essay on natural disasters flood

Flood Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on flood.

Flood is one of the most dangerous natural disasters. It happens when excessive water is collected in any area. It usually happens due to heavy rainfall. India is highly prone to flood. There are many regions in the country that face this natural disaster because of the overflowing of rivers. Moreover, it also happens because of the melting of snow. Another reason for floods is when the dam breaks down. If we look at the coastal areas, the hurricanes and tsunamis are held responsible for causing floods. In this essay on flood, we will see the prevention and after-affect of flood.

In other words, whatever the cause may be, it is equally dangerous. It has a lot of harmful consequences. Flood damages the living conditions and it takes a lot of time to recover from this disaster. Therefore, the consequences of floods must be known and steps must be taken to prevent it.

After-effects of Flood

Floods interrupt with the day to day functioning of the affected area. The severe floods sometimes cause mass destruction. A lot of people and animals lose their lives due to floods. Several others are injured. Floods also bring a rise in diseases. The stagnant water attracts mosquitoes causing malaria , dengue, and more illnesses.

Furthermore, people face power cuts due to the danger of electrocution. They also have to face expensive pricing. As the supply of food and goods gets limited, the prices naturally grow higher. This creates a big problem for the common man.

Most importantly, the whole country faces economic loss. The resources needed to rescue people and tackle this disaster demands a hefty amount. Plus, the citizens lose their houses and cars which they worked all their lives for.

Subsequently, floods also hamper the environment. It causes soil erosion and this degrades the quality of the soil. We lose out on fertile soil. Similarly, floods also damage flora and fauna. They damage crops and displace trees. Thus, the measure should be taken to avoid these grave consequences.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Ways to Prevent flood

The government and citizens must work together to formulate ways to prevent floods. Proper awareness must be spread about the steps to take when floods occur. Warning systems must be set up so people get sufficient time to save themselves. In addition, areas that are more likely to have floods must have tall buildings above the flood level.

Other than that, dams must be constructed strongly. The use of cheap materials causes dams to break. The government must ensure there is a quality building of dams to prevent floods.

In short, we cannot prevent natural causes like rain and the melting of glaciers. However, we can stop the manmade causes like breaking of dams, poor drainage system, installing warning systems and more. We should take inspiration from countries like Singapore that never experience floods despite having heavy rainfall for most time of the year.

FAQ on Flood Essay

Q.1 what are the consequences of a flood.

A.1 Floods cause immense destruction. They are responsible for the loss of human and animal lives. People lose their homes and cars in floods. They also cause soil erosion and uproot of trees.

Q.2 How can we prevent floods?

A.2 Governments must take up certain measures to prevent floods. We can install flood warning systems. Make people aware of what to do in times of flood. Moreover, we can also build a proper drainage system that will ensure no waterlogging.

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Natural Disaster Essay: How to Write, Topics, & Examples

What would you do if someone told you that a tsunami would wipe out your house tomorrow afternoon? You won’t believe them. It always seems that natural disasters happen in someone else’s life. But every year, millions of people worldwide suffer from various natural calamities. This article attempts to systemize the chaos of nature for you to write an impressive natural disaster essay. You will get acquainted with the seven types of disasters, get a long list of topics and examples of natural disaster essay in 200 words and 300 words.

• 🌪️ Natural Disaster: The Basics
• 💡 114 Essay Topics
• 📑 Outlining Your Essay
• 🌊 Essay Sample (200 Words)
• 🏜️ Essay Sample (300 Words)

🌪️ Natural Disaster Essay: What Is It About?

A natural disaster is a large-scale meteorological or geological event that can to cause loss of life or massive damage to people’s property. Floods and severe storms are the most reported acts of nature in the US, but other incidents also happen from time to time. That is why you can dedicate your essay on natural disasters to earthquakes, droughts, wildfires, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, or tornadoes.

💡 114 Natural Disasters Essay Topics

What could you write in a natural disaster essay? You can invent your own topic about various types of natural disasters, their causes, and aftermath, or their impact on human life and the economy. Depending on the discipline, you can also describe historic calamities that changed the direction of human civilization. Alternatively, choose one from our comprehensive list below.

• Why are the Great Plains of the central US ideal for tornado formation?
• Global Warming and Climate Change Legislation.
• Research the atmospheric parameters inside a tornado.
• Energy, Technology and Climate Change.
• Why are the boundaries of Tornado Alley in the US so debatable?
• The global climate change as a manmade disaster.
• Which actions should you never do when a tornado is nearby?
• Volunteers’ Role During Disasters.
• Suggest your opinion on the best action strategy in a hurricane.
• The Columbia Disaster and safety violations.
• What were the causes and effects of a flood?
• Analysis on Climate Change and Global Impact.
• Describe the most devastating wildfires in the US and find their common features.
• Earthquake Engineering Considerations and Methods.
• Brainstorm ideas to prevent wildfires.
• Global warming and the greenhouse effect.
• How can building dams cause earthquakes?
• Climate Change and Its Impact on Freshwater.
• Analyze the impact of droughts on tourism.
• Climate Change Effect on Coral Reef Communities.
• Describe the most extended droughts in human history.
• Marine and Coastal Climate Change in Australia.
• Write an essay on natural disasters and earthquakes in particular.
• Air pollution and mortality rates
• What are the distinctive features of droughts in third-world countries?
• Global Warming, Climate Change, and Society’s Impact on the Environment.
• Study the relationship between global warming and droughts.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder After a Hurricane.
• Evaluate the damage caused by Hurricane Maria in 2017.
• Social Media’s Role in Disaster Response.
• Classify the effects of natural disasters in an essay.
• Sustainability and Climate Change.
• Describe the 1815 volcanic eruption of Mt. Tambora, Indonesia.
• Hurricane Katrina: Overview, Impact, Response.
• Each new leap of civilization causes new responses of nature.
• Animal Exploitation. Animal Agriculture and Climate Change.
• Think of any positive effects a volcanic eruption may have.
• In Arizona, Collaboration Averts Water Disaster.
• Children are the poorest victims of any disaster.
• A Solution to Remedy Climate Change.
• Which ways of disaster risk reduction do you know?
• An Emergency Operations Center During Hurricane Harvey.
• Research the current problems in disaster management.
• Disaster Recovery Plan for Information Technology Organizations.
• Analyze ineffective disaster management in an essay about hurricane Katrina.
• Nurse Competencies and Scope of Practice in Disaster.
• What should a household have at home in the case of a disaster?
• Hurricane Katrina: The Powerful Natural Disaster.
• Describe the humanitarian disaster during the drought in Somalia.
• Technology in Disaster Preparedness.
• Can man-made disasters entail natural calamities?
• Disaster Management in Philadelphia.
• Review the criteria for disaster classification.
• Jeddah Floods and Adaptation Strategies in the City of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
• Search for real examples of hybrid disasters.
• Natural Disasters Prevention: A Tabletop Exercise.
• Who is responsible for casualties after a natural disaster?
• The Sand Storms: Remote Sensing and Meteorological Variables.
• List the lessons we could learn from our past disaster experience.
• Fire Development, Growth, and Spreads.
• The ice storm and silver thaw: A gentle disaster.
• Fire Crisis Management in the UAE.
• Rockslides: A pressing issue for rural areas.
• 1d – 2d Flood Modeling Using PCSWMM.
• What are the psychological benefits of disaster preparedness?
• Structural Control and Origin of Volcanism in the Taupo Volcanic Zone.
• When does a blizzard become a disaster?
• Extreme Weather Events + Geographies of Globalization.
• Research the causes of dust storms and name the affected areas.
• Strategies for Sustainable Integrated Oil Disaster Management in West Africa.
• Why did the San Francisco earthquake (1906) cause devastating fires?
• Causes of Climate Change.
• What could be done to help people who lost their homes in an earthquake?
• Book Review: Energy and Global Climate Change.
• Analyze the role of World Vision in humanitarian aid after disasters.
• Tangshan earthquake of 1976 showed that high population density is disastrous.
• The Role of Carbon Dioxide in Climate Change.
• Rock avalanche: Why water is the most powerful geological agent.
• Aspects of Climate Change.
• When do extreme weather conditions turn into a disaster?
• Climate Change: Reasons, Kyoto Protocol.
• Write an article on shelter-providing organizations for disaster victims.
• Establishing an IT Disaster Recovery Plan.
• Describe earthquake cycles in Haiti.
• Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food.
• How can nature damage ecology in natural disasters?
• Climate Change. Problems. Effects.
• Disaster management should include psychological help to the survivors.
• Climate Change Causes: Position and Strategies.
• Suggest ways to prevent damage caused by debris flow.
• HAT 4: Disaster in Franklin Country.
• How did the lack of evacuation after the Bhola cyclone (1970) result in the massive death toll?
• The Effects of Climate Change.
• The most significant Yellow River flood: 2 million deaths in 1887.
• Resilience Building Against Natural Disasters in the Caribbean Islands.
• Sinkholes: A natural disaster or attraction for cavers and water-divers?
• Global Climate Change and Health.
• Describe the dynamics of landslides in California.
• Which early-warning systems to detect avalanches do you know?
• Los Angeles Regional Collaborative for Climate Action.
• Pyroclastic flow: The deadliest volcanic hazard.
• Communication During Disaster Response.
• Describe the volcano eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed the Herculaneum and Pompeii.
• Disaster Planning for Families.
• Disaster prevention measures: Investments that save millions of lives.
• Natural Disaster Management and Historical Prospective Study in the UAE.
• Research the PTSD in survivors of natural disasters.
• Are the latest disasters the nature’s fightback to humanity?
• Estimate the human impact on natural disasters.
• List the countries with the largest number of disasters and find their standard features.
• Everyday Communication on Climate Change.
• Insurance coverage against disasters: Our inevitable future.
• Emergency Planning Before and After Hurricane Katrina.
• One natural disaster could bring the world to its end.

Haven’t found a suitable topic in the list above? Use our essay topic generator to get more ideas.

📑 Natural Disaster Essay Outline

Outlines differ, depending on the assigned length and essay type. It is a reference sample. Feel free to modify it, extending some points and narrowing the others. Still, the overall structure should remain the same. We have chosen the “Causes of Earthquakes” essay topic for demonstrative purposes.

• Hook . There are millions of possible ways to start your essay, from a rhetorical question to any imaginable scenario. The point is to grab the reader’s attention, showing them that your writing is unique and creative. For example: We are always concerned with the consequences of a natural disaster. But what brought us into such a calamity in the first place?
• Concepts. Natural disasters can be studied in the framework of various disciplines. But in all cases, they are linked with geology, biology, chemistry, geography, and some other subjects with broad and complicated terminology. Explain the terms that could be elusive for your readers here. For example: For the purposes of this essay, an earthquake is a sudden displacement of the land surface.
• Background. How did you come to think of this problem? Why is it topical? The causes of earthquakes are numerous and often unrelated. To understand them as a system, we need a strict classification.
• Thesis statement . Clearly state the aim of your essay. This essay attempts to group the causes of earthquakes to determine which factors can be tackled by human forces.
• Transition sentence. It comes in the previous sentence (for paragraphs 2 and 3) and ensures smooth reading. E.g.: Tectonic movements are the most powerful causes of earthquakes, and we cannot influence them. But still, there is something we could do.
• Topic sentence . What will you explain in this paragraph? Human interference with nature can also cause earthquakes.
• Evidence. How can you confirm the topic sentence? Heavy clubbing of dam water can disturbance the crustal balance. Nuclear bombing causes shockwaves that penetrate the surface, changing the tectonic plates and their natural alignment. Mining can also cause earthquakes by removing extensive volumes of stone from under the ground.
• Warrant. Why does the reader need this information, and how does it relate to the thesis statement? Knowing these facts can help us change the old-fashioned approaches and lessen the ecological damage to our planet.
• Summary. Collect and summarize all your arguments here. Tectonic movements, volcano eruptions, and geological faults cause a significant part of earthquakes worldwide. But various man-made causes bring us to the same result.
• Rephrased thesis. We cannot stop the tectonic movements or hinder volcanic eruptions, but we can use natural resources with more care.

🌊 Natural Disaster Essay 200 Words

Below you will find a short natural disaster essay for 200 words. It explores the causes and effects of the tsunami in Japan in 2011.

Tsunami in Japan: Causes and Effects The proximity of the deadliest disasters is often unpredictable. As a result, the consequences of a tsunami can exceed any possible expectations. This essay looks for the decisive factors that caused the tsunami in Japan in 2011 and its results for the local population and other countries. The causes were out of human control and could not be predicted. The Pacific plate moved in the horizontal and vertical plane, advancing beneath the Eurasian Plate. It displaced the seawater above and entailed several destructive waves. The disaster had enormous consequences for the Japanese people and their economy. It killed almost 16,000 people, although the country had a sophisticated alarming system. Besides, the earthquake caused fires and explosions at oil factories. The cooling system of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant went out of service. Two people were lost, and many were injured. Nissan, like many other large corporations, had to suspend the operation of its four factories. The economic losses due to the catastrophe amounted to 300 billion dollars. But the disaster moved to other places. On 24 March 2011, the earthquake in the east of Myanmar claimed the lives of 60 people and destroyed 300 buildings. As we can see, everything is linked on our planet. Movements of the earth’ crust in any part of the world bring about earthquakes and tsunami in other countries. The series of waves in Japan was caused by the underwater earthquake and had horrible consequences.

🏜️ Natural Disaster Essay 300 Words

If your assignment is longer, you will have to provide your opinion in the essay. Or, you can make your argumentation more detailed. Below you can check our 300-word sample of a disaster essay.

The Economic Effects of the Dust Bowl Drought When someone says “a natural disaster,” we usually imagine an earthquake or a tsunami. Buildings are destroyed, and property is lost. But imagine a scenario of a devastating drought, which happened in the US in the 1930s. Its effect is less visible because it lies in the domain of the national economy. This essay reveals the economic consequences of the Dust Bowl drought. During the third decade of the XX century, strong winds raised choking dust in the southern states, from Texas to Nebraska. People and animals died as the crops failed in the area for several years in a row. The Dust Bowl lasted for almost a decade and was also called “the Dirty Thirties.” This drought intensified the impact of the Great Depression. Local farmers had to migrate to urban areas in search of better conditions and other sources of living. About 2.5 million people moved West from the worst-hit states, namely New Mexico, Texas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Kansas. But they found only discrimination, meager salaries, and inhuman working conditions. Many had to live in tents near irrigation ditches. They were called “Okies,” a disdainful name for migrants of any state. Regular rains returned to the southern states by the end of 1939, closing the drought. However, the economic aftermath persisted. The counties that suffered the most failed to recover the agricultural value of their land till the 1950s. Thus, the local population kept decreasing for twenty years. Although a drought does not ruin property, it can tangibly lower human life levels. The Dust Bowl threw people into a lose-lose situation. Their farms were unfit for gaining any profit, and the new places of living gave them no better opportunities. It took two decades to restore public wellbeing in the Southern States.

Researching the worst acts of nature can teach you to value what you have. We hope that this article has made your creative writing more manageable and pleasurable. You can write an essay of any length by simply following our outline. All you will need to do after that is make a cover page for it.

Please share your natural disaster essay ideas in the comments below.

❓ Natural Disaster Essay FAQ

How to write an essay about natural disaster.

Your approach should depend on the discipline. But in any case, you can discuss the types of disasters, their consequences, characteristics, and preconditions. The excellent idea is to select a past disastrous event and analyze it from the economic, social, or individual point of view.

What Is a Disaster Essay?

A disaster essay explores the stages of a natural or man-made calamity and seeks the possible ways to prevent similar emergencies in the future. An article on disaster management studies the correct and efficient activities to lower the casualties and property loss after a disaster.

What Is Disaster Preparedness Essay?

This type of writing analyzes the level of readiness of a region or municipality to an unexpected natural disaster. You can highlight the vulnerable groups of the population that will suffer the most. Or, you may invent measures that could reduce the disaster response and coping time. Such assignments teach you strategic thinking and a systematic approach to problem-solving.

How to Describe a Natural Disaster for an Essay?

You should specify that the event was unexpected and led to many deaths and property loss. The most critical things include the causes of the disaster, its progress and duration, and the negative consequences for the locals. You can also specify the negative effect on the economy and humanitarian condition of the area.

🔗 References

• Natural Disasters and Severe Weather | CDC
• Types of Disasters | SAMHSA
• Natural Disaster – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• Natural Disasters – National Geographic
• What Is Disaster Management: Prevention and Mitigation

The Many Effects of Flooding

Floods can be destructive to humans and the natural environment, but they also help to drive biodiversity and are essential to the functioning of many ecosystems.

Earth Science, Climatology, Geography, Physical Geography

1931 Yangtze River Flood

In 1931, water overwhelmed the banks of the Yangtze and Huai Rivers, resulting in the Central China flood. Killing at least hundreds of thousands and potentially millions of people, it was one of the worst flooding events in recorded history. Here, people near the Yangtze River are shown.

Photograph from Adrienne Livesey, Elaine Ryder, and Irene Brien

It is hardly surprising that rivers have been an important part of human history: They provide food, freshwater, and fertile land for growing crops. While water is essential to life, it can be a destructive force too. When rivers flood, the effects can be catastrophic. Flooding is one of the most common types of natural disaster, and the results are often fatal. The Central China flood of 1931, for example, was one of the worst flooding events in recorded history. The Yangtze and Huai Rivers broke their banks, killing as many as several million people. The aftermath was devastating; deadly waterborne diseases like dysentery and cholera spread quickly, and those who survived faced the threat of starvation. The human cost of flooding can be large, but events like this have a big impact on the natural world too, and the effects are not always negative. In fact, some ecosystems rely on seasonal flooding to drive ecological processes. Floods Can Harm Wildlife Flooding can have a negative effect on wildlife, causing drowning, disease proliferation, and habitat destruction. In 2012, hundreds of animals, including many vulnerable one-horned rhinos ( Rhinoceros unicornis ), were killed in floods that swamped Kaziranga National Park in the Indian state of Assam. Unpredictable floods can be harmful even to aquatic life. For example, fish can be displaced and their nests destroyed.

Floods Cause Sedimentation and Erosion Floodwater can also alter the landscape, for instance, by eroding riverbanks and causing them to collapse. As floodwater carries material from the eroded banks, it suspends sediment in the water, which can degrade water quality and lead to harmful blooms of algae. Suspended sediment eventually settles out of the water in a process called sedimentation, which can clog riverbeds and streams, smother aquatic organisms, and destroy habitats. Erosion and sedimentation have a more negative impact on ecosystems that are already degraded or heavily modified. Floods Carry Contamination Floodwater can be contaminated with pollutants such as agricultural pesticides , industrial chemicals, debris, and sewage. If contaminated floodwater enters the ocean it can affect water quality and disrupt delicate ecosystems, such as coral reefs. In February 2019, marine biologists feared for the safety of the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, a state in Australia, after it was inundated with polluted floodwater. Floods Spread Diseases Floods are the leading cause of weather-related infectious disease outbreaks. Flooding events increase the chance of spreading waterborne diseases, such as hepatitis A and cholera. Receding floodwater can create stagnant pools of water, which provide the perfect breeding ground for mosquitoes, which can transmit malaria and other diseases. Flood events also lead to an increase in some forms of  zoonosis , such as leptospirosis. Floods Carry Nutrients While floods bring hazards, they also bring nutrients and essential components for life. Seasonal floods can renew ecosystems, providing life-giving waters in more ways than one. Floods transport vital nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic material, to the surrounding land. When the water recedes, it leaves sediment and nutrients behind on the floodplain. This rich, natural fertilizer improves soil quality and has a positive effect on plant growth, thus increasing productivity in the ecosystem. Ancient civilizations first arose along the deltas of seasonally flooded rivers, such as the Nile in Egypt, because they provided fertile soil for farmland. Floods Recharge Groundwater Floods can replenish underground water sources. Floodwater gets absorbed into the ground then percolates through layers of soil and rock, eventually reaching underground aquifers . These aquifers supply clean freshwater to springs, wells, lakes, and rivers. Ecosystems rely heavily on groundwater during dry spells when it may be the only supply of freshwater available. A good supply of groundwater has a positive impact on soil health and leads to more productive crop and pasture lands. Floods Can Trigger Breeding Events and Migrations Floods can trigger breeding events, migrations, and dispersal in some species. In 2016, thousands of water birds flocked to the Macquarie Marshes in the Australian state of New South Wales. Flooding had filled their wetland habitat for the first time in years, triggering a mass breeding event. In Cambodia, monsoon rains cause an annual flood pulse on the Mekong River that prompts migrations for some animals. The floodwaters cause the Tonle Sap river, which connects the Mekong River to Tonle Sap lake, to reverse its flow, filling the lake. When floodwater enters the lake, it triggers fish migrations, supporting one of the world’s most productive fisheries. Floods Can Boost Fish Stocks Small seasonal floods can be beneficial to native fish stocks and can help those fish outcompete invasive species that are not adapted to the river’s cycles. Sediment deposited on riverbeds during floods can provide a nursery site for small fish. Nutrients carried by floodwater can support aquatic food webs by boosting productivity. Floods Bring Life to Wetlands Wetlands are an extremely important ecosystem; approximately 40 percent of the world’s species rely on them. They filter water, mitigate flooding, and act as a carbon sink . The Okavango Delta in Botswana is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site and one of the world’s largest, most important wetland habitats. The river captures rainfall from far to the north in the highlands of Angola. This causes a flood pulse that replenishes the wetlands at the height of the dry season, providing a lush oasis in the Kalahari Desert. National Geographic Explorer Steve Boyes, with a team of scientists and Explorers, has participated in a series of expeditions to trace the Okavango from source to sand to protect the waters of this unique habitat. Floods are a force of nature, and their consequences, both positive and negative, are strongly felt by affected ecosystems. Floods can be destructive to humans and the natural environment, but they also help to drive biodiversity and are essential to the functioning of many ecosystems. Whether you regard floods as good or bad, one thing is for certain: The world would be a very different place without them.

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Cause & Effect Essay: Natural Disasters and Their Causes

Natural disasters happen all over the world, and they can be utterly devastating for people’s lives and the environments in which they live. Although natural disasters are caused by nature and there is nothing that we can do to prevent them happening, there are many different natural causes that lead to natural disasters, and being aware of these causes enables us to be better prepared when such disasters do arrive.

One common natural disaster is flooding, which occurs when a river bursts its banks and the water spills out onto the floodplain. This is far more likely to happen when there is a great deal of heavy rain, so during very wet periods, flood warnings are often put in place. There are other risk factors for flooding too: steep-sided channels cause fast surface run-off, while a lack of vegetation or woodland to both break the flow of water and drink the water means that there is little to slow the floodwater down. Drainage basins of impermeable rock also cause the water to run faster over the surface.

Earthquakes are another common natural disaster that can cause many fatalities. The movements of the plates in the earth’s crust cause them. These plates do not always move smoothly and can get stuck, causing a build-up of pressure. It is when this pressure is released that an earthquake occurs. In turn, an earthquake under the water can also cause a tsunami, as the quake causes great waves by pushing large volumes of water to the surface.

Tsunamis can also be caused by underwater volcanic eruptions. Volcanic eruptions are another natural disaster, and they are caused by magma escaping from inside the earth. An explosion takes place, releasing the magma from a confined space, which is why there are often also huge quantities of gas and dust released during a volcanic eruption. The magma travels up the inside of the volcano, and pours out over the surrounding area as lava.

One of the most common natural disasters, but also one of the most commonly forgotten, is wildfires. These take place in many different countries all over the world, particularly during the summer months, and can be caused by a range of different things. Some of the things that can start the wildfires can be totally natural, while others can be manmade, but the speed at which they spread is entirely down to nature. The two natural causes of wildfires are the sun’s heat and lightning strikes, while they can also be caused by campfires, smoking, fireworks and many other things. The reasons that they spread so quickly are prolonged hot, dry weather, where the vegetation dries out, which is why they often take place in woodland.

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Disasters — Natural Disasters

Essays on Natural Disasters

Hook examples for natural disasters essays, "nature's wrath unleashed" hook.

"Natural disasters remind us of the raw power of the Earth. Explore the awe-inspiring, yet devastating, forces that shape our world and challenge our resilience."

"Surviving the Unthinkable" Hook

"Survivors of natural disasters carry stories of strength and survival. Share firsthand accounts of individuals who faced nature's fury and emerged as heroes."

"Disaster Preparedness: Are We Ready?" Hook

"In an era of climate change, disaster preparedness is paramount. Analyze the state of our preparedness efforts, the role of technology, and the importance of community resilience."

"The Environmental Toll of Natural Disasters" Hook

"Beyond human impact, natural disasters take a toll on our environment. Investigate the ecological consequences of disasters and the long-term effects on ecosystems."

"Mitigating Disaster: A Race Against Time" Hook

"Scientists and policymakers are working tirelessly to mitigate the impact of natural disasters. Explore innovative strategies, early warning systems, and the quest to save lives."

"Humanitarian Response and Resilience" Hook

"Natural disasters bring out the best in humanity as communities and organizations rally to provide aid. Celebrate stories of humanitarian response and the strength of human resilience."

"The Future of Disaster Management" Hook

"As natural disasters become more frequent and severe, we must adapt. Discuss the future of disaster management, sustainable solutions, and global cooperation in the face of adversity."

The Environmental Effects of Volcanoes: a Comprehensive Analysis

Comparing and contrasting hurricane katrina and hurricane harvey, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

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The Flood: Reflection and Mitigating The Impact

Report on natural disaster: hurricane katrina, the effects of natural disasters on economics, the natural disaster: earthquake, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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The Catastrophic Cyclone of April 1991 in Bangladesh

Ancient disasters in the world, what natural disasters occur in indonesia, the ethics behind publishing graphic images of natural disasters in face to face with tragedy, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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Why People Loot During Disasters and What Can Be Done to Resolve The Issue

Hurricane maria – a name puerto rico will never forget, public attitudes towards risk and how it contributes to vulnerability, tsunamis in the pacific ocean and indonesia, report on oklahoma tornado disaster in 1999, tornadoes and the importance to be prepared, earthquake and its devastating effects, hurricanes – the frightening challenges for new orleans, the portrayal of climate change in political discourse and its connection to natural disasters, the effects of earthquakes on the economy, hurricane katrina and crisis counseling, hurricane dorian – the worst natural disaster in bahamian history, past, present, and future integration of spatial technologies and techniques in disaster management, tsunami modeling of caribbean sources affecting the north coast of puerto rico, embracing technology in tornado recovery, the lessons we learnt from xenia tornado, nuclear waste: an american disaster, earthquake is essential for the earth, the economics during and after kerala’s flood disaster, probabilistic analysis of optimal management of storage areas .

A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth.

Geological disasters: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, sinkholes, etc. Hydrological disasters: floods, tsunami, limnic eruptions. Meteorological disasters: droughts, tropical cyclone, blizzards, hailstorms, etc. Wildfires. Space disasters.

Damage paths of tornadoes can be in excess of one mile wide and 50 miles long. Between 2000 and 2012, natural disasters caused $1.7 trillion in damage and affected 2.9 billion people. Floods are the most widespread natural disaster aside from wildfires. 90% of all US natural disasters declared by the president involve some sort of flooding.

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• Natural Disasters Essay for Students in English

Read Natural Disaster Essay on Vedantu

The planet earth has gone through many changes over these centuries. These changes are majorly due to natural disasters happening throughout time. When we talk about natural disasters, pollution, ozone depletion and global warming are the most common scenarios we witnessed.

Growing industrialisation and exploitation of natural resources have changed the echo system bringing on the verge of imbalance. However, over these decades, humans have also introduced many disaster warning systems helping to predict natural occurrence in advance. You can read more about Natural Disasters on Vedantu.

Different Faces of Natural Disasters

Nature possesses the character of a special balance in which all living beings live together in harmony with their environment. But whenever this balance is disturbed, we see the disastrous form of nature which wreaks havoc upon this world. Natural disasters come in various forms like earthquakes, Tsunami, Storms, Cyclones, droughts etc. These disasters have always occurred throughout history but the current threat of climate change has severely increased its risks. Man has to learn that he cannot control nature and his life should revolve around the conditions present in the environment and not the other way around.

We have tried to change the basic character of the Human-Nature relationship with every metric of development being centred on financial interest and the rise of global consumerism.  This way of life promotes greed and has fundamentally made human beings disoriented towards nature. Our festivals celebrate the intrinsic relationship between humans and the environment where we celebrate Mountains, Rivers, and Animals etc. Natural disasters are a reminder that humans must never take the gift of nature for granted and always reciprocate for the resources that we have received from the environment. Clean Air, Clean Water and harmony in the ecosystem is a prerequisite for Human well being.  

How to Deal with Natural Disasters?

India, due to its unique geographical character, faces natural disasters every year which cause massive harm to lives and property. Whether it be the floods of Uttarakhand in 2013 or the landslides in Western Ghats of Kerala. The cost of our blind exploitation of natural resources without showing reverence for the delicate balance of Nature has severely harmed us and we must learn lessons from these incidents.

One of the greatest stories of the Indian government in dealing with disaster readiness has been the story of the Indian state of Odisha. Odisha is a coastal state in eastern India that regularly faces cyclones that have caused great harm to the state. To deal with the menace of these cyclones the Odisha Government made an elaborate plan by taking the local communities in confidence and have successfully reduced the number of deaths in Odisha to a very small number which used to be in thousands earlier. Other Indian states should also learn from the experience of Odisha on how to improve disaster preparedness.

Keeping our environment safe and following the right process will help in bringing down the natural disasters. It is vital to learn about them.

FAQs on Natural Disasters Essay for Students in English

1.  What are natural disasters increasing?

Over the years, natural disasters have increased. Regular earthquakes, massive flooding, cyclones, etc. have increased. According to the office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) which maintains an emergency disaster database, if a natural disaster kills 10 people, then it leaves 100 people injured. Increase in hydro-meteorological disasters, the combination of natural and man-made factors is leading to an increase in natural disasters.

2. What are the natural disasters that happened in 2020?

From wildfires in the US to locusts attack in India and back-to-back cyclones in India, there are many natural disasters in 2020. According to the Global Catastrophe Recap’s First Half of 2020 report, there were more than 207 natural disasters in just the first six months of 2020, causing \[＄\]75 billion loss globally.

3. What natural disaster is the worst?

Every natural disaster causing the loss of both property and human lives is the worst. Be it the earthquake, wildfire or cyclone; each disaster can be the worst in its sense.

4. What are the causes of natural disasters?

Natural disasters are caused by a number of reasons which may or may not be linked to Human interference. Floods, for example, occur generally because of a sudden increase in water level which cannot be supported by the natural geography of the river, however, it has been observed that floods have also occurred due to human interference like encroachment of river banks, illegal sand mining and obstructions in the natural flow of the river. 

5. What are the agencies that deal with natural disasters?

On the National level, Natural disasters are dealt with by the National Disaster Relief Force or the NDRF. The NDRF has its own commissioned force which is highly experienced and trained to deal with situations when a disaster has occurred. Apart from the NDRF, there is also the SDRF which is present in every state. The central and state governments work in coordination during Natural disasters and saving lives along with restoration of normalcy is the primary concern of the relief operations.

6. What are the ways to deal with floods and droughts?

It may sound surprising to some people but India is a unique country where due to its vast geography, we have seen conditions where some parts of the country are facing floods while other parts suffer from drought in the same year. These are especially tough to deal with as the volume of water in floods just cannot be stored and once a region is facing drought, access to water becomes a question of survival. Linking rivers is a very grand scheme which can solve some of our problems but this also needs to be dealt with caution.

7. What can I do to contribute to disaster relief programmes?

The central and state governments carry out various programmes which are directly related to disaster relief work, coordinating with the agencies and donating to these relief operations are some things that we can do as citizens. There are various NGOs that provide relief material to people who are suffering from natural disasters. Creating awareness about such an important issue is also an essential activity. You can learn more about it on Vedantu website and download it in PDF format.

8. Which regions are the most affected by natural disasters in India?

Every part of the country has a unique geographical character and in some way or the other, they face the threat of natural disasters. Bihar and Assam are two such states which face floods on an annual basis, The Himalayan states have a very delicate ecology and save the menace of flash floods and landslides. Maharashtra has a problem of flooding in the Western Ghats while Vidarbha faces drought. Innovative ways must be discovered by states to deal with natural disasters.

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Natural Disasters Essay

Natural disasters are not in the control of human beings. Like many other countries, India is also plagued with many natural disasters because of its geographical location and environment. In the past few decades, the temperature in the Indian subcontinent has risen. A natural calamity is called a disaster when it affects people or property on a large scale. Here are a few sample essays on the topic ‘Natural Disasters’.

100 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Humans have been subjected to the impact of natural disasters for as long as they have been on Earth. Disasters, unfortunately, are happening all the time. Most of the Natural Disasters we see are caused by natural forces. Therefore, they are almost impossible to prevent from happening. Natural disasters like floods, drought, landslides, earthquakes, and cyclones frequently occur all throughout the world. Often, natural disasters leave mass effects and it can take years to control the damage. However, the negative effects and damages caused by these natural disasters can be reduced significantly if proper warning systems or policies are used.

200 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are mostly naturally occurring events that greatly damage human lives and assets. Every year, many lives are lost due to natural disasters across the globe. Many people are left with no home or property. They suffer endlessly. Some natural disasters are floods, landslides, cyclones, hurricanes, drought, wildfires. This problem becomes far more severe when a natural disaster occurs in a densely populated place. Unfortunately, most natural disasters are unpreventable from happening. We can only forecast these events and take necessary measures to mitigate the loss.

India is one of the most vulnerable countries to natural disasters because of its unique geological position. Every year India witnesses nearly five cyclones of various intensities. Droughts in summer and mild to strong earthquakes are frequently experienced in many northern parts of India near the Himalayas. In India, wildfires are caused in the forest area during the autumn and summer seasons. Our country is also witnessing dramatic climate changes and massive global warming due to pollution and greenhouse gases. Due to this, natural disasters are becoming more frequent than before.

Coping Up With Natural Disasters

Most natural disasters are out of our control and can occur randomly. All we can do, however, is take necessary precautions as soon as we are able to predict when the disaster is going to take place. Global Warming is an important reason for all these things. Therefore, we must protect and preserve our natural environment. It is essential to warn people of upcoming disasters. A mandatory evacuation should be carried out if necessary. After the disaster, people should be provided financial help to recover from damages and losses from the disaster.

500 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are events that occur due to either biological activity or human-made activity. Human lives and property are affected for a long time after it occurs. The number of cases is increasing worldwide every day. It is because of the over-exploitation of natural resources by mankind. India suffers significantly from natural disasters due to its vulnerable geographical location. Due to this, our country still needs a proper disaster management unit.

Types Of Natural Disasters

Different kinds of Natural Disasters in India occur very often and have major effects on people’s lives.

Earthquake | An earthquake is a natural event when the Earth's tectonic plates suddenly shift and cause the ground to shake. This shaking can damage buildings and other structures, as well as loss of life. Earthquakes can happen at any time and can strike without warning, making them a frightening and unpredictable phenomenon.

Cyclone | A cyclone is a type of storm characterised by a low-pressure centre and strong winds that spiral inward and upward. Cyclones are also typhoons or hurricanes, depending on the region in which they occur. Cyclones form over warm ocean waters and typically move toward land, where they can cause widespread damage and destruction. They are often accompanied by heavy rainfall and can spawn tornadoes. The destructive power of a cyclone comes from its strong winds, which can reach speeds of over 150 miles per hour. These winds can uproot trees, damage buildings, and create storm surges, large waves that can flood coastal areas.

Wildfire | A wildfire is a large, uncontrolled fire that occurs in a natural habitat, such as a forest, grassland, or prairie. Wildfires can happen due to various factors, including lightning, human activity, and extreme weather conditions. When a wildfire occurs, it can spread quickly, consuming everything in its path. Wildfires can have many adverse effects on the environment and people. For example, they can destroy homes and other buildings and critical infrastructures, such as roads and bridges. They can also cause air pollution and respiratory issues for people living in the area.

Human Activities And Natural Disasters

Human activities can contribute to the occurrence and severity of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and wildfires. For example, activities like deforestation, urbanisation, and climate change can increase the likelihood and impact of these events.

Deforestation, which removes vegetation from an area, can increase the risk of natural disasters. Trees and other vegetation hold the upper layer of soil in place, which prevents erosion and landslides. When these plants are removed, the ground becomes more vulnerable to being swept away by heavy rainfall or other natural forces.

Urbanisation, or the growth of cities and towns, can also contribute to natural disasters. As more and more people move into urban areas, the risk of earthquakes, wildfires, and other natural disasters increases. For example, the construction of buildings and other structures can alter the natural landscape, making it more susceptible to damage from earthquakes and other events.

Climate change, the long-term warming of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, can also increase the likelihood and severity of natural disasters. Higher temperatures can lead to more often intense heat waves, droughts, and wildfires. Rising sea levels can cause more severe flooding, particularly in coastal areas.

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Essays About Natural Disasters: 5 Examples and Prompts

Essays about natural disasters teach us many things; read on to see examples and prompts you can use for your piece.

Natural disasters are the sudden occurrence of natural and severe hazards threatening human welfare and survival. These events can cause injuries, destroy assets such as homes and businesses, and even death. Some examples of natural disasters are tornadoes, floods, earthquakes, wildfires, and storms.

Although emergency protocols are in place to alleviate and prevent natural disasters’ impact on both humanity and the economy, there is still no guarantee that these will be able to protect and save everyone from these misfortunes. Therefore, writing essays about natural disasters helps spread awareness on how to act when one faces these mishaps properly.

Below are five examples you should read to create essays about natural disasters effectively:

1. Planning For a Safer Tomorrow by Jyotsana B

2. natural disasters are often not natural by sandra valdez, 3. natural disasters essay by pradeep, 4. equity during natural disasters by writer kip, 5. natural disasters: nature’s revenge by anonymous on loveliessays.com, 1. my experience with natural disasters, 2. natural disasters: a history, 3. natural disasters and the economy, 4. types of natural disasters, 5. my take on natural disaster management, 6. causes of natural disasters, 7. after effects of natural disasters, 8. recovery from a natural disaster.

“Natural disasters have a severe impact on the society, therefore it is important to plan and develop a safety programme and devise means to efficiently deal with natural disaster. Development programme that go into promoting development at the local level have been left to the general exercise of planning.”

The author shares tips on how to prevent calamities and be prepared in case these natural disasters occur. These steps include proper analysis and risk assessment, adequate information database, modern infrastructure, and networks of knowledge-based institutions. The essay further expounds on each point and gives specific directions on successfully implementing these precautions.

“The word ‘natural’ indicates that humans have not triggered the catastrophe. However, human activity can definitely interfere with nature, which in turn may either cause a natural disaster or make its impacts much worse.”

Although Valdez agrees that “natural disasters” means humans do not directly create them, she also considers human’s significant contributions to these tragedies. She offers an example of earthquakes and the fluid injection incident in the Rocky Mountain Arsenal in Denver, Colorado. She further lists more human activities that trigger earthquakes, blaming human engineering that stresses the Earth’s faults. Finally, she acknowledges human speeds up disasters and human elements are innate in these equations.

“There is no doubt that extending help to someone during tough times is paramount. Rich countries should support poverty-stricken nations with altruistic aid while calamities take place… Being rich, similar nations are in a position to support countries that suffer economically and emotionally during nature havoc. The result of this is, not only induces good relations between countries but also paves the way to commercial transactions with minimized taxes in the future.”

Pradeep supports that countries with more resources should aid those with lesser assets. It’s not only because of altruistic reasons but because it can also be the foundation for good relationships between governments. These relationships can result in successful transactions and give comfort and security to grief-stricken countries.

“Should we allow prices to increase during natural disasters or should we protect against price gouging?… No policy is best for everyone… In the grand scheme of things, the market will return to normal the quickest whenever the market prices are allowed to fluctuate.”

Kip criticizes the way businesses increase the goods’ prices when there is a natural disaster. He questions if it’s the right thing to do to consumers who are only trying to purchase what they need to be ready for catastrophes. 

He also includes business reviews that rationalize high prices by arguing increasing prices prevents product hoarding. He challenges this statement by asking the readers to consider those who don’t have the money to buy these overpriced essentials. The writer also mentions other terms to explain the economy during a natural disaster and even involves the government’s processes to mitigate its harmful effects.

“Our environment is our responsibility… Exactly who polluted our planet so much? There is only one answer: man. It is man’s actions that have caused the problem… Humanity must realize that if the current trends are allowed to continue unchecked, the future of life on Earth is at risk. it must be conserved.”

Is nature retaliating because of humans’ disregard for it? The author offers reports to present the unpredictability of these disasters brought by climate change. To further prove their points, the author lays down facts like the quick rising of the sea and changing rain patterns. 

At the end of the essay, the writer urges man to be an environmentalist because he depends on his surroundings for food and shelter. Therefore, to survive, humans must treat nature well.

A tip: Run your essay through essay writing apps to organize and help you with style and grammar.

8 Prompts on Essays About Natural Disasters

There are many aspects of natural disasters you can zero in on. Here are easy but compelling prompts to tackle:

Share your experience with a calamity, and narrate what happened before, during, and after. Are there certain things you wish you did or didn’t do? Include how it affected your life and how you understand things work, such as the importance of first responders and following authorities in times of panic and chaos.

Then, focus on your personal experience. For example, your family might have to move places because you lost your home. Or that today, you always have an emergency bag packed and ready. You might also be interested in these essays about nature .

List down notable natural disasters that changed the course of the world. This could include volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Then, explain why they happened, how the government or country dealt with it, and discuss the precautions executed in case the disaster occurs again. Finally, include the lessons you learned from these tragedies.

Explain how natural disasters affect the economy. Then, to make it more relatable, you can relay the impact of these tragedies on your life. For example, did any of your relatives lose their job because of a natural disaster? Was your family forced to close down your business? Include personal anecdotes to create an engaging essay.

List the many natural disasters and discuss them in detail. In this essay, you can delve into the causes of each type of natural disaster and how it impacts nearby civilizations. What do you fear the most in these disasters? To make it easier, you can pick two natural disasters to compare and contrast.

Choose an incident where natural disaster management was applied and give your thoughts about it. Research a recent natural disaster and study how the local and national government managed it. If any failed initiatives or points could be improved upon, make sure to write your thoughts about this in your essay. Then, you can discuss what you believe will aid natural disaster management in the future.

For this prompt, you can split your essay into two sections. One section can discuss environmental causes, while the other delves into human activities that cause natural disasters. Topics can include pollution, climate change, and overpopulation of small areas. To create an emotive essay, write about your thoughts on what we can do as a society to mitigate these harmful activities.

Consider the short and long-term effects of these natural disasters. You can concentrate on a specific tragedy that the general public knows so your reader can easily imagine what you describe in your essay. To make your piece more interesting, you can list natural disasters’ negative and positive effects.

If you want your essay to focus on something positive, choose to discuss new beginnings. For example, you can center on a community and how its people helped each other recover. You can also include the assistance they received from different places and how it aided them in restarting their lives after the disaster.

If you are interested in learning more, check out our essay writing tips !

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

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Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, Floods and Volcanic Eruption Term Paper

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Natural disasters are rapid and instantaneous occurrences that cause extreme devastation to the environment and the socioeconomic systems. The world is prone to many natural disasters though the the socioeconomic impacts can be mitigated. It is estimated that a third of the world economic cost is channeled towards prediction and mitigating disasters.

Death tolls vary from one catastrophe to another as some countries are vulnerable to these disasters recording a large number of deaths (Abbott, 12). An example is Japan, which is known to have experienced frequent and different types of disasters in the past (Kisslinger, 37). This paper discusses earthquakes, floods and volcanic eruption.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes have rocked the earth for a long period. Scientists do not have exact reasons why earthquakes occur. However, the only explanation given is that they occur when plates shift positions or collide. It is clear that some areas of the earth experience frequent and deadly earthquake more than others. Scientists study earthquakes using seismographs to locate the epicenter and for future predictions. Scientists have observed that different regions may have different earthquake precursors.

Therefore, to avoid faulty warnings, the tools used should monitor a wide range of parameters for vulnerable areas of the world. Predictions are made using data and observations in dense networks of epicenter areas (Abbott, 17). This will help in the future monitory of small earthquakes of six magnitudes and below. This is important since the techniques would help in predicting large future earthquakes for earthquake control. Today, experiments are done for future earthquake control in Colorado rangelands.

However, further studies are still necessary for reality in terms of understanding the physical processes involved, magnitudes, rock characteristics. This knowledge will play a significant role in earthquake control modification models and earthquake feasibility. The success of future predictions depends on the manpower commitment to seismological programs (Kisslinger 38).

California, San Fransico, 1906

San Fransico was occupied mainly by Spanish from Mexico. By 1906, the population was about half a million. The city experienced small, yearly earthquakes, and everyone knew about earthquakes. The city is built on the pacific and north America tectonic plates over the San Andreas fault stretching for about eight hundred miles and sixteen kilometers deep (Prokos, 43).

There are many other fault lines in the region. Each year, scientists record about 20,000 strong tremors. On 18th April 1906, a great earthquake of 7.8 magnitude hit the city at 5.00 am while people were still sleeping. Three thousand people lost their lives in this incident. The underling plates slid horizontally past each other.

Chimneys crumbled into pieces; buildings collapsed and crushed people while some were trapped. The streets split into two. Several days after the quake, the city was still in flames as the fire fighters could not extinguish the flames. Many people died instantly while others drowned in the flooded buildings as they could not escape. The aftershock flattened the already damaged buildings disrupting the recovery process (Weil, 17).

The calamity caused death of thousands of people, and almost all the material wealth were destroyed by fire. It caused both administrative and economic mess. The inhabitants described the disaster as a fire storm because the most destruction was done by the fire. The American and British insurance company settled the cost of losses at 65.3% and 34.3% respectively (Röder, 37).

After this disaster, the chiefs of major insurance companies pushed for major changes to improve the building codes and the infrastructure (Röder, 42). In January 2010, the population of San Francisco city was expected to be about 809, 249. This was extrapolated from US census of 2000.

The earth was formed million of years ago from a hot mess that split from the solar system. The force of gravity separated the earth into layers as heavier materials settled at the center whereas lighter materials settled on the outer surface. Volcanoes are known to release the pressure of the molten magma when the overlying rocks can no longer contain the pressure through eruption.

There are two kinds of volcanic mountain. The active volcano is expected to erupt in the future while the dormant volcanoes are not likely to erupt in the future. Some erupt for months and years while others erupts quickly and stop. A volcanic eruption is one of the most feared natural disasters. Volcanic eruptions cause extreme destruction to people, land, vegetation, landscape, buildings, roads and other infrastructure.

Major volcanic eruptions occur killing and injuring inhabitants of the volcanic active regions. Apart from the visible dangers of volcanoes, they can be a poisonous thereby killing living organism in case of contact. The dark ashes from the volcanoes may have several mixtures of gases resulting in air pollution (Thompson and Turk 31).

Prediction and risk assessment

Many volcanoes are active and thus the geologists should predict an eruption to reduce potential disasters. One should understand the tectonic environment of a given region as a first step for prediction. This is due to the relationship between an eruption and the geology of the area.

The previous frequencies and the magnitudes of eruptions are critical during future risk assessment. Regional predictions can estimate the time of a future earthquake, but cannot predict the intensity. Short term predictions are more accurate than regional predictions. In this case, short term focuses on detecting signs and time for an active volcano. Some signs can be seen in the changes within the surrounding land such as smoke or gas emissions, temperature of the nearby hot springs, and earthquake (Thompson and Turk 40).

The eruption of Mt St. Helens, 1980

The last time there was an eruption at Mt Helens was in 1857. Two US geologists predicted that the mountain would erupt before the end of the century due to the past frequent and violent eruptions. An earthquake occurred below the volcano causing small eruptions that led to a greater eruption two months later.

Geologists installed seismographs and surveying tools to record signs of the seismic activities. Sensitive and sophisticated equipments were used to detect changes in the ground water and temperature increase prior to the eruption. It was observed that the mountain swelled and increased in size due to the upward force of magma.

The results showed that the mountain could erupt again, and thus the government was advised to vacate the civilians to avoid loss of lives. These instruments were used in the Philippines in 1991 where lives were saved. David Johnstone is one of the unlucky scientists whom have been caught off guard and killed. The eruption flattened a vast area of thirty five by twenty kilometers. Some people were engulfed by the dark cloud debris as they tried to escape.

The high temperatures melted the mountain ice resulting in strong mud flows that flattened the vegetation and moved vehicles and buildings. The mud reached the Columbia river where it destroyed the river biodiversity. Ash clouds of high temperature smoldered everything in their path. The area still shows the effects of the disaster though the vegetation is slowly regenerating. The forest service has managed to replant trees, especially on the plain ground (Thompson and Turk 56).

Floods are natural occurrences that shape the landscape, ecological habitats, and ecosystems. Floods can cause loss of lives and property destruction. Thus, it is advisable for vulnerable regions take steps to predict and control floods. Poor land use methods in the rural and urban areas can cause flooding.

Different regions of Europe have experienced major flood problems between 1998 and 2000 due to climate change. It is predicted that floods will increase in Europe given the recent frequency. It is estimated that over 25 billion Euros insured economic losses experienced and about seven hundred fatalities. It was estimated that around 1.5% of the Europeans were affected by floods that covered expansive areas (International commission for the protection of Dandube river basin floods 3).

Danube river basin 2002

The flood affected the following countries: Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Romania. The flash flood Suceuva that is northern Romania led to massive deaths of citizens. Over sixteen thousand houses were flooded. Hundreds of kilometers of roads were destroyed, and close to five hundred bridges were destroyed.

The destruction of infrastructure also affected communication systems. The gas and electricity network were also damaged. Several municipalities in Hungary were affected with more than twenty thousand people being vacated from their homes. More than 4,370 homes were damaged. The presence of prevention structures and well executed emergency interventions minimized the possible overall damage.

Emergency operations were valued at thirty three million Euros, and over ten million Euros were needed for rehabilitation. The central parts of Slovakia were the most affected as 144 settlements and thousands of hectares were flooded. Damages were valued at €36.2 million, and emergency costs amounted to €2.2 million.

The 20 communities in the Morava river basin, Czech Republic were affected especially in regard to agriculture and infrastructure resulting in a €11.7 million damage cost. Over 10,000 homes and infrastructure were destroyed in lower and upper Austria. The total damage amounted to €3.1bilion.

In Germany, the Inn, Traun, Regen, and Salzach tributary areas were slightly affected due to the regulating structures that reduced a potentially extended damage. The 2006 floods caused swelling of rivers and many people abandoned their homes due to high water levels.

This was a major flooding experienced in the Danube in the last 100 years. The international commission for the protection of the Danube area revised the hydrology of the area to develop ways to support the national preparedness. The report from this meeting proposed possible solutions and the way forward to minimize damage in the future (International commission for the protection of Dandube river basin floods 5).

This paper has presented a few of the major natural disasters that the world has experienced. Natural disasters happen due to natural causes. However, experts should engage in prediction of the occurrence of natural disasters to issue alerts before the disasters strike. It is evident that disaster preparedness has been critical in reducing the magnitude of devastation in the past. Therefore, various governments should adopt mitigation measures that can assist in minimizing the impacts of the disasters.

Works Cited

Abbott, Patrick L. Natural Disasters . Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2009. Print.

International commission for the protection of Dandube river basin floods, 2006. Web.

Kisslinger, Carl. Earthquake predictions. Physics Today , 27. 3. (1974): 36-42. Print.

Prokos, Anna. Earthquakes . Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens Pub, 2009. Print.

Röder, Tilmann J. From Industrial to Legal Standardization, 1871-1914: Transnational Insurance Law and the Great San Francisco Earthquake . Leiden [u.a.: Martinus Nijhoff Brill, 2011. Print.

Thompson, Graham R. and J. Turk. Earth Science and the Environment . Australia: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2007. Print.

Weil, Ann. Earthquakes . Costa Mesa, Calif.: Saddleback Educational Pub, 2013. Print.

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Bibliography

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• Essay On Natural Disasters

Natural Disasters Essay

500+ words essay on natural disasters.

A natural disaster is defined as an event of nature, which overwhelms local resources and threatens the function and safety of the community. Natural disasters are the consequence of natural phenomena unleashing processes that lead to physical damage and the loss of human lives and capital. Earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, windstorms, floods and droughts are some examples of natural disasters. These disasters disrupt the lives of communities and individuals and the economic activity of the affected area. Students must go through this essay on Natural Disaster and gather ideas to write effective essays on topics related to them. Practising essays on such topics will improve the writing skills of the students and help them score better in the English exam.

Classification of Natural Disasters

Natural disasters result from forces of climate and geology. These are perhaps the most “unexpected” and costly overall in terms of loss of human lives and resources.

Disasters are classified into four categories depending on how they arise:

(1) Internal Earth Processes: It covers geophysical phenomena arising from the internal processes of the earth. It includes earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions etc., which human beings cannot usually predict or prevent.

(2) External Earth Processes: These comprise phenomena such as landslides, collapses, flooding, mudslides etc. These hazards can be avoided and are often associated with man-made alterations in the environment, such as deforestation on hillsides or excavations and many more such activities.

(3) Hydrometeorological Hazards: It is associated with changes in air and ocean temperature. This hazard is responsible for the formation of weather phenomena such as hurricanes and tornadoes, and the precipitation and climate variations that sometimes cause extreme flooding, storm surges, droughts and other hydrological phenomena.

(4) Biological Hazards: Biological disasters result from the proliferation of agents such as bacteria, viruses and toxins that can kill or disable people, harm animals, and crops and damage the environment. Some examples of biological hazards are cholera, dengue, yellow fever, Ebola virus and Marburg virus. The current pandemic situation due to Coronavirus is also an example of biological hazards.

Disaster Management

Disasters have massive human and economic costs. They may cause many deaths, severe injuries, and food shortages. Most incidents of severe injuries and deaths occur during the time of impact, whereas disease outbreaks and food shortages often arise much later, depending on the nature and duration of the disaster. Anticipating the potential consequences of disasters can help determine the actions that need to be started before the disaster strikes to minimize its effects.

Disasters are the ultimate test of a community’s emergency response capability. There are 3 major steps that can be taken to manage disaster which include pre-disaster management, during-disaster management and post-disaster management. The pre-disaster management involves generating data and information about the disasters, preparing vulnerability zoning maps and spreading awareness among the people about these. Apart from these, disaster planning, preparedness and preventive measures are other steps that need to be taken in vulnerable areas.

During disasters, rescue and relief operations such as evacuation, construction of shelters and relief camps, supplying of water, food, clothing and medical aids etc. should be done on an emergency basis. Post-disaster operations involve rehabilitation and recovery of victims. It should concentrate on capacity building in order to cope with future disasters, if any. These measures have special significance to India as about two-thirds of its geographical area and an equal proportion of its population are vulnerable to disasters. The Government of India has also taken some steps for disaster management such as passing the disaster management bill and the establishment of the National Institute of Disaster Management.

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Frequently Asked Questions on Natural disasters Essay

What are the types of natural disasters.

Floods/tsunamis, wildfires, drought, hurricane/storms and earthquakes are examples for common natural disasters.

How can we control the impact of a natural disaster?

Impact of natural disasters can be mitigated to an extent by creating awareness among the public about counter measures to be taken. Governments could use disaster prediction technology and install warning systems to alert people about impending disasters. Implementing and enforcing building codes is another measure to reduce the after-effects of disasters.

How do natural disasters affect the environment?

Wildfires, floods, and tornadoes cause structural changes to our ecosystem and also damage the natural inhabitation of that area.

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Geography Notes

Essay on natural disasters: top 12 essays | geography.

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Natural Disasters’ for class 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Natural Disasters’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Natural Disasters

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Initiatives Taken by the Government

Essay on Natural Disaster # 1. Introduction:

The definition of natural disasters is any catastrophic event that is caused by nature or the natural processes of the earth. The severity of a disaster is measured in lives lost, economic loss, and the ability of the population to rebuild. Events that occur in unpopulated areas are not considered disasters. So a flood on an uninhabited island would not count as a disaster, but a flood in a populated area is called a natural disaster.

All natural disasters cause loss in some way. Depending on the severity, lives can be lost in any number of disasters. Falling buildings or trees, freezing to death, being washed away, or heat stroke are just some of the deadly effects. Some disasters cause more loss of life than others, and population density affects the death count as well.

Hence, there is loss of property, which affects people’s living quarters, transportation, livelihood, and means to live. Fields saturated in salt water after tsunamis take years to grow crops again. Homes destroyed by floods, hurricanes, cyclones, landslides and avalanches, a volcanic eruption, or an earthquake are often beyond repair or take a lot of time to become livable again. Personal effects, memorabilia, vehicles, and documents also take a hit after many natural disasters.

The natural disasters that really affect people worldwide tend to become more intense as the years go on. Frequency of earthquakes, mega storms, and heat waves has gone up considerably in the last few decades. Heavy population in areas that get hit by floods, cyclones, and hurricanes has meant that more lives are lost.

In some areas, the population has gotten somewhat prepared for the eventuality of disasters and shelters are built for hurricanes and tornadoes. However, loss of property is still a problem, and predicting many natural disasters isn’t easy.

Scientists, geologists, and storm watchers work hard to predict major disasters and avert as much damage as possible. With all the technology available, it’s become easier to predict major storms, blizzards, cyclones, and other weather related natural disasters. But there arestill natural disasters that come up rather unexpectedly, such as earthquakes, wildfires, landslides, or even volcanic eruptions.

Sometimes, a time of warning is there, but it’s often very short with catastrophic results. Areas that are not used to disasters affected by flash floods or sudden hail storms can be affected in an extreme way. However, despite the many natural disasters the world over, mankind has shown amazing resilience.

When an area or country is badly affected by a natural disaster, the reaction is always one of solidarity and aid is quick to come. There are organizations set up with the primary goal of being prepared for natural disasters. These groups work on global and local scale rescue work. Aside from those who have chosen to make disaster relief their life-work, when disasters hit, it’s the individuals who step in who help to make a difference.

Many people talk about when a disaster has hit and their neighbours and countrymen have come to aid, often to their own loss. People will step in and donate items, time, and skills in order to help those affected by a natural disaster. Celebrities will often do what they can to raise money through concerts, phone marathons, and visiting affected areas with aid.

People have also shown that they can rebuild, lives can be remade or start over. Trauma is a big after effect of natural disasters and getting counseling has been the focus of aid-to heal emotionally as well as physically. It’s clear that natural disasters are a part of life as we know it. However, science is making it more possible to predict, aid is faster at coming, and people are learning how to rebuild in safer areas.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 2. Earthquake :

India is having a high risk towards earthquakes. More than 58 per cent of India’s land area is under threat of moderate to severe seismic hazard. During the last 20 years, India has experienced 10 major earthquakes that have resulted in more than 35,000 deaths. The most vulnerable areas, according to the present seismic zone map of India include the Himalayan and Sub-Himalayan regions, Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Depending on varying degrees of seismicity, the entire country can be divided into the following seismic regions: Of the earthquake-prone areas, 12% is proneto very severe earthquakes, 18% to severe earthquakes and 25% to damageable earthquakes.

Though the regions of the country away from the Himalayas and other inter-plate boundaries were considered to be relatively safe from damaging earthquakes, the presence of a large number of non-engineering structures and buildings with poor foundations in these areas make these regions also susceptible to earthquakes.

In the recent past, even these areas also have experienced earthquake, of lower magnitude than the Himalayan earthquakes. The North-eastern part of the country continues to experience moderate to strong earthquakes. On an average, this region experiences an earthquake with magnitude greater than 5.0 every year.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are situated on an inter-plate boundary and therefore are likely to experience damaging earthquakes frequently. The increase in earthquake risk in India in recent times is caused due to a spurt in developmental activities driven by urbanization, economic development and the globalization of India’s economy. The increase in the use of high-technology equipment and tools in manufacturing and service industries have also made them susceptible to disruption due to relatively moderate ground shaking.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 3. Flood and Drought :

The country receives an annual precipitation of 400 million hectare meters. Of the annual rainfall, 75% is received during four months of monsoon (June — September) and, as a result, almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this period. The flood hazard is compounded by the problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and synchronization of river floods with sea tides in the coastal plains.

The area vulnerable to floods is 40 million hectares and the average area affected by floods annually is about 8 million hectares. About 30 million people are affected by flood every year. Floods in the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature. On an average, a few hundred lives are lost, millions are rendered homeless and several hectares of crops are damaged every year around 68% arable land of the country is prone to drought in varying degrees.

Drought prone areas comprise 108.11 million hectares out of a total land area of 329 million hectares. About 50 million people are affected annually by drought. Of approximately 90 million hectares of rain-fed areas, about 40 million hectares are prone to scanty or no rain.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 4. Cyclone :

India’s long coastline of 7,516 kilometer is exposed to nearly 10 per cent of the world’s tropical cyclones. Of these, the majority has their initial genesis over the Bay of Bengal and strike the east coast of India. On an average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, of which two or three could be severe.

Cyclones occur frequently on both the Coasts (the West Coast —Arabian Sea; and the East Coast —Bay of Bengal). More Cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately 4:1.

An analysis of the frequency of cyclones on the East and West Coasts of India between 1891 and 1990 shows that nearly 262 cyclones occurred (92 severe) in a 50 km wide strip on the East Coast. Less severe cyclonic activity has been noticed on the West Coast, with 33 cyclones occurring in the same period, out of which 19 of these were severe.

In India, Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November. The cyclones of severe intensity and frequency in the north Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character, with their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May. The disaster potential is particularly high at the time of landfall in the north Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm surges and torrential rainfall.

Of these, storm surges are the greatest killers of a cyclone, by which sea water inundates low lying areas of coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and embankments, destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 5. Landslide :

In the hilly terrain of India including the Himalayas, landslides have been a major and widely spread natural disasters that often strike life and property and occupy a position of major concern. One of the worst tragedies took place at Malpa (Uttrakhand) on 11th and 17th August, 1998. When nearly 380 people were killed when massive landslides washed away the entire village. This included 60 pilgrims going to Lake.

Mansarovar in Tibet. In 2010 Cloud burst led flash mudslides and flash floods killed 196 people, including 6 foreigners and injured more than 400 and swept away number of houses, sweeping away buildings, bus stand and military installations in trans-Himalaya Leh town of Jammu and Kashmir.

Giving due consideration to the severity of the problem various land reform measures have been initiated as mitigation measures. Landslides occur in the hilly regions such as the Himalayas, North-East India, the Nilgiris, and Eastern and Western Ghats.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 6. Avalanche :

Avalanches are river like speedy flow of snow or ice descending from the mountain tops. Avalanches are very damaging and cause huge loss to life and property. In Himalayas, avalanches are common in Drass, Pir Panijat, Lahaul-Spiti and Badrinath areas.

As per Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE), of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), on an average around 30 people are killed every year due to this disaster in various zones of the Himalayas. Beside killing people, avalanches also damage the roads and others properties and settlements falling in its way.

Area Prone to Avalanches:

I. Avalanches are common in Himalayan region above 3500 m elevation.

II. Very frequent on slopes of 30-45°.

III. Convex slopes more prone to this disaster.

IV. North facing slope have avalanches in winter and south facing slopes during spring.

V. Slopes covered with grass more prone to this hazard.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 7. Tsunami:

Tsunami, or seismic sea waves, are large ocean waves generated by impulses from geophysical events occurring on the ocean floor or along the coastline, such as earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions.

Mostly occurring in the Pacific Ocean, tsunamis, although hardly noticeable at sea, can reach gigantic proportions as they reach shallow, coastal waters. In Hawaii and Japan, for example, tsunamis have been known to reach 30 m in height. At least 22 countries along the rim of the Pacific are estimated to beat risk from potential tsunami.

The fact that tsunamis can travel 10,000 km at velocities exceeding 900 km per hour with little loss of energy and are, therefore, capable of hitting areas not directly affected by the inducing event, has led to the establishment of a tsunami early warning service for the whole circum-Pacific area.

However, only a few of the 22 countries most at risk are considered to have standard operating procedures for immediate evacuation or reliable, rapid communication systems capable of receiving real-time warnings from the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre.

About 6,000-people have been killed by tsunami during 1977-1986 alone. Probably the best documented of these events is the occurrence at Noshiro, Japan, in 1983 which caused approximately 100 deaths and extensive property damage and flooding. The tsunami (Dec. 2004) in South East Asia lead to a death tool of over 2.5 lakhs peoples of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Sumatra and India.

Tsunamis have multiple origin—16.5 per cent resulted from tectonic earthquakes associated with the eruption, 20 per cent from pyroclastic (ash) flows or surges hitting the ocean, 14 per cent from submarine eruptions, 7 per cent resulted from the collapse of the volcano and subsequent caldera formation, 5 per cent from landslides or avalanches, 3 per cent from atmospheric shock waves and 25 per cent had no discernible origin, but probably were produced by submerged volcanic eruptions.

A partial geographical distribution of tsunamis is given in Table 30.2:

Over past two thousand years there have been 10, 00,000 deaths attributed to tsunami in the Pacific region alone. Earlier Pacific Tsunami warning system was established for forecasting the event. Now global network was established in all Oceans & Seas.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 8. Windstorms:

Judged by the frequency with which they cause damage and by the surface area of the regions they strike, windstorms can be said to be the most significant of all natural hazards. Windstorms influence precipitation systems floods and, most importantly, cause severe destruction to crops and properties.

Severe tropical cyclones (called “ hurricanes ” in the Atlantic, Caribbean and north-eastern Pacific; “ typhoons ” in the western Pacific; and “ cyclones ” in the Indian Ocean and in the sea around Australia), tornadoes, monsoons and thunderstorms between them affect every country in the world.

Today increasing attention is being paid to windstorms, particularly tropical cyclones as some scientists see their incidence as being a possible indicator of global climatic change and predict an increase in their frequency.

Have tropical cyclone frequencies or their intensities increased with global changes throughout the last century? At present, available evidence does not support this idea, perhaps because the warming is not yet large enough to make its impact felt (WMO/UNEP, 1990).

Global information on Kanor windstorms and their impact is collated by organisations such as UNDRO UNEP and AID/OFDA. However, global listings of disasters rarely include those which occur in small states such as island states, which in areas such as the Caribbean, Indian Ocean and South Pacific are particularly prone to tropical cyclones.

This is because listings often set a criteria based on magnitude of impact with which small states cannot compete against larger countries. However, the proportional impact upon small states is often far greater in terms of population, housing and economics.

The impact of cyclones goes far beyond just deaths and building damage. In developing countries destruction of infrastructure and primary agriculture can lead to a decrease in exports and gross national product, while increasing the likelihood of forfeiture of international loan repayments. Contamination of water supplies and destruction of crops can also lead to disease and starvation.

Many mid-latitude cyclonic depressions can give rise to exceptionally heavy rain and widespread flooding and snow fall too. Dust storms are windstorms accompanied by suspended clay, silt materials, usually but not always without precipitation. Average 130-800 million tonnes of dust are entrained by winds each year.

Severe windstorms with high level of flush rain often called thunderstorms associated with lightning, hail and tornadoes cause massive destruction of properties and also human lives through out the world. Early warning and emergency relief operation are the major management activity.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 9. Forest Fire :

Forest or bush fire, though not causing much loss to human life, is a major hazard for forest cover in the country. As per Forest Survey of India report, 50 per cent of the forest cover of the country is fire prone, out of which 6.17 per cent is prone to severe fire damage causing extensive loss to forest vegetation and environment. Average annual physical loss due to forest fire in the country is estimated to worth Rs.440 crores.

The major loss due to forest fire is caused to the environment which gets adversely affected by this calamity. The degradation of climate, soil and water quality, loss of wildlife and its habitat, deterioration of human health, depletion of ozone layer, etc., along with direct loss to timber are the major adverse impact of forest fires.

The coniferous forests in the Himalayan region are very susceptible to fire and every year there are one or more major fire incidences in these areas. The other parts of the country dominated by deciduous forest are also damaged by fire up to an extent. It is worth mentioning that in India 90 per cent of the forest fires are man-made (intentionally or unintentionally).

Essay on Natural Disaster # 10. Volcanoes:

Volcanoes are conduits in the earth’s crust through which gas enriched molten silicate rock magma reaches to the surface of earth crust.

An active volcano occurs where magma (molten rock) reaches the earth’s surface through a central vent or a long crack (fissure) Volcanic activity can release ejecta (debris), liquid lava and gases (H 2 O vapour C 2 , SO 2 , NO x , etc.) to the environment.

There are two types of magma ejected out of volcanoes —silica poor materials, and silica rich materials. The silica poor volcanoes called basaltic volcanoes, while the silica rich volcanoes are andesitic volcanoes.

There are many hazardous phenomena produced directly or as secondary effects, by volcanic eruptions.

The direct hazards of volcanic eruptions are:

a. Lava flow;

b. Ballistics and tephra clouds;

c. Pyroclastic flows and base surges;

d. Gases and acid rains;

e. Lahars (mud flows); and

f. Glacier bursts (Jokulhlamps).

In addition indirectly they are associated with earthquake and tsunami events. Volcanoes are visually one of the most spectacular natural hazardous to occur and probably most devastating in terms of loss of human life.

The volcano likes Mt. Vesurivs, Mt. St Helena, Krakatoa, and Mt, Pelee are significant because of either the enormity of the eruption or the resulting death tool. As per Gaius Pinius Caecilius secundus on 24 August, 79 AD the Nt. Vesuvius eruption causes 2,000 death and burying of the Pompeii city.

There is no doubt that the earth is experiencing on of the most intense periods of volcanism in the last 10,000 years. This period began at the beginning of the seventh century, concomitant with global cooling that peaked in the little ice age.

In contrast the volcanic events of the last century may be viewed as freak eruption of supposedly dormant volcanoes. In the present era, volcanic eruption are pervasive, unpredictable and deadly.

Land use planning better prediction of volcanic eruptions and development of effective evacuation plans reduce the loss of human life from volcanic eruption. The prediction systems related to volcanic activity has improved considerably during past few decades. The environmental consequence of volcanic eruption without or with anthropogenic emission is shown in Fig. 30.3.

Essay on Natural Disaster # 11. Planning For a Safer Tomorrow :

Natural disasters have a severe impact on the society, therefore it is important to plan and develop a safety programme and devise means to efficiently deal with natural disaster. Development programme that go into promoting development at the local level have been left to the general exercise of planning.

Measures need also to be taken to integrate disaster mitigation efforts at the local level with the general exercise of planning, and a more supportive environment created for initiatives towards managing of disasters at all levels: national, state, district and local.

The future blue-print for disaster management in India rests on the premise that in today’s society while hazards, both natural or otherwise, are inevitable, the disasters that follow need not be so and the society can be prepared to cope with them effectively whenever they occur.

The need of the hour is to chalk out a multi-pronged strategy for total risk management, comprising prevention, preparedness, response and recovery on the one hand, and initiate development efforts aimed towards risk reduction and mitigation, on the other. Only then can we look forward to “sustainable development”.

Prevention and Preparedness :

Disaster prevention is intrinsically linked to preventive planning.

Some of the important steps in this regard are:

1. Introduction of a comprehensive process of vulnerability analysis and objective risk assessment.

2. Building a Robust and Sound Information Database:

A comprehensive database of the landuse, demography, infrastructure developed at the national, state and local levels alongwith current information on climate, weather and man-made structures is crucial in planning, warning and assessment of disasters. In addition, resource inventories of governmental and non-governmental systems including personnel and equipment help inefficient mobilization and optimization of response measures.

3. Creating State-of-the-Art Infrastructure:

The entire disaster mitigation game plan must necessarily be anchored to front line research and development in a holistic mode. State-of-the art technologies available worldwide need to be made available in India for upgrading of the disaster management system; at the same time, dedicated research activities should be encouraged, in all frontier areas related to disasters like biological, space applications, information technology, nuclear radiation etc., for a continuous flow of high quality basic information for sound disaster management planning.

4. Establishing Linkages between all knowledge-based Institutions:

A National Disaster Knowledge Network, tuned to the felt needs of a multitude of users like disaster managers, decision-makers, community etc., must be developed as the network of networks to cover natural, man-made and biological disasters in all their varied dimensions.

Capacity Building :

Reconstruction and rebuilding is a long drawn process and those involved in this exercise have to draw upon knowledge of best practices and resources available to them. Information and training on ways to better respond to and mitigate disasters to the responders go a long way in building the capacity and resilience of the country to reduce and prevent disasters.

Training is an integral part of capacity building as trained personnel respond much better to different disaster sand appreciate the need for preventive measures. The multi-sectoral and multi-hazard prevention based approach to disaster management. Professional training in disaster management is essential and should be built into the existing pedagogic research and education.

Specialised courses should be treated as a distinct academic and professional discipline, the subject needs to be discussed and taught as a specific component in professional and specialised courses like medicine, nursing, engineering, environmental sciences, architecture, and town and country planning.

Secondly, there has to be a focus towards preventive disaster management and development of a national ethos of prevention calls for an awareness generation at all levels. An appropriate level of awareness at the school level will help increase awareness among children and, in many cases, parents and other family members through these children.

Curriculum development with a focus towards dissemination of disaster related information on a sustained basis, covering all school levels may be worked out by the different school boards in the country.

Training facilities for government personnel involved in disaster management are conducted at the national level by the National Centre for Disaster Management at the Indian Institute of Public Administration, in New Delhi which functions as the nodal institution in the country for training, research and documentation of disasters.

At the State level, disaster management cells operating within the State Administrative Training Institutes (ATIs) provide the necessary training. Presently, 24 ATIs have dedicated faculties. There is a need for strengthening specialized training, including training of personnel in disaster response.

Finally, capacity building should not be limited to professionals and personnel involved in disaster management but should also focus on building the knowledge, attitude and skills of a community to cope with the effects of disasters. Identification and training of volunteers from the community towards first response measures as well as mitigation measures is an urgent imperative.

A programme of periodic drills should be introduced in vulnerable areas to enable prompt and appropriate community response in the event of a disaster which can help save valuable lives.

Communi ty Level:

Disaster management programme must strive to build a disaster resilient community equipped with safer living and sustainable livelihoods to serve its own development purposes. The community is also the first responder in any critical situation there by emphasizing the need for community level initiatives in managing disasters.

There is a need to create awareness through education training and information dissemination, community based approach followed by most NGOs and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) should be incorporated in the disaster management sector as an effective means of community participation.

Finally, within a vulnerable community, there exist groups that are more vulnerable like women and children, aged and in firm and physically challenged people who need special care and attention especially during crisis. Efforts are required for identifying such vulnerable groups and providing special assistance in terms of evacuation, relief, aid and medical attention.

Management of disasters should therefore be an interface between a community effort to mitigate and prevent disasters as also an effort from the government machinery to buttress and support popular initiatives.

Developing a St ronger Plan:

Given the damage caused by disaster, planned expenditure on disaster management and prevention measures in addition to the CRF is required. The Central Sector Scheme of Natural Disaster Management Programme has been implemented since 1993-94 by the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation with the objective to focus on disaster preparedness with emphasis on mitigation and preparedness measures for enhanced capability to reduce the adverse impact of disasters.

The major activities undertaken within this scheme include the setting up of the National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM) at the Indian Institute of Public Administration, creation of 24 disaster management faculties in 23 states, research and consultancy services, documentation of major disaster events and forging regional cooperation.

The Eighth Plan allocation of Rs.6.30 crore for this scheme was increased to Rs.16.32 crore in the Ninth Plan. Within this scheme, NCDM has conducted over 50 training programme, training more than 1000 people, while 24 disaster management centers with dedicated faculty have been established in the states.

Over 4000 people have been trained at the State level. In addition, some important publications and audio-visual training modules have been prepared and documentation of disaster events has been done.

Though limited in scope and outlays, the Scheme has made an impact on the training and research activities in the country. Creation of faculties in disaster management in all 28 states is proposed to be taken up in the Tenth Plan in addition to community mobilisation, human resource development, establishment of Control Rooms and forging international cooperation in disaster management.

There is also an urgent need for strengthening the disaster management pedagogy by creating disaster management faculties in universities, rural development institutes and other organisations of premier research. Sustainability is the key word in the development process.

Development activities that do not consider the disaster loss perspective fail to be sustainable. The compounded costs of disasters relating to loss of life, loss of assets, economic activities, and cost of reconstruction of not only assets but of lives can scarcely be borne by any community or nation.

Therefore, all development schemes in vulnerable areas should include a disaster mitigation analysis, where by the feasibility of a project is assessed with respect to vulnerability of the area and the mitigation measures required for sustainability. Environmental protection, afforestation programme, pollution control, construction of earthquake resistant structures etc., should therefore have high priority within the plans Mitigation measures on individual structures can be achieved by design standards building codes and performance specifications.

Building codes, critical front-line defence for achieving stronger engineered structures, need to be drawn up in accordance with the vulnerability of the area and implemented through appropriate techno-legal measures. Mitigation measures need to be considered in land use and site planning activities.

Constructions in hazardous areas like flood plains or steep soft slopes are more vulnerable to disasters. Necessary mitigation measures need to be built into the design and costing of development projects. Insurance is a potentially important mitigation measure in disaster-prone areas as it brings quality in the infrastructure consciousness and a culture of safety by its insistence on following building codes, norms, guidelines, quality materials in construction etc.

Disaster insurance mostly works under the premise of ‘higher the risk higher the premium, lesser the risk lesser the premium’, thus creating awareness towards vulnerable areas and motivating people to settle in relatively safer areas?

Essay on Natural Disaster # 12. Major Initiatives taken by Government of India:

Natural disasters have become a recurring phenomenon in the recent past. In the last twenty years or so three million people have been killed as a result of such events. There is a need to focus and develop a plan that would focus on disaster management planning for prevention, reduction, mitigation, preparedness and response to reduce life and property due to natural disaster.

If we take it in the Indian context, the five year plans have never really taken into consideration the issues relating to the management and mitigation of natural disasters. The traditional perception has been limited to the idea of “calamity relief”, which is seen essentially as a non-plan item of expenditure. Disasters can have devastating impact on the economy and is a significant setback to the development in a given region.

Two recent disasters, the Orissa Cyclone and the Gujarat Earthquake, are cases in point. The development process needs to be sensitive towards disaster prevention and mitigation aspects. There is thus a need to look at disasters from a development perspective as well.

Disaster management may not be directly associated with planned financing, but number of schemes are in operation, such as for drought proofing, afforestation, drinking water, etc., which deal with the prevention and mitigation of the impact of natural disasters. Extra assistance for post-disaster reconstruction and streamlining of management structures also is a major consideration of the plan.

A specific, centrally sponsored scheme on disaster management also exists. The plan thus already has a defined role in dealing with the subject. There have been an increasing number of natural disaster over the past years, and with it, increasing losses on account of urbanisation and population growth, as a result of which the impact of natural disasters is now felt to a larger extent.

According to the United Nations, in 2001 alone, natural disasters of medium to high range caused at least 25,000 deaths around the world, more than double the previous year, and economic losses of around US $ 36 billion. Devastations in the aftermath of powerful earthquakes that struck Gujarat, El Salvador and Peru; floods that ravaged many countries in Africa, Asia and elsewhere; droughts that plagued Central Asia including Afghanistan, Africa and Central America; the cyclone in Madagascar and Orissa; and floods in Bolivia are global events in recent memory.

However, what is disturbing is the knowledge that these trends of destruction and devastation are on the rise instead of being kept in check.

Natural disasters know no political boundaries and have no social or economic considerations. They are borderless as they affect both developing and developed countries. They are also merciless, and as such the vulnerable tend to suffer more at the impact of natural disasters.

For example, the developing countries are much more seriously affected in terms of the loss of lives, hardship borne by population and the percentage of their GNP lost. Since number of the most vulnerable regions is in India, natural disaster management has emerged as a high priority for the country.

Going beyond the historical focus on relief and rehabilitation after the event, we now have to look ahead and plan for disaster preparedness and mitigation, in order that the periodic shocks to our development efforts are minimized.

Physical vulnerabilities have a direct impact on the population their proximity to the hazard zone and standards of safety maintained to counter the effects. For instance, some people are vulnerable to flood only because they live in a flood prone area. Physical vulnerability also relates to the technical capacity of buildings and structures to resist the forces acting upon them during a hazard event.

However, physical calamities is not the only criteria, there are prevailing social and economic conditions and its consequential effect on human activities within a given society. Parts of the Indian sub-continent are susceptible to different types of disasters owing to the unique topographic and climatic characteristics.

About 54 per cent of the sub-continent’s land mass is vulnerable to earthquakes while about 4 crore hectares is vulnerable to periodic floods. The decade 1990-2000, has been one of very high disaster losses within the country, losses in the Orissa Cyclone in 1999, and later, the Gujarat Earthquake in 2001 alone amount to several thousand crore of Rupees, while the total expenditure incurred on relief and reconstruction in Gujarat alone has been to the tune of Rs.11,500 crore. Disasters often result in enormous economic losses that are both immediate as well as long term in nature and demand additional revenues.

Also, as an immediate fall-out, disasters reduce revenues from the affected region due to lower levels of economic activity leading to loss of direct and indirect taxes. In addition, unplanned budgetary allocation to disaster recovery can hamper development interventions and lead to unmet developmental targets.

Disasters may also reduce availability of new investment, further constricting the growth of the region. Besides, additional pressures may be imposed on finances of the government through investments in relief and rehabilitation work.

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500+ Words Essay on Natural Disasters For Students

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From the towering walls of water that sweep across coastlines to the ground-shaking tremors that ripple through the earth’s surface, natural disasters are a stark reminder of the immense power of nature and the fragility of our existence. These catastrophic events strike without warning, leaving in their wake a trail of destruction, displacement, and heartbreak.

Table of Content

Types of Natural Disasters

Causes of natural disasters, precautions and preparedness, 500 words essay on natural disasters.

Natural disasters can take many forms, each with its unique characteristics and consequences. Some of the most devastating types include:

1. Earthquakes: Triggered by the sudden release of energy within the Earth’s crust, earthquakes can cause massive structural damage, trigger tsunamis, and disrupt vital infrastructure.

2. Tsunamis: Towering waves generated by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, tsunamis can inundate coastal regions with incredible force, sweeping away everything in their path.

3. Hurricanes and Cyclones: These powerful rotating storm systems, fueled by warm ocean waters, bring destructive winds, torrential rain, and storm surges that can devastate entire communities.

4. Floods : Caused by excessive rainfall, melting snow, or dam failures, floods can submerge vast areas, disrupting lives and destroying property.

5. Wildfires: Driven by dry conditions, high winds, and human activities, wildfires can consume vast swaths of land, threatening lives, homes, and natural habitats.

6. Volcanic Eruptions: The explosive release of molten rock, ash, and gases from the Earth’s interior can bury entire regions in a blanket of destruction.

7 . Droughts : Prolonged periods of abnormally low rainfall can lead to water scarcity, crop failures, and even famine in some regions.

While some natural disasters are triggered by geological processes deep within the Earth, others are influenced by human activities and the changing climate. Factors such as deforestation, urbanization, and the burning of fossil fuels can increase the risk and intensity of certain disasters.

Climate change, in particular, is playing an increasingly significant role in the frequency and severity of many natural disasters. Rising global temperatures are contributing to more intense hurricanes, prolonged droughts, and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, which can exacerbate coastal flooding.

The impact of natural disasters can be catastrophic, affecting every facet of human life and the environment. Some of the most significant effects include:

1. Loss of Life: Natural disasters can claim countless lives, leaving families and communities devastated by the loss of loved ones.

2. Destruction of Infrastructure: Roads, bridges, buildings, and critical infrastructure can be severely damaged or destroyed, hampering relief efforts and hindering recovery.

3. Economic Losses: The damage caused by natural disasters can result in staggering economic losses, affecting businesses, industries, and entire economies.

4. Displacement of Populations: Disasters often force people to abandon their homes and seek shelter elsewhere, leading to humanitarian crises and long-term displacement.

5. Environmental Degradation: Natural disasters can disrupt ecosystems, pollute water sources, and contribute to soil erosion and habitat loss, threatening biodiversity and natural resources.

6. Psychological Trauma: Survivors of natural disasters often grapple with the psychological toll, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety.

While it is impossible to prevent many natural disasters, proactive measures can be taken to mitigate their impact and enhance preparedness. Some of these measures include:

1. Effective Early Warning Systems: Developing and implementing robust early warning systems can provide valuable lead time for evacuation and emergency response efforts.

2. Disaster Risk Reduction: Identifying and addressing vulnerabilities through measures such as land-use planning, building codes, and infrastructure improvements can minimize potential damages.

3. Community Preparedness: Educating and empowering communities on disaster preparedness, including emergency plans, evacuation routes, and survival skills, can save lives and facilitate quicker recovery.

4. Resilient Infrastructure: Investing in resilient infrastructure, such as earthquake-resistant buildings and flood control systems, can reduce the impact of natural disasters.

5. Environmental Protection: Conserving and restoring natural ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests, can act as natural buffers against certain disasters and mitigate their effects.

6. International Cooperation: Fostering global partnerships and collaborations can facilitate knowledge-sharing, resource allocation, and coordinated response efforts during disasters.

Throughout human history, civilizations have grappled with the unpredictable and often merciless power of nature. Natural disasters, ranging from earthquakes and tsunamis to hurricanes and wildfires, have left indelible scars on communities worldwide, reminding us of our fragility in the face of nature’s might.

At their core, natural disasters are events triggered by the Earth’s natural processes, such as tectonic shifts, atmospheric disturbances, or geological phenomena. However, their consequences extend far beyond the physical realm, profoundly impacting lives, livelihoods, and the very fabric of societies.

The destructive force of these events is unparalleled. Earthquakes can reduce towering structures to rubble in mere seconds, while hurricanes and cyclones unleash winds of incredible ferocity, capable of obliterating entire coastlines. Wildfires, fueled by dry conditions and strong winds, consume everything in their path, leaving smoldering landscapes and displaced communities in their wake.

The human toll of natural disasters is staggering. Lives are tragically lost, families are torn apart, and survivors are left to grapple with the psychological trauma of witnessing such overwhelming devastation. Beyond the immediate loss of life, the aftermath often brings a cascade of challenges, including displacement, lack of access to essential resources, and the daunting task of rebuilding shattered communities.

The economic impact of natural disasters is equally profound. Infrastructure is crippled, businesses are disrupted, and entire industries can be brought to a standstill. The ripple effects of these events can reverberate throughout local and global economies, hampering recovery efforts and exacerbating existing vulnerabilities.

Moreover, the environmental consequences of natural disasters are far-reaching. Ecosystems are disrupted, delicate habitats are destroyed, and biodiversity is threatened as species struggle to adapt to the altered landscapes. The long-term effects on the natural world can be felt for generations, further compounding the challenges faced by impacted communities.

Addressing the threat posed by natural disasters requires a multifaceted approach that spans prevention, preparedness, and resilience-building efforts. Investing in robust early warning systems, fortifying infrastructure, and promoting disaster risk reduction strategies are crucial steps in minimizing the impact of these events.

Furthermore, addressing the underlying drivers of climate change is paramount, as many natural disasters are exacerbated by the effects of global warming. By transitioning towards more sustainable practices and reducing our carbon footprint, we can mitigate the intensity and frequency of certain disasters, safeguarding both human and environmental well-being.

Ultimately, natural disasters serve as a humbling reminder of the immense power of nature and the fragility of our existence. While we cannot control the forces that give rise to these events, we can cultivate resilience, foster global cooperation, and prioritize preparedness efforts to better withstand their fury.

As we navigate the unpredictable landscape of natural disasters, let us embrace our shared responsibility to protect lives, safeguard communities, and forge a more sustainable relationship with the natural world. By doing so, we can forge a path towards a future where the devastating impacts of these events are minimized, and humanity emerges stronger and more resilient in the face of nature’s challenges.

Also Read: My Aim in Life Essay For Students: 100, 200 & 500 Words Essay My Village Essay in English For Students 500+ Words Essay on Importance of Education in English

Natural disasters underscore our need for resilience and preparedness. By bolstering infrastructure, safeguarding the environment, and addressing climate change, we can lessen their impact. Emphasizing risk reduction and sustainable practices, we aim to protect lives, economies, and ecosystems. Together, through resilience and cooperation, we can build a future where communities coexist with nature’s forces.

Essay on Natural Disasters- FAQs

What is disaster 1 paragraph.

A disaster is a major disturbance in the operation of a community or society resulting in widespread human, material, economic, or environmental losses and impacts that surpass the afflicted community’s or society’s ability to manage using its own resources.

What are the 2 main types of disasters?

Disasters are typically divided into two categories: natural and man-made. Natural catastrophes are typically related with weather and geological occurrences such as severe temperatures, floods, storms, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and drought.

What are 5 man-made disasters?

A. Man-made disasters involve human intent, neglect, or error in the breakdown of a man-made system, as opposed to natural disasters caused by natural hazards. Such man-made calamities include crime, arson, civil unrest, terrorism, war, biological/chemical threats, cyber-attacks, and so on.

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A Safer Future: Reducing the Impacts of Natural Disasters (1991)

Chapter: 3. awareness and education, awareness and education.

T he key to reducing loss of life, personal injuries, and damage from natural disasters is widespread public awareness and education. People must be made aware of what natural hazards they are likely to face in their own communities. They should know in advance what specific preparations to make before an event, what to do during a hurricane, earthquake, flood, fire, or other likely event, and what actions to take in its aftermath.

Equally important, public officials and the media — television, radio, and newspapers — must be fully prepared to respond effectively, responsibly, and speedily to large-scale natural emergencies. They need to be aware, in advance, of procedures to follow in a crisis that threatens to paralyze the entire community they serve, and they need to know how to communicate accurate information to the public during a natural disaster.

Special efforts must also be made to reach and plan for the care of particularly vulnerable segments of the population — latch-key children, the elderly, individuals in health care and correctional facilities, people with disabilities, and those who do not speak English — with information about possible disasters and what to do in an emergency.

The Committee recommends that community-wide awareness and education programs about natural disasters be made a national priority.

To achieve this goal, the Committee proposes that information campaigns and educational efforts be developed and that their effectiveness be evaluated and, where possible, continually improved:

Home. Household survival plans should provide basic information on what hazardous events are most likely to occur in particular communities, what emergency equipment and supplies should be on hand, what precautions should be taken to limit damage, and what preparations should be made for escape and evacuation. Such information might best be conveyed graphically, both in print and on television. Dramatic, easily recognizable graphic symbols signifying each natural hazard should be created and widely publicized to identify impending emergencies and quickly alert the public to the degree of seriousness and the imminence of danger.

To stimulate public awareness, brochures, posters, games, calendars, museum exhibits, public service announcements (for print, radio, and television), and even entertainment programming should be used. Materials produced by the American Red Cross, FEMA, the National Weather Service (NWS), the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), and other government agencies as well as insurance companies and other private sector entities are already available for such campaigns. (See Figure 2 .) Organizations in the private sector, including the Advertising Council, public utilities, public relations firms, advertising agencies, and voluntary organizations, should be enlisted to create, produce, and disseminate new information materials.

The community. Community-wide planning and education should be encouraged. Schools, government organizations, community and church groups, business and neighborhood organizations, hospital and medical groups, and the news media should all be involved. Checklists, information handouts, and training videos should be created and widely distributed to convey such information as the location of nearby emergency resources and appropriate use of the 911 system both during and after a disaster. Regional and community demonstration programs, disaster day exercises, volunteer courses, and conferences should be undertaken and evaluated for their effectiveness.

Figure 2. WILDLAND HOME FIRE RISK METER Practical, easy-to-use materials can give people the information they need to protect their homes and possibly save their lives. By turning a series of dials, rural residents can determine their homes ' risks from wildfire. The reverse side of the meter provides information on reducing those risks. (Source. U.S. Forest Service.)

School. Educational materials about preparedness, warnings, and self-protection should be distributed to schools for use in kindergarten through the 12th grade. Teachers should be given training on integrating the materials into the regular curricula so that all children receive the information they need to protect themselves from disasters. Similar training initiatives should be directed to teachers at day-care centers and preschools as well as to caretakers of the elderly. These steps will also raise the level of awareness and preparedness at home.

The warkplace. Awareness and education for disaster mitigation and preparedness should be encouraged in the workplace. Labor unions, industry management, government employers, and business groups should work with disaster specialists and community agencies to produce and acquire the necessary training and information materials. Existing work safety and security programs should be expanded to include disaster preparedness measures and emergency response procedures. Workplace safety drills and disaster exercises are essential to ensure that procedures are followed in an emergency. Prime movers of this effort should include insurance companies, labor unions, Chambers of Commerce, public utilities, and Industrial Crisis Conference participants.

Colleges and universities. Community colleges as well as other colleges and universities should be encouraged to include disaster management training in their curricula. Materials on mitigation and preparedness should be made part of geoscience, meteorology, forestry, health, engineering, architecture, education, planning, public administration, and business school programs. Preparation of books, articles, and teaching aids, and research by faculty and students should be encouraged and supported.

Public officials and the press. Special attention should be given to raising the level of knowledge and expertise of public officials and the press, both of whom have central responsibilities for dealing with natural disasters. There is a need to develop procedures, protocols, and priorities for disseminating information to the public. Contingency plans should be put in place so that vital emergency services and key elements of the press are prepared to function even when electricity, transportation, telephone transmission, and other communications and production capabilities are severely disrupted. Community emergency procedures, warning signals, disaster resources, and relief facilities and responsibilities should be spelled out in advance and reviewed and tested periodically by public officials and the press.

Journalism schools and press think tanks such as the Gannett Center for Media Studies and the Annenberg Center for Communications, as well as professional organizations such as Sigma Delta Chi and the Radio-Television News Directors Association, should be encouraged to investigate the specific challenges of providing information and news coverage in time of disaster.

Professionals. Disaster education is essential in the training of the government and private sector professionals, emergency management personnel, and emergency service providers who have the major responsibility for mitigation and emergency response. Professional continuing education programs on mitigating the effects of natural disasters should be made widely available through colleges, universities, and professional associations. Development of advanced materials for use in curricula, workshops, conferences, and similar activities should be encouraged. Continuing education requirements should be built into the certification, licensing, and evaluation of professionals in the field. Courses in hazard-resistant land-use, design, and structural techniques should be included in engineering, architecture, and construction curricula. Special attention should be given to planning for reconstruction and other elements of community recovery. Schools of medicine, nursing, and public health should offer courses on disaster preparedness and response as they relate to individual and community health.

The spectacular damage caused to the highway and bridge systems of the San Francisco Bay area during the Loma Prieta earthquake is being studied for applications to updating building and safety codes.

Initial priorities for U.S. participation in the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, declared by the United Nations, are contained in this volume. It focuses on seven issues: hazard and risk assessment; awareness and education; mitigation; preparedness for emergency response; recovery and reconstruction; prediction and warning; learning from disasters; and U.S. participation internationally.

The committee presents its philosophy of calls for broad public and private participation to reduce the toll of disasters.

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Characteristics and changes of glacial lakes and outburst floods

• Guoqing Zhang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2090-2813 1   na1 ,
• Jonathan L. Carrivick   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9286-5348 2   na1 ,
• Adam Emmer 3   na1 ,
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• Georg Veh 5   na1 ,
• Xue Wang 1 , 6 ,
• Celeste Labedz 4 ,
• Martin Mergili 3 ,
• Nico Mölg 7 ,
• Matthias Huss   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2377-6923 8 , 9 , 10 ,
• Simon Allen 11 , 12 ,
• Shin Sugiyama   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5323-9558 13 &
• Natalie Lützow   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7311-3001 5  

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Global glacier mass loss has accelerated, producing more and larger glacial lakes. Many of these glacial lakes are a source of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), which pose threats to people and infrastructure. In this Review, we synthesize global changes in glacial lakes and GLOFs. More than 110,000 glacial lakes currently exist, covering a total area of ~15,000 km 2 , having increased in area by ~22% dec –1 from 1990 to 2020. More than 10 million people are exposed to the impacts of GLOFs, commonly associated with dam failure or wave overtopping associated with mass movements. Although data limitations are substantial, more than 3,000 GLOFs have been recorded from 850 to 2022, particularly in Alaska (24%), High Mountain Asia (HMA; 18%) and Iceland (19%), the majority (64.8%) being from ice-dammed lakes. Recorded GLOFs have increased in most glaciated mountain regions of the world, with ongoing deglaciation and lake expansion expected to increase GLOF frequency further. In HMA, GLOF hazards are projected to triple by 2100, but changes in other regions will likely be lower given topographic constraints on lake evolution. Future research should prioritize acquiring field data on lake and dam properties, producing globally coordinated multi-temporal lake mapping, and robust and efficient modelling of GLOFs for comprehensive hazard assessment and response planning.

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Acknowledgements

This Review was supported by grants from the Basic Science Center for Tibetan Plateau Earth System (BSCTPES; NSFC project no. 41988101-03) and the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (2019QZKK0201). The authors thank W. Chen, Q. Tang and Y. Tang for their assistance in preparing figures and tables.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Guoqing Zhang, Jonathan L. Carrivick, Adam Emmer, Dan H. Shugar, Georg Veh.

Authors and Affiliations

State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Environment and Resources (TPESER), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Guoqing Zhang & Xue Wang

School of Geography and water@leeds, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Jonathan L. Carrivick

Institute of Geography and Regional Science, University of Graz, Graz, Austria

Adam Emmer & Martin Mergili

Water, Sediment, Hazards, and Earth-surface Dynamics (waterSHED) Laboratory, Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Dan H. Shugar & Celeste Labedz

Institute of Environmental Science and Geography, University of Potsdam, Potsdam-Golm, Germany

Georg Veh & Natalie Lützow

University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Enveo, Environmental Earth Observation Information Technology, Innsbruck, Austria

Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland

Matthias Huss

Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), Birmensdorf, Switzerland

Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland

Department of Geography, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Simon Allen

Institute for Environmental Science, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

Shin Sugiyama

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Contributions

G.Z. and J.L.C. conceptualized the Review and coordinated inputs. D.H.S. and C.L. contributed to the Introduction. A.E., M.M. and N.M. contributed to the section on global and regional changes of lake size and abundance. G.V., J.L.C., S.S. and N.L. contributed to the section on historical glacial lake outburst floods. G.Z., M.H. and S.A. contributed to the section on future glacial lakes and outburst floods. G.Z., S.A. and J.L.C. contributed to the section on summary and future perspectives. X.W. contributed to some of the figures. G.Z. and J.L.C. led the writing, and all authors reviewed and edited the manuscript before submission.

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Correspondence to Guoqing Zhang or Jonathan L. Carrivick .

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Zhang, G., Carrivick, J.L., Emmer, A. et al. Characteristics and changes of glacial lakes and outburst floods. Nat Rev Earth Environ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-024-00554-w

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U.N. official highlights how better preparation has shrunk disaster deaths despite worsening climate

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As climate change makes disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts more intense, more frequent and striking more places, fewer people are dying from those catastrophes globally because of better warning, planning and resilience, a top United Nations official said.

The world hasn’t really noticed how the type of storms that once killed tens or hundreds of thousands of people now only claim handfuls of lives, new United Nations Assistant Secretary-General Kamal Kishore, who heads the U.N.’s office for disaster risk reduction, told the Associated Press. But he said much more needs to be done to keep these disasters from pushing people into abject poverty.

“Fewer people are dying of disasters and if you look at that as a proportion of total population, it’s even fewer,” Kishore said in his first interview since taking office in mid-May. “We often take for granted the progress that we’ve made.”

“Twenty years ago there was no tsunami early warning system except for one small part of the world. Now the whole world is covered by a tsunami warning system” after the 2004 tsunami that killed about 230,000 people in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand, Kishore said.

People are getting better warnings about tropical cyclones — also called hurricanes and typhoons — so now the chances of dying in a tropical cyclone in a place like the Philippines are about one-third of what they were 20 years ago, Kishore said.

As the former disaster chief for India, Kishore points to how his country has cut deaths thanks to better warnings and community preparedness such as hospitals being ready for a surge in births during a cyclone. In 1999, a supercyclone hit eastern India, killing almost 10,000 people. Then a nearly similar sized storm hit in 2013, but killed only a few dozen people. Last year, on Kishore’s watch, Cyclone Biparjoy killed fewer than 10 people.

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The same goes for flood deaths, Kishore said.

The data back up Kishore, said disaster epidemiologist Debarati Guha-Sapir of the Catholic University of Louvain in Brussels, who created a global disaster database . Her database — which she acknowledges has missing pieces — shows that global deaths per storm event has dropped from a 10-year average of about 24 in 2008 to a 10-year average of about eight in 2021. Flood deaths per event have gone from 10-year averages of nearly 72 to about 31, her data indicate.

Although there are fewer deaths globally from disasters, there are still pockets in the poorest of countries, especially in Africa, where deaths are worsening or at least staying the same, Guha-Sapir said. It’s much like public health’s efforts to eradicate measles, success in most places, but areas that can least cope are not improving, she said.

India and Bangladesh are poster nations for better dealing with disasters and preventing deaths, especially in cyclones, Guha-Sapir said. In 1970, a cyclone killed more than 300,000 people in Bangladesh in one of the 20th century’s greatest natural disasters and now “Bangladesh has done fantastic work in disaster risk reduction for years and years and years,” she said.

Pointing out wins is important, Guha-Sapir said: “Gloom and doom will never get us anywhere.”

While countries such as India and Bangladesh have created warning systems, strengthened buildings such as hospitals and know what to do to prepare for and then react to disasters, a lot of it is also just because these countries are getting richer and better educated and so they can handle disasters better and protect themselves, Guha-Sapir said. Poorer countries and people can’t.

“Fewer people are dying, but that’s not because climate change is not happening,’’ Kishore said ”That is despite the climate change. And that is because we have invested in resilience, invested in early warning systems.”

Kishore said climate change is making his job tougher, yet he said doesn’t feel like Sisyphus, pushing a giant boulder up a hill over and over.

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“You are getting more intense hazards, more frequently and [in] new geographies,” Kishore said, saying places like Brazil that used to not worry too much about floods now are getting devastated. The same goes for extreme heat, which he said used to be an issue for only certain countries, but now has gone global, pointing to nearly 60,000 heat wave deaths in Europe in 2022.

India, where temperatures have been flirting with 122 degrees, has reduced heat deaths with specific regional plans, Kishore said.

“However with the new extreme temperatures we are seeing, every country needs to double its efforts to save lives,” he said. And that means looking at the built environment of cities, he added.

Cutting deaths is only part of the battle to reduce risk, Kishore said.

“We are doing a better job of saving lives but not of livelihoods,” Kishore said.

While fewer people are dying, “you look at people who are losing their houses, people who are losing their businesses, a small farmer that is running a poultry farm,” Kishore said. When they get flooded or hit by a storm, they may survive but they’ve got nothing, no seeds, no fishing boats.

“On that we’re not doing as well as we should,” Kishore said. “We cannot accept that losses will occur. Of course they will occur, but they could be minimized by an order of magnitude.”

Borenstein writes for the Associated Press.

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Flixborough chemical plant disaster 'not forgotten' 50 years on

On 1 June 1974 a huge explosion at a chemical plant echoed far and wide from the banks of the River Trent in North Lincolnshire. It made Barbara Nimmo think a bomb had gone off nearby. The catastrophe at Nypro, near Flixborough, was a technical failure, claiming the lives of 28 workers and it would lead to tightened industrial safety regulations.

Plumes of black smoke spiralled in the air for miles, tiles were ripped off roofs, windows and doors were blown out and a community was left dazed and confused.

For Barbara Nimmo, then a newly qualified 21-year-old nurse who was also pregnant, it resembled a "war zone".

In reality, it was one of Britain's worst peacetime explosions that left an indelible mark on the lives of many.

That Saturday afternoon Mrs Nimmo, who was off shift, was shopping at Scunthorpe market when disaster struck four miles away. She had skipped bed rest for some retail therapy.

"When I heard the loud bang, it sounded like a bomb had gone off and I remember trying to push my way out of the market.

"It was just a shock to see what was going on.

"There was glass everywhere. The houses were demolished almost. The bank on the High Street had lost all its windows. Marks and Spencer's windows had gone.

"There was a sense of panic because people didn't know what was happening."

Twenty-eight workers died and 36 were injured out of a total of 72 people on the site. However, the wider consequences of the blast went beyond the plant with a further 53 suffering injuries.

Officials believed these figures could have been much higher had it happened on a weekday.

The Nypro plant produced caprolactam, a chemical used to make nylon material for clothing, carpets, fishing nets and rope.

Three months before the explosion, the plant had to be shut down after a hazardous substance leaked from a crack in one of the reactors. It was subsequently rectified with a temporary pipe installed and production continued.

However, on 1 June, the pipe failed leading to a chemical leak, which caused a massive vapour cloud to ignite.

The blast, which occurred at about 16:53 BST, was heard as far away as Grimsby and Doncaster.

One of those working on the site was Eddie Hotchin, a chemist who had only been working at Nypro for six months.

The then 24-year-old was hit by debris as he rushed with colleagues from his lab, which overlooked the main factory, to a rendezvous site.

“When the explosion happened I got sort of blown along the floor and ended up with an aluminium sheet on top of me," recalled Mr Hotchin, now 74.

"Somebody dragged it off me.

“I just looked over me shoulder and you could see everything exploding around you."

While Mr Hotchin survived, his childhood friend was among those killed and the chemist was left struggling with the nightmare of the devastation in the ensuing months.

"We was (sic) walking wounded," he said.

“I had stitches in me (sic) elbows and braces on me (sic) knee and legs.

"Initially for the first year or so I did wake up once or twice screaming during the night."

The consequences of the blast could be seen for miles and fires continued to burn for 10 days. At its height, 49 appliances were involved in tackling the blaze.

Terry Bontoft was one of the first firefighters at the scene.

Getting to the site was difficult, he recalled, and involved navigating blocked or damaged roads and downed 33,000-volt cables.

Mr Bontoft said: "When we arrived at the top of the hill, we were met by, goodness me, 40 acres of fire.

"You could literally feel you were beginning to burn. It was seriously hot. And that was two fields away."

It was a relentless task tackling the blaze, recalled the 79-year-old.

"We couldn't stop because we could see the massive plume of smoke and it was a very difficult decision to go past people who were obviously distressed.

"All action was to try and save anybody and find anybody who was still alive."

Leaving them behind was "pretty hard to swallow", reflects Mr Bontoft while choking back tears.

When he finally returned home after about 12 hours of rescue efforts, the firefighter "cried". He would later find out a former colleague, who worked at Nypro, was among the fatalities.

As the blaze raged, Mrs Nimmo headed straight for duty at the local A&E unit while her husband searched for relatives around the site.

As more and more victims arrived "from everywhere", the sense of fear and intense dread was palpable for the young nurse.

"I think I was probably a little bit anxious. It was the first local emergency that I had to deal with.

"Your sense of duty kicks in and you just get on with [it].

"You don't forget those people that died on that Saturday morning."

Mrs Nimmo's home was among those damaged.

Her bedroom was plastered in debris and shards of glass, while a freestanding wardrobe had been blown on top of her bed.

"I just remember thinking thank goodness for destiny. It could have been very different."

While "lessons were learnt" with the introduction of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 later that same year, the incident marked the end of Mr Hotchin's short-lived career at Nypro.

He lasted only a day after returning from sick leave and was on the brink of a nervous breakdown.

On his first day back the chemist was climbing an access ladder to a storage unit when he "froze solid" 10ft (3m) above the floor and needed to be rescued.

“I didn’t work again at Nypro after that," he added.

While he considers himself lucky, the effects of the disaster left him struggling mentally.

"I’m extremely worried about thunder and lightning, but I'm not as bad as I used to be."

The plant closed some time after it was rebuilt and the site transformed into an industrial park populated with various businesses. A memorial to the victims stands in nearby All Saints Church.

For many, including Mrs Nimmo, the "community spirit and everyone pulling together" was among the defining moments of the disaster.

"There are very few things that take you back to a moment in time," she said. "Flixborough takes you back to a moment in time.

"That loud sound of Nypro blowing up is something that when you heard it, you would never forget it."

Follow BBC Lincolnshire on Facebook , X (formerly Twitter) , and Instagram . Send your story ideas to e [email protected]

The Flixborough Disaster - 50 years on - BBC Sounds

Exhibition marks 50th anniversary of flixborough blast, humberside fire and rescue.

• Systematic Review
• Open access
• Published: 31 May 2024

Retrospective charts for reporting, analysing, and evaluating disaster emergency response: a systematic review

• Pengwei Hu 1 , 2 ,
• Zhehao Li 2 ,
• Jing Gui 2 , 3 ,
• Honglei Xu 4 ,
• Zhongsheng Fan 2 ,
• Fulei Wu 5   na1 &
• Xiaorong Liu 2   na1  

BMC Emergency Medicine volume  24 , Article number:  93 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Given the frequency of disasters worldwide, there is growing demand for efficient and effective emergency responses. One challenge is to design suitable retrospective charts to enable knowledge to be gained from disasters. This study provides comprehensive understanding of published retrospective chart review templates for designing and updating retrospective research.

We conducted a systematic review and text analysis of peer-reviewed articles and grey literature on retrospective chart review templates for reporting, analysing, and evaluating emergency responses. The search was performed on PubMed, Cochrane, and Web of Science and pre-identified government and non-government organizational and professional association websites to find papers published before July 1, 2022. Items and categories were grouped and organised using visual text analysis. The study is registered in PROSPERO (374,928).

Four index groups, 12 guidelines, and 14 report formats (or data collection templates) from 21 peer-reviewed articles and 9 grey literature papers were eligible. Retrospective tools were generally designed based on group consensus. One guideline and one report format were designed for the entire health system, 23 studies focused on emergency systems, while the others focused on hospitals. Five papers focused specific incident types, including chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, mass burning, and mass paediatric casualties. Ten papers stated the location where the tools were used. The text analysis included 123 categories and 1210 specific items; large heterogeneity was observed.

Existing retrospective chart review templates for emergency response are heterogeneous, varying in type, hierarchy, and theoretical basis. The design of comprehensive, standard, and practicable retrospective charts requires an emergency response paradigm, baseline for outcomes, robust information acquisition, and among-region cooperation.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The global incidence of disasters remains high. According to Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), a total of 367 major natural disasters and more than 150 technological disasters occurred world wide in 2021, causing 10,492 and more than 5000 deaths respectively. ( 1 – 2 ) In this context, a growing body of evidence supports the positive impact of an efficient and effective emergency response on casualty outcomes, in both academic and operational fields of disaster medicine [ 3 ]. Although the modern era of organized disaster response of disaster can be traced back to the foundation of Red cross organization in 1863, it only became a distinct scientific discipline in the previous 60 years [ 4 ]. Disaster emergency management includes four stages: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Notably, the emergency response is recognised as having greatest immediate impact on disaster management outcomes [ 5 ]. This response requires a high level of scientific evidence to support performance improvement.

In evidence-based medicine, core concepts include population, interventions, comparison of outcomes, and hierarchy of evidence strength. However, given changing field conditions during disasters, ephemeral information, rumours, and security constraints, important questions in disaster medicine are not easily testable by evidence-based science [ 6 ]. Consequently, it is difficult to conduct controlled studies of disasters. Thus, a widely used methodology is retrospective chart review (RCR), which is a research design applicable to emergency medicine that utilizes pre-recorded data to validate research hypotheses [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Failures to create clearly articulated research questions, operationalize variables, develop and use standardized data abstraction forms are the common mistakes in RCR, making it difficult to compare outcomes of different exercises and to make evidence-based decisions in disaster management [ 10 ].

Given the urgent requirement for retrospective review of standard charts for data collection during disasters and for review in the aftermath, numerous evaluation indexes, report templates, and guidelines have been defined and published, such as the pre-hospital emergency response capacity index by Bayram and Zuabi, a data collection template for large-scale train accident emergency response by Leiba, et al., and the guidelines for reports on health crises and critical health events by Kulling P, et al. [ 11 , 12 , 13 ] These retrospective chart review templates were designed to allow researchers, educators, and managers to study different aspects of disaster management, by defining core concepts to evaluate the response, standardized work flow, and timelines from event occurrence to patients admission in emergency responses. A systematic study of templates for pre-hospital medical management of major events was published in 2013, revealing the limitations of existing templates in terms of validity and feasibility, such as unclear design methodology and lack of testing in real-life incidents [ 9 ]. Evidence is lacking regarding common aspects of retrospective charts that require attention and how reporting may be improved. Furthermore, numerous guidelines and templates from peer-reviewed articles and grey literature papers have been published since the 2013 review, such as The Health Care Coalition Surge Estimator Tool from the Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response, after-action debriefing from Federal Emergency Management Agency, and emergency response and assessment team rapid assessment tool Association of Southeast Asian Nations [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

This systematic review identifies existing retrospective chart review templates for reporting disaster emergency responses worldwide and provides a comprehensive assessment of these charts using content analysis. This provides a knowledge background for designing and updating widely accepted retrospective charts. The protocol is registered in PROSPERO (374,928).

Search strategy and criteria

To limit the scope of the review, this study focused only on the emergency response phase extending from a disaster occurrence to definitive patient treatment [ 5 ]. First, the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study Design (PICOS) model was used to shape the study question and build the search strategy. Searches were conducted using Cochrane Library, PubMed, and Web of Science to find peer-reviewed papers published before July 1, 2022, with keywords and MeSH terms related to disaster and emergency response (Supplemental Table S1 and Table S2 ). In addition, references from the selected articles, and prior systematic reviews were screened to identify additional relevant articles. Second, 29 pre-identified governmental, non-governmental, academic, and professional association websites and emergency-related registries stratified by World Health Organization (WHO) region were searched for published emergency response-related report forms, templates, guidelines, checklists, and data dictionaries available as of July 1, 2022 (Supplemental Table S3).

Peer-reviewed articles and grey literature were eligible if they met the following inclusion criteria: (i) the study object was an emergency response to natural, technical and social disasters, all extent of disasters from community to worldwide were included; (ii) the study designed at least one of the following types of retrospective tools: a report, a data collection template, guidelines, a checklist, a consensus, a questionnaire, or an index group with specific items for emergency response; and (iii) the study used verified specific retrospective tools to perform research related to emergency response. Papers were excluded if they met the following exclusion criteria: (i) the study only provided a theoretical frame without specific items under each concept category; (ii) any items were missing despite contacting authors to obtain the omitted information; and (iii) the study focused on an epidemiological emergency. The search, screening, and data extraction were performed independently by two reviewers (PW Hu and J Gui); any disagreements were resolved through discussion with a third investigator (FL Wu).

Data analysis

To analyse the characteristics of the rich text objects from the included articles or grey literature, text analysis was conducted, including measures of semantics, indicators, and information acquisition, using the following steps. (i) Clear original taxonomy concepts and items under each of the concept dimensions related to health facilities’ emergency responses were extracted and included in the text analysis. (ii) For semantic measures, a theoretical frame was built to label and categorise the included items that described the time, area, action, and resource dimensions of the emergency response, consistent with the classic emergency response paradigm. Here, the ‘time’ dimension signifies the key intervals extending from the beginning of the incident to the period when the surviving victims are being treated in the hospital. The ‘area’ dimension includes four important casualty tactical emergency care zones; specifically, a hot zone, a warm zone, an en route zone, and an in-hospital zone [ 17 ]. The ‘action’ dimension includes incident command, safety and security, hazard assessment, triage and treatment (including patient tracking), and evacuation according to the mass casualty incident management framework generated by the National Disaster Life Support (NDLS) Program [ 18 ]. The ‘resource’ dimension represents the evaluations of surge capacity in the included studies; thus this dimension more specifically includes systems, spaces, staff, supplies, events, and consumption, as per ‘the science of surge’ [ 19 , 20 ] (this theoretical framework is detailed in Supplemental Tables S4–S7 and Supplemental Figure S1 ). Four types of indicator measures were defined to categorise the items, and three information acquisition methods were identified to measure the feasibility of the included charts (these criteria are defined in Supplemental Tables S8–S9). Next, (iii) three of the current study’s authors (PW Hu, ZH Li, and J Gui) individually sorted included items using the above pre-defined taxonomy. When the three researchers could not reach consensus, a subject-matter expert was consulted. Finally, (iv) the number of items placed in each category was calculated, and text visualisation technology was used to present among-study heterogeneity (Supplemental Method).

Assessment of risk of bias (quality appraisal) was conducted using a checklist designed by the authors prior to data collection. This checklist was based on the authors’ assumptions of the data relevant to retrospective chart reports. Two of the current study’s authors (HL Xu and ZS Fan) individually assessed the risk of bias using the checklist; a subject-matter expert was consulted when consensus not reached.

The analysis included 4 index groups, 12 guidelines, and 14 report formats (or data collection templates) from 21 peer-reviewed articles and 9 grey literature papers [ 5 , 6 , 21 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 16 ], comprising > 2000 specific items (Fig.  1 ). The characteristics of the included papers are shown in Table  1 . A total of 26 papers stated the methodology used to design the retrospective chart, 18 of which were based on group consensus. One set of guidelines and one report format were created for an entire health system while 23 papers focused on emergency systems and the remaining papers focused on hospitals. Eight papers mentioned the specific type of disaster, including chemical, biological, radiation, nuclear (CBRN), mass burn casualty, and mass casualty incidents involving paediatric patients. Only 10 papers revealed the country or region to which the charts were applied; specifically, 2 were used in the United States, 2 in Germany, 1 in Sweden, 1 in the Netherlands, 1 in Australia, 1 in Israel, 1 in France, 1 in southeast Asia, and 1 worldwide. Quality assessment (quality appraisal) of the papers showed that most peer-reviewed articles clearly stated the methodology and data collection procedure, while most grey literature was initiated by a department, professional, or association. All of the included papers did not indicate that there was a pilot study of the retrospective chart review templates, and only 4 templates were used in other publications (Supplementary Table S10).

Study selection flow chart

A total of 123 categories and 1210 specific items about emergency responses were included in the text analysis. The categories of the items highly varied across the papers; however, many papers commonly referred to the following 13 concepts. The most mentioned categories were ‘treatment’ and ‘communication’, which were evident in 5 studies, followed by ‘triage’ and ‘coordination’ (used by 4 studies). The text visualisation in Fig.  2 presents the categories common to papers, including ‘triage’, ‘treatment’, ‘cooperation’, and ‘communication’. The categories of the guidelines used by Lennquist et al. (2004) demonstrated the most overlap with other studies, including ‘communication’, ‘coordination’, ‘damage’, ‘outcome’, ‘psychological reactions’, and ‘severity of injuries’ [ 31 ] (Fig.  2 ).

Taxonomy of the included retrospective charts

Regarding the semantic analysis, 720 items were categorised within the time dimension, 271 within the area, 1033 within the action, and 899 within the resource. Specifically, 2 index groups, 8 guidelines, and 5 report formats were common to all four response dimensions (the time, area, action, and resource). The most frequent categories under the time dimension were on-site care and on-site command and control phases (183 and 163 items, respectively). The treatment area of most concern was the indirect threat zone (110 items), while less attention was paid to the direct threat zone (21 items). Almost all papers mentioned the ‘action’ and ‘resource’ dimensions, except one report. Regarding the ‘action’ dimension, most items were classified into ‘incident command’ (393 items), followed by ‘treatment and triage (plus tracking)’ (281 items), and ‘support’ (141 items). Regarding the ‘resource’ dimension, most items were sorted into the ‘system’ category (417 items; see Supplemental Tables S11–S14). The indicator type analysis revealed 833 expressions of process indicators, 256 outcome indicators, 117 circumstance indicators, and 66 structure indicators (Supplemental Table S15). Regarding the datatype, 884 items acquire data as text, symbol, or combination or them; 270 items collect data as number; 171 items collect data as time while 17 items acquire location (Supplemental Table S16). We also analyzed the information acquisition method, 957 items involved data collection using a post-event investigation, 299 using database extraction, and 86 using evidence-based deduction (Supplemental Table S17). Heterogeneity among studies was observed through visual inspection of bar-charts of papers, plotting text semantics, indicator types, and information acquisition methods (Figs.  3 and 4 ).

Literature fingerprint of included papers

Distribution of indicator type and information acquisition methodology among the included papers, a shows the distribution of the indicators, b shows the method of information acquisition

Consistent data can be collected using standard retrospective charts for emergency response that include well-defined and clearly articulated items. Such charts facilitate communication among stakeholders and beneficiaries as to whether essential standards are being met and can link policy to action [ 10 ]. To assess the current state of emergency response reporting, this study systematically reviewed 30 peer-reviewed articles and grey literature papers on emergency response report chart review templates. Most studies were based on group consensus methods, which comprehensively integrate the knowledge backgrounds of experts in relevant fields in ways that are highly relevant to the emergency response process. However, a high level of heterogeneity among these retrospective chart review templates hinders their wide application across different countries or regions. The text visualisation used in the present study suggests that the heterogeneities may arise because the included chart review templates were designed as different types, suitable for different hierarchies, and based on different theoretical paradigms. Additionally, assessment of the risk of bias in the papers indicated that high heterogeneity might also be attributed to the lack of research collaboration, unclear methods, and lack of extrapolation [ 43 ].

It is essential that a widely acceptable retrospective chart template is constructed based on consensus regarding the theoretical paradigm and taxonomy of items. The text visualisation of the categories of the included items revealed that each paper’s taxonomy was independent of the others’, and the theoretical paradigm used to design the chart review templates in each paper was rarely mentioned. Although some theoretical models related to emergency response were constructed by professional associations in recent years, such as ‘science of surge’ and ‘DISASRTER’, they are not widely used in the construction of retrospective charts reviews [ 17 , 18 , 44 ]. There exist theories that were constructed from different perspectives, such as response capability, ( 19 – 20 ) course of action [ 18 ], or the elements of a Utstein-style templeate [ 5 ]. A novel and comprehensive paradigm that synthesises these ideas is required to further develop and guide chart design.

We explored the commonalities and divergence among researchers when designing the retrospective charts through text semantic analysis. Regarding the definition of key intervals of the emergency response, the results revealed that researchers pay most attention to responses in the on-site care and on-site command and control phases, which immediately impact casualty care, although there is currently no widely accepted model of the chronological sequence of EMS response and care. Only 2 articles in this study had a defined response timeline, but the response timeline was not uniform between these two studies. These findings reflect the fact that most EMS systems collect time data that were empirically developed based on arbitrary concepts and ease of data collection. For the treatment area, the items designed by the researchers primarily focused on the indirect threat zone; less attention was paid to the direct threat zone, which greatly impacts the treatment of the people injured in a disaster. Accordingly, a lack of retrospective data in this area will hinder the quality improvement of pre-hospital care. This contradiction may be caused by the prioritisation of treatment in direct threat zones, which causes response information management to be relatively ignored [ 42 ]. All papers, except one report, considered the ‘action’ and ‘resource’ dimensions, indicating that researchers are primarily concerned with response action and resource use. The broad consensus that information related to ‘incident command’, ‘treatment and triage (plus tracking)’, and ‘support’ should be merged in the chart review templates, suggests that these three action classifications account for most emergency response processes and have an important impact on research. Meanwhile, numerous items were sorted within the ‘system’ dimension (based on the science of surge), which comprised the sub-components of ‘plan’, ‘command’, ‘communication’, ‘coordination’, and ‘cyber security’, which places a great amount of information in the ‘system’ dimension. Thus, it is necessary to standardise the items under ‘system’ to create widely accepted retrospective charts for emergency response.

Indicator type notably reflects the application scope and function of a retrospective chart review template. The popularity of process indicator items indicates that emergency response involves dynamic management. Due to the lack of recognised benchmark standards for evaluating emergency response, outcome indicators have the potential to serve as gold standards, which can be verified through cohort studies [ 45 , 46 , 47 ].

Retrospective data collection in emergency response can require complicated detective work, for instance, to overcome the patients remembrance deviation, infer occurrence time, and calculate the consumption. Patients are often transported to several different hospitals, making patient-specific data collection difficult [ 48 ]. Improvement of the feasibility of retrospective chart review templates could mitigate this process by improving robustness of the data acquisition method. Among the included items, interviews were the most popular way to obtain data with the advantage to easily acquire data. The feasibility of the chart review template may be improved through the comprehensive use of monitoring systems, pre-hospital emergency systems, intelligent wearable devices for situational awareness, and capturing situational awareness information by specific items [ 49 , 50 ]. Further, obtaining permission from an organisation to collect data may be facilitated by referring to a specific guideline or template [ 51 , 52 ].

Although a prior systematic study of templates for reporting prehospital medical management of major incidents was published in 2013, it had several limitations. The current study adds to the work of this 2013 study in several ways. First, it expanded the scope by conducting a systematic review of reporting for extensive emergency response, rather than just major accidents. Additionally, it conducted a detailed content analysis, integrated multiple classical theoretical backgrounds, and constructed a category framework to conduct an in-depth analysis of text-rich data to excavate the elements of emergency response to which researchers are generally attentive and how reporting may be improved.

However, the current study still had several limitations. For instance, since the included papers were only published in English, papers from non-English-speaking regions, such as Africa, China, and Russia, were not considered. Additionally, due to the difficulty of quantifying the text-rich data, and a lack of some key variables, such as the regions of application of the chart review template and the specific events of interest, subgroup analysis was not performed to explore the exact sources of heterogeneity.

This study confirmed that existing retrospective chart review templates for emergency response continue to have large heterogeneity. Moving forward, data guidelines must be standardised to enable the comparison of events among countries. This would require different regions to cooperate in the design of comprehensive, standard, comparable, and feasible tools based on their own emergency response organisations.

Data availability

Data is provided within the manuscript and supplementary information files.

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Acknowledgements

Fulei Wu and Xiaorong Liu are senior authors of this article and contribute equally to this study. Inclusion and exclusion criteria and the search strategy are detailed in the main text and Supplemental Tables S2–S3. Regarding the text visual analysis method, see the supplemental method. The items were classified by ‘time’, ‘area’, ‘action’, and ‘resource’, defined in detail in the supplemental method, Supplemental Tables S4–S7, and Supplemental Fig.  1 . In the visual representation of the results each text block is depicted as a coloured square aligned from left to right and top to bottom.

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Fulei Wu and Xiaorong Liu both authors contributed equally to this study.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Health Service, School of Public Health, Logistics University of People’s Armed Police Force, Tianjin, China

Department of Health Training, Second military medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China

Pengwei Hu, Zhehao Li, Jing Gui, Zhongsheng Fan & Xiaorong Liu

Department of Research, Characteristic Medical Center of People Armed Police, Tianjin, China

Medical Security Center, The No.983 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Forces of Chinese PLA, Tianjin, China

School of Nursing, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Contributions

Pengwei Hu and Xiaorong Liu conceived the original study concept, overall study design, and supervised the subsequent steps of the study. Fulei Wu and Honglei Xu contributed via their original studies to the study concept. Pengwei Hu and Zhehao Li designed the search strategy. Pengweiwei Hu, Jing Gui, and Zhehao Li, supported by Xiaorong Liu, conducted the literature search and data extraction. Pengweiwei Hu and Zhongsheng Fan conducted quality assessment of studies. Pengweiwei Hu and Fulei Wu conducted the statistical analysis. Pengweiwei Hu and Zhehao Li created the tables and figures. Xiaorong Liu and Fulei Wu reviewed the literature search and data analyses. Pengweiwei Hu wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors participated in the interpretation of data, have critically reviewed the manuscript providing edits and comments, and approved its final submission. Pengweiwei Hu, Zhehao Li, Jing Gui, and Xiaorong Liu had full access to all data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

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Correspondence to Xiaorong Liu .

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Hu, P., Li, Z., Gui, J. et al. Retrospective charts for reporting, analysing, and evaluating disaster emergency response: a systematic review. BMC Emerg Med 24 , 93 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-024-01012-y

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UN official highlights how better preparation has shrunk disaster deaths despite worsening climate

FILE - A polling official enjoys a cooling spray of water under intense heat at a distribution venue for Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and other election material on the eve of the fifth phase of polling in the six-week-long national election in Lucknow, India, Sunday, May 19, 2024. A top United Nations official says even though climate change makes disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts more intense, more frequent and striking more places, fewer people are dying from those catastrophes globally. Thats because of better warning, planning and resilience. (AP Photo/Rajesh Kumar Singh, File)

FILE - Residents rest in a gymnasium converted into a makeshift shelter for people whose homes were flooded by heavy rains, in Canoas, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil, Wednesday, May 8, 2024. A top United Nations official says even though climate change makes disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts more intense, more frequent and striking more places, fewer people are dying from those catastrophes globally. Thats because of better warning, planning and resilience. (AP Photo/Carlos Macedo, File)

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FILE - Residents ride past the Gremio Arena surrounded by flood waters from heavy rains, in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil, Thursday, May 9, 2024. A top United Nations official says even though climate change makes disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts more intense, more frequent and striking more places, fewer people are dying from those catastrophes globally. Thats because of better warning, planning and resilience. (AP Photo/Andre Penner, File)

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FILE - A Brazilian soldier carries a dog after rescuing it from a flooded area after heavy rain in Canoas, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil, Thursday, May 9, 2024. A top United Nations official says even though climate change makes disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts more intense, more frequent and striking more places, fewer people are dying from those catastrophes globally. Thats because of better warning, planning and resilience. (AP Photo/Carlos Macedo, File)

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As climate change makes disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts more intense, more frequent and striking more places, fewer people are dying from those catastrophes globally because of better warning, planning and resilience, a top United Nations official said.

The world hasn’t really noticed how the type of storms that once killed tens or hundreds of thousands of people now only claim handfuls of lives, new United Nations Assistant Secretary-General Kamal Kishore, who heads the UN’s office for disaster risk reduction told The Associated Press. But he said much more needs to be done to keep these disasters from pushing people into abject poverty.

“Fewer people are dying of disasters and if you look at that as a proportion of total population, it’s even fewer,” Kishore said in his first interview since taking office in mid-May. “We often take for granted the progress that we’ve made.”

“Twenty years ago there was no tsunami early warning system except for one small part of the world. Now the whole world is covered by a tsunami warning system” after the 2004 tsunami that killed about 230,000 people in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand, Kishore said.

People are getting better warnings about tropical cyclones — also called hurricanes and typhoons — so now the chances of dying in a tropical cyclone in a place like the Philippines are about one-third of what they were 20 years ago, Kishore said.

As the former disaster chief for India, Kishore points to how his country has cut deaths thanks to better warnings and community preparedness such as hospitals being ready for a surge in births during a cyclone. In 1999, a supercyclone hit eastern India, killing almost 10,000 people. Then a nearly similar sized storm hit in 2013, but killed only a few dozen people. Last year, on Kishore’s watch, Cyclone Biparjoy killed fewer than 10 people.

The same goes for flood deaths, Kishore said.

The data backs up Kishore, said disaster epidemiologist Debarati Guha-Sapir of the Catholic University of Louvain in Brussels, who created a global disaster database . Her database — which she acknowledges has missing pieces — shows that global deaths per storm event has dropped from about a ten-year average of 24 in 2008 to ten-year average of about 8 in 2021. Flood deaths per event have gone from ten-year averages of nearly 72 to about 31, her data indicates.

While there are fewer deaths globally from disasters, there are still pockets in the poorest of countries, especially in Africa, where deaths are worsening or at least staying the same, Guha-Sapir said. It’s much like public health’s efforts to eradicate measles, success in most places, but areas that can least cope are not improving, she said.

India and Bangladesh are poster nations for better dealing with disasters and preventing deaths, especially in cyclones, Guha-Sapir said. In 1970, a cyclone killed more than 300,000 people in Bangladesh in one of the 20th century’s greatest natural disasters and now “Bangladesh has done fantastic work in disaster risk reduction for years and years and years,” she said.

Pointing out wins is important, Guha-Sapir said: “Gloom and doom will never get us anywhere.”

While countries such as India and Bangladesh have created warning systems, strengthened buildings such as hospitals and know what to do to prepare for and then react to disasters, a lot of it is also just because these countries are getting richer and better educated and so they can handle disasters better and protect themselves, Guha-Sapir said. Poorer countries and people can’t.

“Fewer people are dying, but that’s not because climate change is not happening,’' Kishore said ”That is despite the climate change. And that is because we have invested in resilience, invested in early warning systems.’'

Kishore said climate change is making his job tougher, yet he said doesn’t feel like Sisyphus, the mythical man pushing a giant boulder up a hill.

“You are getting more intense hazards , more frequently and (in) new geographies,” Kishore said, saying places, like Brazil that used to not worry too much about floods now are getting devastated. The same goes for extreme heat , which he said used to be an issue for only certain countries, but now has gone global, pointing to nearly 60,000 heat wave deaths in Europe in 2022.

India, where temperatures have been flirting with 122 degrees (50 degrees Celsius) , has reduced heat deaths with specific regional plans, Kishore said.

“However with the new extreme temperatures we are seeing, every country needs to double its efforts to save lives,” he said. And that means looking at the built environment of cities, he added.

Cutting deaths is only part of the battle to reduce risk, Kishore said.

“We are doing a better job of saving lives but not of livelihoods,” Kishore said.

While fewer people are dying “you look at people who are losing their houses, people who are losing their businesses, a small farmer that is running a poultry farm,” Kishore said. When they get flooded or hit by a storm, they may survive but they’ve got nothing, no seeds, no fishing boats.

“On that we’re not doing as well as we should,” Kishore said. “We cannot accept that losses will occur. Of course they will occur, but they could be minimized by an order of magnitude.”

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