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How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

• How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

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The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

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Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

By following these steps, Paperpal not only simplifies the process of writing a research paper conclusion but also ensures it is impactful, concise, and aligned with academic standards. Sign up with Paperpal today and write your research paper conclusion 2x faster .  

The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 9. The Conclusion
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
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• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
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• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
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• Further Readings
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• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points derived from the findings of your study and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-level research papers, two or three well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, more paragraphs may be required in describing the key findings and their significance.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research problem. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis that advance new understanding about the research problem, that are unusual or unexpected, or that have important implications applied to practice.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly re-emphasize  your answer to the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.
• Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed . The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [first identified in your literature review section] has been addressed by your research and why this contribution is significant.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers an opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings. This is particularly important if your study approached examining the research problem from an unusual or innovative perspective.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Bunton, David. “The Structure of PhD Conclusion Chapters.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 4 (July 2005): 207–224; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

The general function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by clearly summarizing the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. However, make sure that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your paper.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• Present your conclusions in clear, concise language. Re-state the purpose of your study, then describe how your findings differ or support those of other studies and why [i.e., what were the unique, new, or crucial contributions your study made to the overall research about your topic?].
• Do not simply reiterate your findings or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
• Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem but that further investigations should take place beyond the scope of your investigation.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is presented well:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data [this is opposite of the introduction, which begins with general discussion of the context and ends with a detailed description of the research problem]. 

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have conducted will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way. If asked to think introspectively about the topics, do not delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply, not to guess at possible outcomes or make up scenarios not supported by the evidence.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Although an effective conclusion needs to be clear and succinct, it does not need to be written passively or lack a compelling narrative. Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following:

• If your essay deals with a critical, contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem proactively.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge leading to positive change.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend authority and support to the conclusion(s) you have reached [a good source would be from your literature review].
• Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates urgency in seeking change.
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the most important finding of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point by drawing from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction, but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results from your study to recast it in new or important ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a succinct, declarative statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid

Failure to be concise Your conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too lengthy often have unnecessary information in them. The conclusion is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, and other forms of analysis that you make. Strategies for writing concisely can be found here .

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from the general [the field of study] to the specific [the research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from a specific discussion [your research problem] back to a general discussion framed around the implications and significance of your findings [i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In short, the conclusion is where you should place your research within a larger context [visualize your paper as an hourglass--start with a broad introduction and review of the literature, move to the specific analysis and discussion, conclude with a broad summary of the study's implications and significance].

Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. These are problems, deficiencies, or challenges encountered during your study. They should be summarized as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative or unintended results [i.e., findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section and discuss their implications in the discussion section of your paper. In the conclusion, use negative results as an opportunity to explain their possible significance and/or how they may form the basis for future research.

Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits within your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize briefly and succinctly how it contributes to new knowledge or a new understanding about the research problem. This element of your conclusion may be only a few sentences long.

Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives in the social and behavioral sciences change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine the original objectives in your introduction. As these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you presumably should know a good deal about it [perhaps even more than your professor!]. Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts! Don't undermine your authority as a researcher by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches that...." The overall tone of your conclusion should convey confidence to the reader about the study's validity and realiability.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin Madison; Miquel, Fuster-Marquez and Carmen Gregori-Signes. “Chapter Six: ‘Last but Not Least:’ Writing the Conclusion of Your Paper.” In Writing an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation: A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research . John Bitchener, editor. (Basingstoke,UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 93-105; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining that they are reaching the end of your paper. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. This why the conclusion rarely has citations to sources. If you have new information to present, add it to the discussion or other appropriate section of the paper. Note that, although no new information is introduced, the conclusion, along with the discussion section, is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; the conclusion is where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate that you understand the material that you’ve presented, and position your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic, including describing how your research contributes new insights to that scholarship.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

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Conclusions

What this handout is about.

This handout will explain the functions of conclusions, offer strategies for writing effective ones, help you evaluate conclusions you’ve drafted, and suggest approaches to avoid.

About conclusions

Introductions and conclusions can be difficult to write, but they’re worth investing time in. They can have a significant influence on a reader’s experience of your paper.

Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the “place” of your analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives. Such a conclusion will help them see why all your analysis and information should matter to them after they put the paper down.

Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to synthesize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.

Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.

Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader’s life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.

Strategies for writing an effective conclusion

One or more of the following strategies may help you write an effective conclusion:

• Play the “So What” Game. If you’re stuck and feel like your conclusion isn’t saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, “So what?” or “Why should anybody care?” Then ponder that question and answer it. Here’s how it might go: You: Basically, I’m just saying that education was important to Douglass. Friend: So what? You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen. Friend: Why should anybody care? You: That’s important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally. You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself “So What?” as you develop your ideas or your draft.
• Return to the theme or themes in the introduction. This strategy brings the reader full circle. For example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay is helpful in creating a new understanding. You may also refer to the introductory paragraph by using key words or parallel concepts and images that you also used in the introduction.
• Synthesize, don’t summarize. Include a brief summary of the paper’s main points, but don’t simply repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together.
• Include a provocative insight or quotation from the research or reading you did for your paper.
• Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader’s thought process and help them to apply your info and ideas to their own life or to see the broader implications.
• Point to broader implications. For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies to avoid

• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as “in conclusion,” “in summary,” or “in closing.” Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.
• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
• Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

Four kinds of ineffective conclusions

• The “That’s My Story and I’m Sticking to It” Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can’t think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
• The “Sherlock Holmes” Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don’t want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then “wow” them with your main idea, as in a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders’ power and also an important step toward freedom.
• The “America the Beautiful”/”I Am Woman”/”We Shall Overcome” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
• The “Grab Bag” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn’t integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Douglass, Frederick. 1995. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. New York: Dover.

Hamilton College. n.d. “Conclusions.” Writing Center. Accessed June 14, 2019. https://www.hamilton.edu//academics/centers/writing/writing-resources/conclusions .

Holewa, Randa. 2004. “Strategies for Writing a Conclusion.” LEO: Literacy Education Online. Last updated February 19, 2004. https://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/conclude.html.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Find out which type of conclusion best suits your research, how to write it step-by-step, and common mistakes to avoid.

When writing a research paper, it can be challenging to make your point after providing an extensive amount of information. For this reason, a well-organized conclusion is essential. 

A research paper’s conclusion should be a brief summary of the paper’s substance and objectives; what you present in your research paper can gain impact by having a strong conclusion section.

In this Mind The Graph article, you will learn how to write a conclusion for a research report in a way that inspires action and helps the readers to better understand your research paper. This article will provide you the definition and some broad principles before providing step-by-step guidance.

What is a conclusion for a research paper and why is it important?

A conclusion is where you summarize the main points and, if appropriate, make new research suggestions. It is not merely a summary of the key points discussed or a rehash of your research question.

The reader is expected to comprehend from the article’s conclusion why your study should be significant to them after reading it. A conclusion of one or two well-developed paragraphs is appropriate for the majority of research papers; however, in a few unusual cases, more paragraphs may be required to highlight significant findings and their importance.

Just as the introduction is responsible for giving the reader a first impression on the subject, the conclusion is the chance to make a final impression by summarizing major information of your research paper and, most often, giving a different point of view on significant implications.

Adding a strong conclusion to your research paper is important because it’s a possibility to give the reader the comprehension of your research topic. Given that the reader is now fully informed on the subject, the conclusion also gives you a chance to restate the research problem effectively and concisely.

Examples of conclusions for a research paper

Now that you are aware of what a conclusion is and its significance for a research paper, it is time to provide you with some excellent samples of well-structured conclusions so you may get knowledge about the type of conclusion you can use for your research paper.

Argumentative Research Paper Conclusion

The most convincing arguments from your research paper should be added to the conclusion if you want to compose a strong argumentative conclusion.

Additionally, if your thesis statement expresses your perspective on the subject, you should think about restarting it as well as including any other pertinent information.

Example: As a result of the sixth extinction, which is currently affecting Earth, many species are vanishing every day. There are at least three strategies that people could employ to keep them from going extinct entirely in the ensuing fifty years. More recycling options, innovative plastic production techniques, and species preservation could save lives.

Analytical Research Paper Conclusion

The first thing you should do is reiterate your thesis and list the main elements of your arguments.

There should undoubtedly be a spotlight on a bigger context in the analytical research paper conclusion, which is the key distinction between it and other types of conclusions. It means you can add some meaning to the findings.

Example: Elon Musk has revolutionized the way we drive, pay for things, and even fly. His innovations are solely motivated by the desire to simplify things, but they inevitably alter the course of history. When Musk was a student, he had his first idea for PayPal, which is now among the most widely used methods of online payment. Likewise with Tesla automobiles.

Comparative Research Paper Conclusion

The conclusion of a comparative essay should be deeply analytical. To clearly express your conclusions, you must be very thorough when reviewing the data. Furthermore, the sources must be reliable.

A paraphrased thesis statement and a few sentences describing the significance of your study research are also required, as per normal.

Example: Gas-powered vehicles are ineffective and inefficient compared to electric vehicles. Not only do they emit fewer pollutants, but the drivers also get there more quickly. Additionally, gas cars cost more to maintain. Everything stems from the details of the far more straightforward engines used in electric cars.

How to write a conclusion for a research paper

In this section, you will learn how to write a conclusion for a research paper effectively and properly. These few easy steps will enable you to write the most convincing conclusion to your research paper.

1. Remember about the main topic

The statement must be written clearly and concisely to be effective, just one sentence. Remember that your conclusion should be concise and precise, expressing only the most important elements.

2. Reaffirm your thesis

Restate the research paper’s thesis after that. This can be done by going back to the original thesis that you presented in the research’s introduction. The thesis statement in your conclusion must be expressed differently from how it was in the introduction. This section can also be written effectively in a single sentence.

3. Sum important points in a summary

It’s time to make a list of the important arguments in your research paper. This phase can be made simpler by reading over your research and emphasizing only the main ideas and evidence.

Remember that the conclusion should not contain any new information. Focus only on the concepts you cover in your paper’s main body as a result. And also, keep in mind that this brief summary reminds your readers of the importance of the topic you are researching.

4. Emphasize the importance

At this stage, you can genuinely express a few words about how significant your arguments are. A succinct but impactful sentence can successfully achieve its aim. You could also attempt to examine this circumstance from a wider perspective.

Give an example of how your discoveries have affected a certain field. It would be beneficial if you made an effort to answer the question, “So what?” if there was any ambiguity.

5. Finish up your argument

As you wrap up your conclusion, consider posing a question or a call to action that will encourage readers to consider your point of view even further. This sentence can also answer any queries that were not addressed in the paper’s body paragraphs.

In addition, if there is an unresolved question in the main body, this is a fantastic area to comment on.

Common mistakes you should avoid

After learning the fundamentals of producing a strong research paper conclusion, it’s time to learn the common mistakes to avoid.

• Weak conclusion: If your ending is weak, readers will feel dissatisfied and disappointed. Writing ambiguous closing lines for essays also lowers the quality of the paper and the capacity of your arguments to support your main topic.
• Abrupt conclusion: Your research has to be an expression of your writing as a whole, not just a section. Therefore, make sure your thoughts are fully stated.
• Adding new information: Only your research should only be summarized in the conclusion. As the conclusion cannot contain extra information, make sure to offer all of your conclusions and supporting evidence in the body paragraphs.
• Absence of focus: A conclusion needs to be concise and well-focused. Avoid concluding the research with inane or superfluous details.
• Absurd length: Research must be of a proper length—neither too long nor too short. If you write more than is necessary, you can miss the point, which is to revisit the paper’s argument straightforwardly. Additionally, if you write too little, your readers will think you’re being negligent. It should be written in at least one or two whole paragraphs.

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: 9. The Conclusion

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of key points. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be required.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with several important opportunities to demonstrate your overall understanding of the research problem to the reader. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key points in your analysis or findings.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger implications of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer the "so what?" question by placing the study within the context of past research about the topic you've investigated.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you a chance to elaborate on the significance of your findings.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing/contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008.

Structure and Writing Style

https://writing.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/535/2018/07/conclusions_uwmadison_writingcenter_aug2012.pdf I.  General Rules

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• State your conclusions in clear, simple language.
• Do not simply reiterate your results or the discussion.
• Indicate opportunities for future research, as long as you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Make sure, however, that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings because this reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your essay.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data.

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented, or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have done will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way.

NOTE : Don't delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply not to guess at possible outcomes.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following.

• If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have reached [a good place to look is research from your literature review].
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but add further insight that is derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results to reframe it in new ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a strong, succient statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid Failure to be concise The conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too long often have unnecessary detail. The conclusion section is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, etc. that you make. Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from general [the field of study] to specific [your research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from specific [your research problem] back to general [your field, i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In other words, the conclusion is where you place your research within a larger context. Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. Problems, drawbacks, and challenges encountered during your study should be included as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative results [findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section of your paper. In the conclusion, use the negative results as an opportunity to explain how they provide information on which future research can be based. Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits back into your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize it briefly and directly. Often this element of your conclusion is only a few sentences long. Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine your original objectives in your introduction, as these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you now know a good deal about it, perhaps even more than your professor! Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts!  Don't undermine your authority by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches...."

Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions . Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization . Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining to read, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your Conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. If you have new information to present, add it to the Discussion or other appropriate section of the paper.  Note that, although no actual new information is introduced, the conclusion is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; it's where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate your understanding of the material that you’ve presented, and locate your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic.

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Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

The scope of the study is defined at the start of the study. It is used by researchers to set the boundaries and limitations within which the research study will be performed.

Reference management software solutions offer a powerful way for you to track and manage your academic references. Read our blog post to learn more about what they are and how to use them.

An academic transcript gives a breakdown of each module you studied for your degree and the mark that you were awarded.

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Nidhi is a PhD student at Virginia Tech, focused on developing an engineered platform to study the breast tumor microenvironment, for diagnostic and prognostic purposes.

Michele is a first-year PhD candidate in a double degree program between the University of Girona (Spain) & Technical University Munich (Germany). His research has the aim of innovating water treatment technologies.

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So much is at stake in writing a conclusion. This is, after all, your last chance to persuade your readers to your point of view, to impress yourself upon them as a writer and thinker. And the impression you create in your conclusion will shape the impression that stays with your readers after they've finished the essay.

The end of an essay should therefore convey a sense of completeness and closure as well as a sense of the lingering possibilities of the topic, its larger meaning, its implications: the final paragraph should close the discussion without closing it off.

To establish a sense of closure, you might do one or more of the following:

• Conclude by linking the last paragraph to the first, perhaps by reiterating a word or phrase you used at the beginning.
• Conclude with a sentence composed mainly of one-syllable words. Simple language can help create an effect of understated drama.
• Conclude with a sentence that's compound or parallel in structure; such sentences can establish a sense of balance or order that may feel just right at the end of a complex discussion.

To close the discussion without closing it off, you might do one or more of the following:

• Conclude with a quotation from or reference to a primary or secondary source, one that amplifies your main point or puts it in a different perspective. A quotation from, say, the novel or poem you're writing about can add texture and specificity to your discussion; a critic or scholar can help confirm or complicate your final point. For example, you might conclude an essay on the idea of home in James Joyce's short story collection,  Dubliners , with information about Joyce's own complex feelings towards Dublin, his home. Or you might end with a biographer's statement about Joyce's attitude toward Dublin, which could illuminate his characters' responses to the city. Just be cautious, especially about using secondary material: make sure that you get the last word.
• Conclude by setting your discussion into a different, perhaps larger, context. For example, you might end an essay on nineteenth-century muckraking journalism by linking it to a current news magazine program like  60 Minutes .
• Conclude by redefining one of the key terms of your argument. For example, an essay on Marx's treatment of the conflict between wage labor and capital might begin with Marx's claim that the "capitalist economy is . . . a gigantic enterprise of dehumanization "; the essay might end by suggesting that Marxist analysis is itself dehumanizing because it construes everything in economic -- rather than moral or ethical-- terms.
• Conclude by considering the implications of your argument (or analysis or discussion). What does your argument imply, or involve, or suggest? For example, an essay on the novel  Ambiguous Adventure , by the Senegalese writer Cheikh Hamidou Kane, might open with the idea that the protagonist's development suggests Kane's belief in the need to integrate Western materialism and Sufi spirituality in modern Senegal. The conclusion might make the new but related point that the novel on the whole suggests that such an integration is (or isn't) possible.

Finally, some advice on how not to end an essay:

• Don't simply summarize your essay. A brief summary of your argument may be useful, especially if your essay is long--more than ten pages or so. But shorter essays tend not to require a restatement of your main ideas.
• Avoid phrases like "in conclusion," "to conclude," "in summary," and "to sum up." These phrases can be useful--even welcome--in oral presentations. But readers can see, by the tell-tale compression of the pages, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your audience if you belabor the obvious.
• Resist the urge to apologize. If you've immersed yourself in your subject, you now know a good deal more about it than you can possibly include in a five- or ten- or 20-page essay. As a result, by the time you've finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you've produced. (And if you haven't immersed yourself in your subject, you may be feeling even more doubtful about your essay as you approach the conclusion.) Repress those doubts. Don't undercut your authority by saying things like, "this is just one approach to the subject; there may be other, better approaches. . ."

Copyright 1998, Pat Bellanca, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

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Home » Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Course: LSAT   >   Unit 1

• Getting started with Logical Reasoning
• Introduction to arguments
• Catalog of question types

Types of conclusions

• Types of evidence
• Types of flaws
• Identify the conclusion | Quick guide
• Identify the conclusion | Learn more
• Identify the conclusion | Examples
• Identify an entailment | Quick guide
• Identify an entailment | Learn more
• Strongly supported inferences | Quick guide
• Strongly supported inferences | Learn more
• Disputes | Quick guide
• Disputes | Learn more
• Identify the technique | Quick guide
• Identify the technique | Learn more
• Identify the role | Quick guide
• Identify the role | learn more
• Identify the principle | Quick guide
• Identify the principle | Learn more
• Match structure | Quick guide
• Match structure | Learn more
• Match principles | Quick guide
• Match principles | Learn more
• Identify a flaw | Quick guide
• Identify a flaw | Learn more
• Match a flaw | Quick guide
• Match a flaw | Learn more
• Necessary assumptions | Quick guide
• Necessary assumptions | Learn more
• Sufficient assumptions | Quick guide
• Sufficient assumptions | Learn more
• Strengthen and weaken | Quick guide
• Strengthen and weaken | Learn more
• Helpful to know | Quick guide
• Helpful to know | learn more
• Explain or resolve | Quick guide
• Explain or resolve | Learn more

• When an arguer's conclusion is a recommendation for something, he or she often will provide one good reason to do that thing. One thing to be aware of here is the assumption that the benefits outweigh the drawbacks.
• When an arguer's conclusion is a prediction , the arguer may be assuming that the current evidence will remain unchanged in the future.

Comparisons

• It’s clear that this year’s candidate is stronger than last year’s candidate.
• It’s clear that this year’s candidate understands the public’s wishes better than she did a year ago.
• Last night, I took cough medicine and today I feel much better. So that cough medicine is really effective. ( Cause: cough medicine; effect: feeling better)
• Jonathan gets good grades without trying very hard, and his teachers have said multiple times how much they like him. The only possible way that Jonathan maintains his good grades is because of how much his teachers like him. ( Cause: teachers liking Jonathan; effect: good grades)

Assessments

• The flower is beautiful .
• This policy is very helpful .
• The outcome will be important .

Recommendations

• In treating this disease, then, physicians should favor Treatment X.
• It’s likely that extending the warranty is the only way to gain new customers.

Predictions

• Obviously, the tennis match will be rescheduled.
• Our homeless population may not be reduced by next year.

Simple Beliefs

• It’s clear that the student cheated on the test.
• The thief is probably still in the house somewhere.

Degrees of conclusion

Definite conclusions, indefinite conclusions.

• Likelihood: likely, unlikely, possible, could, might
• Quantity: some, most, more
• Frequency: rarely, seldom, often, sometimes, usually
• Proximity: almost, nearly

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2.7 Conclusion

In this chapter, you have learned about the processes involved in planning a research project. The process of research involves identifying a research problem or question, conducting a literature review to understand what is already known about the topic, formulating a hypothesis or research question, designing a study to test the hypothesis or answer the research question, collecting and analysing data, and finally drawing conclusions and sharing the findings with the wider community.

As indicated in the opening scenario, just like a GPS, a research plan is essential for a successful research project. Planning helps to steer the project in the right direction, keep it on track, and ultimately achieve the desired outcome. Here are some of the reasons presented in this chapter about why planning is important in research:

• Clarifies the research question: A clear research question is critical for the success of a research project. Planning helps to define the research question and identify the variables that need to be measured. This ensures that the research is focused and specific.
• Establishes a research design: A research design outlines the methods that will be used to collect and analyse data. Planning helps to establish a research design that is appropriate for the research question and ensures that data will be collected and analysed in a way that is valid and reliable.
• Identifies potential challenges: Planning helps to identify potential challenges and obstacles that may arise during the research project. This allows researchers to anticipate these challenges and take steps to address them.
• Maximizes resources: Planning helps to maximize resources, including time, funding, and personnel. By having a clear plan, researchers can allocate resources more effectively and efficiently.
• Provides a framework for evaluation: Planning provides a framework for evaluating the success of the research project. By having clear objectives and a plan for achieving them, researchers can assess the success of the project and identify areas for improvement.

In conclusion, just like a GPS is crucial for finding our way during a road trip, planning is essential for the success of a research project. It helps to define the research question, establish a research design, identify potential challenges, maximize resources, and provide a framework for evaluation. By taking the time to plan, researchers can increase the likelihood of a successful outcome and avoid feelings of dissatisfaction.

An Introduction to Research Methods for Undergraduate Health Profession Students Copyright © 2023 by Faith Alele and Bunmi Malau-Aduli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

New study points to possible link between tattoos and lymphoma, but experts say much more research is needed

A Swedish study has found a potential link between tattoos and a type of cancer called malignant lymphoma, but it ultimately calls for more research on the topic, and cancer experts say the possible link is overblown.

The researchers, from  Lund University , said they wanted to do the study because so  little is known  about the long-term health effects of tattooing, despite its continuing popularity. In the U.S. alone, nearly a third of people have at least one tattoo, a 2023  Pew Research Center  survey found.

The  study, published  in the most recent edition of the journal eClinicalMedicine, involved nearly 12,000 people in Sweden. From population registries, researchers identified everyone diagnosed with malignant lymphoma between 2007 and 2017 – nearly 3,000 people – and matched them with a group of the same age and gender mix who didn’t have cancer.

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Malignant lymphoma is cancer of the lymphatic system, the part of the body that helps fight off germs and disease.  Known risk factors  include a  weakened immune system  caused by illness or immune disorders like AIDS, infections such as  Epstein-Barr,  age and a family history of the disease. Some exposure to chemicals like pesticides and herbicides can also increase the risk of lymphoma, in addition to secondhand smoke.

In 2021, the study authors sent questionnaires to the people they had identified, asking about certain lifestyle factors that may increase the risk of this kind of cancer and about whether they had any tattoos.

Even after the researchers factored in things that are known to affect cancer risk like smoking and age, they found that the risk of malignant lymphoma was 21 per cent higher among those who had at least one tattoo. The finding is only an association, not a direct link, but the study authors emphasized that more research will be needed to flesh out this conclusion.

To the researchers’ surprise, they found no evidence to suggest that the risk increased as the person’s skin was covered in more tattoos.

“We do not yet know why this was the case. One can only speculate that a tattoo, regardless of size, triggers a low-grade inflammation in the body, which in turn can trigger cancer,” said co-author Christel Nielsen, an associate professor in the  Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine  at Lund University, in a  news release.  “The picture is thus more complex than we initially thought.”

The study was not set up to determine what the link between cancer and tattoos may be, if any, but experts are skeptical.

The conclusion is “really overstated,” said Dr. Timothy Rebbeck, an epidemiologist at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and professor at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health who was not involved with the research.

“If I were writing that paper, if I were the editor, I would have said the conclusion is, there is no evidence for a strong association,” he said.

The data is solid, he said, but the main  risk factors  for lymphomas are not found in tattooing.

“I would say the message here should be, we really didn’t learn a lot about whether tattoos are associated with cancer with this, and if I had to make a conclusion, I would say the data suggests there is no association,” Rebbeck said, noting that a smaller  2023 study  on a connection between tattooing and lymphomas or hematologic cancer also found no increased risk.

The 21 per cent estimate of added risk comes from the models in the new study, but it is not statistically significant, he said.

Dr. Catherine Diefenbach, director of the Clinical Lymphoma Program at the NYU Langone Health Perlmutter Cancer Center, said some things about the study don’t add up.

“What doesn’t make sense to me is why there’s no correlation with the size of the tattoo. It doesn’t really make sense to me that if there is an immune or toxic response, that the bigger tattoo didn’t have any impact at all on the association,” she said. “There are a lot of questions I have from this study.”

Diefenbach said she’s never been asked about a connection between tattooing and cancer, but she has seen news reports about the new research.

“I think people are getting very nervous about something that is an early study that has to be validated,” she said.

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The study authors speculate that if tattoos do increase the risk of a malignant lymphoma, one reason may be because of a problem with the ink itself. Tattoo ink can often have chemicals that are  considered carcinogens , including metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Earlier studies  have shown that the ink can sometimes travel through the body, and tiny particles can get stuck in the lymph nodes, which could lead to health problems.

Another study  found that tattoo ink could slightly alter parts of blood cells that communicate with others, but it is unclear whether that has an effect on health.

Even infections  are rare  after tattooing, studies show. In 2023, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued  draft guidance  to the makers of tattoo ink and its distributors to help them recognize when ink may be contaminated, after the agency received reports about contaminated inks and some companies recalled those inks. The  FDA  will log and investigate complaints against the industry, but it doesn’t regulate the practice or the inks used in tattooing because it’s considered a cosmetic procedure.

Nielsen said her group will look into whether tattoos are associated with other types of cancer or inflammatory diseases such as arthritis, lupus, high blood pressure and heart disease.

Rebbeck notes that these types of research can be tricky for the public to interpret. He helps run  cancerfactfinder.org , which aims to help people understand what does and does not cause cancer. Some have asked about tattoos, but the research doesn’t really show a connection, he says.

“I would say we really don’t know very much, but there’s no strong evidence that having a tattoo is going to cause cancer,” Rebbeck said.

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• Published: 29 May 2024

Exploring the use of body worn cameras in acute mental health wards: a mixed-method evaluation of a pilot intervention

• Una Foye 1 , 2 ,
• Keiran Wilson 1 , 2 ,
• Jessica Jepps 1 , 2 ,
• James Blease 1 ,
• Ellen Thomas 3 ,
• Leroy McAnuff 3 ,
• Sharon McKenzie 3 ,
• Katherine Barrett 3 ,
• Lilli Underwood 3 ,
• Geoff Brennan 1 , 2 &
• Alan Simpson 1 , 2  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  681 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

108 Accesses

12 Altmetric

Metrics details

Body worn cameras (BWC) are mobile audio and video capture devices that can be secured to clothing allowing the wearer to record some of what they see and hear. This technology is being introduced in a range of healthcare settings as part of larger violence reduction strategies aimed at reducing incidents of aggression and violence on inpatient wards, however limited evidence exists to understand if this technology achieves such goals.

This study aimed to evaluate the implementation of BWCs on two inpatient mental health wards, including the impact on incidents, the acceptability to staff and patients, the sustainability of the resource use and ability to manage the use of BWCs on these wards.

The study used a mixed-methods design comparing quantitative measures including ward activity and routinely collected incident data at three time-points before during and after the pilot implementation of BWCs on one acute ward and one psychiatric intensive care unit, alongside pre and post pilot qualitative interviews with patients and staff, analysed using a framework based on the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research.

Results showed no clear relationship between the use of BWCs and rates or severity of incidents on either ward, with limited impact of using BWCs on levels of incidents. Qualitative findings noted mixed perceptions about the use of BWCs and highlighted the complexity of implementing such technology as a violence reduction method within a busy healthcare setting Furthermore, the qualitative data collected during this pilot period highlighted the potential systemic and contextual factors such as low staffing that may impact on the incident data presented.

This study sheds light on the complexities of using such BWCs as a tool for ‘maximising safety’ on mental health settings. The findings suggest that BWCs have a limited impact on levels of incidents on wards, something that is likely to be largely influenced by the process of implementation as well as a range of contextual factors. As a result, it is likely that while BWCs may see successes in one hospital site this is not guaranteed for another site as such factors will have a considerable impact on efficacy, acceptability, and feasibility.

Peer Review reports

Body worn cameras (BWC) are mobile audio and video capture devices that can be secured to clothing allowing the wearer to record some of what they see and hear. In England, these have been introduced in the National Health Service (NHS) as part of a violence reduction strategy [ 1 ] which emphasises the reduction of aggression and violence against staff. The NHS Staff Survey 2022 found that 14.7% of NHS staff had experienced at least one incident of physical violence from patients, relatives or other members of the public in the previous 12 months. Violent attacks on staff were found to contribute to almost half of staff illness [ 2 ]. Levels of violence against staff working in mental health trusts remain much higher than other types of healthcare providers [ 3 ]. Numerous reports internationally highlight the increased risks faced by staff working in psychiatric care [ 4 ], though studies have reported that both ward staff and mental health patients experience violence and feeling unsafe on inpatient wards [ 5 , 6 ].

Body worn cameras have been in use for over a decade within law enforcement, where they hoped to provide transparency and accountability within use-of-force incidents and in the event of citizen complaints against police [ 7 ]. It was believed that video surveillance would help identify integral problems within the organisation, improve documentation of evidence, reduce use-of-force incidents, improve police-community relations, and provide training opportunities for officers [ 8 ]. However, a recent extensive international systematic review by Lum et al. [ 9 ], found that despite the successes noted in early evaluations, the way BWCs are currently used by police may not substantially affect most officer or citizen behaviours. Irrespective of these findings, other public services such as train operators have been implementing BWCs for security purposes, with reductions reported in the number of assaults on railway staff [ 10 ].

A recent systematic review of BWC use in public sector services established that there is a poor evidence base supporting the use of BWCs in the reduction of violence and aggression [ 11 ]. Yet, we are seeing a swift increase in the use of BWCs in mental health settings with that aim, with few studies conducted on the use of BWC technology in inpatient mental health wards, and even fewer studies exploring staff or patients’ views. Two evaluations conducted in England reported mixed results with both increases and decreases in violence and aggression found, and variation between types of wards. There is some suggestion of a reduction in more serious incidents and the use of restraint, but quality of evidence is low [ 12 , 13 ].

The use of BWCs in mental healthcare settings for safety and security remains a contentious topic due to the lack of evidence regarding the influence that such technology has on preventing violence and aggression and the complex philosophical and ethical issues raised, particularly where many patients may lack capacity and/or are detained under mental health legislation [ 14 ]. Additionally, there are concerns that BWCs may be used as a ‘quick fix’ for staff shortages rather than addressing the wider systemic and resourcing issues facing services [ 15 ]. With little independent evaluation of body-worn cameras in mental health settings, many of these concerns remain unanswered. There is also limited understanding of this technology from an implementation perspective. Therefore, in this study we aimed to conduct an independent evaluation of the introduction of BWCs as a violence reduction intervention on two inpatient mental health wards during a six-month pilot period to explore the impact of using the technology, alongside an exploration of the facilitators and barriers to implementation.

Research aim(s)

To evaluate the implementation of BWCs on two inpatient mental health wards, including the impact on incidents, the acceptability to staff and patients, the sustainability of the resource use and ability to manage the use of BWCs on these wards.

Patient and public involvement

The research team included a researcher and independent consultant, each with lived experience of mental health inpatient care. In addition, we recruited and facilitated a six member Lived Experience Advisory Panel (LEAP). This group was made up of patients and carers, some of whom had experienced the use of BWCs. Members were of diverse ethnic backgrounds and included four women and two men. The LEAP provided guidance and support for the research team in developing an understanding of the various potential impacts of the use of BWCs on inpatient mental health wards. Members contributed to the design of the study, development of the interview schedule, practice interviews prior to data collection on the wards, and supported the analysis and interpretation of the data, taking part in coding sessions to identify themes in the interview transcripts. The LEAP met once a month for two hours and was chaired by the Lived Experience Research Assistant and Lived Experience Consultant. Participants in the LEAP were provided with training and paid for their time.

The pilot introduction of the body worn cameras was conducted within a London mental health Trust consisting of four hospital sites with 17 acute wards. The research team were made aware of extensive preparatory work and planning that was conducted at a directorate and senior management level prior to camera implementation, including lived experience involvement and consultation, and the development of relevant policies and protocols inclusive of a human rights assessment and legal consultation.

The pilot period ran from 25th April to 25th October 2022. Reveal (a company who supply BWCs nationally across the UK) provided the Trust with 12 Calla BWCs for a flat fee that covered use of the cameras, cloud-based storage of footage, management software, and any support/maintenance required during the pilot period. Cameras were introduced to two wards based on two hospital sites, with six cameras provided to each of the wards on the same date. Training on using the BWCs was provided by the BWC company to staff working on both wards prior to starting the pilot period. Ward one was a 20-bed male acute inpatient ward, representing the most common ward setting where cameras have been introduced. Ward two was a ten-bed male Psychiatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU), representing smaller and more secure wards in which patients are likely to present as more unwell and where there are higher staff to patient ratios.

To answer our research questions, we used a mixed-methods design [ 16 ]. Using this design allowed us to investigate the impact of implementing BWCs in mental health settings on a range of quantitative and qualitative outcomes. This mixed methods design allows the study to statistically evaluate the effectiveness of using BWCs in these settings on key dependent variables (i.e., rates of violence and aggression, and incidents of conflict and containment) alongside qualitatively exploring the impact that the implementation of such technology has on patients and staff.

To ensure that the study was able to capture the impact and effect of implementation of the cameras, a repeated measures design was utilised to capture data at three phases on these wards:

Pre-pilot data: data prior of the implementation of the BWCs (quantitative and qualitative data).

Pilot period data: data collected during the six-month pilot period when BWCs were implemented on the wards (quantitative and qualitative data).

Post-pilot: data collected after the pilot period ended and cameras had been removed from the wards (quantitative data only).

Quantitative methods

Quantitative data was collected at all three data collection periods:

Pre-period: Data spanning six months prior to the implementation of BWCs (Nov 21 to May 22).

Pilot period: Data spanning the six months of the Trusts pilot period of using BWCs on the wards (June 22 to Nov 22).

Post-pilot: Data spanning the six months following the pilot period, when BWCs had been removed (Dec 22 to May 23).

Quantitative measures

To analyse the impact of BWC implementation, we collected two types of incident data related to violence and aggression and use of containment measures, including BWCs. Combined, these data provide a view of a wide range of incidents and events happening across the wards prior to, during, and after the implementation and removal of the BWCs.

The patient-staff conflict checklist

The Patient-staff Conflict Checklist (PCC-SR) [ 17 ] is an end of shift report that is completed by nurses to collate the frequency of conflict and containment events. This measure has been used successfully in several studies on inpatient wards [ 18 , 19 , 20 ].The checklist consists of 21 conflict behaviour items, including physical and verbal aggression, general rule breaking (e.g., smoking, refusing to attend to personal hygiene), eight containment measures (e.g., special observation, seclusion, physical restraint, time out), and staffing levels. In tests based on use with case note material, the PCC-SR has demonstrated an interrater reliability of 0.69 [ 21 ] and has shown a significant association with rates of officially reported incidents [ 22 ].

The checklist was revised for this study to include questions related to the use of BWCs ( e.g., how many uses of BWCs happened during the shift when a warning was given and the BWC was not used; when a warning was given and the BWC was used; when the BWC was switched on with no warning given ) in order to provide insight into how the cameras were being used on each ward (see appendix 1). Ward staff were asked to complete the checklist online at the end of each shift.

Routinely collected incident data (via datix system)

To supplement the PCC-SR-R, we also used routinely collected incident data from both wards for all three data collection phases. This data is gathered as part of routine practice by ward staff members via the Datix system Datix [ 23 ] is a risk management system used widely across mental health wards and Trusts in the UK to gather information on processes and errors. Previous studies have utilised routinely collect data via this system [ 24 , 25 ]. Incidents recorded in various Datix categories were included in this study (see Table  1 ). Incidents were anonymised before being provided to the research team to ensure confidentiality.

Routinely collected data included:

Recorded incidents of violence and aggression.

Recorded use of restrictive practices including seclusion, restraint, and intra-muscular medication/rapid tranquilisations.

Patient numbers.

Staffing levels.

Numbers of staff attending BWC training.

Quantitative data analysis

Incident reports.

Incident reports retrieved from Datix were binary coded into aggregate variables to examine violence and aggression, self-harm, and other conflict as outlined in Table  1 . Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) were used to identify differences in type of incident (violence against person, violence against object, verbal aggression, self-harm, conflict) for each ward. MANOVA was also used to examine differences in incident outcomes (severity, use of restrictive practice, police involvement) across pre-trial, trial, and post-trial periods for each ward. Incident severity was scored by ward staff on a four-point scale (1 = No adverse outcome, 2 = Low severity, 3 = Moderate severity, 4 = Severe). Use of restrictive practice and police involvement were binary coded for presence or absence. Analyses were conducted using SPSS [ 26 ].

Patient-staff conflict checklist shift-report – revised (PCC-SR-R; )

Data were condensed into weeks for analysis rather than shifts to account for variability in PCC-SR-R submission by shift. Linear regressions assessed the relationship between BWC use and incident outcome (severity, use of restrictive practice, police involvement).

Qualitative methods

We used semi-structured qualitative interviews to explore participants’ experiences of BWCs on the ward to understand the impact of their use as well as to identify any salient issues for patients, staff and visitors that align with the measures utilised within the quantitative aspect of this study. These interviews were conducted at two time points: pre-pilot and at the end of the six-month pilot period.

Sample selection, eligibility, and recruitment

Convenience sampling was used to recruit staff and patients on wards. Researchers approached ward managers to distribute information sheets to staff, who shared that information with patients. Staff self-selected to participate in the study by liaising directly with the research team. Patients that were identified as close to discharge and having capacity to consent were approached by a clinical member of the team who was briefed on the study inclusion criteria (see Table  2 ). The staff member spoke with the patient about the study and provided them with a copy of the information sheet to consider. If patients consented, a member of the research team approached the participant to provide more information on the study and answer questions. After initial contact with the research team, participants were given a 24-hour period to consider whether they wanted to participate before being invited for an interview.

Participants were invited to take part in an interview within a private space on the ward. Interviews were scheduled for one hour with an additional 15 min before and after to obtain informed consent and answer any questions. Participation was voluntary and participants were free to withdraw at any time. To thank patients for their time, we offered a £10 voucher following the interview. Interviews were audio-recorded and saved to an encrypted server. Interview recordings were transcribed by an external company, and the research team checked the transcripts for accuracy and pseudonymised all participants. All transcripts were allocated a unique ID number and imported to MicroSoft Excel [ 27 ] for analysis.

Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data were analysed using a framework analysis [ 28 ] informed by implementation science frameworks. Our coding framework used the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) [ 29 ], which is comprised of five major domains including: Intervention Characteristics, Implementation Processes, Outer Setting, Inner Setting, and Characteristics of the Individual. Each domain consists of several constructs that reflect the evidence base of the types of factors that are most likely to influence implementation of interventions. The CFIR is frequently used to design and conduct implementation evaluations and is commonly used for complex health care delivery interventions to understand barriers and facilitators to implementation. Based on its description, the CFIR is an effective model to address our research question, particularly given the complexity of the implementation of surveillance technology such as BWCs in this acute care setting.

The initial analytic stage was undertaken by eight members of the study team with each researcher charting data summaries onto the framework for each of the interviews they had conducted on MicroSoft Excel [ 27 ]. Sub-themes within each broad deductive theme from our initial framework were then derived inductively through further coding and collaborative discussion within the research team, inclusive of Lived Experience Researcher colleagues. Pseudonyms were assigned to each participant during the anonymisation of transcripts along with key identifiers to provide context for illustrative quotes (e.g., P = patient, S = staff, A = acute ward, I = Intensive Care, Pre = pre-BWC implementation interview, Post = Post BWC implementation interview).

All participants gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Health Research Authority: London - Camden & Kings Cross Research Ethics Committee (IRAS Project ID 322,268, REC Reference 23/LO/0337).

Quantitative results

Exploring how body worn cameras were used during the pilot period.

Analysis of the PCC-SR-R provides information about how the BWCs were used on a day-to-day basis during the pilot period. Out of 543 total shift reports completed, BWC use was reported 50 times, indicating that BWCs were used on less than 10% of shifts overall; 78% of those deployments were on the Acute ward (see Figure 1 ). Overall, the majority of deployments happened as activations without a warning being given ( n  = 30, 60% of activations), 19 times the BWC was deployed with a warning but the camera was not activated (38%), and only one was the camera activated without a warning being given (2%).

BWC use by ward per week of pilot (no data available before week 6 on Ward 1)

According to the PCC-SR-R, a total of 227 incidents of aggression occurred during the pilot period across both wards (see Table  3 ). Overall, there were small statistically significant correlations between BWC usage and certain types of conflict, aggression, and restrictive practice. Results found that BWC use was positively correlated with verbal aggression and use of physical restraint. BWC use was moderately positively correlated with verbal aggression ( r  = .37, p  < .001). This indicates that BWCs were more likely to be used in incidents involving verbal aggression, which do not tend to be documented in Datix. Similarly, BWC use was moderately positively correlated with physical restraint ( r  = .31, p  < .001) indicating that they were also more likely to be used alongside physical restraint.

Exploring the impact of BWCs utilising routinely collected ward data

Acute ward results.

Routine data collected via Datix records were used to examine differences in frequency of conflict and aggression, incident severity, and use of containment measures before, during, and after introduction of BWCs on each trial ward (see Table  4 ).

There was no effect of trial period on incident type ( F (10, 592) = 1.703, p  = .077, Wilk’s Λ = 0.945), meaning there was no discernible difference in the type of incidents that occurred (E.g., verbal aggression, physical aggression) before, during, and after the pilot phase.

Incident outcomes

There was an effect of trial period on incident outcomes ( F (6, 596) = 10.900, p  < .001, Wilk’s Λ = 0.812). Incident severity was statistically significantly higher in the trial and post-trial periods compared to the pre-trial period. Use of restrictive practice was significantly lower in the post-trial period compared to the pre-trial and trial period. Police involvement was also lower in the post-trial period compared to the pre-trial and trial periods (see Table  5 ).

Results for the psychiatric intensive care unit

There was an effect of trial period on incident type ( F (10, 490) = 4.252, p  < .001, Wilk’s Λ = 0.847). Verbal aggression was statistically significantly higher in the post-trial period compared to the pre and trial periods. Self-harm was statistically significantly higher in the trial period compared to the pre-trial and post-trial periods. There were no differences in violence against a person ( p  = .162), violence against an object or conflict behaviour (see Table  4 ).

There was a statistically significant difference in incident outcome across the trial periods ( F (6, 494) = 12.907, p  < .001, Wilk’s Λ = 0.747). There was no difference in incident severity or police involvement. However, use of restrictive practice was statistically significantly higher in the pre-trial period, reducing in the test period, and reducing further in the post-trial period (see Table  5 ).

Qualitative findings

A total of 22 participants took part in interviews: five patients and 16 staff members. During the pre-pilot interviews a total of nine staff took part (five in the acute ward, four in the PICU ward) and two patients (both from the acute ward). After the pilot period, a total of eight staff took part (four from each ward) and three patients (all from the acute ward). Table  6 includes a full description of participants.

Below we have presented the key themes aligning to the five core CFIR categories of Intervention Characteristics, Characteristics of Individuals, The Process of Implementation, the Inner Setting, and The Outer Setting (see Table  7 ).

Intervention characteristics

Design and usability of wearing a bwc on the ward.

When discussing the use of the BWCs, staff noted a range of design issues related to the cameras that they said impacted on their use and acceptance of the cameras. This included the nature of the camera pulling on clothing necklines (a particular issue for female staff working on male wards), and overheating causing discomfort and irritation to skin, challenges with infection control, as well as the issue of cameras in a mental health setting where they can be easily grabbed, thrown and broken during an incident. Staff often cited these design issues as related to the lack of proactive use of the cameras on the wards.

There were issues around the devices getting overheated or about it going on your clothing, it pulls down the top… we had one person who was leading on it, whenever he was around, of course, the camera was being used, but if he wasn’t there, people weren’t as proactive in using the camera. Petra (f), Staff, A, Post.

There were also issues with staff forgetting to wear the cameras, forgetting to switch them on during incidents, and forgetting to charge them at the end of the shift, reducing the potential use of the cameras by other staff. These were perceived as key logistical issues prior to the pilot and were reported as issues at the end of the pilot by several staff on the wards.

The practicalities of will they actually turn it on in those sorts of incidents, I don’t know. Just little stuff as well, like if they don’t put it back on the docking station, so you think you’re charging it for next shift but then it’s not charged and the battery is dead, that’s one less camera to use, so little stuff. Jamal (m), Staff, A, Pre.

In relation to usability, staff noted that the cameras were small and easy to use given their simple single switch interface. It was felt that not having to upload and manage the data themselves made cameras more user friendly and usable by staff members. Protocols put into place such as signing the cameras in and out, and allocation for use during shifts were likened to procedures in place for other security measures therefore the implementation of this for the BWCs was viewed as easy for many staff.

It’s just like the ASCOM alarms that we wear. There’s a system to sign in and sign out, and that’s it. Alice (f), Staff, A, Pre.

While staff were generally positive about the usability of the cameras, some were cautious of with concerns for those less confident with technology.

… you have to be conscious that there’s some people – it’s quite easy to use, but I can say that because I’m alright using devices and all that but there’s some that are older age or not that familiar with using devices that may struggle with using it… they’re feeling a bit anxious and a bit scared, if they’re not familiar with it then they won’t use it. Jamal (m), Staff, A, Pre.

Evidence strength and quality: do BWCs change anything?

There were conflicting reports regarding the potential benefits of using BWCs on the wards, with both staff and patients reporting mixed perceptions as to whether the cameras might reduce violence and aggression. In the pre-pilot interviews, some staff reported feeling that the BWCs may have a positive impact on reducing physical violence.

I think it’s going to reduce violence and aggression on the ward…I don’t think they’ll want to punch you…they might be verbally abusive but in terms of physical that might reduce. Sarah (f), Staff, I, Pre.

Patients however noted that the cameras might hold staff to account of their own behaviours and therefore may improve care, however they felt that this impact would wear off after the first few months after which people might forget about the cameras being there.

Now they’ve got the body cams, it’s going to be a lot of changes. They’ll think, ‘Ooh well he’s on tape’. So, it might do something to their conscience, they actually start to listen to patients… until the novelty wears off and it might go back to square one again. Ian (m), Patient, A, Pre.

One staff member suggested that incident rates had reduced following introduction of the BWCs, but they remained unsure as to whether this was due to the cameras, reflecting that violence and aggression on wards can be related to many factors.

I know our violence and aggression has reduced significantly since the start of the cameras pilot… I don’t know, because obviously wearing the camera’s one thing, but if they weren’t in use, I don’t know maybe just the presence of the camera made a difference. But yeah, it’s hard to tell. Petra (f), Staff, A, Post.

In contrast, several staff reported that they had seen limited evidence for such changes.

I used it yesterday. He was aggressive and I used it, but he even when I was using [it] he doesn’t care about the camera… it didn’t make any difference… It doesn’t stop them to do anything, this camera does not stop them to do anything. Abraham (m), Staff, I, Post.

Some staff suggested that in some circumstances the cameras increased patient agitation and created incidents, so there was a need to consider whether the BWCs were going to instigate aggression in some circumstances.

There has been with a few patients because they will threaten you. They will tell you, ‘if you turn it on, I’m gonna smash your head in’. So incidents like that, I will not turn it on… Yeah, or some of them will just tell you, ‘if you come close by, I’m going to pull that off your chest’. So things like that, I just stay back. Ada (f), Staff, A, Post.

One rationale for a potential lack of effectiveness was noted by both staff and patients and was related to the levels of acute illness being experienced by patients which meant that for many they were too unwell to have insight into their own actions or those of staff switching on the cameras.

We’ve had instances where patients are so unwell that they just don’t care. You switch on the camera, whether you switch it on or not, it doesn’t really change the behaviour. ‘All right, okay, whatever switch it on’. They’re so unwell, they’re not really understanding. Petra (f), Staff, A, Post. It might make [staff] feel safer as a placebo effect, but I don’t think it would necessarily make them safer… I think the people that are likely to attack a member of staff are crazy enough that they’re not gonna even consider the camera as a factor. Harry (m), Patient, A, Pre.

This lack of evidence that the cameras were necessarily effective in reducing incident rates or severity of incidents may have had an impact on staff buy-in and the use of the cameras as a result. One staff member reflected that having feedback from senior management about the impact and evidence would have been useful during the pilot period to inform ward staff whether the cameras were influencing things or not.

Staff want feedback. I don’t think we’ve had any since we’ve had the cameras… it would be nice to get feedback from, I don’t know, whoever is watching it, and stuff like that. Ada (f), Staff, A, Post.

Relative advantage: are BWCs effective and efficient for the ward?

Due to a combination of personal beliefs related to BWCs, the lack of evidence of their impact on violence and aggression, and other elements of care and culture on the wards, a number of staff and patients explored alternative interventions and approaches that may be more beneficial than BWCs. Both staff and patients suggested that Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) as an intervention that provided the transparency of using cameras and video footage but with an independent perspective. This was felt by many to remove the bias that could be introduced in BWC use as the video capture didn’t require staff control of the filming.

I feel like [BWCs] puts all the power and trust into the hands of the staff and I feel that it would be better to have CCTV on the ward because CCTV is neutral. Harry (m), Patient, A, Pre. I have control over that [BWC recording] … It kind of gives that split as well between staff and patients. You can tell me or I can tell you when to switch it on. Whereas I feel like a CCTV camera is there all the time. Nobody’s asking to switch it on. It’s there. If you wanted to review the footage you can request it, anyone can request to view the footage for a legitimate reason. Whereas the camera can come across as if you’re threatening. Petra (f), Staff, A, Post.

In addition, some participants reflected that the nature and design of BWCs meant that unless staff were present for an incident it wouldn’t be captured, whereas CCTV has the advantage of being always present.

If there’s CCTV, then it’s the same thing, you get me. Like, if its body worn cameras that people can always do things away from staff. They can always go down to that corridor to have their fight or go to the side where staff ain’t gonna see them to have their fight, but with CCTV you can’t do that. Elijah (m), Patient, A, Post.

In addition to exploring technological and video-based interventions, many staff noted that the key tool to violence reduction had to be the use of de-escalation skills, noting that the use of communication and positive relationships had to be the primary tool before other interventions such as BWCs or CCTV.

We do a lot of verbal de-escalation. So we got our destress room now still open. That has a punch bag, and it’s got sensory tiles, and the aim and hope is that when people do get frustrated, because we’re all human. We all get annoyed at anything or many little things in life. There is the aim that they go into that room and start punching the bag instead of property and damaging furniture. But we also are working really hard on verbal de-escalation and actually trying to listen to patients and talk to them before anything else. And that’s helped a lot. And between this kind of shared, or role modelling, where while we’re showing staff, actually even spending an extra 20 min is okay. If it means you’re not going to end up having to restrain a patient. Petra (f), Staff, A, Post.

By using communication skills and de-escalation techniques skilfully, some staff felt there was no need to utilise the BWCs. One concern with the introduction of the BWCs for staff was that the use of this technology may negatively impact on trust and relationships and the use of de-escalation.

Some situations I feel like it can make a situation worse sometimes… I think a lot of situations can be avoided if you just talk with people…. Trying to find out why they’re angry, trying to just kind of see it from their point of view, understand them… I think maybe additional training for verbal de-escalation is needed first. Patrick (m), Staff, A, Post.

Characteristics of individuals

Staff and patients’ knowledge and beliefs about the intervention.

Overall, there were mixed views among both staff and patients as to whether cameras would reduce incidents, prior to and after the pilot period. When considering the possible impact on violence and aggressive incidents there was a view among staff that there was the need for a nuanced and person-centred view.

All the patients that come in, they’re different you know. They have different perceptions; they like different things… everyone is different. So, it just depends. We might go live, and then we have good feedback because the patients they are open and the understand why we have it, and then as they get discharged and new patients come in it might not go as well. It just depends. Serene (f), Staff, A, Pre.

As a result of the desire to be person-centred in the use of such interventions, one staff member noted that they weighed-up such consequences for the patient before using the BWC and would make decisions not to use the camera where they thought it may have a negative impact.

Actually, with this body worn camera, as I did mention, if a patient is unwell, that doesn’t, the patient will not have the capacity to I mean, say yes, you cannot just put it on like that. Yeah, I know it’s for evidence, but when something happens, you first have to attend to the patient. You first have to attend to the patient before this camera is, for me. Ruby (f), Staff, I, Post.

Some staff questioned the existing evidence and theories as to why BWCs work to reduce incidents, and instead noted that for some people it will instigate an incident, while others may be triggered by a camera.

I’m on the fence of how that is going to work because I know the evidence is that by telling a patient ‘look if you keep escalating I’m gonna have to turn this on’, but I know several of our patients would kind of take that as a dare and escalate just to spite so that you would turn it on. Diana (f), Staff, A, Pre.

In contrast, some staff felt the cameras helped them feel safer on wards due to transparency of footage as evidence for both staff and patients.

They [staff] need to use it for protection, for recording evidence, that type of thing… They can record instances for later evidence. Yeah, for them as well. Safer for them and for patients because you can also have the right to get them to record, because a patient might be in the wrong but sometimes it may be the staff is in the wrong position. And that’s achieving safety for patients as well. Yeah, I think it works both ways. Dylan (m), Patient, A, Post.

Positive buy-in was also related to the potential use of the intervention as a training, learning or reflective tool for staff to improve practice and care and promote positive staff behaviour.

If you know that your actions might be filmed one way or the other, that would make me to step up your behaviour to patients… if you know that your actions can be viewed, if the authority wants to, then you behave properly with patients so I think that will improve the quality of the care to patient. Davide (m), Staff, I, Pre.

While there were some positive attitudes towards the cameras, there remained considerable concerns among participants regarding the transparency of camera use to collate evidence in relation to incidents as it was widely noted that the cameras remain in staff control therefore there is an issue in relation to bias and power.

I do think my gut would say that it wouldn’t necessarily be well received. Because also I think people feel like prisoners in here, that’s how some of the patients have described their experience, so in terms of the power dynamic and also just – I think that can make one feel a bit, even worse, basically, you know? Leslie (m), Staff, A, Pre.

These issues lead to staff reporting they didn’t want to wear the camera.

I’d feel quite uncomfortable wearing one to be honest. Leslie (m), Staff, A, Pre.

The staff control of the cameras had a particular impact on patient acceptability of the intervention as it led to some patients viewing BWCs as being an intervention for staff advantage and staff safety, thus increasing a ‘them and us’ culture and leading to patient resistance to the cameras. This was particularly salient for those with prior negative experiences of police use of cameras or mistrust in staff.

I feel like the fact that the body worn cameras is gonna be similar to how the police use them, if a staff member has negative intent toward a patient, they would be able to instigate an incident and then turn the camera on and use the consequences of what they’ve instigated to expect restraint or injection or whatever else might happen. So, I feel like it would be putting all the power and trust into the hands of the staff and I feel that it would be better to have CCTV on the ward because CCTV is neutral. Whereas, the body worn camera, especially with some of the personality conflicts/bad attitudes, impressions I’ve had from certain members of staff since I’ve been here, I feel like body worn cameras might be abused in that way possible. Harry (m), Patient, A, Pre.

Perceived unintended consequences and impact on care

Prior to the implementation there were concerns from staff that the introduction of BWCs could have consequences beyond the intended use of reducing violence and aggression, unintentionally affecting a range of factors that may impact on the overall delivery of care. There was a key concern regarding the potential negative impact that cameras may have for patients who have paranoia or psychosis as well as for those who may have prior traumatic experiences of being filmed.

It might have negative impacts on these patients because I’m thinking about kind of patients with schizophrenia and things like that who already have paranoid delusions, thinking that people are after them, thinking that people are spying on them, people are watching them, and then seeing kind of cameras around. It might have negative impacts on them. Tayla (f), Staff, I, Pre. When I was admitted I was going through psychosis… I don’t want to be filmed and things like that. So you just see a camera, a guy with a camera on, you are like, are you filming me? Elijah (m), Patient, A, Post.

There was also a considerable concern among both staff and patients that the use of cameras would have a negative impact on the therapeutic relationship between staff and patients. This was felt to be related to the implication that the cameras enhanced a ‘them and us’ dynamic due to the power differential that staff controlling the cameras can create, likened to policing and criminalisation of patients. With the potential of a negative impact on relationships between staff and patients, staff suggested they may be disinclined to use BWCs if it would stop patients speaking to them or approaching them if they needed support.

Yeah, I think it would probably damage [the therapeutic relationship] because I think what’s probably quite helpful is things that maybe create less of a power difference. I think to some extent, [the BWC] might hinder that ability. Like for example imagine going to a therapist and them just like ‘I’ve got this camera in the corner of the room and it’s gonna be filming our session and just in case – or like, just in case I feel that you might get aggressive with me’. Um, I don’t think that’s going to help the therapeutic relationship! Jamal (m), Staff, A, Pre. When you get body worn cameras on there, the relationship as well between staff and patients, is just gonna instantly change because you’re looking like police! Elijah (m), Patient, A, Post.

In contrast, a minority of staff felt that the presence of cameras may improve relationships as they provide transparency of staff behaviour and would encourage staff to behave well and provide high quality care for patients.

It will also help how, improve the way we look at the patients… because if you know that your actions might be filmed one way or the other, that would make me to step up your behaviour you know… you behave properly with patients so I think that will improve the quality of the care to patient. More efficiently, more caring to patient. Davide (m), Staff, I, Pre.

The process of implementation

Planning: top-down implementation.

Staff perceived that BWC implementation directives had been given by senior management or policy stakeholders whom they felt viewed the process from a position of limited understanding due to a lack of ‘frontline’ mental health service experience. This led to a lack of faith amongst staff, and a perception that funds were being misspent.

They sit up there, they just roll it out and see how it works, how it goes. They waste a whole lot of money, millions or whatever, thousands of pounds in it, and then they see that ‘Oh, it’s not gonna work’. They take it back and all of that. Before coming out with it, you need to come speak to us… they just sit up there drinking tea and coffee, and then they’re just like, Oh, yeah, well, let’s do it this way…come stay with these people, work with them, for just I give you a 12 h shift, stay with them. Richard (m), Staff, I, Post.

This was exacerbated when staff felt there was a lack of consultation or explanation.

we don’t always get the ins and outs of certain things…We know that the cameras are coming in and stuff like that, but you know, and obviously it’s gone through every avenue to make sure that it’s fine. But then sometimes we don’t always know the ins and outs to then explain to people why we have the cameras. Patrick (m), Staff, A, Post.

It was also highlighted that due to multiple initiatives being implemented and directives handed down in parallel, staff felt negative towards interventions more widely, with the BWCs being ‘ just another thing to do’ , adding to workload for staff and reducing enthusiasm to use the cameras.

it’s not just to do with the camera, I just think there’s lots of changes happening at once, and there’s loads of new things being constantly introduced that people are just thinking oh it’s another thing. I think that’s what it is more than the camera itself. Alice (f), Staff, A, Pre.

Execution: training, Use and Ward Visibility

Overall, there was a lack of consistency amongst staff in their understanding of the purpose and processes of using the BWCs on the wards.

What do you do, do you record every single thing or, I don’t know. Do you record like, if a patient said, I want to talk to you, confidential, you go sit in a room, do you record things like those or is it just violence and aggression? Ada (f), Staff, A, Post.

The lack of clarity regarding the purpose of the intervention and the appropriate use of the cameras was felt to impact staffs’ attitudes and acceptance of using them and contributed to a lack of transparency or perhaps trust regarding the use of any subsequent video footage.

I think if the importance of the recording was explained a bit more…and how it would improve things, I think people would use it more… that’s why I don’t think it’s always used sometimes… if you’re not sure why some of it’s important, then you’re not going to see the value…I think if you’re gonna keep with them, it’s about updating the training, teaching staff when to use it, then where does that information go? How does that look in terms of improving? Just a bit of transparency, I think. But when you don’t know certain things it’s a bit hard to get behind something or back it, you know? Patrick (m), Staff, A, Post.

The lack of information about the purpose and processes related to the intervention was also seen among patients, with most patients noting that they hadn’t received information about the cameras during their admissions.

No information at all. I don’t think any of the patients know about it. Toby (m), Patient, A, Post.

While training was provided it was widely felt that it was insufficient to provide understanding about the purpose of the cameras or the more in-depth processes beyond operational aspects such as charging and docking. Several staff interviewed were unaware of the training, while others noted that they had an informal run-through by colleagues rather than anything formal.

What training are you talking about?… I wasn’t here, so I was taught by my colleague. I mean, from what I was taught, to operate the camera, and to give a warning to the patient that you’re going to use the camera. Nevis (f), Staff, A, Post.

Longer training with further details beyond operational use was felt to be needed by staff.

I think the training should have to be longer, even if it’s like an hour or something… Like what situations deem the camera to be… more information on the cameras, when to use it, why it’s used, and I think if the importance of the recording was explained a bit more and what it was doing and how that recording would go and how it would improve things. Patrick (m), Staff, A, Post.

Furthermore, there was a need for training to be on a rolling basis given the use of bank staff who were not trained to use the cameras or to understand the proper processes or purpose of using the BWCs, which could leave them vulnerable to misuse or abuse.

We have bank staff [who aren’t trained] so they say ‘I don’t know how to use that camera you are giving me’. Nevis (f), Staff, A, Post.

The inner setting

Ward context: acceptance of violence and aggression is part of the job.

It was widely believed by staff that the nature of working on a mental health ward included accepting that violence and aggression was part of the job. This was not seen as an acceptance of violence but more that the job was providing care for individuals who are mentally unwell, and confusion, fear, frustration and aggression can be part of that. As a result, there was an ambivalence among some staff that the introduction of cameras would change this.

I think like in this line of work, there’s always that potential for like risky behaviours to happen. I’m not sure if putting the camera on will make much difference. Patrick (m), Staff, A, Post.

Staff noted that because of the nature of the job, staff are used to managing these situations and they understood that it was part of the job; therefore, it was unlikely that they would record everything that on paper might be considered an incident.

There’s also enough things that happen here, so I don’t think they would record [the incidents] because it’s just another day here. You know what I’m saying… [staff] can just say, ‘Stop, go back to your room and leave it at that and that kind of be the end of it’. Dylan (m), Patient, A, Post. We are trained for it. Eveline (f), Staff, I, Pre.

This acceptance that incidents are a hazard of mental healthcare was linked to staff’s acknowledgment that many factors make up the complexity of violence and aggression including the nature of individual patients, acuity levels, ward atmosphere, staffing levels, access to activities, leave and outside space. The interplay of multiple factors creates a context in which frustrations and incidents are likely, thus become part of the everyday and ‘normal’ life on the ward for staff and patients alike.

I feel like, you know, how in GP services you say, zero tolerance to abusive language, or any kind of harassment. I don’t think there is that on a psychiatric ward you are kind of expected to take all the abuse and just get on with it. Petra (f), Staff, A, Post.

With staff reported having a higher threshold for these behaviours it was perceived that this was likely to impact on the efficiency of the intervention as staff would be less likely to consider a situation as violent but more ‘ part of the job’ .

Reactive nature of the ward and incidents

Most participants noted that the ward context is always changing with people being admitted and discharged, with daily staff changes and wider turnover of staff, so things are never static and can change at any point. This reflects the dynamic nature of the ward which creates a complex moving picture that staff need to consider and react to.

[the atmosphere] it’s very good at the moment. If you had asked me this two weeks ago, I would say, ‘Oh, my gosh’. But it changes… The type of patient can make your whole ward change… it depends on the client group we have at the time. Nevis (f), Staff, A, Post.

Staff noted that a key limitation of using the cameras to reduce incidents was the reactive nature of the environment and care being provided. This was felt to impact on the feasibility and use of the cameras as staff noted that they often react to what is happening rather than thinking to ‘ put the camera on first ’. It was felt by staff with experience of reacting to incidents that the failure to use BWCs during these processes were linked to staff’s instincts and training to focus on patients as a priority.

Say for instance, you’re in the office, and two patients start fighting, or a patient attacks someone and, all you’re thinking about is to go there to stop the person. You’re not thinking about putting on any camera. You understand? So sometimes it’s halfway through it, somebody might say, ‘Has anybody switched the camera on’? And that’s the time you start recording… If something happens immediately, you’re not thinking about the camera at that time, you’re just thinking to just go, so yeah. Nevis (f), Staff, A, Post.

Incidents happen quickly and often surprise staff, therefore staff react instantly so are not thinking about new processes such as recording on the cameras as this would slow things down or is not in the reactive nature needed by staff during such incidents.

When you’re in the middle of an incident and your adrenaline’s high, you’re focusing on the incident itself. It’s very difficult for you to now remember, remind yourself to switch on the camera because you’re thinking, patient safety, staff safety, who’s coming to relieve you? What’s going on? Who’s at the door? Petra (f), Staff, A, Post.

In addition, the need for an immediate response meant that it was felt that by the time staff remember to, or have the chance to, switch the camera on it was often too late.

Sometimes in the heat of moments and stuff like that, or if the situation’s happening, sometimes you don’t always think to, you know, put your camera on. Patrick (m), Staff, A, Post.

Outer setting

Resources: staffing.

Issues related to staffing were highlighted by several participants as a key problem facing mental health wards thus leading to staff having higher workloads, and higher rates of bank and agency staff being used on shift and feeling burnt-out.

Out of all the wards I’ve been on I’d say this is the worst. It’s primarily because the staff are overworked…it seems like they spend more time doing paperwork than they do interacting with the patients. Harry (m), Patient, A, Pre. We’re in a bit of a crisis at the minute, we’re really, really understaffed. We’re struggling to cover shifts, so the staff are generally quite burnt out. We’ve had a number of people that have just left all at once, so that had an impact… Staff do get frustrated if they’re burnt out from lack of staff and what have you. Alice (f), Staff, A, Pre.

It was noted by one participant that the link of a new intervention with extra workload was likely to have a negative impact on its acceptability due to these increasing demands.

People automatically link the camera to then the additional paperwork that goes alongside it. It’s like, ‘Oh god, if we do this, we’ve got to do that’, and that could play a part. Petra (f), Staff, A, Post.

One staff member noted that the staffing issue meant there were more likely to be bank staff on wards so the care of patients may be affected as temporary staff may be less able to build meaningful therapeutic relationships.

So obviously there is the basic impact on safety of not having adequate staffing, but then there’s the impact of having a lot of bank staff. So obviously when you have permanent staff they get to know the patients more, we’re able to give them the more individualised care that we ideally should be giving them, but we can’t do that with bank staff. Diana (f), Staff, A, Pre.

It was also suggested that staffing levels and mix often made it more difficult to provide activities or facilitate escorted leave which can lead to patients feeling frustrated and becoming more aggressive.

So you know there is enough staff to facilitate the actual shift, so you know when there’s less staff like you say you’ve got people knocking at the door, but then you don’t have staff to take people out on leave straight away, that all has a rippling effect! Serene (f), Staff, A, Pre.

Wider systemic issues

Overall, there was a concern that the introduction of BWCs would not impact on wider, underlying factors that may contribute to frustration, aggression and incidents on wards. Providing a more enhanced level of care and better addressing the needs of patients was felt to be central to helping people but also reducing the frustration that patients feel when on the ward.

… for violence and aggression, [focus on] the mental health side of things like therapy and psychology should be compulsory. It shouldn’t be something you apply for and have to wait three or four weeks for. I think every person should, more than three or four weeks even, months even… we need psychology and therapists. That’s what will stop most violence, because psychologists and a therapist can edit the way that they speak to people because they’ve been given that skill depending on the way the person behaves. So that’s what we need regularly… not like all this dancing therapy, yoga therapy. That’s a person, that you come and you actually sit down and talk through your shit with them. That will help! Elijah (m), Patient, A, Post. There’s a lack of routine and I think there’s a lack of positive interaction between the patient and the staff as well. The only time you interact with a member of staff is if you’re hassling them for something, you have to hassle for every little thing, and it becomes a sort of, frustration inducing and like I’m a very calm person, but I found myself getting very fucking angry, to be honest, on this ward just because out of pure frustration… there’s bigger problems than body worn cameras going on. Harry (m), Patient, A, Pre.

Staff agreed that there was a need to invest in staff and training rather than new technologies or innovations as it is staff and their skills behind the camera.

It’s not the camera that will do all of that. It’s not making the difference. It’s a very good, very beautiful device, probably doing its job in its own way. But it’s more about investing in the staff, giving them that training and making them reflect on every day-to-day shift. Richard (m), Staff, I, Post.

There was felt to be a need to support staff more in delivering care within wards that can be challenging and where patients are unwell to ensure that staff feel safe. While in some circumstances the cameras made some staff feel safer, greater support from management would be more beneficial in making staff feel valued.

In this study exploring the implementation and use of body-worn cameras on mental health wards, we employed two methods for collecting and comparing data on incidents and use of containment measures, including BWCs, on one acute ward and one psychiatric intensive care unit. We found no clear relationship between the use of BWCs and rates or severity of incidents on either ward. While BWCs may be used when there are incidents of both physical and verbal aggression, results indicate that they may also provoke verbal aggression, as was suggested during some interviews within this study. This should be a concern, as strong evidence that being repeatedly subject to verbal aggression and abuse can lead to burnout and withdrawal of care by staff [ 30 ]. These mixed findings reflect results that were reported in two earlier studies of BWCs on mental health wards [ 12 , 13 ]. However, the very low use of the cameras, on just 10 per cent of the shifts where data was obtained, makes it even more difficult to draw any conclusions.

While the data shows limited impact of using BWCs on levels of incidents, we did find that during the pilot period BWC use tended to occur alongside physical restraint, but the direction of relationship is unclear as staff were asked to use BWCs when planning an intervention such as restraint. This relationship with restraint reflected the findings on several wards in a previous study [ 13 ], while contrasting with those reported in a second study that found reductions in incidents involving restraint during the evaluation period [ 12 ]. Such a mix of findings highlights the complexity of using BWCs as a violence reduction method within a busy healthcare setting in which several interacting components and contextual factors, and behaviours by staff and patients can affect outcomes [ 31 ]. The qualitative data collected during this pilot period highlighted the potential systemic and contextual factors such as low staffing that may have a confounding impact on the incident data presented in this simple form.

The findings presented within this evaluation provide some insights into the process of implementing BWCs as a safety intervention in mental health services and highlight some of the challenges and barriers faced. The use of implementation science to evaluate the piloting of BWCs on wards helps to demonstrate how multiple elements including a variety of contextual and systemic factors can have a considerable impact and thus change how a technology may vary not only between hospitals, but even across wards in the same hospital. By understanding the elements that may and do occur during the process of implementing such interventions, we can better understand if and how BWCs might be used in the future.

Within this pilot, extensive preparatory work conducted at a directorate and senior management level did not translate during the process of implementation at a ward level, which appeared to impact on the use of BWCs by individuals on the wards. This highlights that there is a need to utilise implementation science approaches in planning the implementation of new technologies or interventions and to investigate elements related to behavioural change and context rather than just the desired and actual effects of the intervention itself.

While ward staff and patients identified the potential for BWCs to enhance safety on the wards, participants distrusted their deployment and expressed concerns about ethical issues and possible harmful consequences of their use on therapeutic relationships, care provided and patient wellbeing. These themes reflect previous findings from a national interview study of patient and staff perspectives and experiences of BWCs in inpatient mental health wards [ 14 ]. Given these issues, alternatives such as increasing de-escalation skills were identified by staff as possible routes that may be more beneficial in these settings. Furthermore, other approaches such as safety huddles have also been highlighted within the literature as potential means to improve patient safety by looking ahead at what can be attended to or averted [ 32 ].

Furthermore, it is important to consider that the presence of power imbalances and the pre-existing culture on the ward have considerable implications for safety approaches and must be considered, as exemplified by the preferences by both staff and patients in this evaluation for more perceived ‘impartial’ interventions such as CCTV. As identified within previous studies [ 14 ], BWCs can have different implications for psychological safety, particularly for vulnerable patients who already feel criminalised in an environment with asymmetrical power imbalances between staff and patients. This is particularly salient when considering aspects of identity such as race, ethnicity, and gender both in terms of the identities of the patient group but also in terms of the staff/patient relationship.

While preferences in this study note CCTV as more ‘impartial’, work by Desai [ 33 ] draws on the literature about the use of surveillance cameras in other settings (such as public streets) as well as on psychiatric wards and concludes that CCTV monitoring is fraught with difficulties and challenges, and that ‘watching’ patients and staff through the lens of a camera can distort the reality of what is happening within a ward environment. In her recently published book, Desai [ 34 ] develops this theme to explore the impacts of being watched on both patients and staff through her ethnographic research in psychiatric intensive care units. She highlights concerns over the criminalisation of patient behaviour, safeguarding concerns in relation to the way women’s bodies and behaviours are viewed and judged, and the undermining by CCTV of ethical mental health practice by staff who attempt to engage in thoughtful, constructive, therapeutic interactions with patients in face-to-face encounters. Appenzeller et al.’s [ 35 ] review found that whilst the presence of CCTV appeared to increase subjective feelings of safety amongst patients and visitors, there was no objective evidence that video surveillance increases security, and that staff may develop an over-reliance on the technology.

In addition, our findings add to the existing literature which notes that alternative interventions and approaches that address underlying contextual and systemic issues related to improving care on inpatient wards require attention to address the underlying factors related to incidents, e.g., flashpoints [ 36 ]. Evidence suggests that factors leading to incidents can be predicted; therefore, there is a need to enable staff to work in a proactive way to anticipate and prevent incidents rather than view incidents as purely reactive [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Such skills-based and relational approaches are likely to impact more on improving safety and reducing incidents by addressing the complex and multi-faceted issue of incidents on inpatient mental health wards [ 40 ].

These findings highlight that interventions such as BWCs are not used within a vacuum, and that hospitals are complex contexts in which there are a range of unique populations, processes, and microsystems that are multi-faceted [ 41 ]. As a result, interventions will encounter both universal, specific, and local barriers that will impact on its functioning in the real world. This is salient because research suggests that camera use inside mental health wards is based on a perception of the violent nature of the mental health patient, a perception that not only influences practice but also impacts how patients experience the ward [ 33 ]. As a result, there needs to be careful consideration of the use of any new and innovative intervention aimed at improving safety within mental health settings that have limited research supporting their efficacy.

Limitations

While the study provides important insights into the efficacy and acceptability of introducing BWCs onto inpatient mental health wards, there were several limitations. Firstly, the analysis of incident data is limited in its nature as it only presents surface level information about incidents without wider contextual information. Results using such data should be cautiously interpreted as they do not account for confounding factors, such as staffing, acuity, ward culture or ward atmosphere, that are likely to contribute to incidents of violence and aggression. For example, while there was a statistically significant decrease in restrictive practice on the PICU across the study period, we know that BWCs were not widely used on that ward, so this is likely due to a confounding variable that was not accounted for in the study design.

Secondly, the study faced limitations in relation to recruitment, particularly with patients. Researchers’ access to wards was challenging due to high staff turnover and high rates of acuity, meaning many patients were not deemed well enough to be able to consent to take part in the study. In addition, the low use of the cameras on wards meant that many patients, and some staff, had not seen the BWCs in use. Similarly, patients had been provided limited information about the pilot, so their ability to engage in the research and describe their own experiences with BWCs was restricted.

Thirdly, analysis captures the active use of the BWC, however it does not fully capture the impact of staff wearing the cameras even where they do not actively use them. While our qualitative analysis provides insight into the limitation of such passive use, it is likely that the presence of the cameras being worn by staff, even when turned off, may have an impact on both staff and patient behaviours. This may explain trends in the data that did not reach significance but warrant further investigation in relation to the presence of BWCs, nonetheless.

Finally, researchers had planned to collect quantitative surveys from staff and patients in relation to their experiences of the ward atmosphere and climate, views related to therapeutic relationships on the ward, levels of burnout among staff, views on care, and attitudes to containment measures. Due to issues related to staff time, patient acuity, and poor engagement from staff leading to challenges accessing the wards, the collection of such survey data was unfeasible, and this element of the study was discontinued. As a result, we have not reported this aspect in our paper. This limitation reflects the busy nature of inpatient mental health wards with pressures on staff and high levels of ill health among patients. As such, traditional methodologies for evaluation are unlikely to elicit data that is comprehensive and meaningful. Alternative approaches may need to be considered.

Future directions

With BWCs being increasingly used across inpatient mental health services [ 14 ], it is important that further research and evaluation is conducted. To date, there is limited data regarding the effectiveness of this technology in relation to violence reduction; however, there may be other beneficial uses in relation to safeguarding and training [ 13 ]. Future research should consider alternative methods that ensure contextual factors are accounted for and that patient voices can be maximised. For example, focus groups with patients currently admitted to a mental health ward or interviews with those who have recently been on a ward that has used the cameras, would bypass problems encountered with capacity to consent in the present study. Furthermore, ethnographic approaches may provide a deeper understanding of the implementation, deployment and impact that BWCs have on wards.

Overall, this research sheds light on the complexities of using BWCs as a tool for ‘maximising safety’ in mental health settings. The findings suggest that BWCs have a limited impact on levels of incidents on wards, something that is likely to be largely influenced by the process of implementation as well as a range of contextual factors, including the staff and patient populations on the wards. As a result, it is likely that while BWCs may see successes in one hospital site this is not guaranteed for another site as such factors will have a considerable impact on efficacy, acceptability, and feasibility. Furthermore, the findings point towards the need for more consideration to be placed on processes of implementation and the complex ethical discussions regarding BWC use from both a patient and a staff perspective.

In conclusion, while there have been advances in digital applications and immersive technologies showing promise of therapeutic benefits for patients and staff more widely, whether BWCs and other surveillance approaches are to be part of that picture remains to be seen and needs to be informed by high-quality, co-produced research that focuses on wider therapeutic aspects of mental healthcare.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank The Burdett Trust for Nursing for funding this work. We would also like to acknowledge our wider Lived Experience Advisory Panel and Project Advisory Panel for their contributions and support and would like to thank the staff and service users on the wards we attended for their warmth and participation.

Funding was provided by The Burdett Trust of Nursing. Funders were independent of the research and did not impact findings.

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All authors have read and approved the manuscript. Authors AS, UF, KW, GB created the protocol for the study. KW, JJ, UF conducted the recruitment for the study, and conducted the interviews. UF, JJ, JB, LMA, LU, SMK, KB, ET coded data, and contributed to the analysis. All authors supported drafting and development of the manuscript.

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Foye, U., Wilson, K., Jepps, J. et al. Exploring the use of body worn cameras in acute mental health wards: a mixed-method evaluation of a pilot intervention. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 681 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11085-x

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The impact of environmental regulation and economic expectations on crop-livestock integration among hog farmers: a field study from China

• Research Article
• Published: 01 June 2024

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• Jing Cao 1 ,
• Jiapeng Xu 1 ,
• Huimin Cao 1 ,
• Fangfang Wang 1 ,
• Zhenyu Yan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3154-9763 1 &
• Taimoor Muhammad 1  

Decoupling of crop-livestock systems increases the risks of pollution, waste of nutrient resources, and biodiversity loss. Crop-livestock integration (CLI) is an effective solution to these problems, and motivating farmers to adopt CLI is the key. Many countries have implemented environmental regulations (ER) aiming to influence farmers’ CLI adoption decisions. Based on a field study of 316 hog farmers from Shaanxi Province of China, this paper applies the triple-hurdle model to empirically examine the impacts of economic expectations (EE) and ER on CLI adoption decisions. It also verifies the income effect of CLI. The results are as follows: 90.5% of farmers are willing to adopt CLI, but the adoption rate is only 40.8% and the average integration degree is only 0.236; CLI not been widely popularized. EE and ER promote farmers’ CLI adoption significantly, while the impact of interaction between EE and ER on CLI adoption differs. IER weakens the positive impact of EE on farmers’ CLI integration degree, which has a “crowding out effect.” GER negatively moderates the impact of EE on farmers’ adoption willingness of CLI. CER strengthens the positive effect of EE on farmers’ adoption behavior and CLI integration degree. CLI increases the farmers’ income. These results contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms of CLI adoption decisions and sustainable policy optimization for green agricultural development.

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All data needed to evaluate the conclusions in the paper are present in the paper.

When testing for sample selection errors, IMR was not significant. Therefore, only the test results of IMR are explained here, and the overall regression results are not reported (Models 1–8).

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This work was supported by Key Think Tank Research Project of Shaanxi Province on “Social Sciences Helping County Economies Develop in High Quality” (2023ZD0662); Humanities and Social Sciences Project of Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities in 2023 (452023307); Soft Science Research Program of Shaanxi Province (2022KRM032; 2023-CX-RKX-103); and Social Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province (2021D058; 2022D022). The authors would like to thank the anonymous referees for their helpful suggestions and corrections on the earlier draft of our paper.

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Cao, J., Xu, J., Cao, H. et al. The impact of environmental regulation and economic expectations on crop-livestock integration among hog farmers: a field study from China. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33616-z

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New enzyme linked to changes in heart tissue after heart attack

Discovery made by vcu health pauley heart center and vcu school of medicine researchers offers a possible new way to treat ischemic heart failure..

5/29/2024 12:00:00 AM

By Tanner Lambson

New research from the VCU Health Pauley Heart Center and Virginia Commonwealth University's School of Medicine is providing new insights into the molecular underpinnings of heart failure.

Published this month in Circulation, the findings shed light on a newly discovered metabolic pathway that contributes to heart injury. The study found that an enzyme known as SPTLC3 is detected in the cells of hearts that have experienced heart failure due to a decrease in blood supply to heart tissues (as occurs during a heart attack). This type of heart failure is referred to as ischemic heart failure.

The research team made the initial discoveries in a mouse model, finding that when production of SPTLC3 was limited, related cellular symptoms of heart failure — such as inflammation and scarring — were also reduced. Importantly, these findings were then validated and confirmed in cardiac tissues from patients with end-stage ischemic heart failure, leading to the conclusion that SPTLC3 may exert a previously unrecognized impact on the heart metabolism following a heart attack.

What this means is that inhibiting SPTLC3 may serve as a new therapeutic target to improve health outcomes in patients with ischemic heart failure.

Ischemic heart disease occurs when blood flow to the heart is reduced, usually due to arteries that are narrowed or obstructed by a buildup of plaques. When coronary blood flow is reduced, the flow of oxygen and nutrients to heart muscle cells is also reduced, and the heart cannot work as it should. Reduced blood flow and concurrent oxygen deprivation can ultimately lead to heart attack, and SPTLC3 may play an important role in the damage that occurs to cells after heart attack.

The study arose from a collaboration between Ashley Cowart , Ph.D., a professor in the VCU School of Medicine’s Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and director of VCU’s Lipidomics and Metabolomics Shared Research core , and Fadi Salloum , Ph.D., FAHA, interim chair of the School of Medicine’s Department of Physiology and Biophysics and the Natalie N. and John R. Congdon Sr. Endowed Chair in the Pauley Heart Center.

“VCU has historical strength in both lipid research and cardiovascular research,” Cowart said. “A major strength of this work is rooted in our collaboration across these two fields. We were able to combine expertise and cutting-edge technologies in both cardiac imaging and lipid biochemistry. Additionally, the Pauley Heart Center’s tissue repository enabled us to link our findings to human health.”

“Bringing together researchers from different scientific backgrounds is what we do at the Pauley Heart Center,” Salloum said. “We collaborate across departments and schools at VCU to advance discovery in cardiovascular medicine.”

Together, Cowart and Salloum conceptualized the research and mentored the lead author of the publication, Anna Kovilakath, Ph.D., who is now a T32 postdoctoral fellow at Pauley Heart Center. She carried out the majority of the study with the help and guidance of Gabriele Mauro, Ph.D., who recently completed his postdoctoral fellowship in the Salloum laboratory.

Kovilakath says she is motivated to research the intricacies of heart disease because of personal connections to this health condition.

“Having lost family to cardiovascular disease, I've chosen to dedicate my career to studying sphingolipids in the context of heart disease,” Kovilakath said. “It's a meaningful way for me to contribute to understanding and combating this global health issue."

Training the next generation of practitioners and researchers is a key part of what sets Pauley apart.

“Mentorship is something we do really well here — and you can see that in the retention of our talented trainees,” Salloum said.

Other key collaborators from the Pauley Heart Center include Ed Lesnefsky , M.D., Qun Chen , Ph.D., and Frank Raucci , M.D., Ph.D., from Children’s Hospital of Richmond at VCU.

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• Published: 26 May 2024

Simulation and optimization of 30.17% high performance N-type TCO-free inverted perovskite solar cell using inorganic transport materials

• Emmanuel A. Nyiekaa 1 , 4 ,
• Timothy A. Aika 1 ,
• Eli Danladi 2 ,
• Christopher E. Akhabue 3 &
• Patience E. Orukpe 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  12024 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Nanoscience and technology

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have gained much attention in recent years because of their improved energy conversion efficiency, simple fabrication process, low processing temperature, flexibility, light weight, and low cost of constituent materials when compared with their counterpart silicon based solar cells. Besides, stability and toxicity of PSCs and low power conversion efficiency have been an obstacle towards commercialization of PSCs which has attracted intense research attention. In this research paper, a Glass/Cu 2 O/CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 /ZnO/Al inverted device structure which is made of cheap inorganic materials, n-type transparent conducting oxide (TCO)-free, stable, photoexcited toxic-free perovskite have been carefully designed, simulated and optimized using a one-dimensional solar cell capacitance simulator (SCAPS-1D) software. The effects of layers’ thickness, perovskite’s doping concentration and back contact electrodes have been investigated, and the optimized structure produced an open circuit voltage (V oc ) of 1.0867 V, short circuit current density (J SC ) of 33.4942 mA/cm 2 , fill factor (FF) of 82.88% and power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 30.17%. This paper presents a model that is first of its kind where the highest PCE performance and eco-friendly n-type TCO-free inverted CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 based perovskite solar cell is achieved using all-inorganic transport materials.

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All-inorganic perovskite photovoltaics for power conversion efficiency of 31%

An extensive study on multiple ETL and HTL layers to design and simulation of high-performance lead-free CsSnCl3-based perovskite solar cells

Device simulation of highly efficient eco-friendly CH3NH3SnI3 perovskite solar cell

Introduction.

Due to the enormous energy demand brought on by the growing world population, energy consumption is increasing at fast rate every day. Fossil fuels provide about 80% of the world’s energy requirements 1 , which have negative environmental effects and have forced the development of renewable energy sources 2 . Because of its abundant, clean, and limitless nature, solar energy is regarded as the most major and significant source of renewable energy 3 , making it the most promising contender because of its affordability and sustainability 4 . The generations of solar cells is recently categorized into four; the crystalline silicon (c-Si) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) constitute the first generation, while the thin films such as copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), amorphous silicon (a-Si) and cadmium telluride (CdTe), formed the second generation. The evolving class of solar cells such as dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC), copper zinc tin sulfide (CZTS) and quantum dot (QD) belongs to the third generation while the novel solar cells recognized as “inorganics-in-organics” such as hybrid perovskites represents one of the candidates of fourth-generation solar cells 5 . The monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon-based are the known two kinds of solar cells 6 . Solar cells based on CdTe 7 , 8 , quantum dot sensitized-based solar cells 9 , CIGS 10 , 11 , organic photo cells 12 and perovskite-based solar cells 13 have also been explored by researchers.

The metal halide perovskites are represented by ABX 3 , where A refers to an organic cation, B refers to a metal cation, and X refers to a halogen anion. The cation embraces individual or mixed compositions of methylammonium (MA), cesium (Cs), and formamidinium (FA), whereas the halogen anion embraces individual or mixed compositions of Cl, Br, and I 14 . Recent researches have focused on perovskite solar cells (PSCs), due to their increased efficiencies 15 , low processing temperatures, high absorption, long diffusion length, high charge mobility, low trap density, low exciton binding energy, tunable bandgap and low-cost of fabrication 14 , 15 . PSCs have been the subject of numerous studies, which have improved energy power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) from 3.8% in 2009 to about 25% after 13 years of development 16 , while 15 reported PCE of 25.6%, and 26.1% have recently been attained 17 . The impressive characteristics of perovskite materials include good charge carrier mobility, high coefficient of absorption, high diffusion charge carrier and low binding energy 18 , 19 . Because of their excellent photovoltaic performance, methyl ammonium lead halides, both pure and modified, have been the subject of several studies 20 , 21 . However, lead-based electronics posed hindrance to commercialization due to its harmful nature 14 , 22 , 23 , 24 . Recent reports revealed stern circumscribe of lead-based electronics devices by many countries, notably the European Union because of its toxic nature to human and environment irrespective of their high-power conversion efficiency 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 .

Some of the major challenges affecting the large-scale production of PSCs is the high cost of electron and hole transport materials, toxicity of the perovskite materials and degradability of the solar cells. Despite significant improvements made thus far, high temperature and humidity as well as the presence of moisture results to reduced lifespan of some perovskite materials such as Spiro-OMeTAD, the popular hole transport material. The difficulty in processing, and the expensive nature of Spiro-OMeTAD is a possible impediment to commercialization of PSCs going forward 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 . Additionally, the Spiro-OMeTAD layer aids polarisation of the electrode and plays a significant part in the current density–voltage (J–V) hysteresis phenomenon, which ultimately influence the device’s instability 33 . Conventional structures of PSCs using organic-based materials as hole transport medium and the metallic electrodes constitute the major reasons for the PSCs’ shorter life span 34 . Pin-holes in the HTM have been a challenge of interest in recent studies as it leads to poor PSC’s stability owing to penetration of oxygen and ambient moisture which deteriorates the perovskite absorbent layer. Numerous attempts have been made to address the detrimental effects of pinholes in HTMs and perovskites. One of such efforts is the significant improvement of stability in perovskite solar cells through the use of doping engineering to create a hole transport layer free of pinholes 35 . Investigations by other scientists have concentrated on creating effective PSCs employing novel kinds of hole-transport materials as replacement to Spiro-OMeTAD 36 , 37 , or PSCs without HTL that are suitable for streamlining the device’s ideal process, and further reduce manufacturing cost and as well prevents perovskite’s degradation 38 , 39 , 40 . There is no doubt that the absence of pinholes in HTM layer considerably increases the PSC’s device stability under operating environments 41 .

Regardless of tremendous research progresses in PCSs, planar inverted PSCs have received lesser interest, hence limited research work is conducted in this area of study despites their easy fabrication, cost-effectiveness, and suppressed hysteresis characteristics 42 . Therefore, intense study is required in this field of study to improve and maximize their performances as compared to their conventional counterparts’ structures. Most of the available researches on inverted planar PSCs have focused on the use of gold as contact electrode, spiro-OMeTAD as HTM with a maximum achievable PCE of approximately 30% through simulations 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 .

This research sought to streamline production innovations in PSCs, lower production costs, and maximise performance. The use of eco-friendly perovskite material, cheap and suitable all-inorganic transport materials and the use of the appropriate back contact electrode will increase efficiency, stability, and significantly reduce the production costs. The possibility of attaining high efficiency by utilising the inverted planar technique without using silicon composites and organic HTMs can lead to a greater variety of benefits in the sector. This paper presents a simulation of an inverted planar and n-type transparent conducting oxide-free structure using inorganic transport materials. The selection of appropriate back contact electrode, variation of system’s parameters such as thickness of HTM, absorber material, ETM, absorber doping concentration and determination of optimal values of series and shunt resistances is carried out to achieve optimal performance of the device.

Materials and methods

Device structure and simulation.

There are different types of software used for simulation of solar cells such as PC1D, ASA, Amps-1D, WxAMPS, SCAPS-1D, SETFOS, Gpvdm, AFORS-het, Aspin-2D, PECSIM, Adept, TCAD, Atlas, Silvaco etc. However, SCAPS-1D software is used in this work to simulate an inverted tin-based perovskite solar cell with planar heterojunction because of its best accurate non-commercial tool that is straightforward in operation, with friendly dialog box and extremely quick in simulations at no additional expense and support for multi-junction solar cells 48 . Three related differential equations were solved to determine the energy bands, quantum efficiency of the device, current density–voltage (J–V) curve, and recombination rate curve. The Poisson Eq. ( 1 ), the electron continuity Eq. ( 2 ), and the hole Eq. ( 3 ) are built in the SCAPS-1D software. These curves are used to compute the solar cell device’s open circuit voltage (V oc ), short circuit current density (J SC ), fill factor (FF), and power conversion efficiency (PCE).

where \(G\) , \({\tau }_{n}\) , \({\tau }_{p},\) \(D\) , \(q\) , \(\varepsilon\)    \(\psi,\) \({\mu }_{n}\) , \({\mu }_{p}\) , \(n\left(x\right), p\left(x\right),\) \({n}_{t}(x)\) , \({p}_{t}\left(x\right),\) \({N}_{A}^{-}(x),\) \({N}_{D}^{+}\left(x\right)\) and \(E\) represent the rate of generation, life time of electron, life time of hole, diffusion coefficient, electron charge, permittivity, electrostatic potential, electron mobility, hole mobility, concentration of free electrons, concentration of free holes, concentration of trapped electrons, concentration of trapped holes, ionized acceptor concentrations, ionized donor concentrations, and electric field respectively. Meanwhile, x represents the direction along the thickness of the solar cell 49 .

The device’s structure is composed of Cu 2 O as HTM layer, CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 as absorber layer and ZnO as ETM layer. The choice of Cu 2 O as HTM in this work over other HTMs is based on the fact that it is relatively cheap when compared to organic based HTMs, high absorption coefficient, high intrinsic hole mobility, and acceptable energy levels that are aligned with the absorber layer (MASnI 3 ), high photochemical and thermal stability as well as long-term stability in air 50 . Similarly, CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 is also adopted as the absorber layer because of its eco-friendliness with potentials for commercialization 51 , 52 and superior optoelectronic properties with 1.3 eV direct band gap, which is an appropriate range for the absorber layer 21 , 49 , 53 , 54 . Meanwhile, ZnO is used as ETM because of its high absorption coefficient, higher electron mobility 2 , 51 and aligned energy bandgap with the chosen perovskite (MASnI 3 ) when compared to the SnO 2 36 .

Background and selection of device parameters

Light generates electron–hole pairs within the absorber layer. The junction field draws holes to the HTM layers and electrons to the ETM layers, respectively. The thickness, coefficient of absorption, and mobility of the active material all affect the device’s J SC . The photocurrent will increase as the absorption coefficient increases 49 , 54 , 55 . Another important consideration is the absorber’s thickness, which must be sufficient to absorb the maximum cutoff wavelength of the incident solar light 49 , 53 . Aside from that, mobility is essential to achieving the high J SC which is ideally equal to the current in the solar cell. For the sample of CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 produced using the open tube approach, a very high mobility of electrons (2000 cm 2 /Vs) and holes (300 cm 2 /Vs) was discovered by Ma et al. and Stoumpos et al. 56 , 57 . Lazemi et al. reported a high value of J SC using similar values of carrier mobility 53 . Devi et al. 58 and Khattak et al. 59 have taken into account the equal and noticeably lesser values of the electron and hole mobility, which are 1.6 cm 2 /Vs and 0.16 cm 2 /Vs respectively. In line with experimental work done by 60 , the electron (2000 cm 2 /Vs) and hole (300 cm 2 /Vs) mobility values for CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 is adopted for use in this study. It is important to note that diffusion length also has a proportionality relationship to the square root of mobility 58 .

The device simulation was conducted under the 1000 W/m 2 light illumination at 300 K temperature and 1.5G air mass. The proposed device’s series resistance was adjusted to 1 Ωcm 2 while the shunt resistance at 10 4 Ωcm 2 during simulation. The value of work function for front electrode (Cu 2 O) is 5.0 eV while the surface recombination velocity for electrons and holes as 10 5  cm/s and 10 7  cm/s respectively. Moreover, the work function for the back contact electrode ticked as flat band with surface recombination velocity for electrons and holes as 10 7  cm/s and 10 5  cm/s respectively at the beginning of the simulation until an optimized back contact electrode work function was determined as discussed in section " Effect of back contact electrode on the proposed inverted perovskite solar cell ". The characteristics of the device’s material parameters adopted were carefully selected from theories, experiments and research reviews is presented in Table 1 , while the interface parameters are presented in Table 2 . Scientifically, the neutral defect type adopted in the simulation means non-reactive, which can further be explained as a situation where there is no donor nor acceptor of charges within the films of a layer or interface. The bulk defect densities of the materials were chosen above ideal values to demonstrate ideal experimental conditions.

Various decisive parameters like electron mobility, hole mobility, carrier diffusion length, interfacial resistance, etc., have been considered constant and taken from the literature. These parameters are extremely dependent on experimental processes and can hugely alter practical performance of the device. The relative humidity, temperature, the type of instruments used, procedural and human expertise, control of crystallization and grain growth rates are some of the factors behind the real-life performance and their variations from theoretical values.

Results and discussions

In general, the electron and hole pairs are produced within the absorber layer after illumination. The junction field causes holes and electrons to travel in the directions of HTM and ETM layers, respectively. A voltage is created when these holes and electrons are collected at the anode and cathode, respectively. The simulation results of the proposed inverted device structure Cu 2 O/CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 /ZnO using the available initial device parameters as contained in Tables 1 and 2 shows the J–V characteristics of the proposed device as shown in Fig.  1 produced a Voc of 0.9854 V, J SC of 30.4185 mA/cm 2 , an FF of 82.48% and PCE of 24.72%. The proposed device structure Cu 2 O/MASnI 3 /ZnO underwent further simulation and optimization so as to obtain optimized thickness of the constituent layers.

Effect of different back metal contact electrodes on parameters of the proposed IPSC. ( a ) Plot of V OC against metal work function, ( b ) Plot of J SC against metal work function, ( c ) Plot of FF against metal work function, ( d ) Plot of PCE against metal work function.

Effect of back contact electrode on the proposed inverted perovskite solar cell

Various metal back contact electrodes such as aluminium (4.26 eV), tin (4.42 eV) graphene (4.60 eV), silver (4.74 eV), iron (4.81 eV) and copper (5.00 eV) have been tested on the proposed inverted structure so as to determine the most appropriate one to be used for enhanced optimal performance. Figure  1 shows the work function of various metals used as back contact electrodes and their associated photovoltaic parameters on the proposed IPSC based device simulated using initial given parameters presented in Tables 1 and 2 . The results in Fig.  1 clearly show that the choice of aluminum (Al) for back electrode maintained the most optimal device performance, as the V oc , J SC , FF and PCE of 0.9854 V, 30.4185 mA/cm 2 , 82.48% and 24.72% respectively is produced. It is interesting to note in this model that the J SC (Fig.  1 b) remains constant as the work function of the back contact varies while the V OC , FF and PCE declines as the work function increases from 4.26 to 5.00 eV (Fig.  1 a,c,d). For p–n configuration, the current is negative because of the uphill diffusion of the minority charge carriers in terms of concentration gradient arising from reverse bias during solar illumination. The current growth from the negative quadrant towards the positive quadrant signifies power generation up to zero value of current where an open circuit voltage (V OC ) of 0.9854 V is achieved. The J–V characteristics of the device having used aluminum as the back contact electrode is shown as Fig.  2 .

J–V Characteristics of the proposed inverted perovskite solar cell with initial parameters using MASnI 3 as absorber material, Cu 2 O as HTM, ZnO as ETM and Al as back contact respectively.

Effect of n-type TCO-free on inverted perovskite solar cell architecture.

There is no experimental result for this exact structure (Cu 2 O/CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 /ZnO/Al) known to us, which makes this research novel and interesting. There is no clear reasons why the lack of experimental works to support this study, but this could be due to lack of good conductivity of all-inorganic transport materials in nano electronics compared to organic transport materials and high processing temperature required. However, there are few simulation results of exact combination in n–i–p structure reported in 63 , 64 . The PCEs of 26.55% and 9.27% respectively were obtained in 63 and 64 , while our designed n-type TCO-free p-i-n device produced a superior PCE of 30.17% as shown in Fig.  8 .

The proposed inverted model will not simulate when the conventional n-type TCO (ITO/FTO) of donor concentration ND is used with the acceptor concentration NA being zero, except an organic p-type TCO is used which is outside the scope of this study. It’s worth noting that the top transparent glass used as presented in Fig.  16 is an n-type TCO-free substrate in order to avoid non-convergence of voltage between the front and back electrodes when a conventional n-type TCOs are used. The carefully chosen transparent glass substrate size of 50 nm is not included in the simulation model, hence it is undoped and may not have significant impact on the device in real experimental situation. In this work, it is difficult to drive an output from the device if a TCO of an n-type material (FTO/ITO) is used as front electrode in the inverted structure when the same n-type material of same polarity is used as back hole blocker (ZnO) because of non-voltage convergence arising from non-compatible work function between the layers. The non-voltage convergence experienced when ITO with metal function of 4.7 eV is used is as a result of non-ideal band gap between the adjacent semiconductors layers (ITO/Cu 2 O) which makes the proposed n-type TCO-free model feasible. However, a back contact electrode of low metal function lower than ZnO like aluminium (4.26 eV) is required for optimal performance.

The use of Cu 2 O as front contact electrode may suffer setback due its high sheet resistance and poor conductivity when compared to n-type TCOs. However, the sheet resistance of most metal oxides depends on the method of deposition, temperature, oxygen flow rate and thickness of the films. The control of power and oxygen flow rates during deposition of copper oxide thin films at a thickness of less than 100 nm prepared by reactive magnetron sputtering can reduce the sheet resistance and enhance performance of the device in practical sense 65 . The provision of a high density of low energy sputtered copper radicals/ions, and when combined with a controlled amount of oxygen, can produce good quality p-type transparent Cu 2 O films with electrical resistivity ranging from 10 2 to 10 4  Ω-cm 66 which makes Cu 2 O a potential transparent front conducting oxide for photovoltaic applications. Also, the doping of Cu 2 O with nickel can improve its p–type conductivity via extrinsic doping and post–growth processing 67 . Therefore, the Cu 2 O may not be as conductive as other n-type TCOs in experimental sense but runs conveniently in the simulation model without challenge which means the proposed n-type TCO–free model is novel and less complex, providing good direction in the design and modeling of simple inverted perovskite solar cells as shown in Figs. 13 and 16 . Cu 2 O can act as a front electrode efficiently provided its thickness is thin enough to ensure adequate clarity and transparency to enhance admittance of photons into the absorber (perovskite) layer.

Effect of thickness of the HTM (Cu 2 O), absorber (CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 ) and ETM (ZnO) layers

In this study, the variation of HTM’s layer thickness from 10 to 100 nm results to a slight increase in FF (Fig.  3 c) while a decline in device parameters such as V OC , J SC and PCE is experienced as presented in Fig.  3 a,b,d respectively.

Effect of variation of thickness of the HTM layer (Cu 2 O) on solar cell parameters. ( a ) Plot of V OC against thickness, ( b ) Plot of J SC against thickness, ( c ) Plot of FF against thickness, ( d ) Plot of PCE against thickness.

The thickness of the absorber layer considerably affects the solar cell’s overall performance. The increase in absorber’s thickness decreases the V OC due to increase in series resistance. Meanwhile, the increase in absorber’s thickness increases the J SC, FF and PCE to the maximum after which it decreases with further increase in thickness. In this study, the thickness of CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 has been adjusted in this simulation from 100 to 1500 nm. The fluctuation of photovoltaic characteristics with thickness of absorber layer is shown in Fig.  4 . The V OC declines as a result of faster recombination due to increased thickness (Fig.  4 a). A thicker absorber layer absorbs more photons, which increases short circuit current density (J CS ) and the fill factor (FF) and as seen in Fig. 4 b,c, respectively. The solar cell efficiency is increased as the thickness of absorber layer increases up to an ideal thickness for the solar cell after which efficiency declines (Fig.  4 d). However, as diffusion necessitates a longer charge travel distance, recombination is more common in larger absorber layers; hence, efficiency decreases after a certain thickness value. Our results concur with experimental findings in 62 , 68 . As shown in Fig.  4 d, the ideal absorber layer thickness for this inverted PSC is achieved between 1200 and 1300 nm.

Effect of variation of thickness of the absorber layer (MASnI 3 ) on solar cell parameters. ( a ) Plot of V OC against thickness, ( b ) Plot of J SC against thickness, ( c ) Plot of FF against thickness, ( d ) Plot of PCE against thickness.

Nevertheless, the increase in ETM’s thickness leads to a non-noticeable change in V OC , J SC , FF and PCE (Fig.  5 a–d) respectively. Therefore, it can be inferred that while device performance is mostly determined by absorber thickness, IPSC device performance is not influenced by the ETM layer’s thickness but rather varies slightly with the HTM’s thickness, which is designed to be small enough to guarantee optical transparency and ensure easy photon penetration to the absorber layer. The selection of optimal thickness is important to regulate series and shunt resistance and ensure improved device performance in terms of short circuit current, open circuit voltage, fill factor and power conversion efficiency.

Effect of variation of thickness of the ETM layer (ZnO) on solar cell parameters. ( a ) Plot of V OC against thickness, ( b ) Plot of J SC against thickness, ( c ) Plot of FF against thickness, ( d ) Plot of PCE against thickness.

Simulation and thickness optimization of the proposed device structure

Simulation and optimization of the proposed device shows that the HTM (Cu 2 O) layer, the absorber (MASnI 3 ) layer and ETM layer (ZnO) have been optimized to the thickness of 40 nm, 1200 nm and 200 nm respectively. The simulation of these optimized dimensions led to an improvement in the solar cell parameters as it produced a Voc of 0.9633 V, J SC of 33.8049 mA/cm 2 , FF of 82.84% and PCE of 26.97% as shown in the J–V characteristics curve (Fig.  6 ).

J–V characteristics of the optimized device’s thickness using MASnI 3 as absorber material, Cu 2 O as HTM, ZnO as ETM and Al as back contact respectively.

Effect of absorber’s doping concentration (NA)

The holes’ acceptor density of the absorber layer has a major impact on the photovoltaic cell’s device performance in addition to its thickness. As demonstrated in Fig.  7 , the Fermi energy level of the hole falls with increasing doping concentration of the acceptor, and as a result, V OC increases (Fig.  7 a). Also, an increase in the doping concentration of the acceptor leads to a built-in potential that increases charge separation, which in turn causes a rise in V OC . In this work, the acceptor concentration NA (1/cm 3 ) of the absorber layer is varied within a range of 3 × 10 14  cm −3 to 3 × 10 21  cm −3 to ascertain the most optimal value that can produce an optimal performance of the proposed device. Nevertheless, J SC maintains a steady decline marginally up to NA’s value of 3 × 10 19  cm −3 before falling off sharply. At the same NA’s value, the value of FF drops suddenly which might be caused by a rise in the rate at which charge carriers within the absorber layer recombine or an increase in series resistance 55 . The absorber layer’s doping concentration value of 3 × 10 19  cm −3 produced the best cell performance having V oc of 1.0867 V, J SC of 33.4942 mA/cm 2 , FF of 82.88% and PCE of 30.17% as shown in Fig.  7 a–d respectively, while its J–V characteristics is shown as Fig.  8 .

Effect of variation of doping concentration of the absorber (CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 ) on solar cell parameters. ( a ) Plot of V OC against doping concentration (NA), ( b ) Plot of J SC against doping concentration (NA), ( c ) Plot of FF against doping concentration (NA), ( d ) Plot of PCE against doping concentration (NA).

J–V Characteristics of the final optimized inverted simulated solar cell device using MASnI 3 as absorber material, Cu 2 O as HTM, ZnO as ETM and Al as back contact respectively.

The complex nature of an organic molecule in the A site of the perovskite structure (ABX 3 ) may be the cause of degradation, as evidenced by the absorber’s bandgap of 1.3 eV and the measured Voc of 1.0867 V. Using varying ratios of the precursors causes an intrinsic fault when the perovskite structure is distorted. Higher degrees of crystallization and a slower rate of breakdown are the results of vacancies in the structure caused by the excess CH 3 NH 3 I (MAI). The crystalline lattice’s anomalies emphasize the role MAI plays in the deterioration process. Excess MAI may potentially release halide ions, depending on the concentration. Afterwards, these halide ions function as dopants, altering the perovskite semiconductors' bandgap 69 . When exposed to air, the Sn 2+ in CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 is changed to Sn 4+ (a process known as self-doping), converting the device into a p-type semiconductor. Sadly, this procedure deteriorates the device performance, such as the output power and the power conversion efficiency 56 , 70 .

Effect of series resistance R series and shunt resistance R shunt

The resistance in series and shunt (R series and R shunt ) affects the J–V curve’s form and slope, which in turn affects the solar cell’s efficiency. The connections electrodes, electrical dissipation in the perovskite, and layers of hole and electron transport materials (HTM and ETM) are primarily linked to the cause of the R series . However, different recombination pathways, device design, and defects induced during the layer deposition process are linked to the cause of the R shunt . According to the literature, a high shunt resistance and a low series resistance are necessary for a solar cell to have a high efficiency. Electrons cannot flow freely across a circuit if the series resistance is large, and leakage current will occur if the shunt resistance is low, producing PSCs with low stability and efficiency. When there’s a low shunt resistance or a high series resistance, the PSC’s maximum output and FF would both drop 71 , 72 . The ideal diode model’s Eq. ( 4 ) was applied in order to comprehend the impact of R series and R shunt on the perovskite solar cell’s performance 73 .

When \(J\approx\) 0 mA/cm 2 for open circuit state, the variables V OC and R shunt relationship is presented in Eq. ( 5 )

where J is the current flowing via the external circuit, V is the output voltage, A is the ideality factor, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, q is the electron charge, J O is the saturation current density and J L is the light-induced current density. As a result, low R shunt reduces photovoltaic voltage and may also have an impact on the photocurrent that is collected, whereas high R series values primarily influence the FF and Jsc values 72 .

While keeping the other simulation parameters same, R series and R shunt were changed from 0 to 100 Ωcm 2 and 10 3  Ωcm 2 to 10 10 Ωcm 2 respectively, to better understand their influence on the J–V curves. The responses of V OC , J SC FF and PCE as a function of R series are presented in Fig.  9 . V OC stays fairly constant, J SC falls from 33.51 to 10.77 mA/cm 2 , and FF drops from 85.63 to 24.88% while R series grows from 0 to 100 Ωcm 2 . As a result, as Fig.  9 d illustrates, PCE’s behavior is precisely proportional to J SC and FF, decreasing from 31.16 to 2.91% for the same range. Alternatively, as Fig.  10 illustrates, when R shunt rises from 10 3 to 10 10 Ωcm 2 , V OC rises from 1.0858 to 1.0868 V, J SC maintains a constant 33.49 mA/cm 2 from 10 4 Ωcm 2 , FF rises from 80.75 to 83.12%, and the PCE rises from 29.34 to 30.26% respectively (Fig.  10 a–d). For R series and R shunt , the optimal values are therefore 1 Ωcm 2 and 10 6 Ωcm 2 respectively, which is in conformity with literature.

Effect of series resistance variation on the optimized IPSC based device parameters. ( a ) Plot of V OC against series resistance. ( b ) Plot of J SC against series resistance. ( c ) Plot of FF against series resistance, ( d ) Plot of PCE against series resistance.

Effect of shunt resistance variation on parameters of the optimized IPSC device. ( a ) Plot of V OC against shunt resistance, ( b ) Plot of J SC against shunt resistance, ( c ) Plot of FF against shunt resistance, ( d ) Plot of PCE against shunt resistance.

Effect of the defect state of bulk and interface layers

The impact of the absorber’s defect density is an important factor that needs to be examined. In the absorber layer, defects are inevitable. Both at surfaces and in the bulk, they are present. Point defects in the perovskite absorber layer include lattice vacancies, interstitial, Schottky, and Frenkel defects. In addition, there may be higher order defects like grain boundaries and dislocations 74 . The self-doping process in the absorber layer creates the p-type semiconductor that results in an impurity defect 54 , 56 , 75 , 76 . These defects cause the energy bandgap to appear at shallow or deep levels 74 . Charge carriers have the ability to capture and promote nonradiative recombination of electron–hole as a result of these defects 53 , 55 . Noteworthy, the simulated interface defect density for both electron and hole recombination velocities was 1 × 10 -2  cm/s for both HTM/MASnI 3 and ETM/MASnI 3 interface. In the Sn-based perovskite absorber layer, the electron and hole diffusion lengths were 16 µm and 6.2 µm, respectively. The optimized device’s absorber defect density (Nt) of 2 × 10 15  cm −3 achieved a V OC of 1.0867 V, a J SC of 33.4942 mA/cm 2 , FF of 82.88%, and a PCE of 30.17%. Nevertheless, synthesizing a material with a low defect density value is a challenging task in an experiment 55 .

The Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) recombination model has been applied to provide understanding regarding the impact of defect density in the absorber layer on device performance 49 , 53 , 77 . The effect of defect density on the recombination rate based on the SRH recombination model is essential to determining the critical influence of Nt on the device performance. The plot of recombination rate with depth from the optimized device’s surface is depicted in Fig.  11 .

Recombination rate of the optimized device with depth from the surface.

The proposed device produced quantum efficiency curve covering the entire visible spectrum (300–900 nm) achieving an optimum quantum efficiency (QE) of 99.38% at 580 nm wavelength, which is in agreement with other works 15 , 43 , 54 , 61 , 78 , 79 is presented as Fig.  12 . The simulated inverted structure, energy band diagram, energy band alignment and complete device structure of the optimized inverted planar perovskite solar cells are presented as Figs. 13 , 14 , 15 and 16 , respectively. It’s very clear that the photovoltaic performance of the proposed device as shown in Table 3 is superior to other related works reported in the literature.

Quantum efficiency of the proposed inverted perovskite solar cell.

The simulated inverted device structure.

Energy band diagram of the proposed inverted perovskite solar cell.

Energy band alignment profile of the proposed inverted perovskite solar cell.

The complete optimized structure of the proposed n-type TCO-free inverted perovskite solar cell.

The toxic-free CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 as light harvesting material is explored in this study. A heterojunction planar perovskite solar cell with an inverted structure Glass/Cu 2 O/CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 /ZnO/Al was simulated, optimized and analyzed in this paper. In relation to various photovoltaic parameters such as the work function of the back contact electrodes, thickness of the HTM layer, absorber and the ETM layers, and the absorber’s doping concentration were optimized. The thickness of the HTM, absorber layer and ETM were optimized to 40 nm, 1200 nm and 200 nm respectively. The optimized structure produced an enhanced Voc of 1.0867 V, J SC of 33.4942 mA/cm 2 , FF of 82.88% and PCE of 30.17% respectively. The results indicate that an increase in doping concentration of the absorber increased the Voc, FF and PCE but decreased the J SC of the solar cell. The interface between the ETM/back-electrode requires a cheap and low work function metal for enhanced performance. The n-type TCO-free inverted CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 -based PSC provides a potential path to attaining simple, eco-friendly, cheap and highly efficient perovskite solar cell device using all-inorganic transport materials.

Data availability

The data that support the findings can be made available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author on [email protected].

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The authors are very grateful to Dr. Marc Burgelman of the University of Gent in Belgium for providing the SCAPS-1D simulation program.

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Nyiekaa, E.A., Aika, T.A., Danladi, E. et al. Simulation and optimization of 30.17% high performance N-type TCO-free inverted perovskite solar cell using inorganic transport materials. Sci Rep 14 , 12024 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-62882-7

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New Research Suggests the BMI Obesity Cut-Off Point Needs to Be Lowered

The study on 4800 participants found that the current guidelines may not be optimal for detecting obesity

What Is BMI?

BMI (Body Mass Index) uses your height and weight to work out a measurement to gauge if your weight is healthy. The BMI calculation is:

Weight in kilograms divided by height in metres squared

The current World Health Organisation (WHO) classifications outline:

• Severely underweight: BMI less than 16.5kg/m^2.
• Underweight: BMI under 18.5 kg/m^2.
• Normal weight: BMI greater than or equal to 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m^2.
• Overweight: BMI greater than or equal to 25 to 29.9 kg/m^2.
• Obesity: BMI greater than or equal to 30 kg/m^2.
• Obesity class I: BMI 30 to 34.9 kg/m^2.

The Research

Recent research , presented at the European Congress on Obesity and published in the journal Nutrients , has made headlines for its groundbreaking findings. The study suggests redefining obesity with a BMI threshold of 27 instead of the current standard of 30 set by the WHO.

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Waist to Height Ratio Is a Better Indicator of Health than BMI, Says Research

Why Your Weight Isn't Always the Best Marker of Health

What Is a Healthy Body Fat Percentage?

The methods.

• The study included a total of 4800 participants: 1850 males and 2950 females.
• Body composition was measured using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA scan).
• The study employed something called 'receiver operating characteristic' (ROC) analysis to determine the most appropriate BMI cut off points for obesity based on the participant's body fat percentage.

The Results

The study identified significant disparities between the BMI cut off point and body fat percentage measurements. The current BMI cut off point demonstrated unreliable results across all age and sex groups, indicating a higher chance of being below the obesity cut off and a relatively lower chance of being above it.

This means that many individuals classified as non obese according to the WHO's BMI criteria were actually obese based on their body fat percentage.

The Conclusion

The study provides compelling evidence that the BMI cut off point of 30 is not optimal for detecting obesity in older adults. According to the study, adopting a lower cut off point of 27 could significantly improve obesity screening and health management.

Ideally, future research should focus on validating the cut off point in larger and more diverse populations, as well as investigating appropriate BMI cut off points for other categories such as underweight and overweight populations.

What Does This Mean for Us?

The study suggests that policymakers should consider adopting the new BMI cut off point of 27 for more accurate obesity screening in clinical settings. Should the cut off point be lowered by policymakers, as suggested by the research, those concerned about their health should be made aware of this.

However, at this point it hasn't been adjusted.

It's important to be aware of your BMI and current health status, but first consult your healthcare provider should you be worried about your measurements.

If you are unsure if your BMI is an accurate reading, as an easy alternative you can use waist-to-height or waist-to-hip ratios in conjunction with BMI as a more reliable measure. You can also take measurements such as body fat percentage in order to gain a more well rounded view of your health.

Kate is a fitness writer for Men’s Health UK where she contributes regular workouts, training tips and nutrition guides. She has a post graduate diploma in Sports Performance Nutrition and before joining Men’s Health she was a nutritionist, fitness writer and personal trainer with over 5k hours coaching on the gym floor. Kate has a keen interest in volunteering for animal shelters and when she isn’t lifting weights in her garden, she can be found walking her rescue dog.

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