independent africa essay pdf

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Grade 12 - Topic 2 - Independent Africa

In 1884, at the Berlin Conference, the European powers carved up Africa amongst themselves. By 1914 all of Africa, except Liberia and Ethiopia, was under colonial rule. Today, African countries are politically independent of their former European masters.

Background and focus

Recommended reading:  Martin Meredith

This topic compares two forms of states that emerged from nationalist movements in the 1960s.

The Congo was used as a tool in the Cold War. This left a legacy that continues today.

Tanzania developed as a socialist state, implementing ideas of African socialism.

The focus is on the political, economic, social and cultural successes and challenges that countries

faced in Africa after independence, illustrated by the Congo and Tanzania.

The Scramble for Africa (or the Race for Africa)  was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New Imperialism period, between the 1880s and the start of World War 1.

Figure 1 : Africa before Independence                                Figure 2: Africa Today ( 28/01/2015)

http://www.saflirista.com/Colonial-Africa.png (colonised Africa ) http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africapolitmap.jpg ( Independent Africa )

At the Berlin Conference (1883/4 – 1885), the major European countries carved up  Africa amongst seven major European states. (See above). Africa had been transformed from being an extension of seven European powers towards  full political independence . The first country to gain independence was Liberia  ( 26 / 07 / 1847 ) from Britain. The last country to gain independence was Eritrea  ( 24/05/1993) from Ethiopia.

Online Source:

http://africanhistory.about.com/library/timelines/blIndependenceTime.htm   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

The following is to be covered in this topic:

What were the ideas that influenced the  independent states?

This section includes different forms of government  (political ideologies and economies), such as :

1.African socialism,

It is worth mentioning that most African liberation movements were influenced, in varying degrees, by Marxist doctrine. So the amalgamation of what it meant to be African and a newly liberated citizenry; was, again, influenced by Marxist/ Communist doctrine. Post-independent Africa followed this ‘doctrinal’ trajectory by

Friedland and Rosberg's (1992)  attempt to summarize the three (3) main characteristics of African socialism, as follows:

a)·no private ownership of land

b)·no social classes

c)·no shirking of responsibility to cooperate (work)

i)   http://www.drtomoconnor.com/3160/3160lect03.htm   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

ii)  http://www.drtomoconnor.com/3160/3160lect03.htm   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

iii) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXjL-HHn_a8      [Accessed 16 February 2015]

2.  capitalism, democracy and,

3.  one-party states

The galvanising of the opposition to colonisation meant that there was a large degree of unanimity within

liberation movements across Africa. ‘One-party states’ quickly emerged. These states were characterised by an

extremely strong political party, perhaps with smaller, peripheral parties; that largely controlled the domestic

conditions in the country. This emergence, in itself, would create problems for these newly-independent

countries, in the future.

http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/African_Socialism.aspx   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Comparative case studies (1960 to 1980) as examples to illustrate the political, economic, social and cultural successes and challenges in independent Africa (1960 to 1980).

The case studies are NOT meant to be seperately examined.

(the Congo (became a tool of the Cold War)

Source : http://s3.amazonaws.com/churchplantmedia- [Accessed 16 February 2015] cms/mavuno_grassroots_development_for_congo/democratic-republic-congo-map.jpg   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

For a brief history of the Congo region in general; and the DRC, in particular, please visit...

http://www.mavunocongo.org/history   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

It should be noted however that the CONGO REGION consists of :

1.The Republic of Congo and

2.The Democratic Republic of the Congo

The discussion that follows centres on the Democratic Republic of Congo.

King Leopold II...of Belgium

Patrice Lumumba...of the DRC

Source: http://www.standnow.org/system/files/leopold.jpg   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Source: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2013/10/25/1382706596437/Mobutu-Sese-Seko-pictured-010.jpg   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Laurent Kabila

Source: https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQJAqFDU_kkYBG8-GVzbBP9SZARifFSKYPNCCBRfhzFwGFXX7-rqw   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Joseph Kabila

Source:   https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRCTvSpvDBFnZJ6-L91RUREjEl_18DF6vx2ug6N-QXnxloKIOUb   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

King Leopold II formally acquires Congo territory as his own private property, naming it Congo Free State

Leopold and his army terrorize inhabitants in pursuit of resources. An estimated 10 million Congolese, half the population, die

Major nationalist riots in the capital threaten Belgium's control over Belgian Congo territory

Mouvemont National Congolais (MNC) party wins parliamentary elections. Patrice Lumumba becomes prime minister. Joseph Kasavubu is elected President.

June 30, 1960

Belgian Congo gains independence, becoming Republic of Congo

January 17, 1961

Patrice Lumumba is executed by forces from Katanga province backed by Belgium

Kanyarwanda War: Coalitions of different ethnic groups battle for land rights in North Kivu

Joseph-Desire Mobutu overthrows Kasavubu in a Western-backed coup and establishes a one-party system

Mobutu changes the country's official name to "Democratic Republic of Congo" to distinguish it from the former French colony "Republic of Congo"

Mobutu changes the name of the capital from Leopoldville to Kinshasa, and renames several other cities as well

Mobutu renames the country "Zaire" and changes his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko

Massive inflow of Hutu refugees fleeing massacres in Burundi after a failed Hutu rebellion against the Burundian government

All Banyarwanda (ethnic Rwandan and Burundian) residing in Congo from 1959-1963 are granted citizenship

Amid growing resentment of the increase in Banyarwandan Tutsi power, local Hutu and Congolese increase political mobilization and gain additional influence in the national assembly

Citizenship for Banyarwanda groups, mostly Tutsis, is restricted to those who could trace ancestry in Congo back to 1885. This reflected a desire to counter growing Tutsi economic power in the Kivu region

Mobutu declares the Third Republic, introducing a new constitution that includes democratic reforms and lifts the ban on multiparty politics

February 1990

Fall of the Soviet Union. Relations between Mobutu and the West deteriorate, as incentives to back Mobutu in the name of anti-Communism disappear

Governor Jean-Pierre Kalumbo Mbogho orders all Tutsis removed from the region and calls for their extermination. Violence breaks out, claiming 14,000 lives over the next two months

Mobutu dismisses Governor Kalumbo and increases Tutsi representation in the provincial government of the Kivus

Rwanda's Hutu extremist government orchestrates genocide of approx. 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. After Tutsi rebels take control of Rwanda, over a million refugees flood into Congo, including Rwandan army soldiers and Hutu extremist Interhamwe militiamen complicit in the genocide

First Congo War

Rwandan forces invade Congo to protect Tutsis and destroy Hutu militia camps. Mobutu's government opposes the incursion, prompting reform elements to unite against him.

Anti-Mobutu rebels, backed by Rwanda, seize Kinshasa and install Laurent Kabila as president. The country is renamed again to "Democratic Republic of Congo"

President Kabila calls for withdrawal of all Rwandan and Ugandan forces from the country

Second Congo War

August 1998

Rebels back by Rwanda and Uganda rise up against Kabila and take control of much of eastern DRC. Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Angola send troops to repel the rebels.

Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola, and DRC sign peace accord in Lusaka, Zambia

August 1999: MLC and RDC rebels sign Lusaka accord

November 30, 1999

UN Security Council sets up 5,500-strong force to monitor the ceasefire, known as MONUC. Fighting continues between rebel and government forces, and between Rwanda- and Uganda-backed forces

January 2001

Laurent Kabila is assassinated by a bodyguard and is succeeded by his son, Joseph Kabila.

Tanzania . ..as an example of African socialism

Gained independence from Britain on 09/12/1961.

Source:   http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/images/map-tanzania.png   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

· www.sahistory.org.za ”º timelines ”º This day in History  [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Leaders of Tanzania Since Independence

A list of Tanzanian leaders since gaining independence on 9 December 1961

Zanzibar Zanzibar gained its independence as a Sultanate on 10 December 1963, and was proclaimed the People's Republic of Zanzibar on 12 January 1964 following a coup. On 26 April 1964 it merged with the Republic of Tanganyika to become the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar.

Although Zanzibar and Tanzania are united, Zanzibar continues to have its own president.

Source: http://africanhistory.about.com/od/tanzania/l/bl-Tanzania-Leaders.htm l  [Accessed 16 February 2015]

This speech, by Julius Nyerere outlines the visions and central points of African Socialism.

http://www.juliusnyerere.info/images/uploads/ujamaa_1962.pdf   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Other Resources:

1. http:// www.fsmitha.com/p/ch34-tan.htm   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

2. http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2005/05/exch-m19.html

[Accessed 16 February 2015]

3. http:// African Socialism - Encyclopedia.com  [Accessed 16 February 2015]

The successes and challenges faced by independent Africa?

1) the kind of states that emerged - their aims and visions (political ideologies);

2) political including:

Types of leaders:

http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/patrice-lumumba   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

“We are not communist, Catholics or socialist. We are African Nationalist. We retain the right to be friends with whoever we like in accordance with the principal of political neutrality.”

Patrice Lumumba

http://www.biography.com/people/patrice-lumumba-38745   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Mobuto Sese Seko

http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0782891/bio   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

“After me, a flood of chaos. Apres moi, le deluge.” – MSS

http://spartacus-educational.com/COLDmobutu.htm   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Nyerere (What are the qualities of a good leader?)

http://www.nyererefoundation.org/biography   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

"Violence is unnecessary and costly. Peace is the only way." - JN

https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nyerere/biography.htm   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

- legacies of colonialism;

http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/students/curriculum/m7b/activity3.php   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

- types of government; and

- political stability and instability;

Economic including:

- types of economies (as third world countries)

social and cultural including:

- benefits of independence;

- education; and

 - Africanisation.

What was the impact of the internal and external factors on Africa during the time?

Africa in the Cold War: USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa

Case study: Angola ( 11/11/1975...Portugal )

History of Angola ( briefly)...

Source: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/africa/angola/map_of_angola.jpg   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

Angola and slaves: 15th-19th century

Colonial period: 1885-1975

Independence: from1975

http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad33   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/case-study-angola   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/angola-becomes-independent-portuguese-colonial-rule   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

The case study will include:

introduction: how Africawas drawn into the Cold War (broadly);

competing spheres of influence - trade, conflict and aid;

Angola: colonialism and independence (broad overview);

Source: http://africanhistory.about.com/od/angola/l/Bl-Angola-Timeline.htm   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

outbreak of civil war in 1974

- MPLA and UNITA

www.sahistory.org.za/.../angolan-civil-war-1975-2002-brief-history   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

reasons for and nature of involvement in Angola (USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa);

http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1owf55/why_did_so_many_countries_get_involved_in_the/   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

www.jstor.org/stable/2637389   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

impact on regional stability;

significance of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale 1987 and 1988;

http://www.sahistory.org.za politics and society ”º 20th Century South Africa  [Accessed 16 February 2015]

http://scientiamilitaria.journals.ac.za/pub/article/download/71/99   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

the changing nature of international relationships after 1989

Recommended reading:

1.   http://jim.com/African_capitalism.htm   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

2. http://science.jrank.org/pages/7540/Capitalism-Africa.html   [Accessed 16 February 2015]

3.isbn: 0857203894 – Google Search. 2015. _Google Search [ ONLINE] Available at: https://booksgoogle.co.za/books?isbn=0857203894 . [ Accessed 09 February 2015].

4. http://www.raceandhistory.com/cgi-bin/forum/webbbs_config.pl?md=read;id=534 [Accessed 16 February 2015]

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HISTORY T1 W6 Gr. 12: INDEPENDENT AFRICA: THE CONGO

INDEPENDENT AFRICA: THE CONGO

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Independent Africa comparative case study: the Congo and Tanzania Essay

Independent Africa comparative case study: the Congo and Tanzania Essay for Grade 12 and Grade 11 History.

This page contains an answer guide to the below History Essay Questions (memo):

• What were the ideas that influence the independent states Congo and Tanzania?

After attaining independence Congo and Tanzania were faced with economic, social, and political challenges although there were successes that Mobuto and Nyerere gained in trying to improve the living standards for blacks.

Table of Contents

Do you agree with this statement? Use appropriate evidence to support your argument.

[Plan and construct an original argument based on relevant evidence using analytical and interpretative skills.]

Candidates should indicate whether or not they agree with the statement and support their answer with relevant historical evidence. Candidates must specifically look at the economic, social and cultural challenges facing both countries after independence.

MAIN ASPECTS

Candidates should include the following aspects in their response:

Introduction: Candidates should critically discuss the successes and challenges facing Tanzania and the Congo with specific reference to their economic, social and political development after gaining independence from colonial rule.

ELABORATION ECONOMY

• The Congo and Tanzania inherited a single-product economy from their colonisers.
• Tanzania followed a socialistic economic model.
• Congo followed a capitalistic model.
• Both countries struggled to develop their respective economies.
• Nyerere adopted an African Socialism model outlined in the Arusha Declaration which led to the nationalisation of industries and land.
• Its aim was to cut ties with Western countries and create self-sufficiency and self- dependency.
• Society would be stable and free of economic inequalities.
• Mobuto initially nationalised industries using the Zairianisation policy – which involved taking farms and businesses from the foreign owners who were replaced by Congolese.
• When it failed due to lack of skills and poor management he adopted a capitalistic model and returned businesses to foreign owners.
• Nyerere introduced Villagisation or Ujaama.
• A rural community with farming/collective labour.
• Lack of tools, water and management skills led to resistance which the police and military forces could not control.
• This led to destruction and abandonment of fields.
• Tanzania remained the poorest and most underdeveloped country.
• Tanzania reduced corruption of government officials through the “Leadership Code”.
• Both countries had to accept foreign aid and allow investments which Nyerere initially viewed as neo-colonialism.

SOCIAL CHALLENGES:

• Both countries inherited a colonial education system that promoted Eurocentric values
• Both countries were challenged by skills shortages; only a few technicians and engineers were available.
• Both countries were taught European history and languages, the African content was regarded as inferior and not taught. Tanzania:
• Promoted Swahili (local language) over English
• Introduced a massive literacy campaign that saw illiteracy drop drastically (from 80% to 20%) between 1961 and 1981
• Nyerere produced, ‘Education for Self-Reliance’ (1967) which promoted basic literacy in primary schools in all rural areas. Congo:
• Inherited only 14 university graduates
• Expanded its higher education system
• Increased primary education from 1,6 million to 4,6 million people between 1960 and 1974
• Unlike Swahili in Tanzania, French remained the language of instruction in Congo. Africanisation:

Villagisation (Ujamaa) in Tanzania embraced traditional community values based on self-reliance

Zairianisation in Congo replaced experienced Belgian human resources with local people and replaced European names with local names, e.g. Congo to Zaire

POLITICAL ASPECTS

• Attaining independence through democratic elections (the Congo 1960) J. Kasavubu became President and P. Lumumba became the prime minister
• After holding multi-party elections at independence, the Congo became a one- party state within the first five years after gaining the independence
• Mobuto Sese Seko remained as president for life until his death in 2007
• Mobuto Sese Seko created a kleptocracy where a group of appointed public officials abused their position for financial gain
• Brought back African values
• Strong centralised government
• Political stability (though based on authoritarianism)
• Any other relevant response
• Attaining independence through democratic elections (Tanzania 1961: J. Nyerere – amended the constitution to become President (1962)
• Smooth transition (peaceful change/racial harmony/commitment to promotion of human equality and dignity
• After holding multi-party elections at independence, it became a one-party state
• Nyerere remained as president between the 1960s and 1970s
• Nyerere introduced the Leadership Code in the Arusha Declaration which demanded high levels of integrity from public officials
• African socialism/ Ujamaa was appropriate for inhabitants
• Establishment of the United Republic of Tanzania (1964)
• Centralised and unitary state
• Any other relevant response Conclusion: Candidates should tie up their arguments with relevant conclusions.

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Nationalism and Political Independence in Africa

• First Online: 06 October 2017

Cite this chapter

• James Olusegun Adeyeri Ph.D. 3  

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Nationalism and the struggle for political independence in Africa have spanned the pre-colonial, colonial and postcolonial epochs, with the nature and character of struggle determined by the aspirations of the people and peculiarities of each period. On the eve of European imperialist incursion into Africa from the last quarter of the nineteenth century, pre-colonial African kingdoms and states staged resistance against the invaders in order to preserve their respective local independence. Nationalist struggle and eventual independence from colonial rule was achieved in some parts of Africa (such as British West Africa) through constitutional and relatively peaceful means, while the road to independence in Lusophone Africa and the Maghreb was marked by considerable violence and bloodshed. The chapter concludes that the nature and travails of colonialism, nationalism and independence in Africa have continuously negatively affected nation-building and national development in most postcolonial African states.

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Thabo Mbeki African Leadership Institute, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa

Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba

Department of History, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA

Toyin Falola

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Adeyeri, J.O. (2018). Nationalism and Political Independence in Africa. In: Oloruntoba, S., Falola, T. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of African Politics, Governance and Development. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95232-8_12

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95232-8_12

Published : 06 October 2017

Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, New York

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Independent Africa comparative case study: the Congo and Tanzania Essay

Independent Africa comparative case study: the Congo and Tanzania Essay for Grade 12 and Grade 11 History.

This page contains an answer guide to the below History Essay Questions (memo):

• What were the ideas that influence the independent states Congo and Tanzania?

After attaining independence Congo and Tanzania were faced with economic, social, and political challenges although there were successes that Mobuto and Nyerere gained in trying to improve the living standards for blacks.

Do you agree with this statement? Use appropriate evidence to support your argument.

[Plan and construct an original argument based on relevant evidence using analytical and interpretative skills.]

Candidates should indicate whether or not they agree with the statement and support their answer with relevant historical evidence. Candidates must specifically look at the economic, social and cultural challenges facing both countries after independence.

MAIN ASPECTS

Candidates should include the following aspects in their response:

Introduction: Candidates should critically discuss the successes and challenges facing Tanzania and the Congo with specific reference to their economic, social and political development after gaining independence from colonial rule.

ELABORATION ECONOMY

• The Congo and Tanzania inherited a single-product economy from their colonisers.
• Tanzania followed a socialistic economic model.
• Congo followed a capitalistic model.
• Both countries struggled to develop their respective economies.
• Nyerere adopted an African Socialism model outlined in the Arusha Declaration which led to the nationalisation of industries and land.
• Its aim was to cut ties with Western countries and create self-sufficiency and self- dependency.
• Society would be stable and free of economic inequalities.
• Mobuto initially nationalised industries using the Zairianisation policy – which involved taking farms and businesses from the foreign owners who were replaced by Congolese.
• When it failed due to lack of skills and poor management he adopted a capitalistic model and returned businesses to foreign owners.
• Nyerere introduced Villagisation or Ujaama.
• A rural community with farming/collective labour.
• Lack of tools, water and management skills led to resistance which the police and military forces could not control.
• This led to destruction and abandonment of fields.
• Tanzania remained the poorest and most underdeveloped country.
• Tanzania reduced corruption of government officials through the “Leadership Code”.
• Both countries had to accept foreign aid and allow investments which Nyerere initially viewed as neo-colonialism.

SOCIAL CHALLENGES:

• Both countries inherited a colonial education system that promoted Eurocentric values
• Both countries were challenged by skills shortages; only a few technicians and engineers were available.
• Both countries were taught European history and languages, the African content was regarded as inferior and not taught. Tanzania:
• Promoted Swahili (local language) over English
• Introduced a massive literacy campaign that saw illiteracy drop drastically (from 80% to 20%) between 1961 and 1981
• Nyerere produced, ‘Education for Self-Reliance’ (1967) which promoted basic literacy in primary schools in all rural areas. Congo:
• Inherited only 14 university graduates
• Expanded its higher education system
• Increased primary education from 1,6 million to 4,6 million people between 1960 and 1974
• Unlike Swahili in Tanzania, French remained the language of instruction in Congo. Africanisation:

Villagisation (Ujamaa) in Tanzania embraced traditional community values based on self-reliance

Zairianisation in Congo replaced experienced Belgian human resources with local people and replaced European names with local names, e.g. Congo to Zaire

POLITICAL ASPECTS

• Attaining independence through democratic elections (the Congo 1960) J. Kasavubu became President and P. Lumumba became the prime minister
• After holding multi-party elections at independence, the Congo became a one- party state within the first five years after gaining the independence
• Mobuto Sese Seko remained as president for life until his death in 2007
• Mobuto Sese Seko created a kleptocracy where a group of appointed public officials abused their position for financial gain
• Brought back African values
• Strong centralised government
• Political stability (though based on authoritarianism)
• Any other relevant response
• Attaining independence through democratic elections (Tanzania 1961: J. Nyerere – amended the constitution to become President (1962)
• Smooth transition (peaceful change/racial harmony/commitment to promotion of human equality and dignity
• After holding multi-party elections at independence, it became a one-party state
• Nyerere remained as president between the 1960s and 1970s
• Nyerere introduced the Leadership Code in the Arusha Declaration which demanded high levels of integrity from public officials
• African socialism/ Ujamaa was appropriate for inhabitants
• Establishment of the United Republic of Tanzania (1964)
• Centralised and unitary state
• Any other relevant response Conclusion: Candidates should tie up their arguments with relevant conclusions.

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A short history of instability in the Congo...

The region that is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo was first settled about 80,000 years ago. Bantu migration arrived in the region from Nigeria in the 7th century AD. The Kingdom of Kongo developed between the 14th and the early 19th centuries. Belgian colonization began when King Leopold II founded the Congo Free State, a corporate state run solely by him. Reports of widespread murder and torture in the rubber plantations led the Belgian government to seize the Congo from Leopold II and establish the Belgian Congo. Under Belgian rule, the colony was run with the presence of numerous Christian organizations that wanted to Westernize the Congolese people.

After an uprising by the Congolese people, Belgium surrendered to the independence of the Congo in 1960. However, the Congo was left unstable because tribal leaders had more power than the central government. Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba tried to restore order with the aid of the Soviet Union as part of the Cold War, causing the United States to support a coup led by Colonel Joseph Mobutu in 1965. Mobutu quickly seized complete power of the Congo and renamed the country Zaire. He sought to Africanize the country, changing his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko, and demanded that African citizens change their Western names to traditional African names. Mobutu sought to repress any opposition to his rule, and retained his position for 32 years through several sham elections, as well as through brutal force. However, with his regime weakened in the early 1990s, Mobutu was forced to agree to a power-sharing government with the opposition party. Mobutu remained the head of state and promised elections for the next two years that never happened.

In the First Congo War, Rwanda invaded Zaire, which overthrew Mobutu during the process. Laurent-Desire Kabila later took power and renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo. After a disappointing rule under Kabila, the Second Congo War broke out, resulting in a regional war with many different African nations taking part. Kabila was assassinated by his bodyguard in 2001, and his son, Joseph, succeeded him and was later elected president by the Congolese government in 2006. In October 2002, the new president was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying the eastern DRC; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a government of national unity.

A transitional government was set up in July 2003; it held a successful constitutional referendum in December 2005 and elections for the presidency, National Assembly, and provincial legislatures took place in 2006. In 2009, following a resurgence of conflict in the eastern DRC, the government signed a peace agreement with the National Congress for the Defense of the People (CNDP), a primarily Tutsi rebel group. An attempt to integrate CNDP members into the Congolese military failed, prompting their defection in 2012 and the formation of the M23 armed group - named after the 23 March 2009 peace agreements.

Renewed conflict led to large population displacements and significant human rights abuses before the M23 was pushed out of DRC to Uganda and Rwanda in late 2013 by a joint DRC and UN offensive. In addition, the DRC continues to experience violence committed by other armed groups including the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda, the Allied Democratic Forces, and assorted Mai Mai militias. In the most recent national elections, held in November 2011, disputed results allowed Joseph Kabila to be reelected to the presidency. The DRC Constitution bars President Kabila from running for a third term, but the DRC Government has delayed national elections originally slated for November 2016. The failure to hold elections as scheduled has fueled sporadic street protests by Kabila’s opponents. In late December 2016, government officials and opposition leaders struck a last-minute deal that will require Kabila to step down after elections to be held by the end of 2017. Today, the Congo remains dangerously unstable.