that their respondents would introduce the stimulus person to their boyfriends and the likelihood that they would let their boyfriends spend time with the stimulus person. Participants in the red shirt condition were more likely to keep their boyfriends from interacting with the stimulus person than participants in the green shirt condition. Thus, both men and women indicated women wearing red are sexually receptive.

Also interested in color, Roberts et al. ( 2010 ) were interested in determining whether clothing color affects the wearer of the clothing (e.g., do women act provocatively when wearing red clothing?) or does clothing color affect the perceiver of the person wearing the colored clothing. To answer this question, they devised a complicated series of experiments. In the first study, male and female models (ten of each) were photographed wearing each of six different colors of t-shirts. Undergraduates of the opposite sex rated the photographed models on attractiveness. Both male and female models were rated most attractive when wearing red and black t-shirts. In study two the same photos were used, but the t-shirts were masked by a gray rectangle. Compared to when they wore white t-shirts, male models were judged to be more attractive by both men and women when they wore the red t-shirts, even though the red color was not visible. In the third study the t-shirt colors in the photos were digitally altered, so that images could be compared in which red or white t-shirts were worn with those in which red had been altered to white and white had been altered to red. Male models wearing red were rated more attractive than male models wearing white that had been altered to appear red. Also male models wearing red shirts digitally altered to appear white were rated more attractive than male models actually photographed in white. These effects did not occur for female models. The authors reasoned that if clothing color only affected perceivers, then the results should be the same when a model is photographed in red as well as when the model is photographed in white which is subsequently altered to appear red. Since this did not happen, the authors concluded that clothing color affects both the wearer and the perceiver.

In addition, the effects of red dress on impressions also extend to behaviors. Kayser et al. ( 2010 ) conducted a series of experiments. For experiment one, a female stimulus person was photographed in either a red t-shirt or a green one. Male participants were shown a photo of the woman and given a list of questions from which to choose five to ask her. Because women wearing red are perceived to be more sexually receptive and to have greater sexual intent than when wearing other colors, the researchers expected the men who saw the woman in the red dress to select intimate questions to ask and this is what they found. In a second experiment, the female stimulus person wore either a red or a blue t-shirt. After seeing her picture the male participants were told that they would be interacting with her, where she would be sitting, and that they could place their chairs wherever they wished to sit. The men expecting to interact with the red-shirted woman placed their chairs significantly closer to her chair than when they expected to interact with a blue-shirted woman.

In a field experiment (Guéguen 2012 ), five female confederates wore t-shirts of red or other colors and stood by the side of a road to hitchhike. The t-shirt color did not affect women drivers, but significantly more men stopped to pick up the female confederates when they wore the red t-shirts as compared to all the other colors. In a similar study researchers (Guéguen & Jacob 2013 ) altered the color of a woman’s clothing on an online meeting site so that the woman was shown wearing red or several other colors. The women received significantly more contacts when her clothing had been altered to be red than any of the other t-shirt colors.

Researchers should continue conducting research about the color of dress items using color-in-context theory. One context important to consider in this research stream is the cultural context within which the research is conducted. To begin, other colors in addition to red should be studied for their meanings within and across cultural contexts. Since red is associated with sexual receptivity, red clothing should be investigated in the context of the research on provocative dress. For example, would women wearing red revealing dress be judged more provocative than women wearing the same clothing in different colors? Also researchers interested in girls’ and women’s depictions in the media, could investigate the effects of red dress on perceptions of sexual intent and objectification.

Effects of dress on the behavior of the wearer

Several researchers studying the social psychology of dress have reviewed the research literature (Davis 1984 ; Lennon and Davis 1989 ) and some have analyzed that research (see Damhorst 1990 ; Hutton 1984 ; Johnson et al. 2008 for reviews). In these reviews, Damhorst and Hutton focused on the effect of dress on person perception or impression formation. Johnson et al., however, focused their analysis on behaviors evoked by dress. An emerging line of research focuses on the effects of dress on the behavior of the wearer (Adam and Galinsky 2012 ; Frank and Galinsky 1988 ; Fredrickson et al. 1998 ; Gino et al. 2010 ; Hebl et al. 2004 ; Kouchaki et al. 2014 ; Martins et al. 2007 ).

Fredrickson et al. ( 1998 ), Hebl et al. ( 2004 ), and Martins et al. ( 2007 ) all used objectification theory to guide experiments about women’s and men’s body image experience. They were interested in the extent to which wearing revealing dress could trigger self-objectification. The theory predicts that self-objectification manifests in performance detriments on a task subsequent to a self-objectifying experience. Frederickson et al. had participants complete a shopping task. They entered a dressing room, tried on either a one piece swimsuit or a bulky sweater, and evaluated the fit in a mirror as they would if buying the garment. Then they completed a math performance test. The women who wore a swimsuit performed more poorly on the math test than women wearing a sweater; no such effects were found for men. A few years later Hebl et al. ( 2004 ) used the same procedure to study ethnic differences in self-objectification. Participants were Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian American undergraduate men and women. Participants completed the same shopping task and math test. Participants who tried on the swimsuits performed worse on the math test than participants who tried on the sweater and these results held for both men and women of all ethnicities.

Martins et al. ( 2007 ) used the same shopping task as Frederickson et al. ( 1998 ) and Hebl et al. ( 2004 ), but employed a different behavioral measure. Their participants were gay and heterosexual men and the garment they tried on was either Speedo men’s briefs or a turtleneck sweater. After the shopping task the men were given the opportunity to sample and evaluate a snack and the amount eaten was measured. Wearing the Speedo affected eating for the gay men, but not the heterosexual men, such that gay men in the Speedo condition ate significantly less of the snack than gay men in the sweater condition. Taken together these studies demonstrate that a nominal clothing manipulation can have effects on the behavior of the wearer.

In one of the first studies to demonstrate the effects of clothing on the wearer, Frank and Gilovich ( 1988 ) noted that the color black is associated with evil and death in many cultures. They studied the extent to which players wearing black uniforms were judged more evil and aggressive than players wearing uniforms of other colors. They analyzed penalties awarded for aggressive behavior in football and ice hockey players. Players who wore black uniforms received more penalties for their aggressive behavior than those who wore other uniform colors. Since the penalty results could be due to biased refereeing, the authors videotaped a staged football game in which the defensive team wore either black or white uniforms. The same events were depicted in each version of the videotape. Participants watched short videos and rated the plays as more aggressive when the team members wore black as compared to white uniforms. In another part of the study, participants were assigned to wear either black or white uniform shirts. While wearing the shirts they were asked the type of games they would like to play; the black-shirted participants selected more aggressive games than the white-shirted participants. The authors interpreted the results of all the studies to mean that players wearing black are aggressive. Yet, when the level of aggressiveness was held constant in the staged football game, referees still perceived black-uniformed players to be more aggressive than white-uniformed players. The authors concluded that the color of the black uniform affects the wearer and the perceiver. This study’s results are similar to those of the researchers studying red dress who found that the color red is associated with a cultural meaning that affects both the wearer and the perceiver of the red dress (Roberts et al. 2010 ).

In a similar way, Adam and Galinsky ( 2012 ) determined that when clothing has symbolic meaning for the wearer, it also affects the wearer’s behavior. The researchers found that a white lab coat was associated with traits related to attentiveness. Then they conducted an experiment in which one group wore a white lab coat described as a painter’s coat and another group wore the same lab coat which was described as a medical doctor’s lab coat. A third group saw, but did not wear, a lab coat described as a medical doctor’s lab coat. Participants then performed an experimental task that required selective attention. The group that wore the coat described as a medical doctor’s lab coat outperformed both of the other two groups.

Gino et al. ( 2010 ) studied the effects of wearing designer sunglasses that were described either as counterfeit or authentic Chloe sunglasses on one’s own behaviors and perceptions of others. Although counterfeits convey status to others, they also mean that the wearers are pretending to be something they are not (i.e., wealthy enough to purchase authentic sunglasses). Participants who thought they were wearing fake sunglasses cheated significantly more on two experimental tasks than those who thought they were wearing authentic sunglasses. In a second experiment, the researchers showed that participants who believed they were wearing counterfeit sunglasses perceived others’ behaviors as more dishonest, less truthful, and more likely to be unethical than those wearing authentic sunglasses. In a third experiment the researchers showed that the effect for wearing counterfeit sunglasses on one’s own behavior was due to the meaning of inauthenticity attributed to the counterfeit sunglasses. Consistent with Adam and Galinsky ( 2012 ) and Frank and Gilovich (1988), in Gino et al. the effect of dress on one’s own behavior was due to the meaning of the dress cue in a context relevant to the meaning of that dress cue. While none of these three studies articulated a specific theory to guide their research, Adams and Galinsky outlined an enclothed cognition framework, which explained that dress affects wearers due to the symbolic meaning of the dress and the physical experience of wearing that dress item.

To summarize the research on the effects of dress on the behavior of the wearer, each of these studies reported research focused on a dress cue associated with cultural meaning. Some of the researchers had to first determine that meaning. The manipulations were designed so that the meaning of the dress cues was salient for the context of the manipulation. For example, in the objectification studies the revealingness of dress was varied in the context of a dressing room mirror where the revealing nature of the cue would be relevant. So to extend the enclothed cognition framework, we suggest that for dress to affect the wearer, the context of the experimental task needs to be such that the meaning of the dress item is salient.

Future researchers may continue to pursue the effects of dress on the wearer. The extended enclothed cognition framework could be applied to school uniforms. A possible research question could be that if school uniforms are associated with powerlessness among schoolchildren, would wearing school uniforms affect the level of effort children expend to solve homework problems or write papers?

It is interesting that previous researchers who examined the effect of school uniforms on various tasks did not ask children what associations uniforms had for them (e.g., Behling 1994 , 1995 ; Behling and Williams 1991 ). This question is clearly an avenue for renewed research in this area. Another situation to which the extended enclothed cognition framework might be investigated is in the context of professional sports. Since wearing a sweatshirt or cap with a professional team’s logo is associated with being a fan of that team, would people wearing those items evaluate that team’s performance higher than people wearing another team’s logos? Would they provide more excuses for their team than fans not wearing the team’s logos? We encourage researchers to continue to investigate the effects of dress on one’s own behaviors utilizing a range of dress cues (e.g., cosmetics, tattoos, and piercings).

Dress and the self

An ongoing area of research within the social psychology of dress is relationships between dress and the self. Although some researchers use the terms identity and self interchangeably, it is our position that they are not the same concepts but are related. We begin our discussion of the self with research on the body.

The physical body and the self

Whereas the first section of our review focused on body supplements (i.e., the clothed body), this section focuses on body modifications or how the body is altered. Within this discussion, the two research directions that we include are (1) body modifications that carry some risk, as opposed to routine modifications that typically do not, and (2) the influence of body talk and social comparison as variables influencing body image.

Body modifications that carry some risk

Societal standards of attractiveness in the Western world often focus on a thin appearance for women and a mesomorphic but muscular appearance for men (Karazia et al. 2013 ). Internalization of societal standards presented through various media outlets is widely recognized as a primary predictor of body dissatisfaction and risky appearance management behaviors including eating pathology among women (Cafri et al. 2005a , [ b ]), muscle enhancement and disordered eating behaviors in men (Tylka 2011 ), tattooing among young adults (Mun et al. 2012 ), and tanning among adolescents (Prior et al. 2014 ; Yoo & Kim, 2014 ). While there are several other risky appearance management behaviors in the early stages of investigation (e.g., extreme body makeovers, cosmetic procedures on male and female private parts, multiple cosmetic procedures), we isolate just a few behaviors to illustrate the impact of changing standards of attractiveness on widespread appearance management practices in the presentation of self.

Experimental research has demonstrated that exposure to social and cultural norms for appearance (via idealized images) leads to greater dissatisfaction with the body in general for both men and women (Blond 2008 ; Grabe et al. 2008 ); yet a meta-analysis of eight research studies conducted in real life settings suggested that these appearance norms were more rigid, narrowly defined, and prevalent for women than for men (Buote et al. 2011 ). These researchers also noted that women reported frequent exposure to social norms of appearance (i.e., considered bombardment by many women), the norms themselves were unrealistic, yet the nature of the messages was that these norms are perfectly attainable with enough time, money, and effort. Men, on the other hand, indicated that they were exposed to flexible social norms of appearance, and therefore report feeling less pressure to attain a particular standard in presenting their appearance to others (Buote et al. 2011 ).

Eating disorders

A recent stream of research related to individuals with eating disorders is concerned with the practice of body checking (i.e., weighing, measuring or otherwise assessing body parts through pinching, sucking in the abdomen, tapping it for flatness). Such checking behaviors may morph into body avoidance (i.e., avoiding looking in mirrors or windows at one’s reflection, avoiding gym locker rooms or situations involving showing the body to others) (White & Warren 2011 ), the manifestation of eating disorders (Haase et al. 2011 ), obsession with one’s weight or body shape, and a critical evaluation of either aspect (Smeets et al. 2011 ). The propensity to engage in body checking appears to be tied to ethnicity as White and Warren found, in their comparison of Caucasian women and women of color (Asian American, African American, and Latin American). They found significant differences in body checking and avoidance behaviors in Caucasian women and Asian American women over African American and Latin American women. Across all the women, White and Warren found positive and significant correlations between body checking and (1) avoidance behaviors and higher body mass index, (2) internalization of a thin ideal appearance, (3) eating disturbances, and (4) other clinical impairments such as debilitating negative thoughts.

Another characteristic of individuals with eating disorders is that they habitually weigh themselves. Self-weighing behaviors and their connection to body modification has been the focus of several researchers. Research teams have documented that self-weighing led to weight loss maintenance (Butryn et al. 2007 ) and prevention of weight gain (Levitsky et al. 2006 ). Other researchers found that self-weighing contributed to risky weight control behaviors such as fasting (Neumark-Sztainer et al. 2006 ) and even to weight gain (Needham et al. 2010 ). Lately, gender differences have also been investigated relative to self-weighing. Klos et al. ( 2012 ) found self-weighing was related to a strong investment in appearance, preoccupation with body shape, and higher weight among women. However, among men self-weighing was related to body satisfaction, investment in health and fitness, and positive evaluation of health.

One interesting departure from weight as a generalized aspect of body concern among women is the examination of wedding-related weight change. Considering the enormous cost of weddings, estimated to average $20,000 in the United States (Wong 2005 ), and the number of wedding magazines, websites, and self-help books on weddings (Villepigue et al. 2005 ), it is not surprising that many brides-to-be want to lose weight for their special occasion. Researchers have shown that an average amount of intended weight loss prior to a wedding is 20 pounds in both the U.S. and Australia with between 12% and 33% of brides-to-be reporting that they had been advised by someone else to lose weight (Prichard & Tiggemann 2009 ). About 50% of brides hoped to achieve weight loss, yet most brides did not actually experience a change in weight (Prichard & Tiggemann, 2014 ); however, when questioned about six months after their weddings, brides indicated that they had gained about four pounds. Those who were told to lose weight by significant others such as friends, family members, or fiancé gained significantly more than those who were not told to do so, suggesting that wedding-related weight change can have repercussions for post wedding body satisfaction and eating behaviors. Regaining weight is typical, given that many people who lose weight regain it with a year or so of losing it.

Drive for muscularity

Researchers have found that body modifications practiced by men are related more to developing muscularity than to striving for a thin body (Cafri et al. 2005a , [ b ]) with particular emphasis placed on developing the upper body areas of chest and biceps (Thompson & Cafri 2007 ). The means to achieve this body modification may include risky behaviors such as excessive exercise and weight training, extreme dieting and dehydration to emphasize musculature, and use of appearance or performance enhancing substances (Hildebrandt et al. 2010 ).

One possible explanation for men’s drive for muscularity may be objectification. While objectification theory was originally proposed to address women’s objectification, it has been extended to men (Hebl et al. 2004 ; Martins et al. 2007 ). These researchers determined that like women, men are objectified in Western and westernized culture and can be induced to self-objectify via revealing clothing manipulations.

Researchers have also examined how men are affected by media imagery that features buff, well-muscled, thin, attractive male bodies as the aesthetic norm. Kolbe and Albanese ( 1996 ) undertook a content analysis of men’s lifestyle magazines and found that most of the advertised male bodies were not “ordinary,” but were strong and hard bodies, or as the authors concluded, objectified and depersonalized. Pope et al. ( 2000 ) found that advertisements for many types of products from cars to underwear utilized male models with body-builder physiques (i.e., exaggerated “6 pack” abdominal muscles, huge chests and shoulders, yet lean); they suggested that men had become focused on muscularity as a cultural symbol of masculinity because they perceived that women were usurping some of their social standing in the workforce. Hellmich ( 2000 ) concurred and suggested that men were overwhelmed with images of half-naked, muscular men and that they too were targets of objectification. Other researchers (e.g., Elliott & Elliott 2005 ; Patterson & England 2000 ) confirmed these findings – that most images in men’s magazines featured mesomorphic, strong, muscular, and hyper-masculine bodies.

How do men respond to such advertising images? Elliott and Elliott ( 2005 ) conducted focus interviews with 40 male college students, ages 18-31, and showed them six different advertisements in lifestyles magazines. They found six distinct types of response, two negative, two neutral, and two positive. Negative responses were (1) homophobic (those who saw the ads as stereotypically homosexual, bordering on pornography), perhaps threatening their own perceived masculinity or (2) gender stereotyping (those who saw the ads as depicting body consciousness or vanity, traits that they considered to be feminine). Neutral responses were (3) legitimizing exploitation as a marketing tool (those who recognized that naked chests or exaggerated body parts were shown and sometimes with no heads, making them less than human, but recognizing that sex sells products), and (4) disassociating oneself from the muscular body ideals shown in the ads (recognizing that the images represented unattainable body types or shapes). Positive responses were (5) admiration of real or attainable “average” male bodies and (6) appreciating some naked advertising images as art, rather than as sexual objects. The researchers concluded that men do see their gender objectified in advertising, resulting in different responses or perceived threats to self.

There is evidence that experiencing these objectified images of the male body is also partially responsible for muscle dysmorphia, a condition in which men become obsessed with achieving muscularity (Leit et al. 2002 ). Understanding contributors to the development of muscle dysmorphia is important as the condition can lead to risky appearance management behaviors such as extreme body-building, eating disorders, and use of anabolic steroids to gain bulk (Bradley et al. 2014 ; Maida & Armstrong 2005 ). In an experiment, Maida and Armstrong exposed 82 undergraduate men to 30 slides of advertisements and then asked them to complete a body image perception test. Men’s body satisfaction was affected by exposure to the images, such that they wanted to be notably more muscular than they were.

Contemporary researchers have found that drive for muscularity is heightened among men when there is a perceived threat to their masculinity such as performance on some task (Steinfeldt et al. 2011 ) or perceiving that they hold some less masculine traits (Blashill, 2011). Conversely, researchers have also suggested that body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity can be reduced by developing a mindfulness approach to the body characterized by attention to present-moment experiences such as how one might feel during a certain activity like yoga or riding a bicycle (Lavender et al. 2012 ). While the investigation of mindfulness to mitigate negative body image and negative appearance behaviors is relatively new, it is a promising area of investigation.

Tattooing is not necessarily a risky behavior in and of itself, as most tattoo parlors take health precautions with the use of sterile instruments and clean environments. However, research has focused on other risk-taking behaviors that tattooed individuals may engage in, including drinking, smoking, shoplifting, and drug use (Deschesnes et al. 2006 ) as well as and early and risky sexual activity (Koch, Roberts, Armstrong, & Owen, 2007). Tattoos have also been studied as a bodily expression of uniqueness (Mun et al. 2012 ; Tiggemann & Hopkins 2011 ) but not necessarily reflecting a stronger investment in appearance (Tiggemann & Hopkins 2011 ).

Tanning behaviors are strongly associated with skin cancer, just as smoking is associated with lung cancer. In fact, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization has classified ultraviolet radiation from the sun and tanning devices that emit ultraviolet light as group 1 carcinogens, placing ultraviolet radiation in the same category as tobacco use (World Health Organization, 2012 ). Yet, tanning behaviors are prevalent among many young adults and adolescents causing them to be at increased risk of skin cancer, particularly with indoor tanning devices (Boniol et al. 2012 ; Lostritto et al. 2012 ). Studies of motives for tanning among these populations suggest that greater tanning behavior, for both genders, is correlated with high investment in appearance, media influences, and the influence of friends and significant others (Prior et al. 2014 ). Frequent tanning behaviors in adolescent boys have been related to extreme weight control, substance use, and victimization (Blashill 2013 ). Among young adults, Yoo and Kim ( 2014 ) identified three attitudes toward tanning that were related to tanning behaviors. The attitude that tanning was a pleasurable activity influenced indoor and outdoor tanning behaviors. The attitude that a tan enhances physical attractiveness influenced use of tanning beds and sunless tanning products. The attitude that tanning is a healthy behavior influenced outdoor tanning. They advised that tanning behaviors could be studied further particularly in relation to other risky behaviors.

Body talk and the self

A relatively recent line of investigation concerns the impact of talk about the body on perceptions of self. One would think that communication among friends would typically strengthen feelings of self-esteem and psychological well-being (Knickmeyer et al. 2002 ). Yet, certain types of communication, such as complaining about one’s body or appearance, may negatively impact feelings about the self (Tucker et al. 2007 ), particularly in the case of “fat talk” or disparaging comments about body size, weight, and fear of becoming fat (Ousley et al. 2008 ; Warren et al. 2012 ). Such fat talk has become normative behavior among women and, according to one study, occurs in over 90% of women (Salk & Engeln-Maddox 2011 ) and, according to another study, occurs in women of all ages and body sizes (Martz et al. 2009 ) because women feel pressure to be self-critical about their bodies. More women than men reported exposure to fat talk in their circle of friends and acquaintances and greater pressure to engage in it (Salk & Engeln-Maddox). Thus, fat talk extends body dissatisfaction into interpersonal relationships (Arroyo & Harwood 2012 ).

Sladek et al. ( 2014 ) reported a series of studies that elaborated on the investigation of body talk among men, concluding that men’s body talk has two distinct aspects, one related to weight and the other to muscularity. After developing a scale that showed strong test-retest reliability among college men, they found that body talk about muscularity was associated with dissatisfaction with the upper body, strong drive for muscularity, symptoms of muscle dysmorphia, and investment in appearance. Body talk about weight was associated with upper body dissatisfaction, symptoms of muscle dysmorphia, and disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. They suggest future research in body talk conversations among men and boys of all ages, from different cultural backgrounds, and in different contexts.

Negative body talk among men appears to be less straightforward than that among women (Engeln et al. 2013 ). These researchers reported that men’s body talk included both positive elements and negative elements, while that of women tended to focus on the negative, perhaps reflecting an accepting body culture among men in which they can praise one another as well as commiserate with other men on issues regarding muscularity and weight. Yet, both muscle talk and fat talk were found to decrease state appearance self-esteem and to increase state body dissatisfaction among men.

While the fat talk literature clearly establishes the normative occurrence of this type of communication, as well as establishes the negative impact on the self, the literature has not delved into theoretical explanations for its existence. Arroyo ( 2014 ) has posited a relationship between fat talk and three body image theories (self-discrepancy, social comparison, and objectification), and suggested that degree of body dissatisfaction could serve as a mediating mechanism. Self-discrepancy theory suggests that the discrepancy between one’s actual self and one’s ideal self on any variable, such as weight or attractiveness, motivates people to try to achieve that ideal (Jacobi & Cash 1994 ). Social comparison theory (Festinger 1954 ) explains that we compare ourselves to others on some variable of comparison. When we compare ourselves to others who we believe to be better than ourselves (upward comparison) on this variable (say, for example, thinner or more attractive), we may feel worse about ourselves and engage in both non-risky and risky behaviors such as extreme weight control to try to meet those expectations (Ridolfi et al. 2011 ; Rudd & Lennon 1994 ). Objectification theory, as mentioned earlier in this paper, states that bodies are treated as objects to be evaluated and perceived by others (Szymanski et al. 2011 ); self-objectification occurs when individuals look upon themselves as objects to be evaluated by others.

Arroyo ( 2014 ) surveyed 201 college women to see what effect weight discrepancy, upward comparison, and objectified body consciousness had on fat talk; a mediating variable of body dissatisfaction was investigated. She found that how satisfied or dissatisfied the women did indeed impact how they felt about each variable. Each of the three predictor variables was positively associated with body dissatisfaction and higher body dissatisfaction predicted fat talk. She concluded that fat talk is more insidious than other social behaviors; it is a type of communication that perpetuates negative perceptions among women as well as the attitude that women should be dissatisfied with their bodies. Future research suggestions included examining the impact of downward social comparisons (in which the individual assumes they fare better than peers on the variables of comparison, such as weight), and examining all three phenomena of self-discrepancy, social comparison, and objectification together to determine their cumulative impact on self-disparaging talk.

Negative body talk or fat talk is related to perceptions about the self and to appearance-management behaviors in presenting the self to others. In a sample of 203 young adult women, negative body talk was related to body dissatisfaction and poor self-esteem, and was associated with stronger investment in appearance, distorted thoughts about the body, disordered eating behavior, and depression (Rudiger & Winstead 2013 ). Positive body talk was related to fewer cognitive distortions of the body, high body satisfaction, high self-esteem, and friendship quality. Another form of body talk, co-rumination or the mutual sharing between friends of negative thoughts and feelings, is thought to intensify the impact of body talk. In this same study, co-rumination was related to frequent cognitive distortions of the body as well as disordered eating behaviors, but to high perceived friendship quality. Thus, negative body talk achieved no positive outcomes, yet co-rumination achieved negative outcomes for the self, but positive outcomes for quality of friendship. Thus, future research could tease apart the specific components of the social phenomenon of co-rumination in relation to self-perceptions and appearance management behaviors.

Dress and self as distinct from others

Shifting attention from relationships between the body and self, we move to a discussion of relationships between dress and that aspect of the self that is concerned with answering questions about who we are as distinct and unique individuals (e.g., what type of person am I?). Earlier we shared research about how wearing certain article of dress might impact one’s own physical behaviors. We shift now to sharing research addressing the role dress might play in thinking about oneself as a unique and distinct individual (i.e., self-perceptions). Researchers addressing this topic have utilized Bem’s ( 1972 ) self-perception theory. Bem proposed that similar to the processes we use in forming inferences about others, we can form inferences about ourselves. Bem argues that people’s understanding of their own traits was, in some circumstances, an assessment of their own behaviors. This process was proposed to be particularly relevant to individuals who were responsive to self-produced cues (i.e., cues that arise from an individual’s own behavior or characteristics).

In the 1980s, Kellerman and Laird ( 1982 ) utilized self-perception theory to see whether wearing a specific item of dress (e.g., eye glasses) would influence peoples’ ratings of their own skills and abilities. They conducted an experiment with undergraduate students having them rate themselves on an array of traits when wearing and when not wearing glasses and to complete a hidden figures test. Although there were no significant differences in their performance on the test, the participants’ ratings of their competence and intelligence was higher when wearing glasses than when not. In related research, Solomon and Schopler ( 1982 ) found that both men and women indicated that the appropriateness of their clothing affected their mood.

Studying dress specifically within a workplace context, in the 1990s Kwon ( 1994 ) did not have her participants actually wear different clothing styles but asked them to project how they might think about themselves if they were to wear appropriate versus inappropriate clothing to work. Participants indicated they would feel more competent and responsible if they wore appropriate rather than inappropriate clothing. Similarly, Rafaeli et al. ( 1997 ) a found that employees indicated a link between self-perception and clothing associating psychological discomfort with wearing inappropriate dress for work and increased social self-confidence with appropriate attire. Nearly ten years later, Adomaitis and Johnson ( 2005 ) in a study of flight attendants found that the attendants linked wearing casual uniforms for work (e.g., t-shirt, shorts) with negative self-perceptions (e.g., nonauthoritative, embarrassment, unconfident, unprofessional). Likewise, Peluchette and Karl ( 2007 ) investigating the impact of formal versus casual attire in the workplace found that their participants viewed themselves as most authoritative, trustworthy, productive and competent when wearing formal business attire but as friendliest when wearing casual or business casual attire. Continuing this line of research with individuals employed in the public sector, Karl et al. ( 2013 ) reported participants indicated they felt more competent and authoritative when in formal business or business casual attire and least creative and friendly when wearing casual dress.

As workplace dress has become casual, it would be useful for researchers to uncover any distinctions in casualness that make individuals feel more or less competent, respected, or authoritative. Another aspect of clothing that could be investigated is fit as it might impact self-perceptions or use of makeup.

Guy and Banim ( 2000 ) were interested in how clothing was used as means of self-presentation in everyday life. They implemented three strategies to meet their research objective of investigating women’s relationships to their clothing: a personal account, a clothing diary, and a wardrobe interview. The personal account was a written or tape recorded response to the question “what clothing means to me.” The clothing diary was a daily log kept for two weeks. The wardrobe interview was centered on participants’ current collection of clothing. Participants were undergraduates and professional women representing several age cohorts. The researchers identified three distinct perspectives of self relative to the women’s clothing. The first was labeled “the woman I want to be”. This category of responses revealed that the women used clothing to formulate positive self-projections. Favorite items of clothing in particular were identified as useful in bridging the gap between “self as you would like it to be” and the image actually achieved with the clothing. The second category of responses was labeled “the woman I fear I could be”. This category of responses reflected experiences where clothing had failed to achieve a desired look or resulted in a negative self-presentation. Concern here was choosing to wear clothing with unintentional effects such as highlighting parts of the body that were unflattering or concern about losing the ability to know how to dress to convey a positive image. The last category, “the woman I am most of the time” contained comments indicating the women had a “relationship with clothes was ongoing and dynamic and that a major source of enjoyment for them was to use clothes to realize different aspects of themselves” (p. 321).

Interested in how the self shaped clothing consumption and use, Ogle et al. ( 2013 ) utilized Guy and Banim’s ( 2000 ) views of self to explore how consumption of maternity dress might shape the self during a liminal life stage (i.e., pregnancy). Interviews with women expecting their first child revealed concerns that available maternity dress limited their ability to express their true selves. Some expressed concern that the maternity clothing that was available to them in the marketplace symbolized someone that they did not want to associate with (i.e., the woman I fear I could be). Several women noted they borrowed or purchased used clothing from a variety of sources for this time in their life. This decision resulted in dissatisfaction because the items were not reflective of their selves and if worn resulted in their projecting a self that they also did not want to be. In addition, the women shared that they used dress to confirm their selves as pregnant and as NOT overweight. While some of the participants did experience a disrupted sense of self during pregnancy, others shared that they were able to locate items of dress that symbolized a self-consistent with “the woman I am most of the time”.

Continuing in this line of research, researchers may want to explore these three aspects of self with others who struggle with self-presentation via dress as a result of a lack of fashionable and trendy clothing in the marketplace. Plus-sized women frequently report that they are ignored by the fashion industry and existing offerings fail to meet their need to be fashionable. A recent article in the Huffington Post (“Plus-sized clothing”, 2013 ) noted that retailers do not typically carry plus sizes perhaps due to the misconception that plus-sized women are not trendy shoppers or the idea that these sizes will not sell well. Thus, it may well be that the relationship between dress and self for plus-sized women is frustrating as they are prevented from being able to make clothing choices indicative of their selves “as they would like them to be”.

Priming and self-perception

While several researchers have confirmed that clothing worn impacts thoughts about the self, Hannover and Kühnen ( 2002 ) were interested in uncovering processes that would explain why clothing could have this effect. They began with examining what role priming might have in explaining how clothing impacts self-perceptions. Using findings from social cognition, they argued that clothing styles might prime specific mental categories about one’s self such that those categories that are most easily accessed in a given situation would be more likely to be applied to oneself than categories of information that are difficult to access. Thus, if clothing can be used to prime specific self-knowledge it should impact self-descriptions such that, a person wearing “casual” clothing (e.g., jeans, sweatshirt) should be more apt to describe him or herself using casual terms (e.g., laid-back, uses slang). The researchers had each participant stand in front of a mirror and indicate whether or not specific traits were descriptive of him or herself when wearing either casual or formal clothing (e.g., business attire). The researchers found that when a participant wore casual clothing he or she rated the casual traits as more valid self-descriptions than the formal traits. The reverse was also true. They concluded that the clothing worn primed specific categories of self-knowledge. However, the researchers did not ask participants to what extent they intentionally considered their own clothing when determining whether or not a trait should be applied to them. Yet, as previously noted, Adam and Galinsky ( 2012 ) demonstrated that clothing impacted a specific behavior (attention) only in circumstances where the clothing was worn and the clothing’s meaning was clear. Thus, researchers could test if clothing serves as an unrecognized priming source and if its impact on impression formation is less intentional than typically assumed.

Dress and self in interaction with others

Another area of research within dress and the self involves experience with others and the establishment of meaning. Questions that these researchers are interested in answering include what is the meaning of an item of dress or a way of appearing? Early researchers working in this area have utilized symbolic interactionism as a framework for their research (Blumer 1969 ; Mead 1934 ; Stone 1962 ). The foundational question of symbolic interaction is: “What common set of symbols and understandings has emerged to give meaning to people’s interactions?” (Patton 2002 , p. 112).

There are three basic premises central to symbolic interactionism (Blumer 1969 ). The first premise is that our behavior toward things (e.g., physical objects, other people) is shaped by the meaning that those things have for us. Applied to dress and appearance, this premise means that our behavior relative to another person is influenced by that person’s dress (Kaiser 1997 ) and the meaning that we assign to that dress. The second premise of symbolic interaction is that the meaning of things is derived from social interaction with others (Blumer). This premise indicates that meanings are not inherent in objects, must be shared between individuals, and that meanings are learned. The third premise is that meanings are modified by a continuous interpretative process in which the actor interacts with himself (Blumer). As applied to clothing, this premise suggests that the wearer of an outfit or item of clothing is active in determining the meaning of an item along with the viewer of that item.

Symbolic interactionism posits that the self is a social construction established, maintained, and altered through interpersonal communication with others. While initial work focused on investigating verbal communication as key to the construction of the self, Stone extended communication to include appearance and maintained that “appearance is at least as important in establishment and maintenance of the self” as verbal communication (1962, p. 87).

Stone ( 1962 ) discussed a process of establishing the self in interaction with others. This process included selecting items of dress to communicate a desired aspect of self (i.e., identity) as well as to convey that desired aspect to others. One stage in this process is an individual’s review of his/her own appearance. This evaluation and response to one’s own appearance is called program. One might experience a program by looking in the mirror to assess whether the intended identity expressed through dress is the one that is actually achieved. After this evaluation of one’s appearance, the next stage involves others reacting to an individual’s appearance. This is called a review. Stone contends that when “programs and reviews coincide, the self of the one who appears is validated or established” (p. 92). However, when programs and reviews do not coincide, the announced identity is challenged and “conduct may be expected to move in the direction of some redefinition of the challenged self” (p. 92).

Researchers using this approach in their investigations of dress have used Stone’s ( 1962 ) ideas and applied the concept of review to the experiences of sorority women. Hunt and Miller ( 1997 ) interviewed sorority members about their experiences with using dress to communicate their membership and how members, via their reviews, shaped their sorority appearances. Members reported using several techniques in the review of the appearance of other members as well as in response to their own appearance (i.e., programs). Thus, the researcher’s results supported Stone’s ideas concerning establishment of an identity (as an aspect of self) as a process of program and review.

In an investigation of the meaning of dress, in this instance the meaning of a specific body modification—a tattoo, Mun et al. ( 2012 ) interviewed women of various ages who had tattoos to assess meanings, changes in self-perceptions as a result of the tattoo, and any changes in the women’s behavior as an outcome of being tattooed. To guide their inquiry, the researchers used Goffman’s ( 1959 ) discussion of the concept of self-presentation from his seminal work The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . According to Goffman, on a regular basis people make inferences about the motivations that underlie other people’s behaviors. To make these inferences they use everyday details. Because most people make these inferences, Goffman believed that individuals could purposely control the content of those inferences by controlling their behavior. Included in this behavior was an individual’s dress. These researchers found support for Goffman’s reasoning. Participants shared that their tattoo(s) had meaning and were expressive of their selves, their personal values and interests, important life events (e.g., marriage), and religious/sacred beliefs. The meaning of a tattoo was also dynamic for several participants rather than static. Participants’ self-perceptions were impacted as a result of being tattooed with several participants sharing increases to their confidence and to their perceived empowerment. Individuals who shared a change in behavior primarily noted that they controlled the visibility of their tattoos to others as a method to control how others might respond to them having a tattoo especially within the workplace.

Since an array of body modifications (e.g., piercings, gauging, scarification) are being adopted cross-culturally, investigations of people’s experiences with any of these modifications is fertile area for future researchers interested in the meaning(s) of dress and how dress impacts the self through interaction with others. Researchers may want to investigate men’s experiences with piercing/gauging as well as women’s experiences with body building and other developing forms of body modification. Extreme forms of body piercings (e.g., piercings that simulate corset lacings) and underlying motivations for these body modifications would add to our understanding of relationships between dress and self. The meanings of facial hair to men or body hair removal (partial, total) for both men and women are additional aspects of dress that could be investigated.

Dress and self as influence on consumption

In the aforementioned research by Ogle et al. ( 2013 ), the researchers found that a primary reason their participants were disappointed by the maternity clothing offered through the marketplace was due to a lack of fit between their selves and the clothing styles made available. Thus, it is clear that ideas about the self impact clothing selection and purchase. Sirgy ( 1982 ) proposed self-image product-image congruity theory to describe the process of how people applied ideas concerning the self to their purchasing. The basic assumption of the theory is that through marketing and branding, products gain associated images. The premise of the theory is that products people are motivated to purchase are products with images that are congruent with or symbolic of how they see themselves (i.e., actual self-image) or with how they would like to be (i.e., ideal self-image). They also will avoid those products that symbolize images that are inconsistent with either of these self-images.

Rhee and Johnson ( 2012 ) found support for the self-image product-image congruity relationship with male and female adolescents. These researchers investigated the adolescents’ purchase and use of clothing brands. Participants indicated their favorite apparel brand was most similar to their actual self (i.e., this brand reflects who I am), followed by their social self (i.e., this brand reflects who I want others to think I am), and their desired self (i.e., this brand reflects who I want to be).

Earlier, Banister and Hogg ( 2004 ) conducted research investigating the idea that consumers will actively reject or avoid products with negative symbolic meanings. The researchers conducted group interviews with adult consumers. Their participants acknowledged that clothing items could symbolize more than one meaning depending on who was interpreting the meaning. They also acknowledged that the consumers they interviewed appeared to be more concerned with avoiding consumption of products with negative symbolic images than with consuming products with the goal of achieving a positive image. One participant noted that while attempts to achieve a positive image via clothing consumption may be sub-conscious, the desire to avoid a negative image when shopping was conscious.

Closing remarks

It is clear from our review that interest in the topic of the social psychology of dress is on-going and provides a fruitful area of research that addresses both basic and applied research questions. Although we provided an overview of several key research areas within the topic of the social psychology of dress we were unable to include all of the interesting topics being investigated. There are other important areas of research including relationships between dress and specific social and cultural identities, answering questions about how dress functions within social groups, how we learn to attach meanings to dress, and changing attitudes concerning dress among others. Regardless, we hope that this review inspires both colleagues and students to continue to investigate and document the important influence dress exerts in everyday life.

a These researchers used role theory to frame their investigation.

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Johnson, K., Lennon, S.J. & Rudd, N. Dress, body and self: research in the social psychology of dress. Fashion and Textiles 1 , 20 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40691-014-0020-7

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Guidelines For Writing a Dissertation on Fashion Designing

Guidelines For Writing Dissertation on Fashion Designing

When writing a dissertation on fashion design, there are many important guidelines to follow. First, you should choose a topic that you are interested in. Also, you should consider the limits of the study area. A dissertation on fashion design can involve research on many different aspects of the field. For example, fashion problems are often connected to broader social and economic issues. You should mention these in your proposal.

Research methods in fashion design

Understanding the research methods involved in fashion design is essential for professionals working in the industry. During the design process, there are three main stages to complete: a research proposal that describes the topic and research methods, the research project itself, and the written research report. The research proposal should include the purpose of the research, working definitions, and a review of the literature. The research project should also document the results, including implications.

Primary research aims to gather unique data about the market, including consumer demand. This method is labour-intensive but rewards a high quality of data. It allows businesses to observe consumers in their natural environments to better understand what they want. In some cases, it can identify areas for growth and new markets. In other cases, it helps identify customer segments.

Research in the fashion industry

Research in the fashion industry includes a variety of subjects, including apparel design, clothing economics, clothing history, and consumer behaviour. Besides studying the needs of consumers, research also helps fashion entities develop marketing plans. This allows them to improve their products and services based on the needs of their consumers.

Creating a research paper title

The first step in writing a fashion dissertation is to come up with a topic. The topic should be something related to your subject area or niche. It should also be something that readers would be interested in reading. Moreover, it should be something that would allow you to present your ideas and arguments, and also allow you to conduct research and analyze data on the topic. A good dissertation topic for fashion designing would have a wide research scope, include a significant amount of references, and be relevant and informative.

Once you’ve come up with a general topic, you’ll need to come up with a specific thesis statement. The thesis statement is crucial in this process, as it guides the direction of your essay. Make sure to think deeply about your topic and come up with a statement that captures the theme of your dissertation.

Choosing a topic for your dissertation on fashion design

Choosing a topic for your dissertation on fashion design depends on how well you understand the subject. How to Write a Dissertation in Fashion Marketing? You should be able to pinpoint the gaps in your research and choose a topic that will communicate your idea effectively. As a rule of thumb, a dissertation title should be catchy, short, and attractive to the reader.

Choosing a topic that suits your interests

When writing a dissertation, it is vital to choose a topic that reflects your interests and needs. It is important to choose a topic that is challenging yet allows you to express your personal opinions. For example, you might choose to write about the ancient history of fashion or the latest trends. However, you must keep in mind the demands of your teacher.

One of the most important rules when writing a dissertation on fashion design is to choose fashion dissertation topics that you are interested in. It can be difficult to write a dissertation about a topic that does not interest you. You can choose to write about trends in the fashion industry or a specific niche of the industry.

Creating a dissertation proposal

A dissertation proposal is a summary of the important aspects of your research. It also outlines the structure of your thesis. It should be specific and define the area of focus for your research. If you are looking to do research in the field of fashion, a dissertation proposal can help you define your topic and direction. Whether you want to investigate student fashion, pets, or men’s neckwear, you’ll need to create a proposal that clearly states your research question.

In writing a dissertation proposal, make sure to be concise and avoid complex language. Remember that your reader is not an expert on the subject; you need to be able to explain your work in a manner that your supervisor can understand. In some cases, your proposal may need to contain additional bits, such as a personal development objective or a structural outline. It’s also a good idea to check the brief for additional requirements.

Jesse Pinkman is a research-based content writer, who works for Cognizantt, a globally recognised wordpress development agency uk and Research Prospect, a Tjenester til at skrive afhandlinger og essays . Jesse Pinkman holds a PhD degree in mass communication. He loves to express his views on a range of issues including education, technology, and more

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The fashion industry is one of the fast growing industries worldwide occupying a place with the sky-rocketing information technology industry. Generally, clothing made of animal fur is expensive and a person with this expensive dress is regarded of a higher class in society.

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An illustration of a group of 16 people wearing business casual outfits.

March 26, 2024

A fashion statement of support: Research led by VCU professor looks at the impact of what you wear to work

Colleagues judge competence and warmth by attire, which could determine how much they help you, according to business professor jose cortina, ph.d., share this story.

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By Leila Ugincius

Virginia Commonwealth University researchers have found that “dress for success” is indeed sage advice when it comes to workplace perception.

Work colleagues judge you — at least your competence and warmth — by how you dress, Jose Cortina, Ph.D., a professor of management and entrepreneurship in VCU’s School of Business, writes in “ What Should I Wear to Work? An Integrative Review of the Impact of Clothing in the Workplace ,” in a recent edition of the Journal of Applied Psychology. That, in turn, influences their evaluation of your performance and their willingness to help you.

Cortina and his team - including Yingyi Chang, Ph.D., who received his doctorate from the VCU Business School in May - identified three universal and distinctive clothing characteristics at work: formality, provocativeness and fashionability. They also looked at uniforms and religiosity of clothing, which are tied to particular social groups.

A photo of a man wearing a blue button down shirt and black glasses

“You can influence the behavior of others toward you by making certain clothing choices,” Cortina said. “But it differs for male and female wearers. For example, women in provocative clothing, such as clothing that is skin-revealing or body-contour-showing, are seen as less competent. It isn't clear that this is true for men.”

Our reactions to how others dress are, to some degree, automatic.

“As an observer, one must remember that people in formal clothing aren't more competent, and people in fashionable clothing aren't warmer — but we are inclined to think that they are,” Cortina said.

Employees can learn how to better manage their clothing choices at work, which will help them to be supported adequately and evaluated positively by others. Observers, on the other hand, should be aware of the biases that can be triggered by wearers’ clothing characteristics, such as sexual objectification toward female wearers and potential stereotypes toward employees in religious clothing.

Managers can be trained to avoid such bias in selection and performance appraisal. Employees should also be educated with regard to potential stereotypes toward wearers so that they do not limit their support of certain co-workers due to unwarranted attributions.

“There is no white-collar job for which this issue isn't important, but there is almost no research on the effects of clothing characteristics on workplace outcomes,” Cortina said. “This is the first effort to develop a comprehensive model of clothing effects at work.”

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Parent item expand the sub menu, art basel hong kong still draws fashion crowd amid uncertainty, enter thom sweeney, los angeles’ resident english tailor to the stars and millionaires, christie brinkley, xcel brands ready to launch lifestyle and apparel brand exclusively for hsn, fashion institute of technology’s thesis collections: inside the class of 2021’s designs.

WWD meets five graduating students from FIT's fashion design program.

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The Fashion Institute of Technology’s graduating fashion design students spent their entire senior year learning remotely due to the pandemic. This meant crafting their thesis collections — designs that are often seen as an entryway to getting a coveted design job or, in rare cases, a star-making order from an influential store — from their own homes.

With limited resources, students improvised by upcycling old or deadstock fabric and by cleverly constructing clothes on their living room floors.

Herein, WWD meets five members from FIT’s class of 2021 who explain the concepts and inspirations behind their thesis designs, as well as their hopes for the future.

Name : Abraham Azamy

Hometown : Mission Viejo, Calif.

Describe the concept behind your thesis collection : My concept is focused on capturing the playfulness of undressing and the subtle illusion of skin exposure. I find the irony in flaunting your body while being fully clothed to be mischievous yet seductive. My idea for this garment was based more on sex appeal as a suggestion rather than an obvious statement. The intention is to give the wearer the power to be provocative in a way that is subtle and refined.

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Where have you been studying from while school is closed? Do you have plans to move after the pandemic? The transition from in-person to remote learning has been a blessing in disguise. I have been studying from my apartment in Brooklyn, N.Y. Once COVID-19 hit, I was fortunate enough to be able to convert my common area into a work studio, and invest in a commercial sewing machine outfitted with my own cutting table and desk. I felt my creativity flourish in this environment that I created for myself, which enabled me to design more freely.

How has the pandemic affected your design aesthetic or process and the outcome of your thesis collection? The forced isolation from the pandemic has allowed me to find my voice, effectively express my vision, and further my creativity. I had the opportunity to marinate in my ideas and to cement exactly what it is I’m offering to future employers. The catalyst for my creative process begins with an idea, concept, or character and once that is established, designing from there. Creating on my own during the pandemic narrowed my focus for the better and everything came together in an organic way.

Has the pandemic changed your outlook on the fashion industry? If so, how? We as creatives are responsible for cultivating new and effective methods for the production process, as well as the quantity of merchandise we spew out into the market. In the beginning of the pandemic, it became increasingly difficult to gain access to resources as a fashion student, which further solidified the concept of “less is more.”

Who do you hope is reading this and what is your message to them? I would hope a potential, future employer will see this and recognize my integrity and ability to design from a genuine and raw point of view.

Name : Hawwaa Ibrahim

Hometown : Mankato, Minn.

Describe the concept behind your thesis collection : Inspired by genderless fashion and art in the Islamic world, this collection offers clothing that is genderless and created for the parent and child to think freely about how they would like to express themselves now and in the future.

What techniques are you most proud of in your thesis collection? I created the prints used throughout my collection by taking items that I found in my house and putting them through a kaleidoscope effect to create geometric shapes that resembled what you might see in Islamic art. I also incorporated some embroidery to give the design some texture. I took the word “inclusive” and translated it into Arabic and machine-embroidered it on one of the jacket straps of my design.

What were some of the inspirations, concepts or important world events that helped lead your thesis work ? I decided to challenge the idea of color being associated with gender and used a mix of shades and tones to create something that no one has seen yet. A lot of gender-inclusive or gender-neutral clothing we see nowadays has a tendency to be a bit bland when it comes to color.

How has the pandemic affected your design aesthetic or process and the outcome of your thesis collection? Throughout this pandemic, I was able to narrow down the things that are important to me in life and as I paid more attention to how people around the world treat each other, I found myself growing closer to my religion, my Islamic faith. I found a way to showcase something that’s fundamental in my life and heavily influences the way I live — so with gender identity, this also plays a role in how I choose to express myself. Contrary to popular belief, gender expression and religious identity are not mutually exclusive. I try to live in harmony with both.

Has the pandemic changed your outlook on the fashion industry? If so, how? The pandemic has drastically changed my outlook on the fashion industry. There has been a disregard for not only other people’s identities, but also with who is represented. I always knew this was happening, but the resurgence of the Black Lives Matter movement across the world last summer forced me to wake up. I saw how quickly people and companies within the fashion industry suddenly switched up to act like they’ve cared about Black and Indigenous people and people of color this whole time as they continue to profit off of them with no recognition and no respect. However, finally seeing other designers emerge and get the attention they deserve gave me some hope that the fashion industry is slowly moving in the right direction.

What do you hope to accomplish most in your career as a fashion designer? Children, even at their young ages, have opinions and beliefs, so I would like to provide them with options of expression. I hope to create children’s clothing that sparks conversation around how people consciously choose to express themselves with clothing and how it intertwines with other aspects of their life. Fashion is much more than nice pieces of clothing. It’s identity, it’s comfort, it’s its own language. I personally take my views on gender identity and my religious beliefs and let those things open up a world of possibilities in design.

What are your plans for after graduation? After graduation, I am hoping to work in children’s wear for two or three years to gain some experience. After that, I want to work full time for my own apparel and accessories brand, Because, which I started in 2019. My goal is to incorporate genderless children’s clothing into the mix!

Name : Saemi Jeon

Hometown : Incheon, South Korea

Describe the concept behind your thesis collection: My thesis collection is called “The Memory Vessel.” The concept comes from seeing Memor Studio’s artwork on Instagram around memory jugs. The origins of the memory jug are somewhat vague, but they were made as memorials for deceased loved ones.

What techniques are you most proud of in your thesis collection? I used a variety of techniques, including hand-knitting, knitting done on a Stoll machine, weaving and latch-hook skills. I enjoyed incorporating the techniques to achieve the final look, which came together quite naturally. I am most proud of my hand-knit work in the balaclava and sleeveless drop-shoulder sweater top, because it was my first time knitting an entire piece by hand.

What were some of the inspirations, concepts or important world events that helped lead your thesis work? After learning the concept of the memory jug, I asked myself; “if I were to make a memory jug, what memory would I put inside of it?” Many memories came into my mind. A dogwood flower. I was once gifted white dogwood flowers at my graduation. This flower is delicate, and soft. Even though I don’t have the flowers anymore, the memory of that day still warms my heart.

Where have you been studying from while school is closed? Do you have plans to move after the pandemic? I have been studying both at home in Korea and here in New York. I went back to Korea last semester and took classes at night and early morning, which was very tough. I came back to New York this semester and studied at home. I don’t have a plan to move back to Korea after the pandemic. I will remain in New York City.

How has the pandemic affected your design aesthetic or process and the outcome of your thesis collection? I had limited access to school where the knitting labs are. It would have been a much easier process to work in the labs and have face-to-face communication with professors and technicians. However, I was very touched by how hard everyone worked to make up for the limitations placed on the students.

Has the pandemic changed your outlook on the fashion industry? If so, how? The pandemic has lifted up the curtains on worldwide pollution. The Himalayan mountain tops came into view, wild animals appeared in city streets, the air was cleaner. Through this unexpected situation, we had an opportunity to take a step back and see what we could have. The fashion industry should shift to a more sustainable chain of production.

Name a trend you are ready to see take off and a trend you are ready to see finish : I would love to see timeless classic designs, based on comfort become the trend. Flashy, showy trends that are ever-changing from season to season is something I’m ready to see fade away.

Name : Yitao Li

Hometown : Taiyuan, China

Describe the concept behind your thesis collection : The inspiration for this collection was the idea of distortion. In the digital world, in which we find ourselves so completely ensconced, I am constantly confronted with distortion whether it’s associated with media, art, or people’s biased opinions. Many things we see on the internet are not real but filtered through other people’s lenses.

What techniques are you most proud of in your thesis collection? I tried creating distorted “floating plaids” on the body with multiple materials including horsehair and 3D-printing material. The plaid fabric manipulation was moved and reshaped on the body to show movement. I also combined the plaid pattern with lace to juxtapose sharpness with softness and create a romantic effect.

What were some of the inspirations, concepts or important world events that helped lead your thesis work? My interest was piqued in how images in the media were different from reality, how software like Photoshop and other image-editing apps could easily change the appearance of anything and deceive the viewer. The process started by using distorted filters on regular objects. The distortion filters were then applied to my designs and drapes to find new silhouettes and possibilities.

Has the pandemic changed your outlook on the fashion industry? If so, how? I believe after the pandemic hit the industry there have been some positive effects. People in this industry have been doing things the same way for hundreds of years and suddenly everyone was forced into adjusting. I was amazed at how the creativity from the industry evolved in a remote environment. The collections were even better than previous years. There was also a bigger audience on social media platforms and new talents are getting a lot more exposure.

Name : Gabriela Villatoro

Hometown : Miami

Describe the concept behind your thesis collection : Taken from the idea of upcycling, I wanted to make multifunctional garments. By showing the wearer how the same pieces can be used to create different looks, the wearer can “upcycle” the garments themselves and extend the product’s life cycle.

What techniques are you most proud of in your thesis collection? One of the best things about being in knitwear is being able to create your own fabric. All of the fabrics used in the garments were handmade or designed and programmed by me. I used hand-knitting, machine-knitting techniques and felting wool on sheer silk.

What were some of the inspirations, concepts or important world events that helped lead your thesis work? I wanted my collection to serve as a prototype solution for the overproduction of apparel materials in the fashion industry. If we create pieces that can be used multiple ways, ideally it would reduce the overall number of textiles and clothing being produced.

How has the pandemic affected your design aesthetic or process and the outcome of your thesis collection? I think the pandemic has really forced me to look within myself to be a solution-driven designer. In a classroom environment you can easily turn to your peers and ask for their help when you’re stuck or ask for their opinion. Although we still meet and see each other online, the distanced environment has highlighted our individual thinking.

Name a trend you are ready to see take off and a trend you are ready to see finish : I’ve seen things that have the feeling of being handmade become increasingly popular. I think because of the pandemic a lot of people had the time to start new hobbies and make whatever they want, which I think is great to see.

A trend I’m ready to see go is sweatpants. With the pandemic, and nowhere to go, they’re the most practical solution, but I look forward to the days when we will have somewhere to go.

What are your plans for after graduation? I want to start working in knitwear because there’s still a lot I can learn, and then hopefully use what I’ve learned to start my own brand of clothing.

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What a Fashion Company Is Worth Today

Last year, there were 118 acquisitions globally in the fashion category, the lowest count in at least a decade, according to Dealogic.

Cathaleen Chen

Key insights

Fashion companies are increasingly being valued based on their profits rather than just sales, a reversal of the trend during the zero-interest-rate environment of the 2010s.
The bigger challenge in fashion M&A, however, is the dearth of buyers, including both private investors and strategic conglomerates.
Still, exceptional brands like Skims and Alo Yoga with cultural heat and massive growth potential can still command frothy valuations.

When Milan-based private equity firm Styles Capital announced it acquired the sneaker brand Autry earlier this month, it seemed to signal a reawakening of fashion’s deal market.

Styles Capital paid about €300 million ($327 million) for 50.2 percent of Autry, valuing the company at an impressive six times its sales last year. It wasn’t quite the sort of valuation a hot direct-to-consumer brand might have commanded at the height of the boom – Allbirds’ market capitalisation of $4 billion following its 2021 IPO was roughly 15 times its annual revenue at the time. But it was a surprising splash of good news amid a drought in fashion dealmaking.

Today, there are a number of brands on the auction block, but few interested buyers. Last year, there were 118 acquisitions globally in the category, the lowest count in at least a decade, according to Dealogic. Ganni, A.L.C., Proenza Schouler and Isabel Marant are just some of the brands that have courted buyers or investors in recent years without securing a deal. It’s not just contemporary and luxury labels facing an uphill (though not impossible) climb to seal the deal; denim label True Religion and T-shirt start-up True Classic are among the brands currently in the market.

Unfortunately for them, the Autry deal and its revenue-based valuation was the exception that proves the rule, investment bankers and investors with expertise in the fashion space said. When offers are made, they are more likely to follow the more conservative measure of multiples of EBITDA, or earnings before interest, tax, depreciation and amortisation.

Last month, Rag & Bone was acquired by a joint venture between Guess Inc. and brand management firm WHP Global. Guess will pay $56.5 million for its half, which values the brand at $113 million — about six times Rag & Bone’s adjusted EBITDA of $18 million in 2023, but just under half its 2023 sales of $250 million. Or take True Religion, which is currently exploring a sale. With about $80 million in annual EBITDA, it can feasibly sell for $400 million to $600 million, according to a source familiar with the business. If, that is, it can find a buyer in the first place.

Those are the lucky ones, in a sense. Last year, Parade and Tamara Mellon were acquired by manufacturers in what bankers said were likely fire sales last year; sleepwear startup Lunya filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy in June.

“It’s the absolute worst time to sell right now,” said Elsa Berry, founder of Vendôme Global Partners, a fashion M&A advisory firm. “It’s impossible to say where the buyers are … And you’re not going to get a top price unless you are an exceptional brand.”

Today’s market is a return to a sleepier era, before the days of ZIRP, or zero interest rate policy, a period lasting roughly between 2008 and 2021, when central banks globally slashed borrowing costs as a form of economic stimulus. Investors and large companies borrowed billions of dollars, which they poured into fast-growing, often unprofitable brands, such as Allbirds , or retail start-ups like Farfetch and The RealReal , in the hopes of generating big returns down the line as those businesses matured.

Many of those investments did not pan out. Allbirds’ market capitalisation currently hovers around $100 million.

Founders and investors who came of age during the ZIRP days are confronting a harsh reality where the paths to an exit are mostly blocked. On the public markets, even growing, profitable companies like Birkenstock and Amer Sports have failed to command premium valuations, which has had a mirroring effect on valuations in the private market too, bankers said.

For brands the options are stark: accept a lower price and a wider potential pool of buyers, or wait and hope today’s market conditions are temporary, and not the new norm.

“Two years of the pandemic followed by the last 18 months of a reset in the global economy has changed a lot of the calculus of how we start getting liquidity in our portfolio,” said Bill Detwiler, managing partner at Fernbrook Capital Management, an early-stage investment firm that has purchased stakes in Tory Burch, La Ligne and Universal Standard. “We feel that the [market] will open up once we get the election out of the way and interest rates come down.”

Fewer Buyers

The fashion M&A space can quickly shut down in challenging times because the category is particularly vulnerable to shifts in the wider economy. Brands that appeared to be cruising to a multi-billion-dollar exit can suddenly lose momentum if trends shift, or price-conscious consumers pull back on discretionary spending. Case in point is Matchesfashion, which was acquired by private equity giant Apax Partners in 2017 for over $1 billion, and sold late last year to Frasers Group for £52 million ($63 million), amid a broader slowdown in online luxury spending.

Matt Leeds, a former partner at L Catterton who launched his own private equity fund, Forward Consumer Partners, last year, said he sets an especially high bar when considering investing in an apparel brand, as opposed to food or other categories. Start-ups that might have a few years of rapid growth, and zero profits, need not apply.

“I would be interested in brands with a proven track record of success over decades and are still relevant today,” he said.

Tapestry’s $8.5 billion blockbuster acquisition of Michael Kors-owner Capri Holdings is a prime example of this thesis in action. Capri’s brands, which also include Versace and Jimmy Choo, have struggled to resonate with consumers in recent years, their name recognition has the potential for massive scale under the right management.

Higher borrowing costs and unpredictable consumer spending have also kept large retail holding groups on the sidelines. VF Corp. has historically grown through acquisitions of hot brands like Supreme; now it’s looking to sell some assets. Kering, which bought a stake in Valentino last year, as well as the fragrance brand Creed, is also unlikely to add to its portfolio in the near term as it integrates those acquisitions and focuses on reviving Gucci, said Berry of Vendôme Global Partners.

Other luxury groups may be distracted by new dynamics in the sector, such as challenges around wholesale, as well as a volatile macroeconomic environment, she added. Some houses in healthier positions have other priorities; Puig, for instance, is preparing for an upcoming IPO.

“I don’t think there is a large number of strategic buyers in the short term,” Berry added. “But of course LVMH can always make a move, given their sheer scale and diverse businesses.”

Exceptional Players

Well-run, appealing brands will still find buyers at premium valuations.

A buzzy business that’s growing both in terms of sales and profitability can command EBITDA multiples of 12 to 15 in their valuations, according to Matthew Tingler, managing director at Baird’s consumer investment banking group. Larger brands showing growth, profitability and a strong brand DNA across multiple geographies and product categories can be valued at mid-teen multiples of EBITDA or higher, said Berry.

At brands with major cultural heat, topline growth can still be an important metric when it comes to formulating valuations, Tingler said. For those lucky few, the sky’s still the limit.

Alo Yoga was reportedly seeking new investment at a $10 billion valuation last fall, almost certainly at a higher ratio to EBITDA than publicly traded category leader Lululemon merits. While it remains to be seen if the brand will hit its target, Alo’s faster growth should allow it to command higher multiples, Tingler said.

The same goes for Skims, which was valued at $4 billion last year on estimated annual sales of $750 million and 27 times its EBITDA; it’s an unusually high multiple, but still possible in today’s environment — that is, if you’re Skims.

Survival Mode

Skims aside, most brands have little choice but to harness a sense of financial discipline: Operate a lean business and generate cash flow to fund capital expenditures. If possible, brands should tap into their base of existing investors for necessary cash infusions.

“If someone is selling today, it’s either because they’re distressed, or their investor wants to get out and doesn’t want to keep putting money in,” Berry said.

For the most part, dealmakers don’t anticipate current market conditions to change anytime soon.

“The investment climate will stay the same,” said Tingler of Baird. “For [valuations] to go up again, interest rates will have to go down and there needs to be a more peaceful geopolitical environment. I don’t think it will change anytime soon.”

But being forced to run a scrappy business isn’t a bad thing. A high profit margin, after all, will be a major asset for fundraising or acquisitions down the road. And the more investors a business takes on, the fewer exit options there are, according to Jenny Gyllander, a venture capital veteran and founder of Thingtesting, an online platform for discovering online brands. Not to mention, diluted equity.

“People have been unable to raise funds for a while now, and that’s pushed them to be really creative,” Gyllander said. “Everyone’s now like, ‘Let’s be profitable from day one,’ and they want to be in control of how they’re growing.”

The Year Ahead: Fashion Is Set for a Surge in M&A

As the gap widens between the best-performing companies and the rest, M&A activity will increase as leaders manoeuvre to take market share, unlock new opportunities and expand capabilities.

Fashion’s Top M&A Targets

The market may be cooling, but a number of in-demand brands remain of interest to financial backers. BoF identifies the top targets.

Fast Fashion’s M&A Frenzy, Explained

Amid a spending slowdown and steep competition, the UK fast-fashion players including Asos and Frasers Group are selling off struggling brands.

Cathaleen Chen is Retail Correspondent at The Business of Fashion. She is based in New York and drives BoF’s coverage of the retail and direct-to-consumer sectors.

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TikTok’s Vita Kari on how to nail an eccentric sense of style

We spoke to the social media maven about their personal style and artwork.

Image of a person holding a stack of clothes.

Updated March 29, 2024

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A few days ago, it occurred to me that I have about a hundred T-shirts—and only wear about 10 of them regularly—so I’ve decided that this is the weekend I take inventory and make sense of the mess. I’ll be going through my entire wardrobe, trying on every single item, parting with the pieces I no longer love, and cataloging everything else. If you’ve been holding onto all of your old clothes a bit too long, I welcome you to join me in this monumental undertaking.

Fit Check with Vita Kari

A person wearing an embroidered hamburger headpiece, hamburger embroidered gloves, a pearl chest-piece, a t-shirt, and sweatpants.

Vita Kari is unafraid of making a splashy statement when it comes to their personal style.

Vita, tell me all about this look!

🍔 - The crown I'm wearing is my own art piece! It has five burgers that are all adorned with individual beading inspired by my grandmother's clothing. Each burger has a different pattern to match a different article of her clothing. It's my way of honoring her as well as highlighting caretaking, something that deserves more attention! Getting the burgers finished was an all-hands-on-deck project, so shout out to my friends who helped me make them: Sua Kim, Da Ron, Cousin Grace, Athena Kaytlen Wenzel, Mic Gradstein, and Alex Ybarra.

🎽 - I'm wearing a Skims top, vintage earrings, and my partner's pearl chest piece. My sweatpants are vintage and from my Grandmother.

How did you discover and develop your personal style?

My style has remained the same since I was a kid: Loud, eccentric, statement pieces—yet it changes with the times as new trends go in and out of style. I remain flexible but always have my core style intact. Learning more about my gender expression and shifting how I present in the world plays into my fashion! Right now I'm in a hyper-femme era, but I might go back to masc soon…who knows?

What’s next on your to-buy list?

I predict class rings are going to have a Saltburn -inspired comeback! As I’m graduating from my master's program this year, I decided to get a super ridiculously adorned class ring. I feel like we are gonna see more class rings around–both new and vintage. I always wanted one, so it felt like the perfect time.

What’s your favorite style hack?

Sweatpants + heels—elevates any outfit!

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2024 VCUarts MFA Thesis Exhibition

Art Education
Art Foundation
Art History
Communication Arts
Craft/Material Studies
Dance + Choreography
Fashion Design + Merchandising
Graphic Design
Interior Design
Kinetic Imaging
Painting + Printmaking
Photography + Film
Sculpture + Extended Media

The 2024 MFA Thesis Exhibition features 33 outstanding emerging artists and designers. Representing eight departments, these students’ ambitious and challenging research pushes beyond traditional disciplines to shape what is new and next in visual and material culture.

The MFA Thesis Exhibition is held at the Anderson (907 ½ W. Franklin St., Richmond, VA) and takes place in two rounds:

Round 1 : April 5–April 19 Round 1 Opening Reception: April 5, 5–8pm

Round 2 : April 26–May 11 Round 2 Opening Reception: April 26, 5–8pm

Public gallery hours are Tues–Fri, 12–6pm & Sat, 12–5pm.

*Thesis research projects by the 2024 Interior Design, Interior Environments MFA class are being presented online at: rampages.us/ides .

ROUND ONE April 5–April 19

taehee (Graphic Design) Grace Bromley (Painting + Printmaking) Gilad Leiba (Painting + Printmaking) Yifei Kong (Craft/Material Studies) Chrystine Rayburn (Kinetic Imaging) Jermaine Ollivierre (Sculpture + Extended Media) Chelsea Nanfelt Rowe (Craft/Material Studies) Bradley Sinanan (Graphic Design) Giancarlo Venturini (Painting + Printmaking) Leilei Xia (Kinetic Imaging) Yuan Xin (Graphic Design)

ROUND TWO April 26–May 11

Jalen Adams (Photography + Film) Rabeeha Adnan (Sculpture + Extended Media) Pia Bakala (Painting + Printmaking) Kasey Brown (Theatre) Kai Chuang (Graphic Design) Stephanie Germosen Salazar (Sculpture + Extended Media) Arghavan Heydareslam (Photography + Film) Jesse Hoyle (Photography + Film) Shannon Kurzyniec (Craft/Material Studies) Alexis Mabry (Painting + Printmaking) Paz Sher (Sculpture + Extended Media) Jessica Tifase (Photography + Film) Chunghee Yun (Painting + Printmaking)

Interior Design – Interior Environments MFA

Aseel Alhaidari Sarah Alrumayh Caroline Ciccone Tommye Dean Chelcey Dunham Caitlin McLean Sydney Rakes Camille Rovani Che’leah Shannon

Participating Departments

Craft/Material Studies Graphic Design Interior Design Kinetic Imaging Painting + Printmaking Photography + Film Sculpture + Extended Media

Poster designed by Rasim Bayramov

current students
exhibitions

International edition
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Saturday Night Live: host Ramy Youssef calls for ceasefire in otherwise muted episode

The standup and actor presides over another mostly underwhelming episode with a socially conscious bent

A head of Easter Sunday, Saturday Night Live kicks off with a re-enactment of Jesus’s resurrection, which is quickly interrupted by former president Donald Trump (James Austin Johnson). He’s come to hawk his new Bible, which “can be yours for the high, high price of $60”. His new, improved version “also includes constitution, and pledge of allegiance, and, I don’t know, maybe Miranda rights”. He ends his sales pitch with his version of the Lord’s Prayer: “Our father, who are in Heaven, hallowed beep-beep, bing-bing … trespass, daily bread, and please lead us into temptation, and pay our automobiles. In the name of the father, the son, and the Easter bunny, amen.”

As Trump cold opens go, this one is nothing special, but at least it has a purpose and a theme. It could have been edgier, but then, nothing the show could come up with could match Trump’s latest hustle for either hilarity or sacrilege.

Ramy Youssef hosts for the first time. The comedian and actor notes how big a weekend it is for religious people – Muslims, like him, are celebrating Ramadan; Christians are celebrating Easter; Beyoncé fans are celebrating her new country album Cowboy Carter.

His monologue takes the form of a standup set. He talks about living in a liberal bubble, the Biden teams’ outreach to Arab communities, and his dream of seeing a trans woman become president (“She’d be like, a lot of politicians talk about change … ”), before transitioning into a hushed, sincere prayer for peace in Gaza: “Please free the people of Palestine. And please free the hostages.”

It’s funny that only a few weeks after Shane Gillis flopped while hosting, SNL brings on his exact foil. If Gillis appeals to knuckle-dragging bros who only want to hear slurs, Youssef makes comedy for people who would rather applause in agreement than laugh. That said, his statements on Gaza are self-evidently just and unimpeachable, which no doubt means the pro-Israel hawks will lose their collective mind over it, just as they did earlier this month when Jonathan Glazer made similar comments during his Oscar acceptance speech.

Couple Goals is a game show where married couples test their knowledge of one another. Youseff and Ego Nwodim’s newlyweds take an early lead, until the second question reveals a dark glimpse into the hubby’s psyche. Asked to name each other’s biggest fear, Nwodim’s wife guesses heights, only to learn that the real answer is: “That you’ll die in a bizarre accident, and even though I had nothing to do with it, the police will assume I did it after discovering how much I’ve complained about you in text messages to my friends.” Things spiral from there. A repeat of a similar sketch from last season, but not nearly as dark or as funny as that one.

A music video from musical guest Travis Scott , Youssef, and the Please Don’t Destroy guys sees them go out for a night of clubbing. Things take an anxious turn when Ben, Martin, and John smoke way too much weed. Youssef, meanwhile, questions his choice of shorts and an earlier faux pas. The central premise is funny, but things never snowball the way the best PDD shorts do. And the actual song is annoying (and literally) one-note.

Immigrant Dad Talk Show sees Youssef, Marcello Hernandez, and Kenan Thompson play silver-maned, chain-smoking pops. After spending some time running down their disappointing sons (“He say to me, I’m working on my thesis. I say: ‘Thesis? THESIS a waste of time!’”) and praising their spoiled daughters, they welcome on their guest, new neighbor Kevin (Mikey Day), whose supportive and physically affectionate relationship with his own son horrifies them to no end. This could have done with more of the generational divide material from its first half and less of the “laugh at the dorky white people” stuff of the backhalf, not because there’s anything wrong with the latter, but simply because it’s a well that SNL goes to almost every episode (often more than once).

A high school basketball captain’s speech to his teammate’s during halftime is less about their sorry playing than it is about the unfortunate picture their coach accidentally sent to their group chat earlier in the week: “Did I want to see coach wearing only a fur thong and cat ears on all fours licking milk out of a bowl? No! But that’s no excuse not to play my ass off tonight!” The reveal of Devon Walker as the coach’s catatonically horrified son gets a huge laugh. One of the better sketches of recent episodes.

Ozempic for Ramadan is the new medication that helps suppress hunger for those struggling to fast during holy month. It’s just regular Ozempic, but “rebranded for a new, burgeoning Muslim demographic”. A prime example of how a clever idea does not a funny sketch make.

Following the first performance from Scott, it’s on to Weekend Update, where Colin Jost mocks the Trump Bible: “This Bible is mostly the same, but Trump’s version ends with Christ’s disciples storming Jerusalem to overturn the results of the crucifixion.” Michael Che, meanwhile, gets jeers after joking about President Biden visiting the site of the Baltimore bridge collapse: “Like that bridge, Biden is no longer connecting with black communities.”

Jost then welcomes their first guest, TikToker Piper Dunster (Chloe Fineman), to discuss irresponsible conspiracy theories surrounding Kate Middleton. She chides her fellow content creators before footage of her own TikTok shows that not only did she make crazy claims about Middleton, but she also posted early support for George Santos, the Titanic submersible, and “wet market bat” casserole. TikTok influencers deserve no shortage of ridicule, but Fineman and co aren’t interested in actually taking them on.

Later, Jost invites on the widow of deceased New York owl Flaco (Sarah Sherman in a ridiculous feathered costume). Asked about her reaction to learning her husband had a severe case of pigeon herpes, she deflects: “Why was there even an autopsy? When a bird basically explodes into the side of a building, who’s like, ‘How did he die?’” She gets some good mileage out of corny “Who?” jokes, as well as the requisite digs at Jost (“You know how it is, Colin, when you’re married to a big-time celebrity. They get to have sex with anyone they want and there’s nothing we can do about it, right brother?”).

A team of homicide detectives and forensic experts investigate a murder outside of a pizza parlor, only to be distracted by the bad, David Caruso on CSI-style one liner one team (Andrew Dismukes) member keeps trying to get over. He’s relentless in his efforts, even trying it out on the victim’s grieving widow. The slow build towards that moment gets some enjoyable tittering, but the end doesn’t stick the landing.

Scott returns for his second performance, joined by Playboi Carti, then the show closes out with an episode of NPR’s Tiny Desk concert series. Youssef, Johnson, and Chloe Troast play a quirky indie band whose performance is continually interrupted by a pushy new intern and would-be podcaster (Bowen Yang). Before anyone involved realizes it, they’re all taking part in a new podcast. Fans of NPR/podcasts might find a couple things to chuckle at here.

A muted, NPR-focused sketch is actually a pretty fitting close to proceedings, given that the people who enjoy Tiny Desk are likely to be fans of Youssef’s brand of soft, socially conscious comedy. For everyone else, this will be another shrug of an episode.

Saturday Night Live
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ii Submission of Thesis to Norma Smurfit Library, National College of Ireland Student name: Daniel Isaac Emmen Quirós Student number: 18165851 School: School of Business Course: MSc in International Business Degree to be awarded: MSc in International Business Title of Thesis: The impact of fast fashion on the environment: Perspectives from Consumers and Retailers in Ireland
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THESIS a waste of time!'") and praising their spoiled daughters, they welcome on their guest, new neighbor Kevin (Mikey Day), whose supportive and physical affectionate relationship with his ...