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Review article, psychosocial impacts of mobile game on k12 students and trend exploration for future educational mobile games.

• 1 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
• 2 China Foreign Affairs University, Beijing, China
• 3 School of Chemistry and Biomolecules Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
• 4 Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
• 5 School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

Due to the popularity and advancement of 4G/5G networks, mobile games have already currently become profitable tools for major internet platforms. These games are even refined to cover almost all age groups of the population rather than the young people. Yet in the perception of the public, mobile games have always seemed to be associated with various derogatory terms such as interfering with learning, addiction, and violence. K12 students usually have less self-control capability, and they are undoubtedly the biggest advocates of mobile games. This paper summarizes the technological development of mobile games from the aspects of hardware and software in chronological order. The psychological and social problems that mobile games have brought to K12 students are analyzed from a neutral perspective. At the end of the paper, the future development of educational games and current limitations of mobile games are also given for the explorations of future trends of game-based education. This position paper aims to provide the insight of what psychosocial impacts that the current mobile games have on the student, and it may also serve as a reference for the how the game-based education has been developing according to the mobile technology wise.

Introduction

Due to the popularity of smart terminals and the advancement of 5G networks, mobile games are currently the most popular type of games, as well as profitable tools for major internet platforms. Mobile games can be combined from different levels and content categories, covering different, personalities and preferences ( Martin et al., 2020 ). As a result mobile games are now refined to cover almost all age groups of the population, not just young people. Yet in the perception of the public, mobile games have always seemed to be associated with various derogatory terms such as interfering with learning, addiction and violence.

K12 students are refer to the students in the age group from Kindergarten (usually 5–6 years old) to Grade 12 (usually 17–18 years old) ( Kurt et al., 2022 ). Students in this age group usually have less self-control capability, and they are undoubtedly the biggest advocates of mobile game. When they play certain games for long periods of time their behavior and psychological state will be changed in a subtle way. The main issue is that mobile games may contain unhealthy contents such as pornography, violence, ignorance, superstition, etc. which implicitly affect the formation of the correct value system and the healthy development of their body and mind for these K12 students ( Destyanto et al., 2017 ). In addition, some young people indulge in mobile games due to lack of self-control, which not only result in harmful influence on their studies but also induces a series of negative social activities and social relationship ( Kurt et al., 2022 ).

The pioneers of communication science, Lazarsfeld and Merton, argued that modern mass media have a clear negative function of “psychoanesthesia.” Some violent mobile games reveal the nature of the “psychoanesthesia” function in another textual dimension: they create illusions through inexpensive and negative entertainment, thus eating away at the social mobility of those young people in an implicit cultural way ( Kurt et al., 2022 ). Craig Anderson found that the “psychoanesthetic” mechanism of violent mobile games increases the physiological arousal of aggressive behavior, cognition, emotions, and violent impulses, and reduces pro-social behavior in adolescents ( Elsherbiny and Al Maamari, 2021 ; Kurt et al., 2022 ). Accordingly, violent behavior has become the main “product component” of mobile games “inflicted” on adolescents. Moreover, its basic social manifestations can be summarized in four points: firstly, it creates and activates networks of thinking related to violent aggression; secondly, it weakens the inhibition process of violence; thirdly, the game’s violent reward rules allow aggressive behavior to be imitated and reinforced in the “mimetic environment;” and fourthly, the binary values of right and wrong in games can reduce young people’s empathy ( Elsherbiny and Al Maamari, 2021 ).

Mobile games do not only imply a behavior, but also contain a value, which might be sometimes anti-social in nature. Violent mobile games on the Internet may portray the grandeur, hooliganism, and banditry of triad bosses and gangsters, contributing to the psychology of adolescent violence. In particular, the propaganda of “materialism” in violent online games can easily lead young people to abandon their original morals and values, so that the “money first” mentality gradually seeps into their minds and leads to a distorted way of thinking and personality.

This position paper therefore infer the future development of educational games from existing mobile games, and shares some insights into the current limitations, and critically analyses the above issues from a neutral perspective, discusses the psychological impacts and social problems that mobile games may cause for K12 students ( Arteaga et al., 2012 ). It also offers the future development of mobile games and the limitations of current educational games in order to explore future trends in gamified education. This paper can also be considered as a reference on how gamified education is evolving in light of mobile technology.

Technological Development of Mobile Game

From feature phone to smartphone.

Nowadays, almost everyone who owns a smartphone has been exposed to mobile games at one time or another. It may be a mini-game embedded in a web page or app, or a large 3D online game like “Arena of Alor” or “Player Unknown’s Battlegrounds” ( De Gloria et al., 2014 ). These games have a huge update from the mobile games of over a decade ago, both in scale and in audio and video experience. And most mobile phones now have larger screens and touch screens have become the main way to use mobile phones, which did not exist on the same level mobile phones in 10 years ago, which has promoted the development of mobile games ( Rubino et al., 2015 ).

The continuous evolution of cell phone hardware has brought about a constant change in the needs of gamers. There was a time when the only requirement for gamers was that their phones could run a particular game, but now gamers want smoother games, no lag when playing online, and even want their phones to be able to turn on the highest picture quality of the game ( Ma et al., 2019 ). This means that the hardware that provides key performance in the phone and the network environment that the phone relies on also needs to evolve to meet the increasingly diverse needs of gamers ( Wang et al., 2020 ). Gradually, mobile phones and mobile games have worked together to promote growth and form the industry shape we see today. In addition to entertainment, mobile games also carry part of people’s social needs in their daily lives ( Yang and Gong, 2021 ).

Twenty years ago, the average person was still using 2G networks and physical button phones were just starting to become popular ( Jang et al., 2019 ). At the time, most phones only had a black and white screen of about 1 inch, and due to system and network capacity limitations, only the games built into the phone could be played, such as Snake, Tetris, etc ( Figure 1 ). These were indeed interesting, but they were just ordinary games to kill the time.

Figure 1. Representative mobile games from 1994 to 2019.

After 2003, color screen cell phones and PDAs began to occupy the consumers’ vision, the hardware performance of cell phones began to improve, the software and system functions were gradually enriched. At the same time, electronic games began to appear on cell phones in various forms ( Syahrivar et al., 2022 ). Since Symbian had strict limits on the resolution and number of threads for software development, and J2ME development had a maximum memory limit, the vast majority of mobile games did not exceed 1 MB in size until the new Symbian system appeared in 2006, when these restrictions were lifted one by one ( de Byl, 2014 ).

The popularity of color-screened phones allowed game developers to see the opportunity, and some very well-known games such as Need for Speed, Call of Duty, Command and Conquer, and many others launched dedicated mobile versions ( Berlo et al., 2020 ). Many small development teams and enthusiasts also developed board games such as chess, Texas hold’em into mobile versions. A variety of mobile phone native games began to appear at this time, such as “Tower Bloxx” and “Galaxy on Fire” in 2005 were enjoyable for handheld gamers at the time ( Haney, 2017 ). Around 2005, when client-side mobile games were just exploding, there were already many specialized game makers developing mobile games for non-smartphones, but limited by the speed and stability of cell phone networks, and they were eagerly anticipating the popularity of 3G and 4G, but failed to foresee the rapid explosion of smartphones ( Sosins, 2013 ; Manning and Buttfield-Addison, 2017 ; Papadakis, 2021 ).

From Keyboard to Touch Screen

In 2008, with the birth of iOS and Android, Apple successfully pioneered the touch screen cell phone, after the mobile game from the constraints of the physical keyboard, such as “Angry Birds,” “Plants vs. Zombies,” “Fruit Ninja,” “Temple Run” and a series of new hand quickly occupied the market share in 1 year ( Vaiopoulou et al., 2021 ). The introduction of Angry Birds made the public realize for the first time that the era of mobile games may be coming ( Kalogiannakis et al., 2022 ).

“Angry Birds”, developed by Rovio and launched in 2009, is another phenomenal product. Throughout the game, gamers only need to do one action, which is to press and hold the bird on the slingshot in the screen to drag and release ( Villasana et al., 2020 ). Such a simple operation overturned the public’s inherent impression of how mobile games are presented, so Fruit Ninja and Cut the Rope, launched a year later, both became star products at the time for their sophisticated gameplay design and simple sliding operation ( Thomas et al., 2019 ). Few people may know that the first release of the game Doodle Jump in 2009 was developed for touchscreen phones, and only a year later came a version that supported physical button phones. That’s because around 2010, the popularity of large-screen touch phones with smart systems made a radical change in the way mobile games were operated ( Thomas et al., 2019 ).

The birth of the iPhone and the resulting trend in the use of touch screen created not only revolutionized the user’s experience of operating cell phones, but also made hand games free from the limitations of the physical keyboard, with new operation ways of playing other than “up, down, left and right” ( Škařupová et al., 2016 ). If we say that the high price of iPhone may to a certain extent prevent the further expansion of the user scale of smartphones, Android is waiting for the opportunity to fill the gap to complete the last blow of smart phones to feature phones ( Ghosh et al., 2018 ).

Take iOS as an example, App Store is the only (or the main) channel value, hand game developers still have the leisure of “slow work, fine work,” but by the limitation of iPhone ownership, the income of developers at this time is much shabbier compared with today ( Bagaa et al., 2018 ). For example, in 2011, the highest-grossing handheld game in China was “World War II Storm,” and its monthly flow was only $800,000 ( Paseka and Schwab, 2020 ).

In 2010, Google announced its withdrawal from China because of its refusal to censor content. Although Android as an operating system was not affected much, but as we all know, Google Play, a connected service, was given the risk of instability ( Liu et al., 2020 ). The reason why smart phones are “smart” is that they allow users to obtain applications through channels and support users to freely configure applications in hardware terminals, when the official channels of Android are covered with a layer of haze, coupled with the unique openness of Android, the status of channel providers for distributing handicraft products is increasingly important ( Thien et al., 2020 ). This is the biggest enlightenment brought to practitioners by the mobile Internet in the outbreak stage.

From 2G to 5G

With the issuance of 4G LTE license by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology in 2013, domestic cell phone users officially ushered in the 4G era ( Karabiyik et al., 2020 ). In 2014, the real-time competitive MOBA hand game “Vainglory” was launched, emphasizing the real-time nature of network online, while “Magic Spirit Summoning,” “Tower Legend” and other nurturing RPG games, although the gameplay is focused on the standalone part, the official will regularly update a large amount of game content to keep the game fresh and the passion of gamers, so an efficient network becomes very important ( Wang et al., 2015 ).

4G networks ( Figure 2 ) use LTE technology on the prime 1,800 and 800 M spectrum bands, with a theoretical maximum mobile network speed of 100 Mbps and actual 10 M–30 Mbps. 5G networks use Massive MIMO technology in the 3.5 GHz range, which can theoretically reach a wireless data rate of 1 Gbps, greatly increasing wireless data bandwidth and enabling mobile games with less hourly delay and faster rate, giving gamers a better and faster gaming experience ( Zappone et al., 2016 ). Mobile games are a cross-regional, cross-cultural, cross-racial, and cross-religious entertainment. It allows gamers to realize the ability to be entertained at home, on the subway, and outdoors with gamers around the world at any time. These demands reflect the advantages of 4G LTE and later 4G LTE-A networks, which can provide bandwidth based on priority, allowing more traffic to devices with higher download demands and transferring data to multiple devices at the same time, thus making the mobile network a stronger experience. Whether it’s skin updates for MOBAs or massive updates for nurturing games, which can be downloaded to gamers’ phones faster ( Buzzi et al., 2012 ).

Figure 2. Evolution of mobile generation from 1G to 5G.

In 2015, “Arena of Alor” was publicly tested together with “We MOBA” and other multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) games, and most handheld gamers were brought into the tide of MOBA games ( Buzzi et al., 2016 ). These games are not only fast to get started, but also have compact gameplay and gorgeous graphics effects, which not only require excellent performance of network environment where the handheld gamers are located, but also challenge the hardware performance of cell phones ( Zhang et al., 2017 ). The complex lighting and particle effects in the game make the CPU and GPU in the SoC take a lot of pressure; at this time, the modem in the phone can’t be idle and needs to coordinate the network to cope with transferring the various data that occur in the game. Such comprehensive needs have led more cell phone manufacturers to start launching products that emphasize cell phone performance and networking capabilities ( Chiang et al., 2021 ).

This trend has prompted more developers to bring a wider variety of games with richer titles to the mobile platform. Almost every year, several topical titles emerge, such as “Crackdown 3” in 2016, “Monument Valley 2” in 2017, and “World in Pictures” and “Florence” in 2018, which expose more smartphone users to the “video game” entertainment genre ( Guo et al., 2019 ). For most gamers, the connected competitive games like 2018’s Peaceful Elite handheld, Wild Ride 9: Racing Legends and the new Call of Duty Mobile in 2019 are their best choices ( Guo et al., 2019 ).

From black and white screen feature phones to large screen touch smartphones, not only cell phones have changed over the past 10 years, but the way we work, live and play games has changed dramatically. As 5G technology gets closer to us, mobile games will take on a more diverse look with new technology and new hardware, such as 5G cloud games will also bring richer game products to more gamers, using 5G’s high speed and low latency advantages, host and PC games will also become possible to load in real time on the mobile side ( Habiba and Hossain, 2018 ). This will also bring a different game experience for handheld gamers.

The 4G era has brought about the rise of handheld gaming, which has now became an important part of the global gaming landscape, with countless numbers of handheld gamers, and the demand for mobile gaming performance continues to increase. The advent of the 5G era will change the game experience for gamers at this stage, which is limited by equipment and network latency ( Akbar et al., 2021 ). Although 5G is still in its infancy, it will definitely have a significant impact on the global gaming market in the future ( Oberst et al., 2017 ).

As 5G technology matures, one of its main applications is to provide a smooth cloud gaming experience. In addition, the low latency of 5G and the convenience of smartphones will make mobile devices a key platform for cloud gaming. Due to the advancement in the network, major mobile manufacturers are now launching 5G gaming phones to cater to the market and provide a better gaming experience to the gamers. Therefore gaming phones have also become one of the selling points for cell phone manufacturers.

Psychosocial Effect of Mobile Game on K12 Children Education Performance

Public awareness—negative content of mobile game.

Many elementary school students are addicted to mobile games and cannot extricate themselves from games, some of them even steal their parents’ money to recharge for playing games and play truant. They only think about the mobile games all day and all night, and think of all the ways to play games, so they are not interested in studying at all and their academic performance is in a mess. It seems obvious that the more time you spend playing games, the worse your academic performance, and there are studies that have found a correlation between time spent on video games and students’ academic performance ( Padilla-Walker et al., 2009 ). But is poor academic performance really the fault of gaming? It is important to note that “correlation” does not mean “causation”: for example, just because “sleeping in shoes” is associated with “getting up in the morning with a headache,” does that mean that “sleeping in shoes causes headaches” is causal? In fact, why do you sleep with your shoes on? The most likely reason is that one forgets to take off one’s shoes before lying down in bed after drinking too much, and this is the factor that has a real causal relationship with “getting up in the morning with a headache” ( Seo et al., 2019 ).

A student who is repeatedly frustrated with his grades, expects appreciation and has high expectations of himself, has no outlet for his pent-up emotions. But in mobile games he can not only vent his stress but also receive a quick reward ( Chafouleas et al., 2021 ). The situation of students who are already not excelling in their academic performance will get worse because playing games will waste time in learning, thus creating a vicious circle ( Laws and Millward, 2001 ), i.e., although playing games takes away from our studies, playing games may only be one point in the chain, and the reasons that lead us to play games are actually more complex.

Why Are Games Addictive but Learning Is Usually NOT?

Compared with learning, mobile games have distinct advantages that games tend to have some measure the progress of participants to some extent, meaning that their effort is visible and obvious, whereas learning does not ( Luder et al., 2020 ). There is progress in learning, but it is a slow process and people are not sensitive to small changes ( Chen, 2017 ). The simplest example should be hair, i.e., hair grows every day, but it is generally unconscious. If you get a haircut once a year, and within a year your hair changes from short to long, people around you will not think you have changed, but 1 day you get a haircut and it becomes as short again as it was a year ago, people will be surprised and say what a big change you have made. But take that big change and put it over a long period of time and it won’t feel like much. It’s the same with studying, but many people fist pump and swear, then study for a while, feel they haven’t made much progress, and give up. This is the objective basis for the old cliché on Know Your Enemy that “hard work doesn’t always lead to progress” ( Chen and Gregory, 2009 ). The game makes this process visible, turning a large amount into many tiny amounts, and it is important to feel that you are improving.

Long-Term and Short-Term Goals

The tasks set in the game are mostly achievable goals, not too easy and not too hard. There is a lot of data analysis behind this degree of accuracy ( Wang et al., 2020 ). Increasing participation in games is linked to their benefits and results. Not so with learning. The average person does not have this analysis; you put a 500-page book in front of them and they will not even read it because they think it is so thick that they will not be able to finish it in their lifetime ( Hsieh, 2021 ). However, these are perfectly achievable if they are divided into smaller goals after scientific analysis.

The game does such a good job of this. It is clear on the game that for everything you achieve, you will be rewarded accordingly and your efforts will be recognized. On the other hand, learning, has a great deal of uncertainty. Working very hard and not getting good results happens to almost everyone ( Bavelier et al., 2011 ). This puts a lot of people off, so they choose not to try to work hard, so if they succeed they will be complacent and think they are clever, and if they fail it won’t matter, after all they haven’t put much effort into it.

Uncertainty

A known reward will motivate people, but unknown factors will really keep them going. A reward with appropriate uncertainty will be exciting, it will increase people’s dopamine production and fascinate people ( Gentile et al., 2004 ). We encounter same situation when we read a novel. But when listening to a lesson, this is simply not possible. If we could figure out how humans learn and what motivates people to act from the development of games, then apply it beyond games, the value it could create is immeasurable, and it would be a ground-breaking thing.

The Psychosocial Impact of Mobile Games

In fact, the psychosocial mechanisms behind playing games deserve more attention than academic performance. Often the decline in academic performance is the most easily observed, but the relationship between playing video games and soft aspects such as feelings of loneliness, loss, self-esteem, social anxiety and social skills is often overlooked. These commonly overlooked factors largely contribute to negative events that influence our perceptions of mobile games ( Han et al., 2009 ).

According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory ( Figure 3 ), human needs are divided into five categories from low to high: physiological needs, security needs, social needs, respect needs, and self-actualization needs. When the lower level needs are satisfied, the next level needs will become the primary motivation ( Boyer, 2015 ; Li et al., 2021 ). So when we have satisfied the two basic needs of physiological needs and security needs, the pursuit of spirituality will rise to become the main conflict. So people who are not able to socialize properly have no way of satisfying their social needs and other higher needs, so for such people there is a greater need for a space to socialize and achieve things that are not possible in real life. ( Kowert et al., 2015 ) have found that people who have low self-esteem in real life, are lonely, lack social skills, and are less successful in real life tend to spend more time in video games ( Winter et al., 2016 ). In turn, playing video games further exacerbates gamers’ feelings of loneliness and increased dissatisfaction with life ( Kowert et al., 2015 ).

Figure 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory.

A successful mobile game is inevitably appealing because of the high sense of achievement that teenagers can feel in the game again. Imagine that people who are not respected in real life can be admired for their virtual achievements in the game, either through kryptonite (spending money to increase combat power) or through their skill in playing the game. Even if you don’t make it to the top of the leader boards, you can still find a presence in a variety of ways. Moreover, in online games, without the constraints of real identities and conditions, gamers can communicate more flexibly and with less embarrassment of being rejected due to real conditions, communication between people is easier and gamers can easily build closer relationships through various tasks ( Caplan et al., 2009 ).

These people who are dissatisfied with their real lives can find a sense of presence in the game in a variety of ways to escape their real-life dissatisfaction ( Figure 4 ). However, after being satisfied in the virtual world, when they return to their real life, the gap will be even greater, and this will deepen their dissatisfaction with their real life. In addition, it is important to note that excessive play can also cause distraction, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and psychological disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder and anxiety in children ( Chan and Cheng, 2004 ; Bulduklu, 2017 ).

Figure 4. Addiction progress of mobile games and its different stages.

Anti-social Behavior Caused by Mobile Games

The content of many mobile games is full of fighting and killing, gunfire, wild and weird characters, mechanical and rough movements, absurd plot and fast rhythm, which have a serious negative impact on students’ moral and psychological health. Those students who are addicted to games are often not calm enough, restless, impulsive, indifferent to others, and more violent, bringing certain destabilizing factors to the campus, family and society. They are in reality, but their minds are in the online world, and they are prone to schizophrenia symptoms, and few children who are addicted to mobile games are psychologically healthy. Nowadays, anti-social behavior also brings much attention to mobile game study. Although video games have been designed and developed to entertain (or educate), it has to be admitted that many of them contain violent content. According to data from Children Now 2001, a non-profit organization concerned with children’s learning and development, as early as 15 years ago, 89% of all games contained violent content, and nearly half of them contained severe violence ( Bulduklu, 2017 ).

Researchers have found that excessive immersion in games with antisocial content (violence) can easily lead to addiction and that such games have a subtle effect on gamers: they lack empathy and are prone to destructive behavior in real life. In fact, for gamers, the violent stimuli provided by virtual worlds such as combat are not only a stress relief, but also a training exercise that allows them to become accustomed to such aggressive emotions and destructive behavior in games, which they gradually carry over into real life ( Huizenga et al., 2009 ).

In a study conducted in 2011, Anderson and Bushman surveyed over 4,000 gamers and found that violent games increased aggressive emotions and decreased pro-social behaviour. Both children and adults, men and women were deeply affected by this ( Foerster et al., 2019 ). This is not to say that violent play necessarily leads to violent behavior. However, when we are constantly trained to think about our enemies in games and reinforced to react quickly and aggressively to each other’s actions, we constantly rehearse this script in our minds and feel threatened all the time, which translates into real-life situations where we are also hostile to those around us and develop “hostile attribution bias” ( Venetz et al., 2014 ). For example, if Ming knocks over my cup, I will think that Ming thinks I am a bad person, that he is doing it on purpose, and that I have to beat him up to show him so that he would not do it again. But in reality, the aisle was too narrow and Ming was too fat and accidentally knocked it over. This attribution error is the “hostile attribution bias.”

It must be clear here that it is not the video game that causes the gamer’s antisocial behavior, but the violent content of the video game. It is pointless and even counterproductive to make a blanket statement. We should advocate for the regulation of the video game market and the development of sensible game content, rather than a blanket ban on all video games.

Further Actions May Take for Correct Guidance

The core educational value of mobile games.

Most scholars are studying how to make learning more interesting, so that students can learn by doing as what the mobile game does. This is the dream of our educational researchers, and Dewey’s emphasis on “learning by doing” does not seem to be working particularly well. In contrast, in a virtual environment we can learn by doing, which is similar to the real thing, improving students’ problem-solving skills, creativity and other higher-order skills, and helping to develop emotional and attitudinal values ( Villasana et al., 2020 ). This is why educational scholars are proposing to implement gamified learning, using educational games to achieve gamified learning. Gamified learning in a narrow sense generally refers to pure video games, while gamified learning in a broad sense includes game mechanics, game element design concepts, etc.

The core educational values of games are mainly acting on the aspects of psychology, socialization, and culture. With its effect on play motivation, playful thinking, and playfulness ( Figure 5 ), a good mobile game does need multiple aspects of knowledge, ability, emotions, attitudes and values ( Schwab, 2018 ). Play motivation is the most fundamental and operational value, emphasizing the use of play to motivate learning. Playful thinking suggests going beyond playful forms and emphasizes the design of non-playful learning activities as “games.” Playfulness is the most meaningful value emphasizing that learners approach the process and outcomes of learning with the same spirit and attitude as play. The core link between the three aspects is deep intrinsic motivation ( Škařupová et al., 2016 ). Getting people to do something because they are challenged and to be curious, rather than being pushed to do something every day by external rewards and pressures.

Figure 5. Core educational value of mobile games.

Gamification of Education/Educational Mobile Games

In the design of educational gamification, it is important to focus on an important issues: distinguishing the age group of the user. Gamification of education is more suitable for the K12 age group and should generally be in the form of simple games, with the degree of gamification decreasing with the age of the user increasing; there will be some adults over 18 who prefer educational products in the form of large-scale games such as online games, but this may be a niche market ( Abeele et al., 2017 ). A light game should be a balance between learning and gameplay, it is like a layer of ketchup in the middle of a hamburger, it can be a little less, but too much is definitely not. If the game is too complex, it will take away from the main focus, the child will appear to be learning but spend more time playing, and the level of emotional arousal will be too high, which is not the desired learning effect. Don’t design a product to be “revolutionary” right out of the box, ground it and then change it incrementally, although this is the opposite of what Google’s Page says ( Huijsmans, 2019 ).

This is because schooling is absolutely dominant in the educational lives of primary and secondary school children, and most of the people who deliver schooling—the teachers—have extremely difficult to change work habits and lack the motivation to change. There are many reasons for this, which will not be expanded. Therefore the initial product should ideally be close to the actual working habits of teachers, close to the teaching content of the school, find a real solution to certain high frequency needs of teachers in their daily work and cut in, so that they can first get started, develop trust and dependence, and then expand step by step, it will be more feasible. Educational products are not super viable just because they are gamified, and you can’t expect them to get a lot of users and get the desired conversion rate just because they are “happy learning” ( Schneider et al., 2020 ). It is always believed that educational products for primary and secondary schools should be a combination of online and offline. In addition to the online part of the product, it also needs to include an offline package for teachers and parents, including training, guidance, evaluation, consultation and follow-up, and so on. For example, how teachers use the product in the classroom, how they use it after school, or what they do to provide daily feedback to parents, are all parts of the product and need to be developed into an actionable solution, not optional. Otherwise, even the best design will be short-lived and will end up like a normal game after its life cycle. So, as well as the product team, the operations team is equally important ( Cha and Seo, 2018 ). While designing the gamification, don’t forget to build and polish the educational content itself, which is the main part of the “hamburger.” Entrepreneurs are often in a hurry to get their products to market quickly and can easily over-gamify them. But the lifeblood of an educational product is still the quality of education, and when the learning effect is not reflected, it will face the dilemma of further development.

Future Trends and Limitations in Educational Mobile Games

Future trends, from a technological perspective, combine gamified learning with mobile learning; with VR/AR; with intelligent bodies; with brain science; with artificial intelligence and big data ( Quelly et al., 2016 ; Black et al., 2018 ). If the research is to solve students’ learning problems through mobile games, it is necessary to combine various research results and educational results from game design. Experimental research in this area has been conducted and found it to be quite effective. Through this experiment, it is found that the difficulty in developing this type of game is decided by how it can really enhance their learning effectiveness ( Calpbinici and Tas Arslan, 2019 ).

Still, games are games, and still there are four major limitation for the current development of educational mobile games.:

• The first major limitation is portability, that is, how what is learned in a mobile game transfers to the real world, which exposes the Achilles heel of mobile games. The challenges in video games are often fictional and have no connection to everyday life, but are rather a fantasy. The knowledge and skills that K12 students acquire in games such as battling dragons, racing jousts, and Tetris are not meaningful to everyday life and therefore not directly transferable.

• The second major limitation is simplicity. Mobile games simplify complex systems to their core and are procedural representations of the real world. The world we live in is much more complex and often defies the simple logic of the game. This results in learners often losing touch with the systems modeled in the game.

• The third major limitation is that games lack real-life environments. Mobile games are not designed to have an effect on the gamer after the game is over. The K12 students are too different from the world they live in, and the real world is too complex. Even those games that have a realistic purpose, so-called serious games or educational games, mostly fail in their transfer from the game to the real world. This is good news for those who fear that violent games make people violent, and bad news for those who think that smart games automatically make people smart.

• The fourth major limitation relates to the above question about the environment. K12 students are usually unable to spontaneously establish a relationship between what they learn in mobile games and real life. They can grasp a great deal of information in mobile games and remember it over time, but are unable to recall the simplest historical data in the classroom. The link between learning achievements in games and in the real world is often overlooked by many K12 students and teachers.

Games open the door to the transfer of learning experiences, but K12 students must go through this door themselves. For that matter, the role of teaching behavior in the use of mobile games is clearly underestimated. Learners need constructive support to draw outcomes relevant to their own learning from a rewarding play space. There may not be a fundamental difference in the traditional sense of learning, but there is a difference in the logical growth and understanding of games ( Rahim et al., 2020 ). Besides, the illusory nature of the mobile gaming experience makes the transfer of results very difficult. In response, external forces are needed to drive attention toward the potential and the knowledge learned. Teachers can and should use this meta-perspective to promote the pedagogical potential of play. The content of the learning outcomes, the enhancement of skills and knowledge, should be explored together with the K12 students. A bridge between the virtual and real worlds is built when all these gamers take note of the content and learning outcomes in question. The questions that need to be answered on the teaching side are which real-world environments can apply what is learned in the game and which aspects of the game are worth learning from. And gamers, the K12 students, should be motivated to notice this connection and to test what they have learned in their everyday lives ( Kyriakou and Glentis, 2021 ).

This paper summarizes the technological development of mobile games from the aspects of hardware and software. A neutral perspective is given to analyze the psychological and social problems that mobile games have brought to K12 students. At the end of the paper, the insights of the future development of educational games and current limitations of mobile games are also addressed. The major task for the development is to reflect on the content of the mobile game, which is not directly accessible. It is difficult to examine what is learned with a critical eye during play and must therefore be stimulated externally. The act of teaching and learning enables knowledge and skills transfer if the teacher has the ability to build bridges between the virtual and real worlds. Radically speaking, it is only through pedagogical support that the barriers to knowledge transfer in gamified learning can be overcome and the potential for learning unlocked. This new pedagogical role requires the teacher’s own interest, as well as active access to the space of gamified learning. This area deserves to be explored and experimented with and will present teachers with new pedagogical challenges.

Author Contributions

YL designed the guideline of the articles. JL contributed to the drafting of material for individual section. ZX and YH compiled the writing and conducted the analysis. YH and PX aligned the manuscript. YL and JL reviewed and provided corrections on the original draft. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords : psychosocial impacts, mobile game, K12 student, future development, educational mobile games

Citation: Li Y, Xu Z, Hao Y, Xiao P and Liu J (2022) Psychosocial Impacts of Mobile Game on K12 Students and Trend Exploration for Future Educational Mobile Games. Front. Educ. 7:843090. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.843090

Received: 24 December 2021; Accepted: 17 February 2022; Published: 29 April 2022.

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Copyright © 2022 Li, Xu, Hao, Xiao and Liu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Yuanzhe Li, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Current trends in research on how video games support or limit social-emotional learning

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• Published: 10 December 2020

Effect of internet use and electronic game-play on academic performance of Australian children

• Md Irteja Islam 1 , 2 ,
• Raaj Kishore Biswas 3 &
• Rasheda Khanam 1  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  21727 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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This study examined the association of internet use, and electronic game-play with academic performance respectively on weekdays and weekends in Australian children. It also assessed whether addiction tendency to internet and game-play is associated with academic performance. Overall, 1704 children of 11–17-year-olds from young minds matter (YMM), a cross-sectional nationwide survey, were analysed. The generalized linear regression models adjusted for survey weights were applied to investigate the association between internet use, and electronic-gaming with academic performance (measured by NAPLAN–National standard score). About 70% of the sample spent > 2 h/day using the internet and nearly 30% played electronic-games for > 2 h/day. Internet users during weekdays (> 4 h/day) were less likely to get higher scores in reading and numeracy, and internet use on weekends (> 2–4 h/day) was positively associated with academic performance. In contrast, 16% of electronic gamers were more likely to get better reading scores on weekdays compared to those who did not. Addiction tendency to internet and electronic-gaming is found to be adversely associated with academic achievement. Further, results indicated the need for parental monitoring and/or self-regulation to limit the timing and duration of internet use/electronic-gaming to overcome the detrimental effects of internet use and electronic game-play on academic achievement.

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Introduction.

Over the past two decades, with the proliferation of high-tech devices (e.g. Smartphone, tablets and computers), both the internet and electronic games have become increasingly popular with people of all ages, but particularly with children and adolescents 1 , 2 , 3 . Recent estimates have shown that one in three under-18-year-olds across the world uses the Internet, and 75% of adolescents play electronic games daily in developed countries 4 , 5 , 6 . Studies in the United States reported that adolescents are occupied with over 11 h a day with modern electronic media such as computer/Internet and electronic games, which is more than they spend in school or with friends 7 , 8 . In Australia, it is reported that about 98% of children aged 15–17 years are among Internet users and 98% of adolescents play electronic games, which is significantly higher than the USA and Europe 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 .

In recent times, the Internet and electronic games have been regarded as important, not just for better results at school, but also for self-expression, sociability, creativity and entertainment for children and adolescents 13 , 14 . For instance, 88% of 12–17 year-olds in the USA considered the Internet as a useful mechanism for making progress in school 15 , and similarly, electronic gaming in children and adolescents may assist in developing skills such as decision-making, smart-thinking and coordination 3 , 15 .

On the other hand, evidence points to the fact that the use of the Internet and electronic games is found to have detrimental effects such as reduced sleeping time, behavioural problems (e.g. low self-esteem, anxiety, depression), attention problems and poor academic performance in adolescents 1 , 5 , 12 , 16 . In addition, excessive Internet usage and increased electronic gaming are found to be addictive and may cause serious functional impairment in the daily life of children and adolescents 1 , 12 , 13 , 16 . For example, the AU Kids Online survey 17 reported that 50% of Australian children were more likely to experience behavioural problems associated with Internet use compared to children from 25 European countries (29%) surveyed in the EU Kids Online study 18 , which is alarming 12 . These mixed results require an urgent need of understanding the effect of the Internet use and electronic gaming on the development of children and adolescents, particularly on their academic performance.

Despite many international studies and a smaller number in Australia 12 , several systematic limitations remain in the existing literature, particularly regarding the association of academic performance with the use of Internet and electronic games in children and adolescents 13 , 16 , 19 . First, the majority of the earlier studies have either relied on school grades or children’s self assessments—which contain an innate subjectivity by the assessor; and have not considered the standardized tests of academic performance 16 , 20 , 21 , 22 . Second, most previous studies have tested the hypothesis in the school-based settings instead of canvassing the whole community, and cannot therefore adjust for sociodemographic confounders 9 , 16 . Third, most studies have been typically limited to smaller sample sizes, which might have reduced the reliability of the results 9 , 16 , 23 .

By considering these issues, this study aimed to investigate the association of internet usage and electronic gaming on a standardized test of academic performance—NAPLAN (The National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy) among Australian adolescents aged 11–17 years using nationally representative data from the Second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing—Young Minds Matter (YMM). It is hypothesized that the findings of this study will provide a population-wide, contextual view of excessive Internet use and electronic games played separately on weekdays and weekends by Australian adolescents, which may be beneficial for evidence-based policies.

Subject demographics

Respondents who attended gave NAPLAN in 2008 (N = 4) and 2009 (N = 29) were removed from the sample due to smaller sample size, as later years (2010–2015) had over 100 samples yearly. The NAPLAN scores from 2008 might not align with a survey conducted in 2013. Further missing cases were deleted with the assumption that data were missing at random for unbiased estimates, which is common for large-scale surveys 24 . From the initial survey of 2967 samples, 1704 adolescents were sampled for this study.

The sample characteristics were displayed in Table 1 . For example, distribution of daily average internet use was checked, showing that over 50% of the sampled adolescents spent 2–4 h on internet (Table 1 ). Although all respondents in the survey used internet, nearly 21% of them did not play any electronic games in a day and almost one in every three (33%) adolescents played electronic games beyond the recommended time of 2 h per day. Girls had more addictive tendency to internet/game-play in compare to boys.

The mean scores for the three NAPLAN tests scores (reading, writing and numeracy) ranged from 520 to 600. A gradual decline in average NAPLAN tests scores (reading, writing and numeracy) scores were observed for internet use over 4 h during weekdays, and over 3 h during weekends (Table 2 ). Table 2 also shows that adolescents who played no electronic games at all have better scores in writing compared to those who play electronic games. Moreover, Table 2 shows no particular pattern between time spent on gaming and NAPLAN reading and numeracy scores. Among the survey samples, 308 adolescents were below the national standard average.

Internet use and academic performance

Our results show that internet (non-academic use) use during weekdays, especially more than 4 h, is negatively associated with academic performance (Table 3 ). For internet use during weekdays, all three models showed a significant negative association between time spent on internet and NAPLAN reading and numeracy scores. For example, in Model 1, adolescents who spent over 4 h on internet during weekdays are 15% and 17% less likely to get higher reading and numeracy scores respectively compared to those who spend less than 2 h. Similar results were found in Model 2 and 3 (Table 3 ), when we adjusted other confounders. The variable addiction tendency to internet was found to be negatively associated with NAPLAN results. The adolescents who had internet addiction were 17% less and 14% less likely to score higher in reading and numeracy respectively than those without such problematic behaviour.

Internet use during weekends showed a positive association with academic performance (Table 4 ). For example, Model 1 in Table 4 shows that internet use during weekends was significant for reading, writing and national standard scores. Youths who spend around 2–4 h and over 4 h on the internet during weekends were 21% and 15% more likely to get a higher reading scores respectively compared to those who spend less than 2 h (Model 1, Table 4 ). Similarly, in model 3, where the internet addiction of adolescents was adjusted, adolescents who spent 2–4 h on internet were 1.59 times more likely to score above the national standard. All three models of Table 4 confirmed that adolescents who spent 2–4 h on the internet during weekends are more likely to achieve better reading and writing scores and be at or above national standard compared to those who used the internet for less than 2 h. Numeracy scores were unlikely to be affected by internet use. The results obtained from Model 3 should be treated as robust, as this is the most comprehensive model that accounts for unobserved characteristics. The addiction tendency to internet/game-play variable showed a negative association with academic performance, but this is only significant for numeracy scores.

Electronic gaming and academic performance

Time spent on electronic gaming during weekdays had no effect on the academic performance of writing and language but had significant association with reading scores (Model 2, Table 5 ). Model 2 of Table 5 shows that adolescents who spent 1–2 h on gaming during weekdays were 13% more likely to get higher reading scores compared to those who did not play at all. It was an interesting result that while electronic gaming during weekdays tended to show a positive effect on reading scores, internet use during weekdays showed a negative effect. Addiction tendency to internet/game-play had a negative effect; the adolescents who were addicted to the internet were 14% less likely to score more highly in reading than those without any such behaviour.

All three models from Table 6 confirm that time spent on electronic gaming over 2 h during weekends had a positive effect on readings scores. For example, the results of Model 3 (Table 6 ) showed that adolescents who spent more than 2 h on electronic gaming during weekdays were 16% more likely to have better reading scores compared to adolescents who did not play games at all. Playing electronic games during weekends was not found to be statistically significant for writing and numeracy scores and national standard scores, although the odds ratios were positive. The results from all tables confirm that addiction tendency to internet/gaming is negatively associated with academic performance, although the variable is not always statistically significant.

Building on past research on the effect of the internet use and electronic gaming in adolescents, this study examined whether Internet use and playing electronic games were associated with academic performance (i.e. reading, writing and numeracy) using a standardized test of academic performance (i.e. NAPLAN) in a nationally representative dataset in Australia. The findings of this study question the conventional belief 9 , 25 that academic performance is negatively associated with internet use and electronic games, particularly when the internet is used for non-academic purpose.

In the current hi-tech world, many developed countries (e.g. the USA, Canada and Australia) have recommended that 5–17 year-olds limit electronic media (e.g. internet, electronic games) to 2 h per day for entertainment purposes, with concerns about the possible negative consequences of excessive use of electronic media 14 , 26 . However, previous research has often reported that children and adolescents spent more than the recommended time 26 . The present study also found similar results, that is, that about 70% of the sampled adolescents aged 11–17 spent more than 2 h per day on the Internet and nearly 30% spent more than 2-h on electronic gaming in a day. This could be attributed to the increased availability of computers/smart-phones and the internet among under-18s 12 . For instance, 97% of Australian households with children aged less than 15 years accessed internet at home in 2016–2017 10 ; as a result, policymakers recommended that parents restrict access to screens (e.g. Internet and electronic games) in children’s bedrooms, monitor children using screens, share screen hours with their children, and to act as role models by reducing their own screen time 14 .

This research has drawn attention to the fact that the average time spent using the internet, which is often more than 4 h during weekdays tends to be negatively associated with academic performance, especially a lower reading and numeracy score, while internet use of more than 2 h during weekends is positively associated with academic performance, particularly having a better reading and writing score and above national standard score. By dividing internet use and gaming by weekdays and weekends, this study find an answer to the mixed evidence found in previous literature 9 . The results of this study clearly show that the non-academic use of internet during weekdays, particularly, spending more than 4 h on internet is harmful for academic performance, whereas, internet use on the weekends is likely to incur a positive effect on academic performance. This result is consistent with a USA study that reported that internet use is positively associated with improved reading skills and higher scores on standardized tests 13 , 27 . It is also reported in the literature that academic performance is better among moderate users of the internet compared to non-users or high level users 13 , 27 , which was in line with the findings of this study. This may be due to the fact that the internet is predominantly a text-based format in which the internet users need to type and read to access most websites effectively 13 . The results of this study indicated that internet use is not harmful to academic performance if it is used moderately, especially, if ensuring very limited use on weekdays. The results of this study further confirmed that timing (weekdays or weekends) of internet use is a factor that needs to be considered.

Regarding electronic gaming, interestingly, the study found that the average time of gaming either in weekdays or weekends is positively associated with academic performance especially for reading scores. These results contradicted previous literatures 1 , 13 , 19 , 27 that have reported negative correlation between electronic games and educational performance in high-school children. The results of this study were consistent with studies conducted in the USA, Europe and other countries that claimed a positive correlation between gaming and academic performance, especially in numeracy and reading skills 28 , 29 . This is may be due to the fact that the instructions for playing most of the electronic games are text-heavy and many electronic games require gamers to solve puzzles 9 , 30 . The literature also found that playing electronic games develops cognitive skills (e.g. mental rotation abilities, dexterity), which can be attributable to better academic achievement 31 , 32 .

Consistent with previous research findings 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , the study also found that adolescents who had addiction tendency to internet usage and/or electronic gaming were less likely to achieve higher scores in reading and numeracy compared to those who had not problematic behaviour. Addiction tendency to Internet/gaming among adolescents was found to be negatively associated with overall academic performance compared to those who were not having addiction tendency, although the variables were not always statistically significant. This is mainly because adolescents’ skipped school and missed classes and tuitions, and provide less effort to do homework due to addictive internet usage and electronic gaming 19 , 35 . The results of this study indicated that parental monitoring and/ or self-regulation (by the users) regarding the timing and intensity of internet use/gaming are essential to outweigh any negative effect of internet use and gaming on academic performance.

Although the present study uses a large nationally representative sample and advances prior research on the academic performance among adolescents who reported using the internet and playing electronic games, the findings of this study also have some limitations that need to be addressed. Firstly, adolescents who reported on the internet use and electronic games relied on self-reported child data without any screening tests or any external validation and thus, results may be overestimated or underestimated. Second, the study primarily addresses the internet use and electronic games as distinct behaviours, as the YMM survey gathered information only on the amount of time spent on internet use and electronic gaming, and included only a few questions related to addiction due to resources and time constraints and did not provide enough information to medically diagnose internet/gaming addiction. Finally, the cross-sectional research design of the data outlawed evaluation of causality and temporality of the observed association of internet use and electronic gaming with the academic performance in adolescents.

This study found that the average time spent on the internet on weekends and electronic gaming (both in weekdays and weekends) is positively associated with academic performance (measured by NAPLAN) of Australian adolescents. However, it confirmed a negative association between addiction tendency (internet use or electronic gaming) and academic performance; nonetheless, most of the adolescents used the internet and played electronic games more than the recommended 2-h limit per day. The study also revealed that further research is required on the development and implementation of interventions aimed at improving parental monitoring and fostering users’ self-regulation to restrict the daily usage of the internet and/or electronic games.

Data description

Young minds matter (YMM) was an Australian nationwide cross-sectional survey, on children aged 4–17 years conducted in 2013–2014 37 . Out of the initial 76,606 households approached, a total of 6,310 parents/caregivers (eligible household response rate 55%) of 4–17 year-old children completed a structured questionnaire via face to face interview and 2967 children aged 11–17 years (eligible children response rate 89%) completed a computer-based self-reported questionnaire privately at home 37 .

Area based sampling was used for the survey. A total of 225 Statistical Area 1 (defined by Australian Bureau of Statistics) areas were selected based on the 2011 Census of Population and Housing. They were stratified by state/territory and by metropolitan versus non-metropolitan (rural/regional) to ensure proportional representation of geographic areas across Australia 38 . However, a small number of samples were excluded, based on most remote areas, homeless children, institutional care and children living in households where interviews could not be conducted in English. The details of the survey and methodology used in the survey can be found in Lawrence et al. 37 .

Following informed consent (both written and verbal) from the primary carers (parents/caregivers), information on the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) of the children and adolescents were also added to the YMM dataset. The YMM survey is ethically approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of Western Australia and by the Australian Government Department of Health. In addition, the authors of this study obtained a written approval from Australian Data Archive (ADA) Dataverse to access the YMM dataset. All the researches were done in accordance with relevant ADA Dataverse guidelines and policy/regulations in using YMM datasets.

Outcome variables

The NAPLAN, conducted annually since 2008, is a nationwide standardized test of academic performance for all Australian students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 to assess their skills in reading, writing numeracy, grammar and spelling 39 , 40 . NAPLAN scores from 2010 to 2015, reported by YMM, were used as outcome variables in the models; while NAPLAN data of 2008 (N = 4) and 2009 (N = 29) were excluded for this study in order to reduce the time lag between YMM survey and the NAPLAN test. The NAPLAN gives point-in-time standardized scores, which provide the scope to compare children’s academic performance over time 40 , 41 . The NAPLAN tests are one component of the evaluation and grading phase of each school, and do not substitute for the comprehensive, consistent evaluations provided by teachers on the performance of each student 39 , 41 . All four domains—reading, writing, numeracy and language conventions (grammar and spelling) are in continuous scales in the dataset. The scores are given based on a series of tests; details can be found in 42 . The current study uses only reading, writing and numeracy scores to measure academic performance.

In this study, the National standard score is a combination of three variables: whether the student meets the national standard in reading, writing and numeracy. Based on national average score, a binary outcome variable is also generated. One category is ‘below standard’ if a child scores at least one standard deviation (one below scores) from the national standard in reading, writing and numeracy, and the rest is ‘at/above standard’.

Independent variables

Internet use and electronic gaming.

In the YMM survey, owing to the scope of the survey itself, an extensive set of questions about internet usage and electronic gaming could not be included. Internet usage omitted the time spent in academic purposes and/or related activities. Playing electronic games included playing games on a gaming console (e.g. PlayStation, Xbox, or similar console ) online or using a computer, or mobile phone, or a handled device 12 . The primary independent covariates were average internet use per day and average electronic game-play in hours per day. A combination of hours on weekdays and weekends was separately used in the models. These variables were based on a self-assessed questionnaire where the youths were asked questions regarding daily time spent on the Internet and electronic game-play, specifically on either weekends or weekdays. Since, internet use/game-play for a maximum of 2 h/day is recommended for children and adolescents aged between 5 and 17 years in many developed countries including Australia 14 , 26 ; therefore, to be consistent with the recommended time we preferred to categorize both the time variables of internet use and gaming into three groups with an interval of 2 h each. Internet use was categorized into three groups: (a) ≤ 2 h), (b) 2–4 h, and (c) > 4 h. Similar questions were asked for game-play h. The sample distribution for electronic game-play was skewed; therefore, this variable was categorized into three groups: (a) no game-play (0 h), (b) 1–2 h, and (c) > 2 h.

Other covariates

Family structure and several sociodemographic variables were used in the models to adjust for the differences in individual characteristics, parental inputs and tastes, household characteristics and place of residence. Individual characteristics included age (continuous) and sex of the child (boys, girls) and addiction tendency to internet use and/or game-play of the adolescent. Addiction tendency to internet/game-play was a binary independent variable. It was a combination of five behavioural questions relating to: whether the respondent avoided eating/sleeping due to internet use or game-play; feels bothered when s/he cannot access internet or play electronic games; keeps using internet or playing electronic games even when s/he is not really interested; spends less time with family/friends or on school works due to internet use or game-play; and unsuccessfully tries to spend less time on the internet or playing electronic games. There were four options for each question: never/almost never; not very often; fairly often; and very often. A binary covariate was simulated, where if any four out of five behaviours were reported as for example, fairly often or very often, then it was considered that the respondent had addictive tendency.

Household characteristics included household income (low, medium, high), family type (original, step, blended, sole parent/primary carer, other) 43 and remoteness (major cities, inner regional, outer regional, remote/very remote). Parental inputs and taste included education of primary carer (bachelor, diploma, year 10/11), primary carer’s likelihood of serious mental illness (K6 score -likely; not likely); primary carer’s smoking status (no, yes); and risk of alcoholic related harm by the primary carer (risky, none).

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics of the sample and distributions of the outcome variables were initially assessed. Based on these distributions, the categorization of outcome variables was conducted, as mentioned above. For formal analysis, generalized linear regression models (GLMs) 44 were used, adjusting for the survey weights, which allowed for generalization of the findings. As NAPLAN scores of three areas—reading, writing and numeracy—were continuous variables, linear models were fitted to daily average internet time and electronic game play time. The scores were standardized (mean = 0, SD = 1) for model fitness. The binary logistic model was fitted for the dichotomized national standard outcome variable. Separate models were estimated for internet and electronic gaming on weekends and weekdays.

We estimated three different models, where models varied based on covariates used to adjust the GLMs. Model 1 was adjusted for common sociodemographic factors including age and sex of the child, household income, education of primary carer’s and family type 43 . However, the results of this model did not account for some unobserved household characteristics (e.g. taste, preferences) that are unobserved to the researcher and are arguably correlated with potential outcomes. The effects of unobserved characteristics were reduced by using a comprehensive set of observable characteristics 45 , 46 that were available in YMM data. The issue of unobserved characteristics was addressed by estimating two additional models that include variables by including household characteristics such as parental taste, preference and inputs, and child characteristics in the model. In addition to the variables in Model 1, Model 2 included remoteness, primary carer’s mental health status, smoking status and risk of alcoholic related harm by the primary carer. Model 3 further included internet/game addiction of the adolescent in addition to all the covariates in Model 2. Model 3 was expected to account for a child’s level of unobserved characteristics as the children who were addicted to internet/games were different from others. The model will further show how academic performance is affected by internet/game addiction. The correlation among the variables ‘internet/game addiction’ and ‘internet use’ and ‘gaming’ (during weekdays and weekends) were also assessed, and they were less than 0.5. Multicollinearity was assessed using the variance inflation factor (VIF), which was under 5 for all models, suggesting no multicollinearity 47 .

p value below the threshold of 0.05 was considered the threshold of significance. All analysis was conducted in R (version 3.6.1). R-package survey (version 3.37) was used for modelling which is suited for complex survey samples 48 .

Data availability

The authors declare that they do not have permission to share dataset. However, the datasets of Young Minds Matter (YMM) survey data is available at the Australian Data Archive (ADA) Dataverse on request ( https://doi.org/10.4225/87/LCVEU3 ).

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the University of Western Australia, Roy Morgan Research, the Australian Government Department of Health for conducting the survey, and the Australian Data Archive for giving access to the YMM survey dataset. The authors also would like to thank Dr Barbara Harmes for proofreading the manuscript.

This research did not receive any specific Grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Islam, M.I., Biswas, R.K. & Khanam, R. Effect of internet use and electronic game-play on academic performance of Australian children. Sci Rep 10 , 21727 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78916-9

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Playing games: advancing research on online and mobile gaming consumption

Internet Research

ISSN : 1066-2243

Article publication date: 9 April 2019

Issue publication date: 9 April 2019

Seo, Y. , Dolan, R. and Buchanan-Oliver, M. (2019), "Playing games: advancing research on online and mobile gaming consumption", Internet Research , Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 289-292. https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-04-2019-542

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Copyright © 2019, Emerald Publishing Limited

Introduction

Computer games consistently generate more revenue than the movie and music industries and have become one of the most ubiquitous symbols of popular culture ( Takahashi, 2018 ). Recent technological developments are changing the ways in which consumers are able to engage with computer games as individuals – adult gamers, parents and children ( Christy and Kuncheva, 2018 ) – and as collectives, such as communities, networks and subcultures ( Hamari and Sjöblom, 2017 ; Seo, 2016 ). In particular, with the proliferation of online and mobile technologies, we have witnessed the emergence of newer forms of both computer games themselves (e.g. advertising games (advergames), virtual and augmented reality games and social media games) ( Rauschnabel et al. , 2017 ) and of gaming practices (e.g. serious gaming, hardcore gaming and eSports) ( Seo, 2016 ).

It is, therefore, not surprising that the issues concerning the ways computer games consumption is changing in light of these technological developments have received much attention across diverse disciplines of social sciences, such as marketing (e.g. Seo et al. , 2015 ), information systems (e.g. Liu et al. , 2013 ), media studies (e.g. Giddings, 2016 ) and internet research (e.g. Hamari and Sjöblom, 2017 ). The purpose of this introductory paper to the special issue “Online and mobile gaming” is to chart future research directions that are relevant to a rapidly changing postmodern digital gaming landscape. In this endeavor, this paper first provides an integrative summary of the six articles that comprise this special issue, and then draws the threads together in order to elicit the agenda for future research.

An integrative summary of the special issue

The six articles that were selected for this special issue advance research into online and mobile gaming in several ways. The opening article by Pappas, Mikalef, Giannakos and Kourouthanassis draws attention to the complex ecosystem of mobile applications in which multiple factors influence consumer behavior in mobile games. Pappas and his colleagues shed light on how price value, game content quality, positive and negative emotions, gender, and gameplay time interact with one another to predict the intention to download mobile games. This study offers useful insights by demonstrating how fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis methodology can be applied to advance research into computer games consumption.

The study by Bae, Kim, Kim and Koo addresses the digital virtual consumption that occurs within computer games. This second paper explores the relationship between in-game items and mood management to determine the affective value of purchasing in-game items. The findings reveal that game users manage their levels of arousal and mood valence through the use of in-game purchases, suggesting that stressed users are more likely to purchase decorative items, whereas bored users tend to purchase functional items. This study offers an informative perspective of how mood management and selective exposure theories can be applied to understand the in-game purchases. Continuing this theme, the third study by Bae, Park and Koo investigates the effect of perceived corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Park and colleagues extend previous research by identifying important motivational mechanisms, such as self-esteem and compassion, which link CSR initiative perceptions with the intentions to purchase in-game items.

The fourth and fifth studies of this special issue draw our attention to the use of avatars and game characters. Liao, Cheng and Teng use social identity and flow theories to construct a novel model that explains how avatar attractiveness and customization impact loyalty among online game consumers. In the fifth study, Choi explores the importance of game character characteristics being congruent with product types in order to make advergames more persuasive.

The final study by Lee and Ko reviews the predictors of game addiction based on loneliness, motivation and inter-personal competence. The findings of these authors suggest that regulatory focus mediates the effect of loneliness on online game addiction, and that inter-personal competence significantly buffers the indirect effect of loneliness on online game addiction. This study advances our knowledge about online game addiction through an investigation of the important role played by loneliness.

Future directions for research

Taken together, our introductory commentary and the six empirical studies that make up this special issue deepen and broaden the current understanding of how online and mobile technologies augment the consumption of computer games. In this final section of our paper, we outline potential directions for future research.

First, this special issue highlights that computer games consumption is a diverse interdisciplinary phenomenon, where important issues range from establishing the factors that determine the adoption of particular computer games to what consumers do within these games; from whether computer games enhance consumer well-being (e.g. Howes et al. , 2017 ), to whether they engender addiction (e.g. Frölich et al. , 2016 ); and from establishing how computer gaming experiences are influenced by internal psychological mechanisms to querying the effects of broader social aspects of consumer lives on computer games consumption ( Kowert et al. , 2015 ). Informed by these findings, we assert that as computer games consumption becomes more complex and interactive, incorporating more technology brought about by the proliferation of online and mobile gaming, it is important that our theorizing follows by tracking the mutual imbrication of consumers, play, technology, culture, well-being and other salient issues.

Computer games consumption is a phenomenon of global significance, which is reflected by the international interest that we have received for this special issue. This prompts us to consider similarities and differences in the ways that computer games are consumed across cultures ( Elmezeny and Wimmer, 2018 ). Many computer games themselves now foster intercultural, multicultural and transcultural experiences ( Cruz et al. , 2018 ) by enabling consumers from different countries and regions to connect and build relationships within the shared virtual space. How do such experiences shape the consumption of computer games? This gap in the literature has been previously noted ( Seo et al. , 2015 ), but it has not been either sufficiently detailed or theorised. Future studies should explore the role of various transcultural experiences and practices within online and mobile games consumption.

Finally, one increasingly promising area for future research is the rise of virtual reality (VR) applications. Although the earliest references to VR date back to the 1990s (e.g. Gigante, 1993 ), it has been only recently that technological developments have allowed VR to evolve from a niche technology into an everyday phenomenon that is readily available to consumers ( Lamkin, 2017 ; Oleksy and Wnuk, 2017 ). Given that VR is an experientially distinct medium, how will it augment computer games consumption experiences and practices? Will it foster more diverse applications of computer games across various aspects of consumer lives (e.g. Tussyadiah et al. , 2018 ), or will it increase computer games addiction (e.g. Chou and Ting, 2003 )? What are the current and future intersections between VR technology, online and mobile games, and how are they likely to develop and affect consumers? We envision that these and many other questions related to the application and proliferation of VR technology in computer games consumption will be an exceptionally fruitful area for future research.

In summary, we hope that this paper and the special issue, with its emphasis on online and mobile gaming, will offer new insights for researchers and practitioners who are interested in the advancement of research on computer games consumption.

Chou , T.J. and Ting , C.C. ( 2003 ), “ The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction ”, CyberPsychology and Behavior , Vol. 6 No. 6 , pp. 663 - 675 .

Christy , T. and Kuncheva , L.I. ( 2018 ), “ Technological advancements in affective gaming: a historical survey ”, GSTF Journal on Computing , Vol. 3 No. 4 , pp. 32 - 41 .

Cruz , A.G.B. , Seo , Y. and Buchanan-Oliver , M. ( 2018 ), “ Religion as a field of transcultural practices in multicultural marketplaces ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 91 , pp. 317 - 325 .

Elmezeny , A. and Wimmer , J. ( 2018 ), “ Games without frontiers: a framework for analyzing digital game cultures comparatively ”, Media and Communication , Vol. 6 No. 2 , pp. 80 - 89 .

Frölich , J. , Lehmkuhl , G. , Orawa , H. , Bromba , M. , Wolf , K. and Görtz-Dorten , A. ( 2016 ), “ Computer game misuse and addiction of adolescents in a clinically referred study sample ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 55 , pp. 9 - 15 .

Giddings , S. ( 2016 ), “ Pokémon Go as distributed imagination ”, Mobile Media and Communication , Vol. 5 No. 1 , pp. 59 - 62 .

Gigante , M.A. ( 1993 ), “ Virtual reality: definitions, history and applications ”, in Earnshaw , R.A. (Ed.), Virtual Reality Systems , Academic Press , New York, NY , pp. 3 - 14 .

Hamari , J. and Sjöblom , M. ( 2017 ), “ What is eSports and why do people watch it ”, Internet Research , Vol. 27 No. 2 , pp. 211 - 232 .

Howes , S.C. , Charles , D.K. , Marley , J. , Pedlow , K. and McDonough , S.M. ( 2017 ), “ Gaming for health: systematic review and meta-analysis of the physical and cognitive effects of active computer gaming in older adults ”, Physical Therapy , Vol. 97 No. 12 , pp. 1122 - 1137 .

Kowert , R. , Vogelgesang , J. , Festl , R. and Quandt , T. ( 2015 ), “ Psychosocial causes and consequences of online video game play ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 45 , pp. 51 - 58 .

Lamkin , P. ( 2017 ), “ Virtual reality headset sales hit 1 million ”, available at: www.forbes.com/sites/paullamkin/2017/11/30/virtual-reality-headset-sales-hit-1-million/#241697c42b61/ (accessed October 4, 2018 ).

Liu , D. , Li , X. and Santhanam , R. ( 2013 ), “ Digital games and beyond: what happens when players compete ”, MIS Quarterly , Vol. 37 No. 1 , pp. 111 - 124 .

Oleksy , T. and Wnuk , A. ( 2017 ), “ Catch them all and increase your place attachment! The role of location-based augmented reality games in changing people–place relations ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 76 , pp. 3 - 8 .

Rauschnabel , P.A. , Rossmann , A. and tom Dieck , M.C. ( 2017 ), “ An adoption framework for mobile augmented reality games: the case of Pokémon Go ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 76 , pp. 276 - 286 .

Seo , Y. ( 2016 ), “ Professionalized consumption and identity transformations in the field of eSports ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 69 No. 1 , pp. 264 - 272 .

Seo , Y. , Buchanan‐Oliver , M. and Fam , K.S. ( 2015 ), “ Advancing research on computer game consumption: a future research agenda ”, Journal of Consumer Behaviour , Vol. 14 No. 6 , pp. 353 - 356 .

Takahashi , D. ( 2018 ), “ Newzoo: games market expected to hit $180.1 billion in revenues in 2021 ”, available at: https://venturebeat.com/2018/04/30/newzoo-global-games-expected-to-hit-180-1-billion-in-revenues-2021/ (accessed October 4, 2018 ).

Tussyadiah , I.P. , Wang , D. , Jung , T.H. and tom Dieck , M.C. ( 2018 ), “ Virtual reality, presence and attitude change: empirical evidence from tourism ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 66 , pp. 140 - 154 .

Acknowledgements

The guest editors would like to offer special thanks to the Editor of Internet Research , Christy Cheung, for supporting the publication of this special issue. The guest editors would also like to thank all of the authors who contributed to this research for the “Online and mobile gaming” special issue. Finally, the guest editors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of reviewers, who generously spent their time in helping to review submissions: Luke Butcher, Curtin University, Australia; Hsiu-Hua Chang, Feng Chia University, Taiwan; I-Cheng Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan; Chi-Wen Chen, California State University, USA; Zifei Fay Chen, University of San Francisco, USA; Sujeong Choi, Chonnam National University, Korea; Diego Costa Pinto, New University of Lisbon, Portugal; Angela Cruz, Monash University, Australia; Robert Davis, Massey University, New Zealand; Julia Fehrer, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Tony Garry, University of Otago, New Zealand; Tracy Harwood, De Montfort University, UK; Mu Hu, Beihang University, China; Tseng-Lung Huang, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan; Kun-Huang Huang, Feng Chia University, Taiwan; Chelsea Hughes, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA; Euejung Hwang, Otago University, New Zealand; Sang-Uk Jung, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Korea; Kacy Kim, Bryant University, USA; Dong-Mo Koo, Kyungpook National University, Korea; Jun Bum Kwon, University of New South Wales, Australia; Chun-Chia Lee, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan; Jacob Chaeho Lee, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Korea; Loic Li, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Marcel Martončik, University of Presov, Slovakia; Mike Molesworth, University of Reading, UK; Gavin Northey, University of Auckland, New Zealand; James Richard, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand; Ryan Rogers, University of Pennsylvania, USA; Felix Septianto, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Zhen Shao, Harbin Institute of Technology, China; Kai-Shuan Shen, Fo Guang University, Taiwan; Jungmin Son, Chungnam National University; Korea; Yang Sun, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, China; Eva van Reijmersdal, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands; Ekant Veer, University of Canterbury, New Zealand; John Velez, Indiana University, USA; Wei-Tsong Wang, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan; Ya-Ling Wu, Tamkang University, Taiwan; Sheau-Fen Yap, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand; and Sukki Yoon, Bryant University, USA.

Corresponding author

About the authors.

Yuri Seo is Senior Lecturer at the University of Auckland of Business School, New Zealand. His research interests include digital technology and consumption, cultural branding and multicultural marketplaces.

Rebecca Dolan is Lecturer at the University of Adelaide School of Business, Australia. Her research focuses on understanding, facilitating and optimizing customer relationships, engagement, and online communication strategies. She has a specific interest in the role that digital and social media play in the modern marketing communications environment.

Margo Buchanan-Oliver is Professor in the Department of Marketing and the Co-Director of the Centre of Digital Enterprise (CODE) at the University of Auckland Business School. Her research concerns interdisciplinary consumption discourse and practice, particularly that occurring at the intersection of the digital and physical worlds.

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Computer Science > Human-Computer Interaction

Title: mobile game user research: the world as your lab.

Abstract: With the advent of mobile games and the according growing and competitive market, game user research can provide valuable insights and a competitive edge if methods and procedures are employed that match the distinct challenges that mobile devices, games and usage scenarios induce. We present a summary of parameters that frame the research setup and procedure, focusing on the trade-offs between lab and field studies and the related decision whether to pursue large-scale and quantitative or small-scale focused research accompanied by qualitative methods. We then illustrate the implications of these considerations on real world projects along the lines of two evaluations of different input methods for the action-puzzle mobile game Somyeol: a local study with 37 participants and a mixed design of qualitative and quantitative methods, and the strictly quantitative analysis of game-play data from 117,118 users. The findings underline the importance of small-scale evaluations prior to release.

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Home » 500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

Table of Contents

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships among variables. This method is widely used in social sciences, psychology , economics , and other fields where researchers aim to understand human behavior and phenomena through statistical analysis. If you are looking for a quantitative research topic, there are numerous areas to explore, from analyzing data on a specific population to studying the effects of a particular intervention or treatment. In this post, we will provide some ideas for quantitative research topics that may inspire you and help you narrow down your interests.

Quantitative Research Titles

Quantitative Research Titles are as follows:

Business and Economics

• “Statistical Analysis of Supply Chain Disruptions on Retail Sales”
• “Quantitative Examination of Consumer Loyalty Programs in the Fast Food Industry”
• “Predicting Stock Market Trends Using Machine Learning Algorithms”
• “Influence of Workplace Environment on Employee Productivity: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Economic Policies on Small Businesses: A Regression Analysis”
• “Customer Satisfaction and Profit Margins: A Quantitative Correlation Study”
• “Analyzing the Role of Marketing in Brand Recognition: A Statistical Overview”
• “Quantitative Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumer Trust”
• “Price Elasticity of Demand for Luxury Goods: A Case Study”
• “The Relationship Between Fiscal Policy and Inflation Rates: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Factors Influencing E-commerce Conversion Rates: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Examining the Correlation Between Interest Rates and Consumer Spending”
• “Standardized Testing and Academic Performance: A Quantitative Evaluation”
• “Teaching Strategies and Student Learning Outcomes in Secondary Schools: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Relationship Between Extracurricular Activities and Academic Success”
• “Influence of Parental Involvement on Children’s Educational Achievements”
• “Digital Literacy in Primary Schools: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Learning Outcomes in Blended vs. Traditional Classrooms: A Comparative Analysis”
• “Correlation Between Teacher Experience and Student Success Rates”
• “Analyzing the Impact of Classroom Technology on Reading Comprehension”
• “Gender Differences in STEM Fields: A Quantitative Analysis of Enrollment Data”
• “The Relationship Between Homework Load and Academic Burnout”
• “Assessment of Special Education Programs in Public Schools”
• “Role of Peer Tutoring in Improving Academic Performance: A Quantitative Study”

Medicine and Health Sciences

• “The Impact of Sleep Duration on Cardiovascular Health: A Cross-sectional Study”
• “Analyzing the Efficacy of Various Antidepressants: A Meta-Analysis”
• “Patient Satisfaction in Telehealth Services: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Dietary Habits and Incidence of Heart Disease: A Quantitative Review”
• “Correlations Between Stress Levels and Immune System Functioning”
• “Smoking and Lung Function: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Influence of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults”
• “Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in Community Hospitals: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Efficacy of Vaccination Programs in Controlling Disease Spread: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Role of Social Determinants in Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Impact of Hospital Design on Patient Recovery Rates”
• “Quantitative Analysis of Dietary Choices and Obesity Rates in Children”

Social Sciences

• “Examining Social Inequality through Wage Distribution: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Parental Divorce on Child Development: A Longitudinal Study”
• “Social Media and its Effect on Political Polarization: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “The Relationship Between Religion and Social Attitudes: A Statistical Overview”
• “Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Achievement”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Community Programs on Crime Reduction”
• “Public Opinion and Immigration Policies: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Analyzing the Gender Representation in Political Offices: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Mass Media on Public Opinion: A Regression Analysis”
• “Influence of Urban Design on Social Interactions in Communities”
• “The Role of Social Support in Mental Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Examining the Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Employment Status”

Engineering and Technology

• “Performance Evaluation of Different Machine Learning Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicles”
• “Material Science: A Quantitative Analysis of Stress-Strain Properties in Various Alloys”
• “Impacts of Data Center Cooling Solutions on Energy Consumption”
• “Analyzing the Reliability of Renewable Energy Sources in Grid Management”
• “Optimization of 5G Network Performance: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Aerodynamics on Fuel Efficiency in Commercial Airplanes”
• “The Relationship Between Software Complexity and Bug Frequency”
• “Machine Learning in Predictive Maintenance: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Wearable Technologies and their Impact on Healthcare Monitoring”
• “Quantitative Assessment of Cybersecurity Measures in Financial Institutions”
• “Analysis of Noise Pollution from Urban Transportation Systems”
• “The Influence of Architectural Design on Energy Efficiency in Buildings”

Quantitative Research Topics

Quantitative Research Topics are as follows:

• The effects of social media on self-esteem among teenagers.
• A comparative study of academic achievement among students of single-sex and co-educational schools.
• The impact of gender on leadership styles in the workplace.
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic performance of students.
• The effect of mindfulness meditation on stress levels in college students.
• The relationship between employee motivation and job satisfaction.
• The effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional classroom learning.
• The correlation between sleep duration and academic performance among college students.
• The impact of exercise on mental health among adults.
• The relationship between social support and psychological well-being among cancer patients.
• The effect of caffeine consumption on sleep quality.
• A comparative study of the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy in treating depression.
• The relationship between physical attractiveness and job opportunities.
• The correlation between smartphone addiction and academic performance among high school students.
• The impact of music on memory recall among adults.
• The effectiveness of parental control software in limiting children’s online activity.
• The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction among young adults.
• The correlation between academic achievement and parental involvement among minority students.
• The impact of early childhood education on academic performance in later years.
• The effectiveness of employee training and development programs in improving organizational performance.
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and access to healthcare services.
• The correlation between social support and academic achievement among college students.
• The impact of technology on communication skills among children.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction programs in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression.
• The relationship between employee turnover and organizational culture.
• The correlation between job satisfaction and employee engagement.
• The impact of video game violence on aggressive behavior among children.
• The effectiveness of nutritional education in promoting healthy eating habits among adolescents.
• The relationship between bullying and academic performance among middle school students.
• The correlation between teacher expectations and student achievement.
• The impact of gender stereotypes on career choices among high school students.
• The effectiveness of anger management programs in reducing violent behavior.
• The relationship between social support and recovery from substance abuse.
• The correlation between parent-child communication and adolescent drug use.
• The impact of technology on family relationships.
• The effectiveness of smoking cessation programs in promoting long-term abstinence.
• The relationship between personality traits and academic achievement.
• The correlation between stress and job performance among healthcare professionals.
• The impact of online privacy concerns on social media use.
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders.
• The relationship between teacher feedback and student motivation.
• The correlation between physical activity and academic performance among elementary school students.
• The impact of parental divorce on academic achievement among children.
• The effectiveness of diversity training in improving workplace relationships.
• The relationship between childhood trauma and adult mental health.
• The correlation between parental involvement and substance abuse among adolescents.
• The impact of social media use on romantic relationships among young adults.
• The effectiveness of assertiveness training in improving communication skills.
• The relationship between parental expectations and academic achievement among high school students.
• The correlation between sleep quality and mood among adults.
• The impact of video game addiction on academic performance among college students.
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating eating disorders.
• The relationship between job stress and job performance among teachers.
• The correlation between mindfulness and emotional regulation.
• The impact of social media use on self-esteem among college students.
• The effectiveness of parent-teacher communication in promoting academic achievement among elementary school students.
• The impact of renewable energy policies on carbon emissions
• The relationship between employee motivation and job performance
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating eating disorders
• The correlation between physical activity and cognitive function in older adults
• The effect of childhood poverty on adult health outcomes
• The impact of urbanization on biodiversity conservation
• The relationship between work-life balance and employee job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in treating trauma
• The correlation between parenting styles and child behavior
• The effect of social media on political polarization
• The impact of foreign aid on economic development
• The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational performance
• The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy in treating borderline personality disorder
• The correlation between childhood abuse and adult mental health outcomes
• The effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive function
• The impact of trade policies on international trade and economic growth
• The relationship between employee engagement and organizational commitment
• The effectiveness of cognitive therapy in treating postpartum depression
• The correlation between family meals and child obesity rates
• The effect of parental involvement in sports on child athletic performance
• The impact of social entrepreneurship on sustainable development
• The relationship between emotional labor and job burnout
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating dementia
• The correlation between social media use and academic procrastination
• The effect of poverty on childhood educational attainment
• The impact of urban green spaces on mental health
• The relationship between job insecurity and employee well-being
• The effectiveness of virtual reality exposure therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between childhood trauma and substance abuse
• The effect of screen time on children’s social skills
• The impact of trade unions on employee job satisfaction
• The relationship between cultural intelligence and cross-cultural communication
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating chronic pain
• The correlation between childhood obesity and adult health outcomes
• The effect of gender diversity on corporate performance
• The impact of environmental regulations on industry competitiveness.
• The impact of renewable energy policies on greenhouse gas emissions
• The relationship between workplace diversity and team performance
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating substance abuse
• The correlation between parental involvement and social skills in early childhood
• The effect of technology use on sleep patterns
• The impact of government regulations on small business growth
• The relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover
• The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic motivation in adolescents
• The effect of social media on political engagement
• The impact of urbanization on mental health
• The relationship between corporate social responsibility and consumer trust
• The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional development
• The effect of screen time on cognitive development in young children
• The impact of trade policies on global economic growth
• The relationship between workplace diversity and innovation
• The effectiveness of family therapy in treating eating disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and college persistence
• The effect of social media on body image and self-esteem
• The impact of environmental regulations on business competitiveness
• The relationship between job autonomy and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating phobias
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic achievement in college
• The effect of social media on sleep quality
• The impact of immigration policies on social integration
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee well-being
• The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy in treating personality disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and executive function skills
• The effect of parental involvement on STEM education outcomes
• The impact of trade policies on domestic employment rates
• The relationship between job insecurity and mental health
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and social mobility
• The effect of social media on intergroup relations
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution and respiratory health.
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and language development
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in STEM fields
• The impact of trade policies on income inequality
• The relationship between workplace diversity and customer satisfaction
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and civic engagement in adolescents
• The effect of social media on mental health among teenagers
• The impact of public transportation policies on traffic congestion
• The relationship between job stress and job performance
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and cognitive development
• The effect of parental involvement on academic motivation in college
• The impact of environmental regulations on energy consumption
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee engagement
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in vocational education
• The effect of social media on academic achievement in college
• The impact of tax policies on economic growth
• The relationship between job flexibility and work-life balance
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and social competence
• The effect of parental involvement on career readiness in high school
• The impact of immigration policies on crime rates
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee retention
• The effectiveness of play therapy in treating trauma
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online learning
• The effect of social media on body dissatisfaction among women
• The impact of urbanization on public health infrastructure
• The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between early childhood education and social skills in adolescence
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in the arts
• The impact of trade policies on foreign investment
• The relationship between workplace diversity and decision-making
• The effectiveness of exposure and response prevention therapy in treating OCD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in special education
• The impact of zoning laws on affordable housing
• The relationship between job design and employee motivation
• The effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation therapy in treating traumatic brain injury
• The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional learning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in foreign language learning
• The impact of trade policies on the environment
• The relationship between workplace diversity and creativity
• The effectiveness of emotion-focused therapy in treating relationship problems
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in music education
• The effect of social media on interpersonal communication skills
• The impact of public health campaigns on health behaviors
• The relationship between job resources and job stress
• The effectiveness of equine therapy in treating substance abuse
• The correlation between early childhood education and self-regulation
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in physical education
• The impact of immigration policies on cultural assimilation
• The relationship between workplace diversity and conflict resolution
• The effectiveness of schema therapy in treating personality disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in career and technical education
• The effect of social media on trust in government institutions
• The impact of urbanization on public transportation systems
• The relationship between job demands and job stress
• The correlation between early childhood education and executive functioning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in computer science
• The effectiveness of cognitive processing therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in homeschooling
• The effect of social media on cyberbullying behavior
• The impact of urbanization on air quality
• The effectiveness of dance therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and math achievement
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in health education
• The impact of global warming on agriculture
• The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in character education
• The effect of social media on political participation
• The impact of technology on job displacement
• The relationship between job resources and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating addiction
• The correlation between early childhood education and reading comprehension
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in environmental education
• The impact of income inequality on social mobility
• The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational culture
• The effectiveness of solution-focused brief therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in physical therapy education
• The effect of social media on misinformation
• The impact of green energy policies on economic growth
• The relationship between job demands and employee well-being
• The correlation between early childhood education and science achievement
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in religious education
• The impact of gender diversity on corporate governance
• The relationship between workplace diversity and ethical decision-making
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in dental hygiene education
• The effect of social media on self-esteem among adolescents
• The impact of renewable energy policies on energy security
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in social studies
• The impact of trade policies on job growth
• The relationship between workplace diversity and leadership styles
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online vocational training
• The effect of social media on self-esteem among men
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution levels
• The effectiveness of music therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and math skills
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in language arts
• The impact of immigration policies on labor market outcomes
• The effectiveness of hypnotherapy in treating phobias
• The effect of social media on political engagement among young adults
• The impact of urbanization on access to green spaces
• The relationship between job crafting and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating specific phobias
• The correlation between early childhood education and spatial reasoning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in business education
• The impact of trade policies on economic inequality
• The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in nursing education
• The effect of social media on sleep quality among adolescents
• The impact of urbanization on crime rates
• The relationship between job insecurity and turnover intentions
• The effectiveness of pet therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and STEM skills
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in culinary education
• The impact of immigration policies on housing affordability
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee satisfaction
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction in treating chronic pain
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in art education
• The effect of social media on academic procrastination among college students
• The impact of urbanization on public safety services.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Predicting the Time Spent Playing Computer and Mobile Games among Medical Undergraduate Students Using Interpersonal Relations and Social Cognitive Theory: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Chongqing, China

1 School of Public Health and Management, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China; moc.liamxof@xlceman (L.C.); moc.liamxof@811189yrl (R.L.); moc.nuyila@685nauhgnez (H.Z.); moc.621@9891gnolgnaix (X.X.); nc.ude.umqc.uts@1401116102 (R.Z.)

2 Research Center for Medicine and Social Development, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China

3 The Innovation Center for Social Risk Governance in Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China

Xianglong Xu

Manoj sharma.

4 Department of Behavioural and Environmental Health, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39213, USA; [email protected]

5 Health for All, Omaha, NE 68144, USA

6 College of Health Sciences, Walden University, Minneapolis, MN 55401, USA

Background : Computer and mobile games are widely used among undergraduate students worldwide, especially in China. Our objective was to predict the time spent playing computer and mobile games based on interpersonal relations and social cognitive theory constructs (i.e., expectation, self-efficacy, and self-control). Methods : The cross-sectional survey was conducted in two medical universities using a sample of 1557 undergraduate students recruited by cluster sampling. The five-point Likert questionnaire was jointly developed by researchers from Chongqing Medical University and Jackson State University. Results : Approximately 30% and 70% of the students played computer and mobile games, respectively. The daily times spent by participants on computer games were 25.61 ± 73.60 min (weekdays) and 49.96 ± 128.60 min (weekends), and 66.07 ± 154.65 min (weekdays) and 91.82 ± 172.94 min (weekends) on mobile games. Students with high scores of interpersonal relations but low scores of self-efficacy spent prolonged time playing computer games on weekdays and weekends ( p < 0.05 for all). Students with low scores of expectation spent prolonged time playing computer games on weekdays ( p < 0.05). Students with high scores of interpersonal relations but low scores of self-efficacy and self-control spent prolonged time playing mobile games on weekdays and weekends ( p < 0.05 for all). Conclusions : The prevalence and duration of playing mobile games were higher than those of playing computer games among medical undergraduate students in Chongqing, China. This study determined the interpersonal relations, self-efficacy, self-control, and expectation of the students at the time of playing computer and mobile games. Future studies may consider studying the interaction among game-related behaviours, environments, and personality characteristics.

1. Introduction

Globally, computer and mobile games are widely played by undergraduate students and have been identified to cause serious public health problems. The use of computer and mobile games is especially prevalent in China. By the end of December 2015, the number of Chinese teenage netizens (18 to 25 years old) reached 287 million, and of these, 66.5% play computer and mobile games [ 1 ]. By 2017, China had more than 390 million students playing computer games, accounting for 25.4% of all Internet users [ 2 ]. With the development of portable devices, the number of players shifting to mobile phones from computers has increased. Since 2013, 15.6% of users have not played games on their computers [ 3 ]. According to a 2015 survey, 90% of teenagers used mobile phones to surf the Internet, and 51.0% of them played mobile games online [ 1 ]. Playing computer games for a long period increases the screen viewing time of undergraduate students, causes dry eye syndrome and visual fatigue [ 4 , 5 ] and raises the risk of sedentary behaviour and obesity [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Smartphone overuse can lead to neck, wrist and back pains [ 9 ]. Excessive smartphone use at night can also shorten sleep time and lead to stress and depression [ 10 ]. In addition, a positive correlation was noted between the severity of Internet addiction and depression in adolescents, but no such relationship was found between time spent using social networks and depression [ 11 ]. Moreover, being in a state of negative tension, such as anxiety and depression, can promote the use of smartphones and the Internet and even lead to addiction [ 12 , 13 ].

In the study on Internet or smartphone addiction (computer and mobile games), several models of Internet and smartphone addiction are developed, like the IPACE model of Brand or the model concerning problematic smartphone use of Bilieux [ 12 , 14 , 15 ]. These models suggest that personality characteristics or psychopathological phenomena (depression and anxiety) significantly influence Internet and smartphone addiction. According to Montag’s research in 2017, the personality characteristics of Internet and smartphone addiction overlap, and the relationship between personality and Internet addiction is closer, with self-efficacy or self-control as potential precursors of addiction [ 16 ]. Empathy and life satisfaction are also linked to Internet and smartphone addiction [ 17 ]. In addition, a 2015 study in South Korea found that psychopathological phenomenon, such as anxiety, is a risk factor for Internet and smartphone addiction [ 13 ]. Preoccupation and conflict are risk factors for smartphone addiction [ 18 ]. Depression and attention deficit both play a critical role in Internet addiction [ 19 ]. Internet addiction can also predict stress, depression, anxiety, and loneliness [ 20 ]. Personality characteristics, such as self-esteem and resilience, also regulate depression and Internet and smartphone addiction [ 21 ]. Moreover, a considerable overlap exists between Internet and smartphone addiction [ 16 , 22 ]. This overlap may explain why studying the factors that influence Internet-use disorders (e.g., computer and mobile games) is crucial. Game disorder has progressed and is now officially included in the ICD-11. However, the inclusion of game disorder in the manual is controversial. The theoretical link between game disorders and personality traits and their role as factors of resilience or vulnerability (e.g., self-directedness, extraversion, impulsivity, and empathy) needs clarification.

Time spent on computer and mobile games is affected by many factors. In terms of gender, males are more interested in playing computer and mobile games than females [ 23 ]. A Chinese study found that teenage females spend more time on other extra-curricular and leisure activities, whereas teenage males spend more time playing video games [ 24 ]. Previous research showed that the length of time spent playing video games varies with age [ 25 ]. Smoking and drinking are associated with video games [ 26 , 27 ]. Family situation is also linked to playing computer and mobile games [ 6 ], whereby game behavior can enhance family cohesion to a certain extent [ 28 ]. Although game behavior is exhibited separately, most players prefer to share activities with friends or parents [ 28 ]. This preference may relatively extend game time. Many studies identified factors that influence the amount of time students spend playing computer and mobile games, but few studies focused on interpersonal relations and social cognitive theory constructs at the time of playing computer and mobile games, especially among Chinese medical undergraduate students.

Interpersonal relations and social cognitive theory constructs (i.e., expectation, self-efficacy, and self-control) are associated with game-playing behaviour [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Interpersonal relations measure the relationship between a person and those around him/her. A previous study found that people who play video games possess a good friendship network [ 28 ]. The social nature of certain video games can extend playing time whilst allowing players to gain new and other relationships [ 31 ]. Social cognition theory is a dynamic and reciprocal model based on the interaction among behaviour, personal factors, and environmental influences [ 32 ]. In this theory, expectation, self-efficacy and self-control are the core determinants for achieving a goal [ 33 ]. Social cognition theory was applied to study Chinese people for smoking cessation [ 34 ] and obesity prevention [ 35 , 36 ]. Expectations include the anticipation of the outcome of a particular action and the importance of the value of these results [ 37 ]. Self-efficacy describes a person’s confidence in exhibiting a particular behaviour at a given moment [ 38 ]. Self-control describes a person’s capability to regulate behaviour and includes strategies that encourage proximal and distal goal setting and self-rewards [ 37 , 38 ]. Another study found that self-efficacy is a comparatively robust predictor of involvement in massively multiplayer online role-playing game community [ 29 ]. In addition, self-control is negatively correlated with online game addiction [ 30 ], and students with high self-control spend lesser playing time on video games than those with low self-control. A study on Iranian students revealed that self-control when playing video games differs between male and female students [ 39 ].

Despite these efforts, previous studies paid little attention to medical undergraduate students, especially in China. Medical undergraduate students have more academic pressure and longer education years than other college students. Computer and mobile games provide a way for medical undergraduate students to relax. The video game time of medical students and the factors influencing this time may differ from those influencing students of other majors. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to use social cognitive theory in predicting the time spent playing computer and mobile games among medical undergraduate students in China. The objectives of this study are to examine the factors influencing students’ behaviours in playing computer and mobile games and the effects of interpersonal relations and social cognitive theory constructs (i.e., expectation, self-efficacy, and self-control) on the time spent by students playing computer and mobile games.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. study design.

A cross-sectional study on medical undergraduate students was conducted in Chongqing in March 2018. Each medical university/college in Chongqing consists of a comparable number of students. A total of 1557 students were chosen from Chongqing Medical University and Chongqing Medical and Pharmaceutical College by cluster sampling. Cluster sampling was used to select the classes in school, and 27 classes (6 classes from Chongqing Medical and Pharmaceutical College and 19 from Chongqing Medical University) were selected from the two medical schools in Chongqing. The 27 classes were from Grades 1 to 3 (10 classes from Grade 1, 9 classes from Grade 2, and 8 classes from Grade 3). Prior to the investigation, we conducted a pilot survey in March 2018, involving 50 students from Chongqing Medical University and Chongqing Medical and Pharmaceutical College. With the pilot survey as basis, the questionnaire was distributed by a trained student helper to students who gave written consent to participate. For the questionnaire distribution, the student helper was trained on the purpose and method of the research and was the one who explained the research objectives to the students. The students who signed the informed consent filled out the questionnaire ‘Study on the video games behaviour of undergraduate students in Chongqing, China’, and the participants did not receive incentives. The students were asked to answer the questionnaire in the classroom within 15–20 min. This study was approved by Chongqing Medical University (Reference Number: 2016001), and the ethical approval includes allowing anonymous surveys of minors and adults with the consent of the class counsellor. Written informed consent for processing personal data was obtained from each participant.

2.2. Instruments

Questionnaire refers specifically to the measurement instrument used to obtain games related information in this study. The questionnaire was designed by Chongqing Medical University and Jackson State University researchers. The part on interpersonal relations was developed by research analysts from Chongqing Medical University. The part on social cognitive theory was developed by research analysts from Jackson State University. The questionnaire was translated from English into Chinese. We also checked the readability of the translated questionnaire in the pilot survey. The internal consistency of the total questionnaire was 0.954 (Cronbach’s alpha). The games in this study refer to all multiplayer cooperative or independent games that operate on electronic device platforms, including online and offline variants.

The demographic information in this survey included gender, age (15–18, 19–20, 21–28 years old), ethnic group (Han nationals or Minority), grade level (Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3) and without siblings (Yes or No). Questions about living habits were also asked, including smoking (Smoker or Non-smoker) and drinking (Drinker or Non-drinker) preferences. This study measured the daily time spent playing computer and mobile games (on weekdays or weekends) with four questions. The participants were asked to answer the questions in min. We considered the score as a game time value which was zero, instead of not playing games when the self-reported game time was zero. The questions about interpersonal relations and social cognitive theory constructs were as follows: 6 items were used to measure interpersonal relations, 4 items were used to measure self-efficacy, 4 items were used to measure the self-control, and 10 items were used to measure the expectation (see Table 1 ). The internal consistency of the interpersonal relations was 0.929 (see Table 2 ). The internal consistencies of the self-efficacy, self-control, and expectation subscales were 0.887, 0.915, and 0.944, respectively.

Specific problems in interpersonal relationships and social cognitive theory constructs.

1 Response options were “Not At All Agree”, “Slightly Agree”, “Moderately Agree”, “Very Agree”,” Completely Agree”. 2 Response options were “Not At All Sure”, “Slightly Sure”, “Moderately Sure”, “Very Sure”, “Completely Sure”. 3 Response options were “Not At All Sure”, “Slightly Sure”, “Moderately Sure”, “Very Sure”, “Completely Sure”. 4 Response options were “Never”, “Hardly Ever”, “Sometimes”, “Almost Always”, “Always”. 5 Response options were “Not At All Important”, “Slightly Important”, “Moderately Important”, “Very Important”, “Extremely Important”.

Times spent playing games by undergraduate students in Chongqing, China (N, %).

1 0 min; 2 greater than 0 min is less than or equal to 30 min.

2.3. Data Analysis

Frequencies and percentages were calculated to summarize the distributions of the categorical variables. A t -test was employed to compare the differences in the continuous variables between males and females. Generalized linear models were developed using social cognitive theory constructs (i.e., expectations, self-efficacy and self-control), interpersonal relations, healthy habits (smoking and drinking status), gender, age group, grade level, lack of siblings, and nationality as independent variables and time spent playing computer and mobile games on weekdays and weekends as dependent variables. Statistical tests included a two-sided test, and statistical significance was at p < 0.05. All data were analyzed using SPSS22.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

3.1. Characteristics of the Sample

This survey involved 1557 undergraduate students. Of the 1241 persons who answered all the questions, 458 (36.9%) were males and 783 (63.0%) were females. All the participants were 15–28 years old, and the average age of the participants was 19.76 ± 1.30 years old. A total of 89.2% were Han nationals; 10.8%, minorities. Of the 1241 participants, 35.1% were Grade 1, 27.0% were Grade 2, and 38.0% were Grade 3. A total of 43.4% had no siblings, and 56.6% had siblings. Moreover, 6% and 11% were smokers and drinkers, respectively, and 94.0% and 89% did not smoke and drink (see Table 3 ).

Demographic characteristics of undergraduate students in Chongqing, China.

3.2. Daily Time Spent Playing Computer and Mobile Games among Undergraduate Students

Participants reported spending an average of 25.61 ± 73.60 min playing computer games per day on weekdays. A total of 898 (72.4%) reported spending 0 min playing computer games on weekdays, and 31 participants reported spending over 180 min playing computer games on weekdays. A total of 206 participants played computer games from 0 to 60 min on weekdays daily.

Participants reported an average of 49.96 ± 128.60 min playing computer games per day on weekends. A total of 853 (68.7%) reported spending 0 min playing computer games on weekends, and 85 participants reported spending over 180 min playing computer games on weekends. A total of 144 participants played computer games from 0 to 60 min, and 101 participants played computer games from 90 to 120 min on weekends daily.

Participants reported spending an average of 66.07 ± 154.65 min playing mobile games per day on weekdays. A total of 387 (31.2%) reported spending 0 min playing mobile games on weekdays, and 66 participants reported spending over 180 min playing mobile games on weekdays. The majority of participants spent between 0 to 60 min (546 participants) and 90 to 120 min (181 participants) playing mobile games on weekdays daily.

Participants reported spending an average of 91.82 ± 172.94 min playing mobile games per day on weekends. A total of 400 (32.3%) reported spending 0 min playing mobile games on weekends, and 151 participants reported spending over 180 min on playing mobile games on weekends. The majority of participants spent between 0 to 60 min (360 participants) and 90 to 120 min (208 participants) playing mobile games on weekends daily (see Table 2 ).

3.3. Descriptive Statistics of Interpersonal Relations and Social Cognitive Theory Constructs

Compared with males, females had a significantly higher mean score of interpersonal relations for playing video games ( p = 0.041). However, no significant differences between males and females were observed in the mean scores of self-efficacy, self-control, and expectation for playing video games (see Table 4 ).

Interpersonal relations and social cognitive theory constructs among undergraduate students in Chongqing, China.

* Statistically significant ( p < 0.05).

3.4. Generalised Linear Model Analysis for Factors Affecting the Time Spent Playing Video Games

In multivariable analyses, interpersonal relations, self-efficacy, and expectation were associated with the time spent playing computer games (see Table 4 ). Male students spent considerable time playing computer games on weekdays ( p < 0.001) and weekends ( p < 0.001). Students with a high score in interpersonal relations spent a long time playing computer games on weekdays ( p < 0.001) and weekends ( p < 0.001). Students with a high score in self-efficacy spent limited time playing computer games on weekdays ( p = 0.010) and weekends ( p = 0.011). Students with a high score in expectation spent limited time playing computer games on weekdays ( p = 0.003).

3.5. Generalised Linear Model Analysis for Factors Affecting the Time Spent Playing Mobile Games

In multivariable analyses, interpersonal relations, self-efficacy, expectations, and self-control were associated with the time spent playing mobile games (see Table 5 and Table 6 ). Students with a high score in interpersonal relations spent a long time playing mobile games on weekdays ( p < 0.001) and weekends ( p < 0.001). Students with a high score in self-efficacy spent limited time playing mobile games on weekdays ( p = 0.002) and weekends ( p < 0.001). Students with a high score of self-control spent limited time playing mobile games on weekdays ( p = 0.017) and weekends ( p = 0.029).

Generalised linear model analysis of factors that affect interpersonal relations and social cognitive theory constructs of time spent playing computer games among all participants in Chongqing, China.

* Statistically significant ( p < 0.05); ** Statistically significant ( p < 0.001).

Generalised linear model analysis of factors that affect interpersonal relations and social cognitive theory constructs of time spent playing mobile games among all participants in Chongqing, China.

4. Discussion

The aim of this study is to determine the interpersonal relations, self-efficacy, self-control, and expectation of the students at the time of playing computer and mobile games among Chinese medical undergraduates. Our results indicate that high interpersonal relations, low self-efficacy, and low expectations lead to longer computer games. We find also that high interpersonal relationship, low self-efficacy, and low self-control lead to longer mobile game time.

Approximately 30% and 70% of the participants played computer and mobile games, respectively. According to a previous study, roughly 63.7% participants are active players of computer and mobile games [ 40 ]. Our study reported high gaming rates among medical undergraduate students. In addition, mobile games are more popular than computer games among these undergraduate students. This finding implies that an increasing number of medical undergraduate students are replacing computer games with mobile games. A Chinese study found that 22% of medical undergraduates play mobile games or read online novels in class. The use of mobile phones is not limited by space and time and can even penetrate the classroom. The heavy and tedious courses in medical colleges may lead to high mobile game usage in class. This situation may be one reason why mobile gamers outnumber computer gamers in this setting. Medical schools should strengthen classroom management and enhance interest in the curriculum. Attracting students’ attention in class should be done as much as possible to improve quality of teaching and reduce use of mobile games.

Medical undergraduate students with high interpersonal relations and low self-efficacy showed increased times spent playing computer games on weekdays and weekends. A previous study found that gamers who spent more time playing computer games display more prosocial behavior [ 41 ] and wider friendship networks [ 28 ]. Games have gradually become a way of maintaining interpersonal relationships in real life among college students. Extended game time may be due to games’ ability to enhance users’ social attributes in real life. Extending game time may help maintain a good relationship and enhance users’ social attributes in real life. Good social conditions may also further increase game time. If students’ interpersonal communication is low, then they tend to avoid social interaction, and the use of games as a popular social way will be reduced. However, people with social difficulties play games for social comfort [ 42 ]. Students with poor relationships may also immerse themselves in a game, which is related to the type of game. People with good relationships may be inclined to choose social games, such as massively multiplayer games. People with poor relationships may be inclined to choose games that make them comfortable to ease social difficulties.

A previous study found that self-efficacy in the real world is negatively related to game addiction [ 43 ], which is similar to our finding. Self-efficacy may be enhanced or amplified by environmental encouragement. However, our study marks the first time the relationship between social cognition theory and playing time is tested among a specific segment of the Chinese population. Health education workers can enhance self-efficacy for playing a computer game to reduce screen time among undergraduate students, especially students from higher grade levels. A previous study showed that motivational interviewing to enhance self-efficacy through repetition, reinforcement, and encouragement can strengthen the intrinsic motivations of subjects [ 44 ]. Short-term goals and rewards can also improve self-efficacy [ 45 ].

Students with low expectation reported spending long times spent playing computer games on weekdays. A previous study found that adolescents’ expectation for health behaviour can influence the establishment of individual trajectories of health [ 46 ]. Therefore, teenagers can achieve healthy goals by raising expectations and controlling playing time. Students with high expectations are more health conscious and willing to take the initiative to reduce their playing time and gain health. Their parents or peers can encourage healthy behaviours, and such an action can lead to higher expectations. Building high expectations for playing video games for less than 3 h a day is important for adolescents. Health educators can enhance the expectation for playing video games to less than 3 h a day to decrease the time spent playing computer games. Medical undergraduate students who are also drinkers and smokers reported spending long time playing computer games on weekdays. This finding is supported by previous studies [ 27 , 47 , 48 ]. Previous studies have linked interpersonal relations with social behaviours such as smoking and drinking, and we have found that interpersonal relations are also linked to gaming behaviours, which may suggest that games are a social tool in some way [ 49 , 50 ].

For mobile games, medical undergraduate students with high interpersonal relations, low self-efficacy, and low self-control reported spending long time playing mobile games on weekdays and weekends. Playing mobile games can enhance friendships among peers. A study based on massively multiplayer online role-playing games showed that social interaction is essential in gaming experience. A mobile phone-based social network is a major tool for college students to socialize with others. This feature may extend the time spent by undergraduate students on mobile games. A previous study found that mental health self-efficacy influences the symptom outcomes of a mobile phone user. This study also linked self-efficacy with reduced depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms and reported that this improved work and social functioning [ 51 ]. We found that students with high self-control spent lesser time on mobile games than on computer games. Self-control is negatively correlated with mobile phone use [ 52 ], which supports our finding. The current study determined that self-control is negatively associated with mobile games. Students with low self-control are unable to control themselves from playing mobile games. Health education workers can enhance the self-efficacy and self-control of undergraduate students for playing mobile games to reduce time spent playing mobile games.

However, gender, age, ethic group, and grade levels are not significantly associated with the time spent playing mobile games. No space or time limit is found for mobile games, and mobile games are more popular than computer ones for males and females. A 2014 research found that when surfing and playing games become the main functions of mobile phones, males are more likely to use mobile phones than females [ 24 ]. In recent years, an increasing number of mobile games aimed at female groups have been developed, such as ‘Love and Producer’, which is popular among young Chinese women. This activity may be the reason why no significant difference was observed between genders in mobile games in this study. Moreover, age is not significantly associated with the time spent playing mobile games. The participants in this study were mostly 18–22 years old. Age is insignificant, possibly due to the concentration of participants in the age group. More age groups should be included to determine the relationship between age and mobile games.

This study has notable limitations. Firstly, the cross-sectional survey data cannot determine the direction of causality. We cannot clarify if constructs precede behaviour. Secondly, the time spent playing games was self-reported by the participants, which may not be accurate for game time. Self-reported game time of zero is probably the average time of the last month of zero, and this finding does not mean the participant has never played a game. This study also does not distinguish between excessive games because no clear standard for excessive game time is available. The self-reported game times may have introduced information and measurement bias. Future studies can collect the time spent playing games with Internet technologies. Thirdly, the questionnaire on interpersonal relations was developed by researchers in Chongqing Medical University. The interpersonal relationship scale was only tested for internal consistency and readability. It lacks wide recognition and use. Fourthly, our study was conducted on medical universities, which do not accurately represent all the undergraduates in China. Future research requires a larger sample size to cover more students with different majors. Fifthly, self-efficacy, self-control, and expectation are strictly focused on computer and mobile games, and this focus may have inflated correlations with self-reported gaming. Future studies may consider studying the relationship between self-efficacy, which is not strictly focused on computer and mobile games, and the time spent playing computer and mobile games. Finally, the types of games are not distinguished in this study, and different types of games may have different playing times.

5. Conclusions

The prevalence and duration of playing mobile games are higher than those of playing computer games among medical undergraduate students in Chongqing, China. This study determined the interpersonal relations, self-efficacy, self-control, and expectation on the time spent playing computer and mobile games. This study reported on students’ gender, age, grade level, and drinking and smoking status at the time of playing computer and mobile games. Future studies may consider studying the interaction among game-related behaviours, environments, and personality characteristics.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank the research students from Chongqing Medical University for their help in the data collection.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the design of the survey. L.C. designed the study, interpreted and analysed the data and drafted the manuscript. R.L. contributed to data analysis and data interpretation as well as drafted the manuscript. H.Z., X.X., R.Z., M.S. and Y.Z. helped draft the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. All authors have seen and approved the final version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by the Humanities and Social Science Project Fund of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China grant number 15YJA860020.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.