problem solving method in teaching and learning

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

What is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)? PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that involves groups of students working to solve a real-world problem, quite different from the direct teaching method of a teacher presenting facts and concepts about a specific subject to a classroom of students. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and research skills, but they also sharpen their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities essential for life-long learning.

See also: Just-in-Time Teaching

In implementing PBL, the teaching role shifts from that of the more traditional model that follows a linear, sequential pattern where the teacher presents relevant material, informs the class what needs to be done, and provides details and information for students to apply their knowledge to a given problem. With PBL, the teacher acts as a facilitator; the learning is student-driven with the aim of solving the given problem (note: the problem is established at the onset of learning opposed to being presented last in the traditional model). Also, the assignments vary in length from relatively short to an entire semester with daily instructional time structured for group work.

By working with PBL, students will:

• Become engaged with open-ended situations that assimilate the world of work
• Participate in groups to pinpoint what is known/ not known and the methods of finding information to help solve the given problem.
• Investigate a problem; through critical thinking and problem solving, brainstorm a list of unique solutions.
• Analyze the situation to see if the real problem is framed or if there are other problems that need to be solved.

How to Begin PBL

• Establish the learning outcomes (i.e., what is it that you want your students to really learn and to be able to do after completing the learning project).
• Find a real-world problem that is relevant to the students; often the problems are ones that students may encounter in their own life or future career.
• Discuss pertinent rules for working in groups to maximize learning success.
• Practice group processes: listening, involving others, assessing their work/peers.
• Explore different roles for students to accomplish the work that needs to be done and/or to see the problem from various perspectives depending on the problem (e.g., for a problem about pollution, different roles may be a mayor, business owner, parent, child, neighboring city government officials, etc.).
• Determine how the project will be evaluated and assessed. Most likely, both self-assessment and peer-assessment will factor into the assignment grade.

Designing Classroom Instruction

See also: Inclusive Teaching Strategies

• Take the curriculum and divide it into various units. Decide on the types of problems that your students will solve. These will be your objectives.
• Determine the specific problems that most likely have several answers; consider student interest.
• Arrange appropriate resources available to students; utilize other teaching personnel to support students where needed (e.g., media specialists to orientate students to electronic references).
• Decide on presentation formats to communicate learning (e.g., individual paper, group PowerPoint, an online blog, etc.) and appropriate grading mechanisms (e.g., rubric).
• Decide how to incorporate group participation (e.g., what percent, possible peer evaluation, etc.).

How to Orchestrate a PBL Activity

• Explain Problem-Based Learning to students: its rationale, daily instruction, class expectations, grading.
• Serve as a model and resource to the PBL process; work in-tandem through the first problem
• Help students secure various resources when needed.
• Supply ample class time for collaborative group work.
• Give feedback to each group after they share via the established format; critique the solution in quality and thoroughness. Reinforce to the students that the prior thinking and reasoning process in addition to the solution are important as well.

Teacher’s Role in PBL

See also: Flipped teaching

As previously mentioned, the teacher determines a problem that is interesting, relevant, and novel for the students. It also must be multi-faceted enough to engage students in doing research and finding several solutions. The problems stem from the unit curriculum and reflect possible use in future work situations.

• Determine a problem aligned with the course and your students. The problem needs to be demanding enough that the students most likely cannot solve it on their own. It also needs to teach them new skills. When sharing the problem with students, state it in a narrative complete with pertinent background information without excessive information. Allow the students to find out more details as they work on the problem.
• Place students in groups, well-mixed in diversity and skill levels, to strengthen the groups. Help students work successfully. One way is to have the students take on various roles in the group process after they self-assess their strengths and weaknesses.
• Support the students with understanding the content on a deeper level and in ways to best orchestrate the various stages of the problem-solving process.

The Role of the Students

See also: ADDIE model

The students work collaboratively on all facets of the problem to determine the best possible solution.

• Analyze the problem and the issues it presents. Break the problem down into various parts. Continue to read, discuss, and think about the problem.
• Construct a list of what is known about the problem. What do your fellow students know about the problem? Do they have any experiences related to the problem? Discuss the contributions expected from the team members. What are their strengths and weaknesses? Follow the rules of brainstorming (i.e., accept all answers without passing judgment) to generate possible solutions for the problem.
• Get agreement from the team members regarding the problem statement.
• Put the problem statement in written form.
• Solicit feedback from the teacher.
• Be open to changing the written statement based on any new learning that is found or feedback provided.
• Generate a list of possible solutions. Include relevant thoughts, ideas, and educated guesses as well as causes and possible ways to solve it. Then rank the solutions and select the solution that your group is most likely to perceive as the best in terms of meeting success.
• Include what needs to be known and done to solve the identified problems.
• Prioritize the various action steps.
• Consider how the steps impact the possible solutions.
• See if the group is in agreement with the timeline; if not, decide how to reach agreement.
• What resources are available to help (e.g., textbooks, primary/secondary sources, Internet).
• Determine research assignments per team members.
• Establish due dates.
• Determine how your group will present the problem solution and also identify the audience. Usually, in PBL, each group presents their solutions via a team presentation either to the class of other students or to those who are related to the problem.
• Both the process and the results of the learning activity need to be covered. Include the following: problem statement, questions, data gathered, data analysis, reasons for the solution(s) and/or any recommendations reflective of the data analysis.
• A well-stated problem and conclusion.
• The process undertaken by the group in solving the problem, the various options discussed, and the resources used.
• Your solution’s supporting documents, guests, interviews and their purpose to be convincing to your audience.
• In addition, be prepared for any audience comments and questions. Determine who will respond and if your team doesn’t know the answer, admit this and be open to looking into the question at a later date.
• Reflective thinking and transfer of knowledge are important components of PBL. This helps the students be more cognizant of their own learning and teaches them how to ask appropriate questions to address problems that need to be solved. It is important to look at both the individual student and the group effort/delivery throughout the entire process. From here, you can better determine what was learned and how to improve. The students should be asked how they can apply what was learned to a different situation, to their own lives, and to other course projects.

See also: Kirkpatrick Model: Four Levels of Learning Evaluation

I am a professor of Educational Technology. I have worked at several elite universities. I hold a PhD degree from the University of Illinois and a master's degree from Purdue University.

Similar Posts

Definitions of educational technology.

Educational Technology What is educational technology? There are a variety of definitions of educational technology. What is instructional design and technology? The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT): Educational technology is the study…

Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT)

Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT) is an innovative approach to education that integrates real-life and virtual instruction to maximize the efficacy of both. This teaching method is created by a team led by university professor…

Definitions of The Addie Model

What is the ADDIE Model? This article attempts to explain the ADDIE model by providing different definitions. Basically, ADDIE is a conceptual framework. ADDIE is the most commonly used instructional design framework and…

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Heralded as a pioneer in educational instruction, Robert M. Gagné revolutionized instructional design principles with his WW II-era systematic approach, often referred to as the Gagné Assumption. The general idea, which seems familiar…

Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to Write Effective Learning Objectives: The ABCD Approach

Bloom’s Taxonomy offers a framework for categorizing educational goals that students are expected to attain as learning progresses. Learning objectives can be identified as the goals that should be achieved by a student at…

Adaptive Learning: What is It, What are its Benefits and How Does it Work?

People learn in many different ways. Adaptive learning has sought to address differences in ability by targeting teaching practices. The use of adaptive models, ranging from technological programs to intelligent systems, can be…

Center for Teaching

Teaching problem solving.

Print Version

Tips and Techniques

Expert vs. novice problem solvers, communicate.

• Have students  identify specific problems, difficulties, or confusions . Don’t waste time working through problems that students already understand.
• If students are unable to articulate their concerns, determine where they are having trouble by  asking them to identify the specific concepts or principles associated with the problem.
• In a one-on-one tutoring session, ask the student to  work his/her problem out loud . This slows down the thinking process, making it more accurate and allowing you to access understanding.
• When working with larger groups you can ask students to provide a written “two-column solution.” Have students write up their solution to a problem by putting all their calculations in one column and all of their reasoning (in complete sentences) in the other column. This helps them to think critically about their own problem solving and helps you to more easily identify where they may be having problems. Two-Column Solution (Math) Two-Column Solution (Physics)

Encourage Independence

• Model the problem solving process rather than just giving students the answer. As you work through the problem, consider how a novice might struggle with the concepts and make your thinking clear
• Have students work through problems on their own. Ask directing questions or give helpful suggestions, but  provide only minimal assistance and only when needed to overcome obstacles.
• Don’t fear  group work ! Students can frequently help each other, and talking about a problem helps them think more critically about the steps needed to solve the problem. Additionally, group work helps students realize that problems often have multiple solution strategies, some that might be more effective than others

Be sensitive

• Frequently, when working problems, students are unsure of themselves. This lack of confidence may hamper their learning. It is important to recognize this when students come to us for help, and to give each student some feeling of mastery. Do this by providing  positive reinforcement to let students know when they have mastered a new concept or skill.

Encourage Thoroughness and Patience

• Try to communicate that  the process is more important than the answer so that the student learns that it is OK to not have an instant solution. This is learned through your acceptance of his/her pace of doing things, through your refusal to let anxiety pressure you into giving the right answer, and through your example of problem solving through a step-by step process.

Experts (teachers) in a particular field are often so fluent in solving problems from that field that they can find it difficult to articulate the problem solving principles and strategies they use to novices (students) in their field because these principles and strategies are second nature to the expert. To teach students problem solving skills,  a teacher should be aware of principles and strategies of good problem solving in his or her discipline .

The mathematician George Polya captured the problem solving principles and strategies he used in his discipline in the book  How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method (Princeton University Press, 1957). The book includes  a summary of Polya’s problem solving heuristic as well as advice on the teaching of problem solving.

Teaching Guides

• Online Course Development Resources
• Principles & Frameworks
• Pedagogies & Strategies
• Reflecting & Assessing
• Challenges & Opportunities
• Populations & Contexts

Quick Links

• Services for Departments and Schools
• Examples of Online Instructional Modules

Center for Teaching Innovation

Resource library.

• Establishing Community Agreements and Classroom Norms
• Sample group work rubric
• Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse of Activities, University of Delaware

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning  (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by working in groups to solve an open-ended problem. This problem is what drives the motivation and the learning. 

Why Use Problem-Based Learning?

Nilson (2010) lists the following learning outcomes that are associated with PBL. A well-designed PBL project provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related to:

• Working in teams.
• Managing projects and holding leadership roles.
• Oral and written communication.
• Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes.
• Working independently.
• Critical thinking and analysis.
• Explaining concepts.
• Self-directed learning.
• Applying course content to real-world examples.
• Researching and information literacy.
• Problem solving across disciplines.

Considerations for Using Problem-Based Learning

Rather than teaching relevant material and subsequently having students apply the knowledge to solve problems, the problem is presented first. PBL assignments can be short, or they can be more involved and take a whole semester. PBL is often group-oriented, so it is beneficial to set aside classroom time to prepare students to   work in groups  and to allow them to engage in their PBL project.

Students generally must:

• Examine and define the problem.
• Explore what they already know about underlying issues related to it.
• Determine what they need to learn and where they can acquire the information and tools necessary to solve the problem.
• Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
• Solve the problem.
• Report on their findings.

Getting Started with Problem-Based Learning

• Articulate the learning outcomes of the project. What do you want students to know or be able to do as a result of participating in the assignment?
• Create the problem. Ideally, this will be a real-world situation that resembles something students may encounter in their future careers or lives. Cases are often the basis of PBL activities. Previously developed PBL activities can be found online through the University of Delaware’s PBL Clearinghouse of Activities .
• Establish ground rules at the beginning to prepare students to work effectively in groups.
• Introduce students to group processes and do some warm up exercises to allow them to practice assessing both their own work and that of their peers.
• Consider having students take on different roles or divide up the work up amongst themselves. Alternatively, the project might require students to assume various perspectives, such as those of government officials, local business owners, etc.
• Establish how you will evaluate and assess the assignment. Consider making the self and peer assessments a part of the assignment grade.

Nilson, L. B. (2010).  Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors  (2nd ed.).  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

• TA Resources
• Teaching Consultation
• Teaching Portfolio Program
• Grad Academy for College Teaching
• Faculty Events
• The Art of Teaching
• 2022 Illinois Summer Teaching Institute
• Large Classes
• Leading Discussions
• Laboratory Classes
• Lecture-Based Classes
• Planning a Class Session
• Questioning Strategies
• Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs)
• Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
• The Case Method
• Community-Based Learning: Service Learning
• Group Learning
• Just-in-Time Teaching
• Creating a Syllabus
• Motivating Students
• Dealing With Cheating
• Discouraging & Detecting Plagiarism
• Diversity & Creating an Inclusive Classroom
• Harassment & Discrimination
• Professional Conduct
• Foundations of Good Teaching
• Student Engagement
• Assessment Strategies
• Course Design
• Student Resources
• Teaching Tips
• Graduate Teacher Certificate
• Certificate in Foundations of Teaching
• Teacher Scholar Certificate
• Certificate in Technology-Enhanced Teaching
• Master Course in Online Teaching (MCOT)
• 2022 Celebration of College Teaching
• 2023 Celebration of College Teaching
• Hybrid Teaching and Learning Certificate
• 2024 Celebration of College Teaching
• Classroom Observation Etiquette
• Teaching Philosophy Statement
• Pedagogical Literature Review
• Scholarship of Teaching and Learning
• Instructor Stories
• Podcast: Teach Talk Listen Learn
• Universal Design for Learning

Sign-Up to receive Teaching and Learning news and events

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).

PBL can be incorporated into any learning situation. In the strictest definition of PBL, the approach is used over the entire semester as the primary method of teaching. However, broader definitions and uses range from including PBL in lab and design classes, to using it simply to start a single discussion. PBL can also be used to create assessment items. The main thread connecting these various uses is the real-world problem.

Any subject area can be adapted to PBL with a little creativity. While the core problems will vary among disciplines, there are some characteristics of good PBL problems that transcend fields (Duch, Groh, and Allen, 2001):

• The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.
• The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.
• The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to previous courses/knowledge.
• If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to ensure that the students must work together to solve it.
• If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of the problem should be open-ended and engaging to draw students into the problem.

The problems can come from a variety of sources: newspapers, magazines, journals, books, textbooks, and television/ movies. Some are in such form that they can be used with little editing; however, others need to be rewritten to be of use. The following guidelines from The Power of Problem-Based Learning (Duch et al, 2001) are written for creating PBL problems for a class centered around the method; however, the general ideas can be applied in simpler uses of PBL:

• Choose a central idea, concept, or principle that is always taught in a given course, and then think of a typical end-of-chapter problem, assignment, or homework that is usually assigned to students to help them learn that concept. List the learning objectives that students should meet when they work through the problem.
• Think of a real-world context for the concept under consideration. Develop a storytelling aspect to an end-of-chapter problem, or research an actual case that can be adapted, adding some motivation for students to solve the problem. More complex problems will challenge students to go beyond simple plug-and-chug to solve it. Look at magazines, newspapers, and articles for ideas on the story line. Some PBL practitioners talk to professionals in the field, searching for ideas of realistic applications of the concept being taught.
• What will the first page (or stage) look like? What open-ended questions can be asked? What learning issues will be identified?
• How will the problem be structured?
• How long will the problem be? How many class periods will it take to complete?
• Will students be given information in subsequent pages (or stages) as they work through the problem?
• What resources will the students need?
• What end product will the students produce at the completion of the problem?
• Write a teacher's guide detailing the instructional plans on using the problem in the course. If the course is a medium- to large-size class, a combination of mini-lectures, whole-class discussions, and small group work with regular reporting may be necessary. The teacher's guide can indicate plans or options for cycling through the pages of the problem interspersing the various modes of learning.
• The final step is to identify key resources for students. Students need to learn to identify and utilize learning resources on their own, but it can be helpful if the instructor indicates a few good sources to get them started. Many students will want to limit their research to the Internet, so it will be important to guide them toward the library as well.

The method for distributing a PBL problem falls under three closely related teaching techniques: case studies, role-plays, and simulations. Case studies are presented to students in written form. Role-plays have students improvise scenes based on character descriptions given. Today, simulations often involve computer-based programs. Regardless of which technique is used, the heart of the method remains the same: the real-world problem.

Where can I learn more?

• PBL through the Institute for Transforming Undergraduate Education at the University of Delaware
• Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E, & Allen, D. E. (Eds.). (2001). The power of problem-based learning . Sterling, VA: Stylus.
• Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style: A practical guide to enhancing learning by understanding teaching and learning styles. Pittsburgh: Alliance Publishers.

Center for Innovation in Teaching & Learning

249 Armory Building 505 East Armory Avenue Champaign, IL 61820

217 333-1462

Email: [email protected]

Office of the Provost

Teaching Problem-Solving Skills

Many instructors design opportunities for students to solve “problems”. But are their students solving true problems or merely participating in practice exercises? The former stresses critical thinking and decision­ making skills whereas the latter requires only the application of previously learned procedures.

Problem solving is often broadly defined as "the ability to understand the environment, identify complex problems, review related information to develop, evaluate strategies and implement solutions to build the desired outcome" (Fissore, C. et al, 2021). True problem solving is the process of applying a method – not known in advance – to a problem that is subject to a specific set of conditions and that the problem solver has not seen before, in order to obtain a satisfactory solution.

Below you will find some basic principles for teaching problem solving and one model to implement in your classroom teaching.

Principles for teaching problem solving

• Model a useful problem-solving method . Problem solving can be difficult and sometimes tedious. Show students how to be patient and persistent, and how to follow a structured method, such as Woods’ model described below. Articulate your method as you use it so students see the connections.
• Teach within a specific context . Teach problem-solving skills in the context in which they will be used by students (e.g., mole fraction calculations in a chemistry course). Use real-life problems in explanations, examples, and exams. Do not teach problem solving as an independent, abstract skill.
• Help students understand the problem . In order to solve problems, students need to define the end goal. This step is crucial to successful learning of problem-solving skills. If you succeed at helping students answer the questions “what?” and “why?”, finding the answer to “how?” will be easier.
• Take enough time . When planning a lecture/tutorial, budget enough time for: understanding the problem and defining the goal (both individually and as a class); dealing with questions from you and your students; making, finding, and fixing mistakes; and solving entire problems in a single session.
• Ask questions and make suggestions . Ask students to predict “what would happen if …” or explain why something happened. This will help them to develop analytical and deductive thinking skills. Also, ask questions and make suggestions about strategies to encourage students to reflect on the problem-solving strategies that they use.
• Link errors to misconceptions . Use errors as evidence of misconceptions, not carelessness or random guessing. Make an effort to isolate the misconception and correct it, then teach students to do this by themselves. We can all learn from mistakes.

Woods’ problem-solving model

Define the problem.

• The system . Have students identify the system under study (e.g., a metal bridge subject to certain forces) by interpreting the information provided in the problem statement. Drawing a diagram is a great way to do this.
• Known(s) and concepts . List what is known about the problem, and identify the knowledge needed to understand (and eventually) solve it.
• Unknown(s) . Once you have a list of knowns, identifying the unknown(s) becomes simpler. One unknown is generally the answer to the problem, but there may be other unknowns. Be sure that students understand what they are expected to find.
• Units and symbols . One key aspect in problem solving is teaching students how to select, interpret, and use units and symbols. Emphasize the use of units whenever applicable. Develop a habit of using appropriate units and symbols yourself at all times.
• Constraints . All problems have some stated or implied constraints. Teach students to look for the words "only", "must", "neglect", or "assume" to help identify the constraints.
• Criteria for success . Help students consider, from the beginning, what a logical type of answer would be. What characteristics will it possess? For example, a quantitative problem will require an answer in some form of numerical units (e.g., $/kg product, square cm, etc.) while an optimization problem requires an answer in the form of either a numerical maximum or minimum.

Think about it

• “Let it simmer”.  Use this stage to ponder the problem. Ideally, students will develop a mental image of the problem at hand during this stage.
• Identify specific pieces of knowledge . Students need to determine by themselves the required background knowledge from illustrations, examples and problems covered in the course.
• Collect information . Encourage students to collect pertinent information such as conversion factors, constants, and tables needed to solve the problem.

Plan a solution

• Consider possible strategies . Often, the type of solution will be determined by the type of problem. Some common problem-solving strategies are: compute; simplify; use an equation; make a model, diagram, table, or chart; or work backwards.
• Choose the best strategy . Help students to choose the best strategy by reminding them again what they are required to find or calculate.

Carry out the plan

• Be patient . Most problems are not solved quickly or on the first attempt. In other cases, executing the solution may be the easiest step.
• Be persistent . If a plan does not work immediately, do not let students get discouraged. Encourage them to try a different strategy and keep trying.

Encourage students to reflect. Once a solution has been reached, students should ask themselves the following questions:

• Does the answer make sense?
• Does it fit with the criteria established in step 1?
• Did I answer the question(s)?
• What did I learn by doing this?
• Could I have done the problem another way?

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help.  View the  CTE Support  page to find the most relevant staff member to contact. 

• Fissore, C., Marchisio, M., Roman, F., & Sacchet, M. (2021). Development of problem solving skills with Maple in higher education. In: Corless, R.M., Gerhard, J., Kotsireas, I.S. (eds) Maple in Mathematics Education and Research. MC 2020. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 1414. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81698-8_15
• Foshay, R., & Kirkley, J. (1998). Principles for Teaching Problem Solving. TRO Learning Inc., Edina MN.  (PDF) Principles for Teaching Problem Solving (researchgate.net)
• Hayes, J.R. (1989). The Complete Problem Solver. 2nd Edition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Woods, D.R., Wright, J.D., Hoffman, T.W., Swartman, R.K., Doig, I.D. (1975). Teaching Problem solving Skills.
• Engineering Education. Vol 1, No. 1. p. 238. Washington, DC: The American Society for Engineering Education.

Catalog search

Teaching tip categories.

• Assessment and feedback
• Blended Learning and Educational Technologies
• Career Development
• Course Design
• Course Implementation
• Inclusive Teaching and Learning
• Learning activities
• Support for Student Learning
• Support for TAs
• Learning activities ,

• Faculty & Staff

Teaching problem solving

Strategies for teaching problem solving apply across disciplines and instructional contexts. First, introduce the problem and explain how people in your discipline generally make sense of the given information. Then, explain how to apply these approaches to solve the problem.

Introducing the problem

Explaining how people in your discipline understand and interpret these types of problems can help students develop the skills they need to understand the problem (and find a solution). After introducing how you would go about solving a problem, you could then ask students to:

• frame the problem in their own words
• define key terms and concepts
• determine statements that accurately represent the givens of a problem
• identify analogous problems
• determine what information is needed to solve the problem

Working on solutions

In the solution phase, one develops and then implements a coherent plan for solving the problem. As you help students with this phase, you might ask them to:

• identify the general model or procedure they have in mind for solving the problem
• set sub-goals for solving the problem
• identify necessary operations and steps
• draw conclusions
• carry out necessary operations

You can help students tackle a problem effectively by asking them to:

• systematically explain each step and its rationale
• explain how they would approach solving the problem
• help you solve the problem by posing questions at key points in the process
• work together in small groups (3 to 5 students) to solve the problem and then have the solution presented to the rest of the class (either by you or by a student in the group)

In all cases, the more you get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more you can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in your discipline.

What Is Problem-Based Learning?

By Maureen Leming

Take a little bit of creativity, add a dash of innovation, and sprinkle in some critical thinking. This recipe makes for a well-rounded and engaged student who's ready to tackle life beyond the classroom. It's called Problem-Based Learning (PBL), and it teaches concepts and inspires lifelong learning at the same time.

This open-ended problem-based learning style presents students with a real-world issue and asks them to come up with a well-constructed answer. They can tap into online resources, use their previously-taught knowledge, and ask critical questions to brainstorm and present a solid solution. Unlike traditional learning, there might not be just one right answer, but the process encourages young minds to stay active and think for themselves. 

We're all about the problem-based learning approach at The Hun School of Princeton . Through this article, you'll discover why — and what it looks like in real time.

An Overview of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a teaching style that pushes students to become the drivers of their learning education. 

Problem-based learning uses complex, real-world issues as the classroom's subject matter, encouraging students to develop problem-solving skills and learn concepts instead of just absorbing facts. 

This can take shape in a variety of different ways. For example, a problem-based learning project could involve students pitching ideas and creating their own business plans to solve a societal need. Students could work independently or in a group to conceptualize, design, and launch their innovative product in front of classmates and community leaders.

At the Hun School of Princeton, a problem-based learning mode is offered in conjunction with course content. This approach has been  shown to help students develop critical thinking and communication skills as well as problem-solving abilities.

Aspects of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning can be applied to any school subject, from social studies and literature to mathematics and science. No matter the field, a  good problem-based learning approach should embody features like :

• Challenging students to understand classroom concepts on a deeper level.
• Pushing students to make decisions they're able to defend.
• Clearly connecting current course objectives to previous courses and knowledge.
• Encouraging students to work as a group to solve the complex issue at hand.
• Engaging students to solve an open-ended problem in multiple complex stages.

Benefits of Student-Led, Problem-Based Learning

Student-led learning is one of the most empowering ways to seat students at the forefront of their own educational experience. 

It pushes students to be innovative, creative, open-minded, and logical. It also offers opportunities to collaborate with others in a hands-on, active way. 

As part of our immersive educational model, we've discovered many benefits of problem-based learning:

• Promote self-learning : As a student-centered approach, problem-based learning pushes kids to take initiative and responsibility for their own learning. As they're pushed to use research and creativity, they develop skills that will benefit them into adulthood.
• Highly engaging : Instead of sitting back, listening and taking notes, problem-based learning puts students in the driver's seat. They have to stay sharp, apply critical thinking, and think outside the box to solve problems. 
• Develop transferable skills: The abilities students develop don't just translate to one classroom or subject matter. They can be applied to a plethora of school subjects as well as life beyond, from taking leadership to solving real-world dilemmas.
• Improve teamwork abilities : Many problem-based learning projects have students collaborate with classmates to come up with a solution. This teamwork approach challenges kids to build skills like collaboration, communication, compromise, and listening.
• Encourage intrinsic rewards : With problem-based learning projects, the reward is much greater than simply an A on an assignment. Students earn the self-respect and satisfaction of knowing they've solved a riddle, created an innovative solution, or manufactured a tangible product.

Five Examples of Problem-Based Learning in Action

With a little context in mind, it's time to take a look at problem-based learning in the real world. One of the best parts of this learning style is that it's very flexible. You can adapt it to your classroom, content, and students. The following five examples are success stories of problem-based learning in action:

• Maritime discovery: Students explore maritime culture and history through visits to a nearby maritime museum. They're tasked with choosing a specific voyage, researching it, and crafting their own museum display. Throughout their studies, they'll create a captain's log, including mapping out voyages and building their own working sextant.
• Urban planning : Perfect for humanities classes, this example challenges students to observe and interview members of their community and determine the biggest local issue. They formulate practical solutions that they will then pitch to a panel of professional urban planners.
• Zoo habitats : This scientific example starts with a visit to a local zoo. Students use their observations and classroom knowledge to form teams and create research-supported habitat plans, presented to professional zoologists. 
• Codebreakers : Instead of regular math lessons, let students lead with a code-breaking problem-based learning assignment. Students take on the role of a security agent tasked with decrypting a message, coding a new one in return, and presenting their findings to the classroom.
• Financial advisors : Challenge students to step into the role of a financial advisor and decide how to spend an allotted amount of money in a way that most benefits their community. Have them present their solution and explain their reasoning to the class.

The Hun School: Problem-Based Learning in Action

The Hun School of Princeton brings problem-based learning to life in our classrooms. Our collaborative school culture places a unique emphasis on hands-on, skilled-based education. NextTerm is just one example of problem-based learning in action here at The Hun School. 

NextTerm gives students the opportunity to apply classroom knowledge to solve real-world problems on a local, national, and global scale. Take our Migration and Identity class, for example. Students in this course travel to the U.S.-Mexican border to speak directly to border patrol agents, ranchers, and immigrants in order to learn about the complex issue of migration straight from the source. Of course, this location is one of many that our students can explore. Our mandatory three-week mini-course , NextTerm , brings students beyond the campus and into a new environment, from domestic locations in Arizona, Montana, and Memphis to international locales in France and Ghana. 

At our campus in Princeton, Hun students explore a relevant issue in collaboration with each other and field experts. They could be learning about the complexity of Ghanian economics or experiencing the modern-day impact of French history. This real-world immersion gives new power to their knowledge and helps them see the link between the classroom and the world at large. As they solve problems, Hun students can develop as individuals and teammates.

Ready to learn more about The Hun School approach and see problem-based learning strategies at work?

Inquire about Hun or schedule a tour to see problem-based learning in action!

Request More Information

Why Every Educator Needs to Teach Problem-Solving Skills

Strong problem-solving skills will help students be more resilient and will increase their academic and career success .

Want to learn more about how to measure and teach students’ higher-order skills, including problem solving, critical thinking, and written communication?

Problem-solving skills are essential in school, careers, and life.

Problem-solving skills are important for every student to master. They help individuals navigate everyday life and find solutions to complex issues and challenges. These skills are especially valuable in the workplace, where employees are often required to solve problems and make decisions quickly and effectively.

Problem-solving skills are also needed for students’ personal growth and development because they help individuals overcome obstacles and achieve their goals. By developing strong problem-solving skills, students can improve their overall quality of life and become more successful in their personal and professional endeavors.

Problem-Solving Skills Help Students…

   develop resilience.

Problem-solving skills are an integral part of resilience and the ability to persevere through challenges and adversity. To effectively work through and solve a problem, students must be able to think critically and creatively. Critical and creative thinking help students approach a problem objectively, analyze its components, and determine different ways to go about finding a solution.  

This process in turn helps students build self-efficacy . When students are able to analyze and solve a problem, this increases their confidence, and they begin to realize the power they have to advocate for themselves and make meaningful change.

When students gain confidence in their ability to work through problems and attain their goals, they also begin to build a growth mindset . According to leading resilience researcher, Carol Dweck, “in a growth mindset, people believe that their most basic abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work—brains and talent are just the starting point. This view creates a love of learning and a resilience that is essential for great accomplishment.”

    Set and Achieve Goals

Students who possess strong problem-solving skills are better equipped to set and achieve their goals. By learning how to identify problems, think critically, and develop solutions, students can become more self-sufficient and confident in their ability to achieve their goals. Additionally, problem-solving skills are used in virtually all fields, disciplines, and career paths, which makes them important for everyone. Building strong problem-solving skills will help students enhance their academic and career performance and become more competitive as they begin to seek full-time employment after graduation or pursue additional education and training.

  Resolve Conflicts

In addition to increased social and emotional skills like self-efficacy and goal-setting, problem-solving skills teach students how to cooperate with others and work through disagreements and conflicts. Problem-solving promotes “thinking outside the box” and approaching a conflict by searching for different solutions. This is a very different (and more effective!) method than a more stagnant approach that focuses on placing blame or getting stuck on elements of a situation that can’t be changed.

While it’s natural to get frustrated or feel stuck when working through a conflict, students with strong problem-solving skills will be able to work through these obstacles, think more rationally, and address the situation with a more solution-oriented approach. These skills will be valuable for students in school, their careers, and throughout their lives.

    Achieve Success

We are all faced with problems every day. Problems arise in our personal lives, in school and in our jobs, and in our interactions with others. Employers especially are looking for candidates with strong problem-solving skills. In today’s job market, most jobs require the ability to analyze and effectively resolve complex issues. Students with strong problem-solving skills will stand out from other applicants and will have a more desirable skill set.

In a recent opinion piece published by The Hechinger Report , Virgel Hammonds, Chief Learning Officer at KnowledgeWorks, stated “Our world presents increasingly complex challenges. Education must adapt so that it nurtures problem solvers and critical thinkers.” Yet, the “traditional K–12 education system leaves little room for students to engage in real-world problem-solving scenarios.” This is the reason that a growing number of K–12 school districts and higher education institutions are transforming their instructional approach to personalized and competency-based learning, which encourage students to make decisions, problem solve and think critically as they take ownership of and direct their educational journey.

Problem-Solving Skills Can Be Measured and Taught

Research shows that problem-solving skills can be measured and taught. One effective method is through performance-based assessments which require students to demonstrate or apply their knowledge and higher-order skills to create a response or product or do a task.

What Are Performance-Based Assessments?

With the No Child Left Behind Act (2002), the use of standardized testing became the primary way to measure student learning in the U.S. The legislative requirements of this act shifted the emphasis to standardized testing, and this led to a  decline in nontraditional testing methods .

But   many educators, policy makers, and parents have concerns with standardized tests. Some of the top issues include that they don’t provide feedback on how students can perform better, they don’t value creativity, they are not representative of diverse populations, and they can be disadvantageous to lower-income students.

While standardized tests are still the norm, U.S. Secretary of Education Miguel Cardona is encouraging states and districts to move away from traditional multiple choice and short response tests and instead use performance-based assessment, competency-based assessments, and other more authentic methods of measuring students abilities and skills rather than rote learning. 

Performance-based assessments  measure whether students can apply the skills and knowledge learned from a unit of study. Typically, a performance task challenges students to use their higher-order skills to complete a project or process. Tasks can range from an essay to a complex proposal or design.

Preview a Performance-Based Assessment

Want a closer look at how performance-based assessments work?  Preview CAE’s K–12 and Higher Education assessments and see how CAE’s tools help students develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and written communication skills.

Performance-Based Assessments Help Students Build and Practice Problem-Solving Skills

In addition to effectively measuring students’ higher-order skills, including their problem-solving skills, performance-based assessments can help students practice and build these skills. Through the assessment process, students are given opportunities to practically apply their knowledge in real-world situations. By demonstrating their understanding of a topic, students are required to put what they’ve learned into practice through activities such as presentations, experiments, and simulations. 

This type of problem-solving assessment tool requires students to analyze information and choose how to approach the presented problems. This process enhances their critical thinking skills and creativity, as well as their problem-solving skills. Unlike traditional assessments based on memorization or reciting facts, performance-based assessments focus on the students’ decisions and solutions, and through these tasks students learn to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

Performance-based assessments like CAE’s College and Career Readiness Assessment (CRA+) and Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+) provide students with in-depth reports that show them which higher-order skills they are strongest in and which they should continue to develop. This feedback helps students and their teachers plan instruction and supports to deepen their learning and improve their mastery of critical skills.

Explore CAE’s Problem-Solving Assessments

CAE offers performance-based assessments that measure student proficiency in higher-order skills including problem solving, critical thinking, and written communication.

• College and Career Readiness Assessment (CCRA+) for secondary education and
• Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+) for higher education.

Our solution also includes instructional materials, practice models, and professional development.

We can help you create a program to build students’ problem-solving skills that includes:

• Measuring students’ problem-solving skills through a performance-based assessment    
• Using the problem-solving assessment data to inform instruction and tailor interventions
• Teaching students problem-solving skills and providing practice opportunities in real-life scenarios
• Supporting educators with quality professional development

Get started with our problem-solving assessment tools to measure and build students’ problem-solving skills today! These skills will be invaluable to students now and in the future.

Ready to Get Started?

Learn more about cae’s suite of products and let’s get started measuring and teaching students important higher-order skills like problem solving..

Problem based learning: a teacher's guide

December 10, 2021

Find out how teachers use problem-based learning models to improve engagement and drive attainment.

Main, P (2021, December 10). Problem based learning: a teacher's guide. Retrieved from https://www.structural-learning.com/post/problem-based-learning-a-teachers-guide

What is problem-based learning?

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a style of teaching that encourages students to become the drivers of their learning process . Problem-based learning involves complex learning issues from real-world problems and makes them the classroom's topic of discussion ; encouraging students to understand concepts through problem-solving skills rather than simply learning facts. When schools find time in the curriculum for this style of teaching it offers students an authentic vehicle for the integration of knowledge .

Embracing this pedagogical approach enables schools to balance subject knowledge acquisition with a skills agenda . Often used in medical education, this approach has equal significance in mainstream education where pupils can apply their knowledge to real-life problems. 

PBL is not only helpful in learning course content , but it can also promote the development of problem-solving abilities , critical thinking skills , and communication skills while providing opportunities to work in groups , find and analyse research materials , and take part in life-long learning .

PBL is a student-centred teaching method in which students understand a topic by working in groups. They work out an open-ended problem , which drives the motivation to learn. These sorts of theories of teaching do require schools to invest time and resources into supporting self-directed learning. Not all curriculum knowledge is best acquired through this process, rote learning still has its place in certain situations. In this article, we will look at how we can equip our students to take more ownership of the learning process and utilise more sophisticated ways for the integration of knowledge .

Philosophical Underpinnings of PBL

Problem-Based Learning (PBL), with its roots in the philosophies of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and Jerome Bruner, aligns closely with the social constructionist view of learning. This approach positions learners as active participants in the construction of knowledge, contrasting with traditional models of instruction where learners are seen as passive recipients of information.

Dewey, a seminal figure in progressive education, advocated for active learning and real-world problem-solving, asserting that learning is grounded in experience and interaction. In PBL, learners tackle complex, real-world problems, which mirrors Dewey's belief in the interconnectedness of education and practical life.

Montessori also endorsed learner-centric, self-directed learning, emphasizing the child's potential to construct their own learning experiences. This parallels with PBL’s emphasis on self-directed learning, where students take ownership of their learning process.

Jerome Bruner’s theories underscored the idea of learning as an active, social process. His concept of a 'spiral curriculum' – where learning is revisited in increasing complexity – can be seen reflected in the iterative problem-solving process in PBL.

Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK) framework aligns with PBL as it encourages higher-order cognitive skills. The complex tasks in PBL often demand analytical and evaluative skills (Webb's DOK levels 3 and 4) as students engage with the problem, devise a solution, and reflect on their work.

The effectiveness of PBL is supported by psychological theories like the information processing theory, which highlights the role of active engagement in enhancing memory and recall. A study by Strobel and Van Barneveld (2009) found that PBL students show improved retention of knowledge, possibly due to the deep cognitive processing involved.

As cognitive scientist Daniel Willingham aptly puts it, "Memory is the residue of thought." PBL encourages learners to think critically and deeply, enhancing both learning and retention.

Here's a quick overview:

• John Dewey : Emphasized learning through experience and the importance of problem-solving.
• Maria Montessori : Advocated for child-centered, self-directed learning.
• Jerome Bruner : Underlined learning as a social process and proposed the spiral curriculum.
• Webb’s DOK : Supports PBL's encouragement of higher-order thinking skills.
• Information Processing Theory : Reinforces the notion that active engagement in PBL enhances memory and recall.

This deep-rooted philosophical and psychological framework strengthens the validity of the problem-based learning approach, confirming its beneficial role in promoting valuable cognitive skills and fostering positive student learning outcomes.

What are the characteristics of problem-based learning?

Adding a little creativity can change a topic into a problem-based learning activity. The following are some of the characteristics of a good PBL model:

• The problem encourages students to search for a deeper understanding of content knowledge;
• Students are responsible for their learning. PBL has a student-centred learning approach . Students' motivation increases when responsibility for the process and solution to the problem rests with the learner;
• The problem motivates pupils to gain desirable learning skills and to defend well-informed decisions ;
• The problem connects the content learning goals with the previous knowledge. PBL allows students to access, integrate and study information from multiple disciplines that might relate to understanding and resolving a specific problem—just as persons in the real world recollect and use the application of knowledge that they have gained from diverse sources in their life.
• In a multistage project, the first stage of the problem must be engaging and open-ended to make students interested in the problem. In the real world, problems are poorly-structured. Research suggests that well-structured problems make students less invested and less motivated in the development of the solution. The problem simulations used in problem-based contextual learning are less structured to enable students to make a free inquiry.

• In a group project, the problem must have some level of complexity that motivates students towards knowledge acquisition and to work together for finding the solution. PBL involves collaboration between learners. In professional life, most people will find themselves in employment where they would work productively and share information with others. PBL leads to the development of such essential skills . In a PBL session, the teacher would ask questions to make sure that knowledge has been shared between pupils;
• At the end of each problem or PBL, self and peer assessments are performed. The main purpose of assessments is to sharpen a variety of metacognitive processing skills and to reinforce self-reflective learning.
• Student assessments would evaluate student progress towards the objectives of problem-based learning. The learning goals of PBL are both process-based and knowledge-based. Students must be assessed on both these dimensions to ensure that they are prospering as intended from the PBL approach. Students must be able to identify and articulate what they understood and what they learned.

Why is Problem-based learning a significant skill?

Using Problem-Based Learning across a school promotes critical competence, inquiry , and knowledge application in social, behavioural and biological sciences. Practice-based learning holds a strong track record of successful learning outcomes in higher education settings such as graduates of Medical Schools.

Educational models using PBL can improve learning outcomes by teaching students how to implement theory into practice and build problem-solving skills. For example, within the field of health sciences education, PBL makes the learning process for nurses and medical students self-centred and promotes their teamwork and leadership skills. Within primary and secondary education settings, this model of teaching, with the right sort of collaborative tools , can advance the wider skills development valued in society.

At Structural Learning, we have been developing a self-assessment tool designed to monitor the progress of children. Utilising these types of teaching theories curriculum wide can help a school develop the learning behaviours our students will need in the workplace.

Curriculum wide collaborative tools include Writers Block and the Universal Thinking Framework . Along with graphic organisers, these tools enable children to collaborate and entertain different perspectives that they might not otherwise see. Putting learning in action by using the block building methodology enables children to reach their learning goals by experimenting and iterating. 

How is problem-based learning different from inquiry-based learning?

The major difference between inquiry-based learning and PBL relates to the role of the teacher . In the case of inquiry-based learning, the teacher is both a provider of classroom knowledge and a facilitator of student learning (expecting/encouraging higher-order thinking). On the other hand, PBL is a deep learning approach, in which the teacher is the supporter of the learning process and expects students to have clear thinking, but the teacher is not the provider of classroom knowledge about the problem—the responsibility of providing information belongs to the learners themselves.

As well as being used systematically in medical education, this approach has significant implications for integrating learning skills into mainstream classrooms .

Using a critical thinking disposition inventory, schools can monitor the wider progress of their students as they apply their learning skills across the traditional curriculum. Authentic problems call students to apply their critical thinking abilities in new and purposeful ways. As students explain their ideas to one another, they develop communication skills that might not otherwise be nurtured.

Depending on the curriculum being delivered by a school, there may well be an emphasis on building critical thinking abilities in the classroom. Within the International Baccalaureate programs, these life-long skills are often cited in the IB learner profile . Critical thinking dispositions are highly valued in the workplace and this pedagogical approach can be used to harness these essential 21st-century skills.

What are the Benefits of Problem-Based Learning?

Student-led Problem-Based Learning is one of the most useful ways to make students drivers of their learning experience. It makes students creative, innovative, logical and open-minded. The educational practice of Problem-Based Learning also provides opportunities for self-directed and collaborative learning with others in an active learning and hands-on process. Below are the most significant benefits of problem-based learning processes:

• Self-learning: As a self-directed learning method, problem-based learning encourages children to take responsibility and initiative for their learning processes . As children use creativity and research, they develop skills that will help them in their adulthood.
• Engaging : Students don't just listen to the teacher, sit back and take notes. Problem-based learning processes encourages students to take part in learning activities, use learning resources , stay active , think outside the box and apply critical thinking skills to solve problems.
• Teamwork : Most of the problem-based learning issues involve students collaborative learning to find a solution. The educational practice of PBL builds interpersonal skills, listening and communication skills and improves the skills of collaboration and compromise.
• Intrinsic Rewards: In most problem-based learning projects, the reward is much bigger than good grades. Students gain the pride and satisfaction of finding an innovative solution, solving a riddle, or creating a tangible product.
• Transferable Skills: The acquisition of knowledge through problem-based learning strategies don't just help learners in one class or a single subject area. Students can apply these skills to a plethora of subject matter as well as in real life.
• Multiple Learning Opportunities : A PBL model offers an open-ended problem-based acquisition of knowledge, which presents a real-world problem and asks learners to come up with well-constructed responses. Students can use multiple sources such as they can access online resources, using their prior knowledge, and asking momentous questions to brainstorm and come up with solid learning outcomes. Unlike traditional approaches , there might be more than a single right way to do something, but this process motivates learners to explore potential solutions whilst staying active.

Embracing problem-based learning

Problem-based learning can be seen as a deep learning approach and when implemented effectively as part of a broad and balanced curriculum , a successful teaching strategy in education. PBL has a solid epistemological and philosophical foundation and a strong track record of success in multiple areas of study. Learners must experience problem-based learning methods and engage in positive solution-finding activities. PBL models allow learners to gain knowledge through real-world problems, which offers more strength to their understanding and helps them find the connection between classroom learning and the real world at large.

As they solve problems, students can evolve as individuals and team-mates. One word of caution, not all classroom tasks will lend themselves to this learning theory. Take spellings , for example, this is usually delivered with low-stakes quizzing through a practice-based learning model. PBL allows students to apply their knowledge creatively but they need to have a certain level of background knowledge to do this, rote learning might still have its place after all.

Key Concepts and considerations for school leaders

1. Problem Based Learning (PBL)

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an educational method that involves active student participation in solving authentic problems. Students are given a task or question that they must answer using their prior knowledge and resources. They then collaborate with each other to come up with solutions to the problem. This collaborative effort leads to deeper learning than traditional lectures or classroom instruction .

Key question: Inside a traditional curriculum , what opportunities across subject areas do you immediately see?

2. Deep Learning

Deep learning is a term used to describe the ability to learn concepts deeply. For example, if you were asked to memorize a list of numbers, you would probably remember the first five numbers easily, but the last number would be difficult to recall. However, if you were taught to understand the concept behind the numbers, you would be able to remember the last number too.

Key question: How will you make sure that students use a full range of learning styles and learning skills ?

3. Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of knowledge . It examines the conditions under which something counts as knowledge.

Key question:  As well as focusing on critical thinking dispositions, what subject knowledge should the students understand?

4. Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general truths about human life. Philosophers examine questions such as “What makes us happy?”, “How should we live our lives?”, and “Why does anything exist?”

Key question: Are there any opportunities for embracing philosophical enquiry into the project to develop critical thinking abilities ?

5. Curriculum

A curriculum is a set of courses designed to teach specific subjects. These courses may include mathematics , science, social studies, language arts, etc.

Key question: How will subject leaders ensure that the integrity of the curriculum is maintained?

6. Broad and Balanced Curriculum

Broad and balanced curricula are those that cover a wide range of topics. Some examples of these types of curriculums include AP Biology, AP Chemistry, AP English Language, AP Physics 1, AP Psychology , AP Spanish Literature, AP Statistics, AP US History, AP World History, IB Diploma Programme, IB Primary Years Program, IB Middle Years Program, IB Diploma Programme .

Key question: Are the teachers who have identified opportunities for a problem-based curriculum?

7. Successful Teaching Strategy

Successful teaching strategies involve effective communication techniques, clear objectives, and appropriate assessments. Teachers must ensure that their lessons are well-planned and organized. They must also provide opportunities for students to interact with one another and share information.

Key question: What pedagogical approaches and teaching strategies will you use?

8. Positive Solution Finding

Positive solution finding is a type of problem-solving where students actively seek out answers rather than passively accept what others tell them.

Key question: How will you ensure your problem-based curriculum is met with a positive mindset from students and teachers?

9. Real World Application

Real-world application refers to applying what students have learned in class to situations that occur in everyday life.

Key question: Within your local school community , are there any opportunities to apply knowledge and skills to real-life problems?

10. Creativity

Creativity is the ability to think of ideas that no one else has thought of yet. Creative thinking requires divergent thinking, which means thinking in different directions.

Key question: What teaching techniques will you use to enable children to generate their own ideas ?

11. Teamwork

Teamwork is the act of working together towards a common goal. Teams often consist of two or more people who work together to achieve a shared objective.

Key question: What opportunities are there to engage students in dialogic teaching methods where they talk their way through the problem?

12. Knowledge Transfer

Knowledge transfer occurs when teachers use their expertise to help students develop skills and abilities .

Key question: Can teachers be able to track the success of the project using improvement scores?

13. Active Learning

Active learning is any form of instruction that engages students in the learning process. Examples of active learning include group discussions, role-playing, debates, presentations, and simulations .

Key question: Will there be an emphasis on learning to learn and developing independent learning skills ?

14. Student Engagement

Student engagement is the degree to which students feel motivated to participate in academic activities.

Key question: Are there any tools available to monitor student engagement during the problem-based curriculum ?

Enhance Learner Outcomes Across Your School

Download an Overview of our Support and Resources

We'll send it over now.

Please fill in the details so we can send over the resources.

What type of school are you?

We'll get you the right resource

Is your school involved in any staff development projects?

Are your colleagues running any research projects or courses?

Do you have any immediate school priorities?

Please check the ones that apply.

Download your resource

Thanks for taking the time to complete this form, submit the form to get the tool.

Classroom Practice

Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?

• Published: September 2004
• Volume 16 , pages 235–266, ( 2004 )

Cite this article

• Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver 1  

46k Accesses

2077 Citations

259 Altmetric

32 Mentions

Explore all metrics

Problem-based approaches to learning have a long history of advocating experience-based education. Psychological research and theory suggests that by having students learn through the experience of solving problems, they can learn both content and thinking strategies. Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method in which students learn through facilitated problem solving. In PBL, student learning centers on a complex problem that does not have a single correct answer. Students work in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn in order to solve a problem. They engage in self-directed learning (SDL) and then apply their new knowledge to the problem and reflect on what they learned and the effectiveness of the strategies employed. The teacher acts to facilitate the learning process rather than to provide knowledge. The goals of PBL include helping students develop 1) flexible knowledge, 2) effective problem-solving skills, 3) SDL skills, 4) effective collaboration skills, and 5) intrinsic motivation. This article discusses the nature of learning in PBL and examines the empirical evidence supporting it. There is considerable research on the first 3 goals of PBL but little on the last 2. Moreover, minimal research has been conducted outside medical and gifted education. Understanding how these goals are achieved with less skilled learners is an important part of a research agenda for PBL. The evidence suggests that PBL is an instructional approach that offers the potential to help students develop flexible understanding and lifelong learning skills.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Motivating students in competency-based education programmes: designing blended learning environments

Online learning in higher education: exploring advantages and disadvantages for engagement

The Effects of Problem-Based, Project-Based, and Case-Based Learning on Students’ Motivation: a Meta-Analysis

Abrandt Dahlgren, M., and Dahlgren, L. O. (2002). Portraits of PBL: Students' experiences of the characteristics of problem-based learning in physiotherapy, computer engineering, and psychology. Instr. Sci. 30: 111-127.

Google Scholar  

Albanese, M. A., and Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Acad. Med. 68: 52-81.

Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. J. Educ. Psychol. 84: 261-271.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control , Freeman, New York.

Barron, B. J. S. (2002). Achieving coordination in collaborative problem-solving groups. J. Learn. Sci. 9: 403-437.

Barrows, H. S. (2000). Problem-Based Learning Applied to Medical Education , Southern Illinois University Press, Springfield.

Barrows, H., and Kelson, A. C. (1995). Problem-Based Learning in Secondary Education and the Problem-Based Learning Institute (Monograph 1), Problem-Based Learning Institute, Springfield, IL.

Barrows, H. S., and Tamblyn, R. (1980). Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to Medical Education , Springer, New York.

Bereiter, C., and Scardamalia, M. (1989). Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In Resnick, L. B. (ed.), Knowing, Learning, and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser , Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 361-392.

Biggs, J. B. (1985). The role of metalearning in study processes. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 55: 185-212.

Blumberg, P., and Michael, J. A. (1992). Development of self-directed learning behaviors in a partially teacher-directed problem-based learning curriculum. Teach. Learn. Med. 4: 3-8.

Blumenfeld, P. C., Marx, R. W., Soloway, E., and Krajcik, J. S. (1996). Learning with peers: From small group cooperation to collaborative communities. Educ. Res. 25(8): 37-40.

Boud, D., and Feletti, G. (1991). The Challenge of Problem Based Learning , St. Martin's Press, New York.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., and Cocking, R. (2000). How People Learn , National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

Bransford, J. D., and McCarrell, N. S. (1977). A sketch of a cognitive approach to comprehension: Some thoughts about understanding what it means to comprehend. In Johnson-Laird, P. N., and Wason, P. C. (eds.), Thinking: Readings in Cognitive Science , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 377-399.

Bransford, J. D., Vye, N., Kinzer, C., and Risko, R. (1990). Teaching thinking and content knowledge: Toward an integrated approach. In Jones, B. F., and Idol, L. (eds.), Dimensions of Thinking and Cognitive Instruction , Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 381-413.

Bridges, E. M. (1992). Problem-Based Learning for Administrators , ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, Eugene, OR.

Brown, A. L. (1995). The advancement of learning. Educ. Res. 23(8): 4-12.

Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., and Glaser, R. (1989). Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cogn. Sci. 13: 145-182.

Chi, M. T. H., DeLeeuw, N., Chiu, M., and LaVancher, C. (1994). Eliciting self-explanations improves understanding. Cogn. Sci. 18: 439-477.

Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P., and Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cogn. Sci. 5: 121-152.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1997). The Jasper Project: Lessons in Curriculum, Instruction, Assessment, and Professional Development , Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.

Cohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Rev. Educ. Res. 64: 1-35.

Collins, A., Brown, J. S., and Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In Resnick, L. B. (ed.), Knowing, Learning, and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser , Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 453-494.

DeGrave, W. S., Boshuizen, H. P. A., and Schmidt, H. G. (1996). Problem-based learning: Cognitive and metacognitive processes during problem analysis. Instr. Sci. 24: 321-341.

Derry, S. J., Lee, J., Kim, J.-B., Seymour, J., and Steinkuehler, C. A. (2001, April). From ambitious vision to partially satisfying reality: Community and collaboration in teacher education . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA.

Derry, S. J., Levin, J. R., Osana, H. P., Jones, M. S., and Peterson, M. (2000). Fostering students' statistical and scientific thinking: Lessons learned from an innovative college course. Am. Educ. Res. J. 37: 747-773.

Derry, S. J., Siegel, M., Stampen, J., and the STEP team (2002). The STEP system for collaborative case-based teacher education: Design, evaluation, and future directions. In Stahl, G. (ed.), Proceedings of CSCL 2002 , Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 209-216.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education , Macmillan, New York.

Dochy, F., Segers, M., Van den Bossche, P., and Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis. Learn. Instr. 13: 533-568.

Dods, R. F. (1997). An action research study of the effectiveness of problem-based learning in promoting the acquisition and retention of knowledge. J. Educ. Gifted 20: 423-437.

Dolmans, D. H. J. M., and Schmidt, H. G. (2000). What directs self-directed learning in a problem-based curriculum? In Evensen, D. H., and Hmelo, C. E. (eds.), Problem-Based Learning: A Research Perspective on Learning Interactions Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 251-262.

Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E., and Allen, D. E. (2001). The Power of Problem-Based Learning , Stylus, Steerling, VA.

Dweck, C. S. (1991). Self-theories and goals: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. In Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1990 , University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp. 199-235.

Ertmer, P., Newby, T. J., and MacDougall, M. (1996). Students' responses and approaches to case-based instruction: The role of reflective self-regulation. Am. Educ. Res. J. 33: 719-752.

Evensen, D. (2000). Observing self-directed learners in a problem-based learning context: Two case studies. In Evensen, D., and Hmelo, C. E. (eds.), Problem-Based Learning: A Research Perspective on Learning Interactions , Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 263-298.

Evensen, D. H., Salisbury-Glennon, J., and Glenn, J. (2001). A qualitative study of 6 medical students in a problem-based curriculum: Towards a situated model of self-regulation. J. Educ. Psychol. 93: 659-676.

Faidley, J., Evensen, D. H., Salisbury-Glennon, J., Glenn, J., and Hmelo, C. E. (2000). How are we doing? Methods of assessing group processing in a problem-based learning context. In Evensen, D. H., and Hmelo, C. E. (eds.), Problem-Based Learning: A Research Perspective on Learning Interactions , Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 109-135.

Ferrari, M., and Mahalingham, R. (1998). Personal cognitive development and its implications for teaching and learning. Educ. Psychol. 33: 35-44.

Gallagher, S., and Stepien, W. (1996). Content acquisition in problem-based learning: Depth versus breadth in American studies. J. Educ. Gifted 19: 257-275.

Gallagher, S. A., Stepien, W. J., and Rosenthal, H. (1992). The effects of problem-based learning on problem solving. Gifted Child Q. 36: 195-200.

Gick, M. L., and Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cogn. Psychol. 12: 306-355.

Gick, M. L., and Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cogn. Psychol. 15: 1-38.

Goodman, L. J., Erich, E., Brueschke, E. E., Bone, R. C., Rose, W. H., Williams, E. J., and Paul, H. A. (1991). An experiment in medical education: A critical analysis using traditional criteria. JAMA 265: 2373-2376.

Greeno, J. G., Collins, A., and Resnick, L. B. (1996). Cognition and learning. In Berliner, D. C., and Calfee, R. C. (eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology , Macmillan, New York, pp. 15-46.

Hmelo, C. E. (1994). Development of Independent Thinking and Learning Skills: A Study of Medical Problem-Solving and Problem-Based Learning , Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.

Hmelo, C. E. (1998). Problem-based learning: Effects on the early acquisition of cognitive skill in medicine. J. Learn. Sci. 7: 173-208.

Hmelo, C. E., and Ferrari, M. (1997). The problem-based learning tutorial: Cultivating higher-order thinking skills. J. Educ. Gifted 20: 401-422.

Hmelo, C. E., Gotterer, G. S., and Bransford, J. D. (1997). A theory-driven approach to assessing the cognitive effects of PBL. Instr. Sci. 25: 387-408.

Hmelo, C. E., and Guzdial, M. (1996). Of black and glass boxes: Scaffolding for learning and doing. In Edelson, D. C., and Domeshek, E. A. (eds.), Proceedings of ICLS 96 , AACE, Charlottesville, VA, pp. 128-134.

Hmelo, C. E., Holton, D., and Kolodner, J. L. (2000). Designing to learn about complex systems. J. Learn. Sci. 9: 247-298.

Hmelo, C. E., and Lin, X. (2000). The development of self-directed learning strategies in problem-based learning. In Evensen, D., and Hmelo, C. E. (eds.), Problem-Based Learning: Research Perspectives on Learning Interactions , Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 227-250.

Hmelo, C., Shikano, T., Bras, B., Mulholland, J., Realff, M., and Vanegas, J. (1995). A problem-based course in sustainable technology. In Budny, D., Herrick, R., Bjedov, G., and Perry, J. B. (eds.), Frontiers in Education 1995 , American Society for Engineering Education, Washington, DC.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2000). Knowledge recycling: Crisscrossing the landscape of educational psychology in a Problem-Based Learning Course for Preservice Teachers. J. Excell. Coll. Teach. 11: 41-56.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2002). Collaborative ways of knowing: Issues in facilitation. In Stahl, G. (ed.), Proceedings of CSCL 2002 , Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 199-208.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., and Barrows, H. S. (2003). Facilitating collaborative ways of knowing . Manuscript submitted for publication.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., and Barrows, H.S. (2002, April). Goals and strategies of a constructivist teacher . Paper presented at American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.

Kilpatrick, W. H. (1918). The project method. Teach. Coll. Rec. 19: 319-335.

Kilpatrick, W. H. (1921). Dangers and difficulties of the project method and how to overcome them: Introductory statement: Definition of terms. Teach. Coll. Rec. 22: 282-288.

Kolodner, J. L. (1993). Case-Based Reasoning , Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, CA.

Kolodner, J. L., Hmelo, C. E., and Narayanan, N. H. (1996). Problem-based learning meets case-based reasoning. In Edelson, D. C., and Domeshek, E. A. (eds.), Proceedings of ICLS 96 , AACE, Charlottesville, VA, pp. 188-195.

Koschmann, T. D., Myers, A. C., Feltovich, P. J., and Barrows, H. S. (1994). Using technology to assist in realizing effective learning and instruction: A principled approach to the use of computers in collaborative learning. J. Learn. Sci. 3: 225-262.

Krajcik, J., Blumenfeld, P., Marx, R., and Soloway, E. (2000). Instructional, curricular, and technological supports for inquiry in science classrooms. In Minstrell, J., and Van Zee, E. H. (eds.), Inquiring Into Inquiry Learning and Teaching in Science , American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, DC, pp. 283-315.

Krajcik, J., Marx, R., Blumenfeld, P., Soloway, E., and Fishman, B. (2000, April). Inquiry-based science supported by technology: Achievement among urban middle school students . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Lampert, M. (2001). Teaching Problems and the Problems of Teaching , Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

Leontiev, A. N. (1978). Activity, Consciousness, and Personality (M. J. Hall, Trans.), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Lesgold, A., Rubinson, H., Feltovich, P., Glaser, R., Klopfer, D., and Wang, Y. (1988). Expertise in a complex skill: Diagnosing x-ray pictures. In Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R., and Farr, M. J. (eds.), The Nature of Expertise , Erlbaum. Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 311-342.

Linn, M. C., and Hsi, S. (2000). Computers, Teachers, Peers: Science Learning Partners , Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.

Mennin, S. P., Friedman, M., Skipper, B., Kalishman, S., and Snyder, J. (1993). Performances on the NBME I, II, and III by medical students in the problem-based and conventional tracks at the University of New Mexico. Acad. Med. 68: 616-624.

Needham, D. R., and Begg, I. M. (1991). Problem-oriented training promotes spontaneous analogical transfer. Memory-oriented training promotes memory for training. Mem. Cogn. 19: 543-557.

Norman, G. R., Brooks, L. R., Colle, C., and Hatala, H. (1998). Relative effectiveness of instruction in forward and backward reasoning . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA.

Norman, G. R., Trott, A. D., Brooks, L. R., and Smith, E. K. (1994). Cognitive differences in clinical reasoning related to postgraduate training. Teach. Learn. Med. 6: 114-120.

Novick, L. R., and Hmelo, C. E. (1994). Transferring symbolic representations across nonisomorphic problems. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 20: 1296-1321.

Novick, L. R., and Holyoak, K. J. (1991). Mathematical problem solving by analogy. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 17: 398-415.

O'Donnell, A. M. (1999). Structuring dyadic interaction through scripted cooperation. In O'Donnell, A. M., and King, A. (eds.), Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning , Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 179-196.

Palincsar, A. S., and Herrenkohl, L. R. (1999). Designing collaborative contexts: Lessons from three research programs. In O'Donnell, A. M., and King, A. (eds.), Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning ,Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 151-178.

Patel, V. L., Groen, G. J., and Norman, G. R. (1991). Effects of conventional and problem-based medical curricula on problem solving. Acad. Med. 66: 380-389.

Patel, V. L., Groen, G. J., and Norman, G. R. (1993). Reasoning and instruction in medical curricula. Cogn. Instr. 10: 335-378.

Pea, R. D. (1993). Practices of distributed intelligence and designs for education. In Salomon, G., and Perkins, D. (eds.), Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations , Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 47-87.

Perfetto, G. A., Bransford, J. D., and Franks, J. J. (1983). Constraints on access in a problem-solving context. Mem. Cogn. 11: 24-31.

Puntambekar, S., and Kolodner, J. L. (1998). The design diary: A tool to support students in learning science by design. In Bruckman, A. S., Guzdial, M., Kolodner, J., and Ram, A. (eds.), Proceedings of ICLS 98 , AACE, Charlottesville, VA, pp. 230-236.

Ram, P. (1999). Problem-based learning in undergraduate instruction: A sophomore chemistry laboratory. J. Chem. Educ. 76: 1122-1126.

Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education , Routledge, New York.

Salomon, G. (1993). No distribution without individual cognition: A dynamic interactional view. In Salomon, G., and Perkins, D. (eds.), Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations ,Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 111-138.

Salomon, G., and Perkins, D. N. (1989). Rocky roads to transfer: Rethinking mechanisms of a neglected phenomenon. Educ. Psychol. 24: 113-142.

Schmidt, H. G., DeVolder, M. L., De Grave, W. S., Moust, J. H. C., and Patel, V. L. (1989). Explanatory models in the processing of science text: The role of prior knowledge activation through small-group discussion. J. Educ. Psychol. 81: 610-619.

Schmidt, H. G., Machiels-Bongaerts, M., Hermans, H., ten Cate, T. J., Venekamp, R., and Boshuizen, H. P. A. (1996). The development of diagnostic competence: Comparison of a problem-based, an integrated, and a conventional medical curriculum. Acad. Med. 71: 658-664.

Schmidt, H. G., and Moust, J. H. C. (2000). Factors affecting small-group tutorial learning: A review of research. In Evensen, D., and Hmelo, C. E. (eds.), Problem-Based Learning: A Research Perspective on Learning Interactions , Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 19-51.

Schwartz, D. L., and Bransford, J. D. (1998). A time for telling. Cogn. Instr. 16: 475-522.

Schoenfeld, A. H. (1985). Mathematical Problem Solving , Academic Press, Orlando, FL.

Shikano, T., and Hmelo, C. E. (1996, April). Students' learning strategies in a problem-based curriculum for sustainable technology . Paper presented at American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, New York.

Steinkuehler, C. A., Derry, S. J., Hmelo-Silver, C. E., and DelMarcelle, M. (2002). Cracking the resource nut with distributed problem-based learning in secondary teacher education. J. Distance Educ. 23: 23-39.

Stepien, W. J., and Gallagher, S. A. (1993). Problem-based learning: As authentic as it gets. Educ. Leadersh. 50(7): 25-29.

Torp, L., and Sage, S. (2002). Problems as Possibilities: Problem-Based Learning for K-12 Education , 2nd edn., ASCD, Alexandria, VA.

Vernon, D. T., and Blake, R. L. (1993). Does problem-based learning work?: A meta-analysis of evaluative research. Acad. Med. 68: 550-563.

Vye, N. J., Goldman, S. R., Voss, J. F., Hmelo, C., and Williams, S. (1997). Complex math problem-solving by individuals and dyads: When and why are two heads better than one? Cogn. Instr. 15: 435-484.

Webb, N. M., and Palincsar, A. S. (1996). Group processes in the classroom. In Berliner, D., and Calfee, R. (eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology , MacMillan, New York, pp. 841-876.

Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity , Cambridge University Press, New York.

White, B. Y., and Frederiksen, J. R. (1998). Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: Making science accessible to all students. Cogn. Instr. 16: 3-118.

Williams, S. M. (1992). Putting case based learning into context: Examples from legal, business, and medical education. J. Learn. Sci. 2: 367-427.

Williams, S. M., Bransford, J. D., Vye, N. J., Goldman, S. R., and Carlson, K. (1993). Positive and negative effects of specific knowledge on mathematical problem solving . Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA.

Zimmerman, B. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Pract . 41, 64-71.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Educational Psychology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey

Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Hmelo-Silver, C.E. Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?. Educational Psychology Review 16 , 235–266 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3

Download citation

Issue Date : September 2004

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• problem-based learning
• constructivist learning environments
• learning processes
• problem solving
• self-directed learning
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• CRLT Consultation Services
• Consultation
• Midterm Student Feedback
• Classroom Observation
• Teaching Philosophy
• Upcoming Events and Seminars
• CRLT Calendar
• Orientations
• Teaching Academies
• Provost's Seminars
• Past Events
• For Faculty
• For Grad Students & Postdocs
• For Chairs, Deans & Directors
• Customized Workshops & Retreats
• Assessment, Curriculum, & Learning Analytics Services
• CRLT in Engineering
• CRLT Players
• Foundational Course Initiative
• CRLT Grants
• Other U-M Grants
• Provost's Teaching Innovation Prize
• U-M Teaching Awards
• Retired Grants
• Staff Directory
• Faculty Advisory Board
• Annual Report
• Equity-Focused Teaching
• Preparing to Teach
• Teaching Strategies
• Testing and Grading
• Teaching with Technology
• Teaching Philosophy & Statements
• Training GSIs
• Evaluation of Teaching
• Occasional Papers

Case-based Teaching and Problem-based Learning

Case-based teaching.

With case-based teaching, students develop skills in analytical thinking and reflective judgment by reading and discussing complex, real-life scenarios. The articles in this section explain how to use cases in teaching and provide case studies for the natural sciences, social sciences, and other disciplines.

Teaching with Case Studies (Stanford University)

This article from the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning describes the rationale for using case studies, the process for choosing appropriate cases, and tips for how to implement them in college courses.

The Case Method (University of Illinois)

Tips for teachers on how to be successful using the Case Method in the college/university classroom. Includes information about the Case Method values, uses, and additional resource links.

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (National Science Teaching Association)

This site offers resources and examples specific to teaching in the sciences. This includes the “UB Case Study Collection,” an extensive list of ready-to-use cases in a variety of science disciplines. Each case features a PDF handout describing the case, as well as teaching notes.

The Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative (CRLT Occasional Paper)

This paper describes the Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative, including links to the full library of cases, and it offers advice both for writing cases and facilitating case discussions effectively.

The Case Method and the Interactive Classroom (Foran, 2001, NEA Higher Education Journal)

First-person account of how a sociology faculty member at University of California, Santa Barbara began using case studies in his teaching and how his methods have evolved over time as a professor.

Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is both a teaching method and an approach to the curriculum. It consists of carefully designed problems that challenge students to use problem solving techniques, self-directed learning strategies, team participation skills, and disciplinary knowledge. The articles and links in this section describe the characteristics and objectives of PBL and the process for using PBL. There is also a list of printed and web resources.

Problem-Based Learning Network (Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy)

Site includes an interactive PBL Model, Professional Development links, and video vignettes to illustrate how to effectively use problem-based learning in the classroom. The goals of IMSA's PBLNetwork are to mentor educators in all disciplines, to explore problem-based learning strategies, and to connect PBL educators to one another.

Problem-Based Learning: An Introduction (Rhem, 1998, National Teaching and Learning Forum)

This piece summarizes the benefits of using problem-based learning, its historical origins, and the faculty/student roles in PBL. Overall, this is an easy to read introduction to problem-based learning.

Problem-Based Learning (Stanford University, 2001)

This issue of Speaking of Teaching identifies the central features of PBL, provides some guidelines for planning a PBL course, and discusses the impact of PBL on student learning and motivation.

Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse (University of Delaware)

Collection of peer reviewed problems and articles to assist educators in using problem-based learning. Teaching notes and supplemental materials accompany each problem, providing insights and strategies that are innovative and classroom-tested. Free registration is required to view and download the Clearinghouse’s resources.

See also: The International Journal of Problem-Based Learning

Contact CRLT

location_on University of Michigan 1071 Palmer Commons 100 Washtenaw Ave. Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2218

phone Phone: (734) 764-0505

description Fax: (734) 647-3600

email Email: [email protected]

Connect with CRLT

directions Directions to CRLT

group Staff Directory

markunread_mailbox Subscribe to our Blog

5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Problem-Based Learning [+ Activity Design Steps]

Written by Marcus Guido

Easily differentiate learning and engage your students with Prodigy Math.

• Teaching Strategies

Advantages of Problem-Based Learning

Disadvantages of problem-based learning, steps to designing problem-based learning activities.

Used since the 1960s, many teachers express concerns about the effectiveness of problem-based learning (PBL) in certain classroom settings.

Whether you introduce the student-centred pedagogy as a one-time activity or mainstay exercise, grouping students together to solve open-ended problems can present pros and cons.

Below are five advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning to help you determine if it can work in your classroom.

If you decide to introduce an activity, there are also design creation steps and a downloadable guide to keep at your desk for easy reference.

1. Development of Long-Term Knowledge Retention

Students who participate in problem-based learning activities can improve their abilities to retain and recall information, according to a literature review of studies about the pedagogy .

The literature review states “elaboration of knowledge at the time of learning” -- by sharing facts and ideas through discussion and answering questions -- “enhances subsequent retrieval.” This form of elaborating reinforces understanding of subject matter , making it easier to remember.

Small-group discussion can be especially beneficial -- ideally, each student will get chances to participate.

But regardless of group size, problem-based learning promotes long-term knowledge retention by encouraging students to discuss -- and answer questions about -- new concepts as they’re learning them.

2. Use of Diverse Instruction Types

You can use problem-based learning activities to the meet the diverse learning needs and styles of your students, effectively engaging a diverse classroom in the process. In general, grouping students together for problem-based learning will allow them to:

• Address real-life issues that require real-life solutions, appealing to students who struggle to grasp abstract concepts
• Participate in small-group and large-group learning, helping students who don’t excel during solo work grasp new material
• Talk about their ideas and challenge each other in a constructive manner, giving participatory learners an avenue to excel
• Tackle a problem using a range of content you provide -- such as videos, audio recordings, news articles and other applicable material -- allowing the lesson to appeal to distinct learning styles

Since running a problem-based learning scenario will give you a way to use these differentiated instruction approaches , it can be especially worthwhile if your students don’t have similar learning preferences.

3. Continuous Engagement

Providing a problem-based learning challenge can engage students by acting as a break from normal lessons and common exercises.

It’s not hard to see the potential for engagement, as kids collaborate to solve real-world problems that directly affect or heavily interest them.

Although conducted with post-secondary students, a study published by the Association for the Study of Medical Education reported increased student attendance to -- and better attitudes towards -- courses that feature problem-based learning.

These activities may lose some inherent engagement if you repeat them too often, but can certainly inject excitement into class.

4. Development of Transferable Skills

Problem-based learning can help students develop skills they can transfer to real-world scenarios, according to a 2015 book that outlines theories and characteristics of the pedagogy .

The tangible contexts and consequences presented in a problem-based learning activity “allow learning to become more profound and durable.” As you present lessons through these real-life scenarios, students should be able to apply learnings if they eventually face similar issues.

For example, if they work together to address a dispute within the school, they may develop lifelong skills related to negotiation and communicating their thoughts with others.

As long as the problem’s context applies to out-of-class scenarios, students should be able to build skills they can use again.

5. Improvement of Teamwork and Interpersonal Skills

Successful completion of a problem-based learning challenge hinges on interaction and communication, meaning students should also build transferable skills based on teamwork and collaboration . Instead of memorizing facts, they get chances to present their ideas to a group, defending and revising them when needed.

What’s more, this should help them understand a group dynamic. Depending on a given student, this can involve developing listening skills and a sense of responsibility when completing one’s tasks. Such skills and knowledge should serve your students well when they enter higher education levels and, eventually, the working world.

1. Potentially Poorer Performance on Tests

Devoting too much time to problem-based learning can cause issues when students take standardized tests, as they may not have the breadth of knowledge needed to achieve high scores. Whereas problem-based learners develop skills related to collaboration and justifying their reasoning, many tests reward fact-based learning with multiple choice and short answer questions. Despite offering many advantages, you could spot this problem develop if you run problem-based learning activities too regularly.

2. Student Unpreparedness

Problem-based learning exercises can engage many of your kids, but others may feel disengaged as a result of not being ready to handle this type of exercise for a number of reasons. On a class-by-class and activity-by-activity basis, participation may be hindered due to:

• Immaturity  -- Some students may not display enough maturity to effectively work in a group, not fulfilling expectations and distracting other students.
• Unfamiliarity  -- Some kids may struggle to grasp the concept of an open problem, since they can’t rely on you for answers.
• Lack of Prerequisite Knowledge  -- Although the activity should address a relevant and tangible problem, students may require new or abstract information to create an effective solution.

You can partially mitigate these issues by actively monitoring the classroom and distributing helpful resources, such as guiding questions and articles to read. This should keep students focused and help them overcome knowledge gaps. But if you foresee facing these challenges too frequently, you may decide to avoid or seldom introduce problem-based learning exercises.

3. Teacher Unpreparedness

If supervising a problem-based learning activity is a new experience, you may have to prepare to adjust some teaching habits . For example, overtly correcting students who make flawed assumptions or statements can prevent them from thinking through difficult concepts and questions. Similarly, you shouldn’t teach to promote the fast recall of facts. Instead, you should concentrate on:

• Giving hints to help fix improper reasoning
• Questioning student logic and ideas in a constructive manner
• Distributing content for research and to reinforce new concepts
• Asking targeted questions to a group or the class, focusing their attention on a specific aspect of the problem

Depending on your teaching style, it may take time to prepare yourself to successfully run a problem-based learning lesson.

4. Time-Consuming Assessment

If you choose to give marks, assessing a student’s performance throughout a problem-based learning exercise demands constant monitoring and note-taking. You must take factors into account such as:

• Completed tasks
• The quality of those tasks
• The group’s overall work and solution
• Communication among team members
• Anything you outlined on the activity’s rubric

Monitoring these criteria is required for each student, making it time-consuming to give and justify a mark for everyone.

5. Varying Degrees of Relevancy and Applicability

It can be difficult to identify a tangible problem that students can solve with content they’re studying and skills they’re mastering. This introduces two clear issues. First, if it is easy for students to divert from the challenge’s objectives, they may miss pertinent information. Second, you could veer off the problem’s focus and purpose as students run into unanticipated obstacles. Overcoming obstacles has benefits, but may compromise the planning you did. It can also make it hard to get back on track once the activity is complete. Because of the difficulty associated with keeping activities relevant and applicable, you may see problem-based learning as too taxing.

If the advantages outweigh the disadvantages -- or you just want to give problem-based learning a shot -- follow these steps:

1. Identify an Applicable Real-Life Problem

Find a tangible problem that’s relevant to your students, allowing them to easily contextualize it and hopefully apply it to future challenges. To identify an appropriate real-world problem, look at issues related to your:

• Students’ shared interests

You must also ensure that students understand the problem and the information around it. So, not all problems are appropriate for all grade levels.

2. Determine the Overarching Purpose of the Activity

Depending on the problem you choose, determine what you want to accomplish by running the challenge. For example, you may intend to help your students improve skills related to:

• Collaboration
• Problem-solving
• Curriculum-aligned topics
• Processing diverse content

A more precise example, you may prioritize collaboration skills by assigning specific tasks to pairs of students within each team. In doing so, students will continuously develop communication and collaboration abilities by working as a couple and part of a small group. By defining a clear purpose, you’ll also have an easier time following the next step.

3. Create and Distribute Helpful Material

Handouts and other content not only act as a set of resources, but help students stay focused on the activity and its purpose. For example, if you want them to improve a certain math skill , you should make material that highlights the mathematical aspects of the problem. You may decide to provide items such as:

• Data that helps quantify and add context to the problem
• Videos, presentations and other audio-visual material
• A list of preliminary questions to investigate

Providing a range of resources can be especially important for elementary students and struggling students in higher grades, who may not have self-direction skills to work without them.

4. Set Goals and Expectations for Your Students

Along with the aforementioned materials, give students a guide or rubric that details goals and expectations. It will allow you to further highlight the purpose of the problem-based learning exercise, as you can explain what you’re looking for in terms of collaboration, the final product and anything else. It should also help students stay on track by acting as a reference throughout the activity.

5. Participate

Although explicitly correcting students may be discouraged, you can still help them and ask questions to dig into their thought processes. When you see an opportunity, consider if it’s worthwhile to:

• Fill gaps in knowledge
• Provide hints, not answers
• Question a student’s conclusion or logic regarding a certain point, helping them think through tough spots

By participating in these ways, you can provide insight when students need it most, encouraging them to effectively analyze the problem.

6. Have Students Present Ideas and Findings

If you divided them into small groups, requiring students to present their thoughts and results in front the class adds a large-group learning component to the lesson. Encourage other students to ask questions, allowing the presenting group to elaborate and provide evidence for their thoughts. This wraps up the activity and gives your class a final chance to find solutions to the problem.

Wrapping Up

The effectiveness of problem-based learning may differ between classrooms and individual students, depending on how significant specific advantages and disadvantages are to you. Evaluative research consistently shows value in giving students a question and letting them take control of their learning. But the extent of this value can depend on the difficulties you face.It may be wise to try a problem-based learning activity, and go forward based on results.

Create or log into your teacher account on Prodigy -- an adaptive math game that adjusts content to accommodate player trouble spots and learning speeds. Aligned to US and Canadian curricula, it’s used by more than 350,000 teachers and 10 million students. It may be wise to try a problem-based learning activity, and go forward based on results.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

5 Teaching Mathematics Through Problem Solving

Janet Stramel

In his book “How to Solve It,” George Pólya (1945) said, “One of the most important tasks of the teacher is to help his students. This task is not quite easy; it demands time, practice, devotion, and sound principles. The student should acquire as much experience of independent work as possible. But if he is left alone with his problem without any help, he may make no progress at all. If the teacher helps too much, nothing is left to the student. The teacher should help, but not too much and not too little, so that the student shall have a reasonable share of the work.” (page 1)

What is a problem  in mathematics? A problem is “any task or activity for which the students have no prescribed or memorized rules or methods, nor is there a perception by students that there is a specific ‘correct’ solution method” (Hiebert, et. al., 1997). Problem solving in mathematics is one of the most important topics to teach; learning to problem solve helps students develop a sense of solving real-life problems and apply mathematics to real world situations. It is also used for a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts. Learning “math facts” is not enough; students must also learn how to use these facts to develop their thinking skills.

According to NCTM (2010), the term “problem solving” refers to mathematical tasks that have the potential to provide intellectual challenges for enhancing students’ mathematical understanding and development. When you first hear “problem solving,” what do you think about? Story problems or word problems? Story problems may be limited to and not “problematic” enough. For example, you may ask students to find the area of a rectangle, given the length and width. This type of problem is an exercise in computation and can be completed mindlessly without understanding the concept of area. Worthwhile problems  includes problems that are truly problematic and have the potential to provide contexts for students’ mathematical development.

There are three ways to solve problems: teaching for problem solving, teaching about problem solving, and teaching through problem solving.

Teaching for problem solving begins with learning a skill. For example, students are learning how to multiply a two-digit number by a one-digit number, and the story problems you select are multiplication problems. Be sure when you are teaching for problem solving, you select or develop tasks that can promote the development of mathematical understanding.

Teaching about problem solving begins with suggested strategies to solve a problem. For example, “draw a picture,” “make a table,” etc. You may see posters in teachers’ classrooms of the “Problem Solving Method” such as: 1) Read the problem, 2) Devise a plan, 3) Solve the problem, and 4) Check your work. There is little or no evidence that students’ problem-solving abilities are improved when teaching about problem solving. Students will see a word problem as a separate endeavor and focus on the steps to follow rather than the mathematics. In addition, students will tend to use trial and error instead of focusing on sense making.

Teaching through problem solving  focuses students’ attention on ideas and sense making and develops mathematical practices. Teaching through problem solving also develops a student’s confidence and builds on their strengths. It allows for collaboration among students and engages students in their own learning.

Consider the following worthwhile-problem criteria developed by Lappan and Phillips (1998):

• The problem has important, useful mathematics embedded in it.
• The problem requires high-level thinking and problem solving.
• The problem contributes to the conceptual development of students.
• The problem creates an opportunity for the teacher to assess what his or her students are learning and where they are experiencing difficulty.
• The problem can be approached by students in multiple ways using different solution strategies.
• The problem has various solutions or allows different decisions or positions to be taken and defended.
• The problem encourages student engagement and discourse.
• The problem connects to other important mathematical ideas.
• The problem promotes the skillful use of mathematics.
• The problem provides an opportunity to practice important skills.

Of course, not every problem will include all of the above. Sometimes, you will choose a problem because your students need an opportunity to practice a certain skill.

Key features of a good mathematics problem includes:

• It must begin where the students are mathematically.
• The feature of the problem must be the mathematics that students are to learn.
• It must require justifications and explanations for both answers and methods of solving.

Problem solving is not a  neat and orderly process. Think about needlework. On the front side, it is neat and perfect and pretty.

But look at the b ack.

It is messy and full of knots and loops. Problem solving in mathematics is also like this and we need to help our students be “messy” with problem solving; they need to go through those knots and loops and learn how to solve problems with the teacher’s guidance.

When you teach through problem solving , your students are focused on ideas and sense-making and they develop confidence in mathematics!

Mathematics Tasks and Activities that Promote Teaching through Problem Solving

Choosing the Right Task

Selecting activities and/or tasks is the most significant decision teachers make that will affect students’ learning. Consider the following questions:

• Teachers must do the activity first. What is problematic about the activity? What will you need to do BEFORE the activity and AFTER the activity? Additionally, think how your students would do the activity.
• What mathematical ideas will the activity develop? Are there connections to other related mathematics topics, or other content areas?
• Can the activity accomplish your learning objective/goals?

Low Floor High Ceiling Tasks

By definition, a “ low floor/high ceiling task ” is a mathematical activity where everyone in the group can begin and then work on at their own level of engagement. Low Floor High Ceiling Tasks are activities that everyone can begin and work on based on their own level, and have many possibilities for students to do more challenging mathematics. One gauge of knowing whether an activity is a Low Floor High Ceiling Task is when the work on the problems becomes more important than the answer itself, and leads to rich mathematical discourse [Hover: ways of representing, thinking, talking, agreeing, and disagreeing; the way ideas are exchanged and what the ideas entail; and as being shaped by the tasks in which students engage as well as by the nature of the learning environment].

The strengths of using Low Floor High Ceiling Tasks:

• Allows students to show what they can do, not what they can’t.
• Provides differentiation to all students.
• Promotes a positive classroom environment.
• Advances a growth mindset in students
• Aligns with the Standards for Mathematical Practice

Examples of some Low Floor High Ceiling Tasks can be found at the following sites:

• YouCubed – under grades choose Low Floor High Ceiling
• NRICH Creating a Low Threshold High Ceiling Classroom
• Inside Mathematics Problems of the Month

Math in 3-Acts

Math in 3-Acts was developed by Dan Meyer to spark an interest in and engage students in thought-provoking mathematical inquiry. Math in 3-Acts is a whole-group mathematics task consisting of three distinct parts:

Act One is about noticing and wondering. The teacher shares with students an image, video, or other situation that is engaging and perplexing. Students then generate questions about the situation.

In Act Two , the teacher offers some information for the students to use as they find the solutions to the problem.

Act Three is the “reveal.” Students share their thinking as well as their solutions.

“Math in 3 Acts” is a fun way to engage your students, there is a low entry point that gives students confidence, there are multiple paths to a solution, and it encourages students to work in groups to solve the problem. Some examples of Math in 3-Acts can be found at the following websites:

• Dan Meyer’s Three-Act Math Tasks
• Graham Fletcher3-Act Tasks ]
• Math in 3-Acts: Real World Math Problems to Make Math Contextual, Visual and Concrete

Number Talks

Number talks are brief, 5-15 minute discussions that focus on student solutions for a mental math computation problem. Students share their different mental math processes aloud while the teacher records their thinking visually on a chart or board. In addition, students learn from each other’s strategies as they question, critique, or build on the strategies that are shared.. To use a “number talk,” you would include the following steps:

• The teacher presents a problem for students to solve mentally.
• Provide adequate “ wait time .”
• The teacher calls on a students and asks, “What were you thinking?” and “Explain your thinking.”
• For each student who volunteers to share their strategy, write their thinking on the board. Make sure to accurately record their thinking; do not correct their responses.
• Invite students to question each other about their strategies, compare and contrast the strategies, and ask for clarification about strategies that are confusing.

“Number Talks” can be used as an introduction, a warm up to a lesson, or an extension. Some examples of Number Talks can be found at the following websites:

• Inside Mathematics Number Talks
• Number Talks Build Numerical Reasoning

Saying “This is Easy”

“This is easy.” Three little words that can have a big impact on students. What may be “easy” for one person, may be more “difficult” for someone else. And saying “this is easy” defeats the purpose of a growth mindset classroom, where students are comfortable making mistakes.

When the teacher says, “this is easy,” students may think,

• “Everyone else understands and I don’t. I can’t do this!”
• Students may just give up and surrender the mathematics to their classmates.
• Students may shut down.

Instead, you and your students could say the following:

• “I think I can do this.”
• “I have an idea I want to try.”
• “I’ve seen this kind of problem before.”

Tracy Zager wrote a short article, “This is easy”: The Little Phrase That Causes Big Problems” that can give you more information. Read Tracy Zager’s article here.

Using “Worksheets”

Do you want your students to memorize concepts, or do you want them to understand and apply the mathematics for different situations?

What is a “worksheet” in mathematics? It is a paper and pencil assignment when no other materials are used. A worksheet does not allow your students to use hands-on materials/manipulatives [Hover: physical objects that are used as teaching tools to engage students in the hands-on learning of mathematics]; and worksheets are many times “naked number” with no context. And a worksheet should not be used to enhance a hands-on activity.

Students need time to explore and manipulate materials in order to learn the mathematics concept. Worksheets are just a test of rote memory. Students need to develop those higher-order thinking skills, and worksheets will not allow them to do that.

One productive belief from the NCTM publication, Principles to Action (2014), states, “Students at all grade levels can benefit from the use of physical and virtual manipulative materials to provide visual models of a range of mathematical ideas.”

You may need an “activity sheet,” a “graphic organizer,” etc. as you plan your mathematics activities/lessons, but be sure to include hands-on manipulatives. Using manipulatives can

• Provide your students a bridge between the concrete and abstract
• Serve as models that support students’ thinking
• Provide another representation
• Support student engagement
• Give students ownership of their own learning.

Adapted from “ The Top 5 Reasons for Using Manipulatives in the Classroom ”.

any task or activity for which the students have no prescribed or memorized rules or methods, nor is there a perception by students that there is a specific ‘correct’ solution method

should be intriguing and contain a level of challenge that invites speculation and hard work, and directs students to investigate important mathematical ideas and ways of thinking toward the learning

involves teaching a skill so that a student can later solve a story problem

when we teach students how to problem solve

teaching mathematics content through real contexts, problems, situations, and models

a mathematical activity where everyone in the group can begin and then work on at their own level of engagement

20 seconds to 2 minutes for students to make sense of questions

Mathematics Methods for Early Childhood Copyright © 2021 by Janet Stramel is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Problem-Solving Method in Teaching

The problem-solving method is a highly effective teaching strategy that is designed to help students develop critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities . It involves providing students with real-world problems and challenges that require them to apply their knowledge, skills, and creativity to find solutions. This method encourages active learning, promotes collaboration, and allows students to take ownership of their learning.

Table of Contents

Definition of problem-solving method.

Problem-solving is a process of identifying, analyzing, and resolving problems. The problem-solving method in teaching involves providing students with real-world problems that they must solve through collaboration and critical thinking. This method encourages students to apply their knowledge and creativity to develop solutions that are effective and practical.

Meaning of Problem-Solving Method

The meaning and Definition of problem-solving are given by different Scholars. These are-

Woodworth and Marquis(1948) : Problem-solving behavior occurs in novel or difficult situations in which a solution is not obtainable by the habitual methods of applying concepts and principles derived from past experience in very similar situations.

Skinner (1968): Problem-solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is the procedure of making adjustments in spite of interference

Benefits of Problem-Solving Method

The problem-solving method has several benefits for both students and teachers. These benefits include:

• Encourages active learning: The problem-solving method encourages students to actively participate in their own learning by engaging them in real-world problems that require critical thinking and collaboration
• Promotes collaboration: Problem-solving requires students to work together to find solutions. This promotes teamwork, communication, and cooperation.
• Builds critical thinking skills: The problem-solving method helps students develop critical thinking skills by providing them with opportunities to analyze and evaluate problems
• Increases motivation: When students are engaged in solving real-world problems, they are more motivated to learn and apply their knowledge.
• Enhances creativity: The problem-solving method encourages students to be creative in finding solutions to problems.

Steps in Problem-Solving Method

The problem-solving method involves several steps that teachers can use to guide their students. These steps include

• Identifying the problem: The first step in problem-solving is identifying the problem that needs to be solved. Teachers can present students with a real-world problem or challenge that requires critical thinking and collaboration.
• Analyzing the problem: Once the problem is identified, students should analyze it to determine its scope and underlying causes.
• Generating solutions: After analyzing the problem, students should generate possible solutions. This step requires creativity and critical thinking.
• Evaluating solutions: The next step is to evaluate each solution based on its effectiveness and practicality
• Selecting the best solution: The final step is to select the best solution and implement it.

Verification of the concluded solution or Hypothesis

The solution arrived at or the conclusion drawn must be further verified by utilizing it in solving various other likewise problems. In case, the derived solution helps in solving these problems, then and only then if one is free to agree with his finding regarding the solution. The verified solution may then become a useful product of his problem-solving behavior that can be utilized in solving further problems. The above steps can be utilized in solving various problems thereby fostering creative thinking ability in an individual.

The problem-solving method is an effective teaching strategy that promotes critical thinking, creativity, and collaboration. It provides students with real-world problems that require them to apply their knowledge and skills to find solutions. By using the problem-solving method, teachers can help their students develop the skills they need to succeed in school and in life.

• Jonassen, D. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning environments. Routledge.
• Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266.
• Mergendoller, J. R., Maxwell, N. L., & Bellisimo, Y. (2006). The effectiveness of problem-based instruction: A comparative study of instructional methods and student characteristics. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1(2), 49-69.
• Richey, R. C., Klein, J. D., & Tracey, M. W. (2011). The instructional design knowledge base: Theory, research, and practice. Routledge.
• Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (2001). Problem-based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. CRLT Technical Report No. 16-01, University of Michigan. Wojcikowski, J. (2013). Solving real-world problems through problem-based learning. College Teaching, 61(4), 153-156

Problem Solving Method Of Teaching

The problem-solving method of teaching is the learning method that allows children to learn by doing. This is because they are given examples and real-world situations so that the theory behind it can be understood better, as well as practice with each new concept or skill taught on top of what was previously learned in class before moving onto another topic at hand.

What is your preferred problem-solving technique?

Answers : - I like to brainstorm and see what works for me - I enjoy the trial and error method - I am a linear thinker

Share it with me by commenting.

For example, while solving a problem, the child may encounter terms he has not studied yet. These will further help him understand their use in context while developing his vocabulary. At the same time, being able to practice math concepts by tapping into daily activities helps an individual retain these skills better.

One way this type of teaching is applied for younger students particularly is through games played during lessons. By allowing them to become comfortable with the concepts taught through these games, they can put their knowledge into use later on. This is done by developing thinking processes that precede an action or behavior. These games can be used by teachers for different subjects including science and language.

For younger students still, the method of teaching using real-life examples helps them understand better. Through this, it becomes easier for them to relate what they learned in school with terms used outside of school settings so that the information sticks better than if all they were given were theoretical definitions. For instance, instead of just studying photosynthesis as part of biology lessons, children are asked to imagine plants growing inside a dark room because there is no sunlight present. When questioned about the plants, children will be able to recall photosynthesis more easily because they were able to see its importance in real life.

Despite being given specific examples, the act of solving problems helps students think for themselves. They learn how to approach situations and predict outcomes based on what they already know about concepts or ideas taught in class including the use of various skills they have acquired over time. These include problem-solving strategies like using drawings when describing a solution or asking advice if they are stuck to unlock solutions that would otherwise go beyond their reach.

Teachers need to point out in advance which method will be used for any particular lesson before having children engage with it. By doing this, individuals can prepare themselves mentally for what is to come. This is especially true for students who have difficulty with a particular subject. In these cases, the teacher can help them get started by providing a worked example for reference or breaking the problem down into manageable chunks that are easier to digest.

JIT (Just-in-Time): A Comprehensive Examination of its Strategic Impact

The Wisdom of Jefferson: Moving, Doing, Thinking

Root Cause Tree Analysis: Insights to Forensic Decision Making

Hazard Analysis: A Comprehensive Approach for Risk Evaluation

Ultimately, the goal of teaching using a problem-solving method is to give children the opportunity to think for themselves and to be able to do so in different contexts. Doing this helps foster independent learners who can utilize the skills they acquired in school for future endeavors.

The problem-solving method of teaching allows children to learn by doing. This is because they are given examples and real-world situations so that the theory behind it can be understood better, as practice with each new concept or skill taught on top of what was previously learned in class before moving onto another topic at hand.

One way this type of teaching is applied for younger students particularly is through games played during lessons. By allowing them to become comfortable with the concepts taught through these games, they are able to put their knowledge into use later on. This is done by developing thinking processes that precede an action or behavior. These games can be used by teachers for different subjects including science and language.

For instance, a teacher may ask students to imagine they are plants in a dark room because there is no sunlight present. When questioned about the plants, children will be able to recall photosynthesis more easily because they were able to see its importance in real life.

It is important for teachers to point out in advance which method will be used for any particular lesson before having children engage with it. By doing this, individuals can prepare themselves mentally for what is to come. This is especially true for students who have difficulty with a particular subject. In these cases, the teacher can help them get started by providing a worked example for reference or breaking the problem down into manageable chunks that are easier to digest.

lesson before having children engage with it. By doing this, individuals can prepare themselves mentally for what is to come. This is especially true for students who have difficulty with a particular subject. In these cases, the teacher can help them get started by providing a worked example for reference or breaking the problem down into manageable chunks that are easier to digest.

The teacher should have a few different ways to solve the problem.

For example, the teacher can provide a worked example for reference or break down the problem into chunks that are easier to digest.

The goal of teaching using a problem-solving method is to give children the opportunity to think for themselves and to be able to do so in different contexts. Successful problem solving allows children to become comfortable with concepts taught through games that develop thinking processes that precede an action or behavior.

Introduce the problem

The problem solving method of teaching is a popular approach to learning that allows students to understand new concepts by doing. This approach provides students with examples and real-world situations, so they can see how the theory behind a concept or skill works in practice. In addition, students are given practice with each new concept or skill taught, before moving on to the next topic. This helps them learn and retain the information better.

Explain why the problem solving method of teaching is effective.

The problem solving method of teaching is effective because it allows students to learn by doing. This means they can see how the theory behind a concept or skill works in practice, which helps them understand and remember the information better. This would not be possible if they are only told about the new concept or skill, or read a textbook to learn on their own. Since students can see how the theory works in practice through examples and real-world situations, the information is easier for them to understand.

List some advantages of using the problem solving method of teaching.

Some advantages of using the problem solving method of teaching are that it helps students retain information better since they are able to practice with each new concept or skill taught until they master it before moving on to another topic. This also allows them to learn by doing so they will have hands-on experience with facts which helps them remember important facts faster rather than just hearing about it or reading about it on their own. Furthermore, this teaching method is beneficial for students of all ages and can be adapted to different subjects making it an approach that is versatile and easily used in a classroom setting. Lastly, the problem solving method of teaching presents new information in a way that is easy to understand so students are not overwhelmed with complex material.

The problem solving method of teaching is an effective way for students to learn new concepts and skills. By providing them with examples and real-world situations, they can see how the theory behind a concept or skill works in practice. In addition, students are given practice with each new concept or skill taught, before moving on to the next topic. This them learn and retain the information better.

What has been your experience with adopting a problem-solving teaching method?

How do you feel the usefulness of your lesson plans changed since adopting this method?

What was one of your most successful attempts in using this technique to teach students, and why do you believe it was so successful?

Were there any obstacles when trying to incorporate this technique into your class? 

Did it take a while for all students to get used to the new type of teaching style before they felt comfortable enough to participate in discussions and ask questions about their newly acquired knowledge?

What are your thoughts on this method? 

“I have had the opportunity to work in several districts, including one where they used problem solving for all subjects. I never looked back after that experience--it was exciting and motivating for students and teachers alike." 

"The problem solving method of teaching is great because it makes my subject matter more interesting with hands-on activities."

What is the role of educators in facilitating problem-solving method of teaching?

Role of Educators in Facilitating Problem-Solving Understanding the Problem-Solving Method The problem-solving method of teaching encourages students to actively engage their critical thinking skills to analyze and seek solutions to real-world problems. As such, educators play a crucial part in facilitating this learning style to ensure the effective attainment of desired skills. Encouraging Collaboration and Communication One of the ways educators can facilitate problem-solving is by promoting collaboration and communication among students. Working as a team allows students to share diverse perspectives while considering multiple solutions, thereby fostering an open-minded and inclusive environment that is crucial for effective problem-solving. Creating a Safe Space for Failure Educators must recognize that failure is an integral component of the learning process in a problem-solving method. By establishing a safe environment that allows students to fail without facing judgment or embarrassment, teachers enable students to develop perseverance, resilience, and an enhanced ability to learn from mistakes. Designing Relevant and Engaging Problems The selection and design of appropriate problems contribute significantly to the success of the problem-solving method of teaching. Educators should focus on presenting issues that are relevant, engaging, and age-appropriate, thereby sparking curiosity and interest amongst students, which further improves their problem-solving abilities. Scaffolding Learning Scaffolding is essential in the problem-solving method for providing adequate support when required. Teachers need to break down complex problems into smaller, manageable steps, and gradually remove support as students develop the necessary skills, thus promoting their self-reliance and independent thinking. Providing Constructive Feedback Constructive feedback from educators is invaluable in facilitating the problem-solving method of teaching, as it enables students to reflect on their progress, recognize areas for improvement, and actively develop their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. In conclusion, the role of educators in facilitating the problem-solving method of teaching comprises promoting collaboration, creating a safe space for failure, designing relevant problems, scaffolding learning, and providing constructive feedback. By integrating these elements, educators can help students develop essential life-long skills and effectively navigate the complex world they will experience.

Can interdisciplinary approaches be incorporated into problem-solving teaching methods, and if so, how?

Interdisciplinary Approaches in Problem-Solving Teaching Methods Integration of Interdisciplinary Approaches Incorporating interdisciplinary approaches into problem-solving teaching methods can be achieved by integrating various subject areas when presenting complex problems that require students to draw from different fields of knowledge. By doing so, learners will develop a deeper understanding of the interconnectedness of various disciplines and improve their problem-solving skills. Project-Based Learning Activities Implementing project-based learning activities in the classroom allows students to work collaboratively on real-world problems. By involving learners in tasks that necessitate the integration of diverse subjects, they develop the ability to transfer skills acquired in one context to novel situations, thereby expanding their problem-solving abilities. Role of Teachers in Interdisciplinary Teaching Teachers play a crucial role in the successful incorporation of interdisciplinary methods in problem-solving teaching. They must be prepared to facilitate student-centered learning and engage in ongoing professional development tailored towards interdisciplinary education. In doing so, educators can create inclusive learning environments that encourage individualized discovery and the application of diverse perspectives to solve complex problems. Benefits of Interdisciplinary Teaching Methods Adopting interdisciplinary teaching methods in problem-solving education not only enhances students' problem-solving abilities but also fosters the development of critical thinking, creativity, and collaboration. These essential skills enable learners to navigate and adapt to an increasingly interconnected world and have been shown to contribute to students' academic and professional success. In conclusion, incorporating interdisciplinary approaches into problem-solving teaching methods can be achieved through the integration of various subject areas, implementing project-based learning activities, and the active role of teachers in interdisciplinary education. These methods benefit students by developing problem-solving skills, critical thinking, creativity, and collaboration, preparing them for future success in an interconnected world.

In what ways can technology be integrated into the problem-solving method of instruction?

**Role of Technology in Problem-Solving Instruction** Technology can be integrated into the problem-solving method of instruction by enhancing student engagement, promoting collaboration, and supporting personalized learning. **Enhancing Student Engagement** One way technology supports the problem-solving method is by increasing students' interest through interactive and dynamic tools. For instance, digital simulations and educational games can help students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills in a fun, engaging manner. These tools provide real-world contexts and immediate feedback, allowing students to experiment, take risks, and learn from their mistakes. **Promoting Collaboration** Technology also promotes collaboration among students, as online platforms facilitate communication and cooperation. Utilizing tools like video conferencing and shared workspaces, students can collaborate on group projects, discuss ideas, and solve problems together. This collaborative approach fosters a sense of community, mutual support, and collective problem-solving. Moreover, it helps students develop essential interpersonal skills, such as teamwork and communication, which are crucial in today's workplaces. **Supporting Personalized Learning** Finally, technology can be used to provide personalized learning experiences tailored to individual learners' needs, interests, and abilities. With access to adaptive learning platforms or online resources, students can progress at their own pace, focus on areas where they need improvement, and explore topics that interest them. This kind of personalized approach allows instructors to identify areas where students struggle and offer targeted support, enhancing the problem-solving learning experience. In conclusion, integrating technology into the problem-solving method of instruction can improve the learning process in various ways. By fostering student engagement, promoting collaboration, and facilitating personalized learning experiences, technology can be employed as a valuable resource to develop students' problem-solving skills effectively.

I graduated from the Family and Consumption Sciences Department at Hacettepe University. I hold certificates in blogging and personnel management. I have a Master's degree in English and have lived in the US for three years.

What are Problem Solving Skills?

How To Solve The Problems? Practical Problem Solving Skills

A Problem Solving Method: Brainstorming

How To Develop Problem Solving Skills?

• Python Multiline String
• Python Multiline Comment
• Python Iterate String
• Python Dictionary
• Python Lists
• Python List Contains
• Page Object Model
• TestNG Annotations
• Python Function Quiz
• Python String Quiz
• Python OOP Test
• Java Spring Test
• Java Collection Quiz
• JavaScript Skill Test
• Selenium Skill Test
• Selenium Python Quiz
• Shell Scripting Test
• Latest Python Q&A
• CSharp Coding Q&A
• SQL Query Question
• Top Selenium Q&A
• Top QA Questions
• Latest Testing Q&A
• REST API Questions
• Linux Interview Q&A
• Shell Script Questions
• Agile Concepts Simplified
• Python Quizzes
• Testing Quiz
• Shell Script Quiz
• WebDev Interview
• Python Basic
• Python Examples
• Python Advanced
• Python Selenium
• General Tech

Simple Guide to Problem-Solving Method of Teaching

You must be interested to know – What is the problem-solving method of teaching and how it works. We’ve explained its core principles, six-step process, and benefits with real-world examples.

Understand the Problem-Solving Method of Teaching

The basis of this modern teaching approach is to provide students with opportunities to face real-time challenges. It aims to help them understand how the concept behind a solution works in reality.

What is the Problem-Solving Method of Teaching?

The problem-solving method of teaching is a student-centered approach to learning that focuses on developing students’ problem-solving skills. In this method, students have to face real-world problems to solve.

They are encouraged to use their knowledge and skills to provide solutions. The teacher acts as a facilitator, providing guidance and support as needed, but ultimately the students are responsible for finding their solutions.

Must Read: How to Tell Me About Yourself in an Interview

5 Most Important Benefits of Problem-Solving Method of Teaching

The new way of teaching primarily helps students develop critical thinking skills and real-world application abilities. It also promotes independence and self-confidence in problem-solving.

The problem-solving method of teaching has several benefits. It helps students to:

#1 Enhances critical thinking

By presenting students with real-world problems to solve, the problem-solving method of teaching forces them:

– To think critically about the situation, and – To come up with their solutions.

This process helps students develop critical thinking skills essential for success in school and life.

#2 Fosters creativity

The problem-solving method of teaching encourages students to be creative in their problem-solving approach. There is often no one right answer to a problem, so students are free to come up with their unique solutions. This process helps students think creatively, an important skill in all areas of life.

#3 Encourages real-world application

The problem-solving method of teaching helps students learn how to apply their knowledge to real-world situations. By solving real-world problems, students can see:

– How their knowledge is relevant to their lives, – And, the world around them.

This helps students to become more motivated and engaged learners.

#4 Builds student confidence

When students can successfully solve problems, they gain confidence in their abilities. This confidence is essential for success in all areas of life, both academic and personal.

#5 Promotes collaborative learning

The problem-solving method of teaching often involves students working together to solve problems. This collaborative learning process helps students to develop their teamwork skills and to learn from each other.

Know 6 Steps in the Problem-Solving Method of Teaching

Also Read: Do You Know the Difference Between ChatGPT and GPT-4?

The problem-solving method of teaching typically involves the following steps:

Step 1: Identifying the problem

The first step is problem identification which students will be working on. This requires students to do the following:

– By presenting students with a real-world problem, or – By asking them to come up with their problems.

Step 2: Understanding the problem

Once students have identified the problem, they need to understand it fully. This may involve:

– Breaking the problem down into smaller parts, or – Gathering more information about the problem.

Step 3: Generating solutions

Once students understand the problem, they need to generate possible solutions. They have to do either of the following:

– By brainstorming, or – By exercising problem-solving techniques such as root cause analysis or the decision matrix.

Step 4: Evaluating solutions

Students need to evaluate the pros and cons of each solution before choosing one to implement.

Step 5: Implementing the solution

Once students have chosen a solution, they need to implement it. This may involve taking action or developing a plan.

Step 6: Evaluating the results

Once students have implemented the solution, they must evaluate the results to see if it was successful.

If the solution fails the expectations, students should re-run step 3 and generate new solutions.

Find Out Examples of the Problem-Solving Method of Teaching

Here are a few examples of how the problem-solving method of teaching applies to different subjects:

• Math: Students face real-world problems such as budgeting for a family or designing a new product. Students would then need to use their math skills to solve the problem.
• Science: Students perform a science experiment or research on a scientific topic to invent a solution to the problem. Students should then use their science knowledge and skills to solve the problem.
• Social studies: Students analyze a historical event or current social issue and devise a solution. After that, students should exercise their social studies knowledge and skills to solve the problem.

How to Use Problem-Solving Methods of Teaching

Here are a few tips for using the problem-solving method of teaching effectively:

• Choose problems that are relevant to students’ lives and interests.
• Select those problems that are challenging but achievable.
• Provide students with ample resources such as books, websites, or experts to solve the problem.
• Motivate them to work collaboratively and to share their ideas.
• Be patient and supportive. Problem-solving can be a challenging process, but it is also a rewarding one.

Also Try: 1-10 Random Number Generator

How to Choose: Let’s Draw a Comparison

The following table compares the different problem-solving methods:

Which Method is the Most Suitable?

The most suitable way of teaching will depend on many factors such as the following:

– Subject matter, – Student’s age and ability level, and – Teacher’s preferences.

However, the problem-solving method of teaching is a valuable approach. It can be used in any subject area and with students of all ages.

Here are some additional tips for using the problem-solving method of teaching effectively:

• Differentiate instruction. Not all students learn at the same pace or in the same way. Teachers can differentiate instruction to meet the needs of all learners by providing different levels of support and scaffolding.
• Use formative assessment. Formative assessment helps track students’ progress and identify areas where they need additional support. Teachers can then use this information to provide students with targeted instruction.
• Create a positive learning environment. Students need to feel safe and supported to learn effectively. Teachers can create a positive learning environment by providing students with opportunities for collaboration. They can celebrate their successes and create a classroom culture where mistakes are seen as learning opportunities.

Interested in New Tech: 7 IoT Trends to Watch in 2023

Some Unique Examples to Refer to Before We Conclude

Here are a few unique examples of how you incorporate the problem-solving method of teaching with different subjects:

• English: Students analyze a grammar problem, such as a poem or a short story, and share their interpretation.
• Art: Students can get a task to design a new product or to create a piece of art that addresses a social issue.
• Music: Students write a song about a current event or create a new piece of music reflecting their cultural heritage.

Before You Leave

The problem-solving method of teaching is a powerful tool that can help students develop the skills they need to succeed in school and life. By creating a learning environment where students are encouraged to think critically and solve problems, teachers can help students to become lifelong learners.

Lastly, our site needs your support to remain free. Share this post on social media ( Linkedin / Twitter ) if you gained some knowledge from this tutorial.

Enjoy learning, TechBeamers.

You Might Also Like

How to fix load css asynchronously, best ides for r programming in 2024, ide for cpp / c++ programmers, the best javascript ides you must watch out, how to speed up your website to load faster, leave a reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Popular Tutorials

50 sql practice questions for good results in interview, 7 sites to practice selenium for free in 2024, sql exercises – complex queries, 15 java coding questions for testers, 30 python programming questions on list, tuple, and dictionary.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

The problem-solving method: Efficacy for learning and motivation in the field of physical education

Ghaith ezeddine.

1 High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia

Nafaa Souissi

2 Research Unit of the National Sports Observatory (ONS), Tunis, Tunisia

Liwa Masmoudi

3 Research Laboratory: Education, Motricity, Sport and Health, EM2S, LR19JS01, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia

Khaled Trabelsi

4 Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health (DINOGMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy

Cain C. T. Clark

5 Centre for Intelligent Healthcare, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom

Nicola Luigi Bragazzi

6 Laboratory for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada

Maher Mrayah

7 High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Ksar Saîd, University Manouba, UMA, Manouba, Tunisia

Associated Data

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

In pursuit of quality teaching and learning, teachers seek the best method to provide their students with a positive educational atmosphere and the most appropriate learning conditions.

The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of the problem-solving method vs. the traditional method on motivation and learning during physical education courses.

Fifty-three students ( M age 15 ± 0.1 years), in their 1st year of the Tunisian secondary education system, voluntarily participated in this study, and randomly assigned to a control or experimental group. Participants in the control group were taught using the traditional methods, whereas participants in the experimental group were taught using the problem-solving method. Both groups took part in a 10-hour experiment over 5 weeks. To measure students' situational motivation, a questionnaire was used to evaluate intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation, and amotivation during the first (T0) and the last sessions (T2). Additionally, the degree of students' learning was determined via video analyses, recorded at T0, the fifth (T1), and T2.

Motivational dimensions, including identified regulation and intrinsic motivation, were significantly greater (all p < 0.001) in the experimental vs. the control group. The students' motor engagement in learning situations, during which the learner, despite a degree of difficulty performs the motor activity with sufficient success, increased only in the experimental group ( p < 0.001). The waiting time in the experimental group decreased significantly at T1 and T2 vs. T0 (all p < 0.001), with lower values recorded in the experimental vs. the control group at the three-time points (all p < 0.001).

Conclusions

The problem-solving method is an efficient strategy for motor skills and performance enhancement, as well as motivation development during physical education courses.

1. Introduction

The education of children is a sensitive and poignant subject, where the wellbeing of the child in the school environment is a key issue (Ergül and Kargin, 2014 ). For this, numerous research has sought to find solutions to the problems of the traditional method, which focuses on the teacher as an instructor, giver of knowledge, arbiter of truth, and ultimate evaluator of learning (Ergül and Kargin, 2014 ; Cunningham and Sood, 2018 ). From this perspective, a teachers' job is to present students with a designated body of knowledge in a predetermined order (Arvind and Kusum, 2017 ). For them, learners are seen as people with “knowledge gaps” that need to be filled with information. In this method, teaching is conceived as the act of transmitting knowledge from point A (responsible for the teacher) to point B (responsible for the students; Arvind and Kusum, 2017 ). According to Novak ( 2010 ), in the traditional method, the teacher is the one who provokes the learning.

The traditional method focuses on lecture-based teaching as the center of instruction, emphasizing delivery of program and concept (Johnson, 2010 ; Ilkiw et al., 2017 ; Dickinson et al., 2018 ). The student listens and takes notes, passively accepts and receives from the teacher undifferentiated and identical knowledge (Bi et al., 2019 ). Course content and delivery are considered most important, and learners acquire knowledge through exercise and practice (Johnson et al., 1998 ). In the traditional method, academic achievement is seen as the ability of students to demonstrate, replicate, or convey this designated body of knowledge to the teacher. It is based on a transmissive model, the teacher contenting themselves with exchanging and transmitting information to the learner. Here, only the “knowledge” and “teacher” poles of the pedagogical triangle are solicited. The teacher teaches the students, who play the role of the spectator. They receive information without participating in its creation (Perrenoud, 2003 ). For this, researchers invented a new student-centered method with effects on improving students' graphic interpretation skills and conceptual understanding of kinematic motion represent an area of contemporary interest (Tebabal and Kahssay, 2011 ). Indeed, in order to facilitate the process of knowledge transfer, teachers should use appropriate methods targeted to specific objectives of the school curricula.

For instance, it has been emphasized that the effectiveness of any educational process as a whole relies on the crucial role of using a well-designed pedagogical (teaching and/or learning) strategy (Kolesnikova, 2016 ).

Alternate to a traditional method of teaching, Ergül and Kargin ( 2014 ), proposed the problem-solving method, which represents one of the most common student-centered learning strategies. Indeed, this method allows students to participate in the learning environment, giving them the responsibility for their own acquisition of knowledge, as well as the opportunity for the understanding and structuring of diverse information.

For Cunningham and Sood ( 2018 ), the problem-solving method may be considered a fundamental tool for the acquisition of new knowledge, notably learning transfer. Moreover, the problem-solving method is purportedly efficient for the development of manual skills and experiential learning (Ergül and Kargin, 2014 ), as well as the optimization of thinking ability. Additionally, the problem-solving method allows learners to participate in the learning environment, while giving them responsibility for their learning and making them understand and structure the information (Pohan et al., 2020 ). In this context, Ali ( 2019 ) reported that, when faced with an obstacle, the student will have to invoke his/her knowledge and use his/her abilities to “break the deadlock.” He/she will therefore make the most of his/her potential, but also share and exchange with his/her colleagues (Ali, 2019 ). Throughout the process, the student will learn new concepts and skills. The role of the teacher is paramount at the beginning of the activity, since activities will be created based on problematic situations according to the subject and the program. However, on the day of the activity, it does not have the main role, and the teacher will guide learners in difficulty and will allow them to manage themselves most of the time (Ali, 2019 ).

The problem-solving method encourages group discussion and teamwork (Fidan and Tuncel, 2019 ). Additionally, in this pedagogical approach, the role of the teacher is a facilitator of learning, and they take on a much more interactive and less rebarbative role (Garrett, 2008 ).

For the teaching method to be effective, teaching should consist of an ongoing process of making desirable changes among learners using appropriate methods (Ayeni, 2011 ; Norboev, 2021 ). To bring about positive changes in students, the methods used by teachers should be the best for the subject to be taught (Adunola et al., 2012 ). Further, suggests that teaching methods work effectively, especially if they meet the needs of learners since each learner interprets and answers questions in a unique way. Improving problem-solving skills is a primary educational goal, as is the ability to use reasoning. To acquire this skill, students must solve problems to learn mathematics and problem-solving (Hu, 2010 ); this encourages the students to actively participate and contribute to the activities suggested by the teacher. Without sufficient motivation, learning goals can no longer be optimally achieved, although learners may have exceptional abilities. The method of teaching employed by the teachers is decisive to achieve motivational consequences in physical education students (Leo et al., 2022 ). Pérez-Jorge et al. ( 2021 ) posited that given we now live in a technological society in which children are used to receiving a large amount of stimuli, gaining and maintaining their attention and keeping them motivated at school becomes a challenge for teachers.

Fenouillet ( 2012 ) stated that academic motivation is linked to resources and methods that improve attention for school learning. Furthermore, Rolland ( 2009 ) and Bessa et al. ( 2021 ) reported a link between a learner's motivational dynamics and classroom activities. The models of learning situations, where the student is the main actor, directly refers to active teaching methods, and that there is a strong link between motivation and active teaching (Rossa et al., 2021 ). In the same context, previous reports assert that the motivation of students in physical education is an important factor since the intra-individual motivation toward this discipline is recognized as a major determinant of physical activity for students (Standage et al., 2012 ; Luo, 2019 ; Leo et al., 2022 ). Further, extensive research on the effectiveness of teaching methods shows that the quality of teaching often influences the performance of learners (Norboev, 2021 ). Ayeni ( 2011 ) reported that education is a process that allows students to make changes desirable to achieve specific results. Thus, the consistency of teaching methods with student needs and learning influences student achievement. This has led several researchers to explore the impact of different teaching strategies, ranging from traditional methods to active learning techniques that can be used such as the problem-solving method (Skinner, 1985 ; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020 ).

In the context of innovation, Blázquez ( 2016 ) emphasizes the importance of adopting active methods and implementing them as the main element promoting the development of skills, motivation and active participation. Pedagogical models are part of the active methods which, together with model-based practice, replace traditional teaching (Hastie and Casey, 2014 ; Casey et al., 2021 ). Thus, many studies have identified pedagogical models as the most effective way to place students at the center of the teaching-learning process (Metzler, 2017 ), making it possible to assess the impact of physical education on learning students (Casey, 2014 ; Rivera-Pérez et al., 2020 ; Manninen and Campbell, 2021 ). Since each model is designed to focus on a specific program objective, each model has limitations when implemented in isolation (Bunker and Thorpe, 1982 ; Rivera-Pérez et al., 2020 ). Therefore, focusing on developing students' social and emotional skills and capacities could help them avoid failure in physical education (Ang and Penney, 2013 ). Thus, the current emergence of new pedagogical models goes with their hybridization with different methods, which is a wave of combinations proposed today as an innovative pedagogical strategy. The incorporation of this type of method in the current education system is becoming increasingly important because it gives students a greater role, participation, autonomy and self-regulation, and above all it improves their motivation (Puigarnau et al., 2016 ). The teaching model of personal and social responsibility, for example, is closely related to the sports education model because both share certain approaches to responsibility (Siedentop et al., 2011 ). One of the first studies to use these two models together was Rugby (Gordon and Doyle, 2015 ), which found significant improvements in student behavior. Also, the recent study by Menendez and Fernandez-Rio ( 2017 ) on educational kickboxing.

Previous studies have indicated that hybridization can increase play, problem solving performance and motor skills (Menendez and Fernandez-Rio, 2017 ; Ward et al., 2021 ) and generate positive psychosocial consequences, such as pleasure, intention to be physically active and responsibility (Dyson and Grineski, 2001 ; Menendez and Fernandez-Rio, 2017 ).

But despite all these research results, the picture remains unclear, and it remains unknown which method is more effective in improving students' learning and motivation. Given the lack of published evidence on this topic, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of problem-solving vs. the traditional method on students' motivation and learning.

We hypothesized would that the problem-solving method would be more effective in improving students' motivation and learning better than the traditional method.

2. Materials and method

2.1. participants.

Fifty-three students, aged 15–16 ( M age 15 ± 0.1 years), in their 1st year of the Tunisian secondary education system, voluntarily participated in this study. All participants were randomly chosen. Repeating students, those who practice handball activity in civil/competitive/amateur clubs or in the high school sports association, and students who were absent, even for one session, were excluded. The first class consisted of 30 students (16 boys and 14 girls), who represented the experimental group and followed basic courses on a learning method by solving problems. The second class consisted of 23 students (10 boys and 13 girls), who represented the control group and followed the traditional teaching method. The total duration was spread over 5 weeks, or two sessions per week and each session lasted 50 min.

University research ethics board approval (CPPSUD: 0295/2021) was obtained before recruiting participants who were subsequently informed of the nature, objective, methodology, and constraints. Teacher, school director, parental/guardian, and child informed consent was obtained prior to participation in the study.

2.2. Procedure

Before the start of the experiment, the participants were familiarized with the equipment and the experimental protocol in order to ensure a good learning climate. For this and to mitigate the impact of the observer and the cameras on the students, the two researchers were involved prior to the data collection in a week of familiarization by making test recordings with the classes concerned.

An approach of a teaching cycle consisting of 10 sessions spread over 5 weeks, amounting to two sessions per week. Physical education classes were held in the morning from 8 a.m. to 9 a.m., with a single goal for each session that lasted 50 min. The cyclic programs were produced by the teacher responsible for carrying out the experiment with 18 years of service. To do this, the students had the same lessons with the same objectives, only pedagogy that differs: the experimental group worked using problem-solving pedagogy, while the control group was confronted with traditional pedagogy. The sessions took place in a handball field 40 m long and 20 m wide. Examples of training sessions using the problem-solving pedagogy and the traditional pedagogy are presented in Table 1 . In addition, a motivation questionnaire, the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS; Guay et al., 2000 ), was administered to learners at the end of the session (i.e., in the beginning, and end of the cycle). Each student answered the questions alone and according to their own ideas. This questionnaire was taken in a classroom to prevent students from acting abnormally during the study. It lasted for a maximum of 10 min.

Example of activities for the different sessions.

Two diametrically opposed cameras were installed so to film all the movements and behaviors of each student and teacher during the three sessions [(i) test at the start of the cycle (T0), (ii) in the middle of the cycle (T1), and (iii) test at the end of the cycle (T2)]. These sessions had the same content and each consisted of four phases: the getting started, the warm-up, the work up (which consisted of three situations: first, the work was goes up the ball to two to score in the goal following a shot. Second, the same principle as the previous situation but in the presence of a defender. Finally, third, a match 7 ≠ 7), and the cooling down These recordings were analyzed using a Learning Time Analysis System grid (LTAS; Brunelle et al., 1988 ). This made it possible to measure individual learning by coding observable variables of the behavior of learners in a learning situation.

2.3. Data collection and analysis

2.3.1. the motivation questionnaire.

In this study, in order to measure the situational motivation of students, the situational motivation scale (SIMS; Guay et al., 2000 ), which used. This questionnaire assesses intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation and amotivation. SIMS has demonstrated good reliability and factor validity in the context of physical education in adolescents (Lonsdale et al., 2011 ). The participants received exact instructions from the researchers in accordance with written instructions on how to conduct the data collection. Participants completed the SIMS anonymously at the start of a physical education class. All students had the opportunity to write down their answers without being observed and to ask questions if anything was unclear. To minimize the tendency to give socially desirable answers, they were asked to answer as honestly as possible, with the confidence that the teacher would not be able to read their answers and that their grades would not be affected by how they responded. The SIMS questionnaire was filled at T0 and T2. This scale is made up of 16 items divided into four dimensions: intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation and amotivation. Each item is rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (which is the weakest factor) “not at all” to 7 (which is the strongest factor) “exactly matches.”

• In order to assess the internal consistency of the scales, a Cronbach alpha test was conducted (Cronbach, 1951 ). The internal consistency of the scales was acceptable with reliability coefficients ranging from 0.719 to 0.87. The coefficient of reliability was 0.8.
• In the present study, Cronbach's alphas were: intrinsic motivation = 0.790; regulation identified = 0.870; external regulation = 0.749; and amotivation = 0.719.

2.3.2. Camcorders

The audio-visual data collection was conducted using two Sony camcorders (Model; Handcam 4K) with a wireless microphone with a DJ transmitter-receiver (VHF 10HL F4 Micro HF) with a range of 80 m (Maddeh et al., 2020 ). The collection took place over a period of 5 weeks, with three captures for each class (three sessions of 50 min for each at T0, T1, and T2). Two researchers were trained in the procedures and video capture techniques. The cameras were positioned diagonally, in order to film all the behavior of the students and teacher on the set.

2.3.3. The Learning Time Analysis System (LTAS)

To measure the degree of student learning, the analysis of videos recorded using the LTAS grid by Brunelle et al. ( 1988 ) was used, at T0, T1, and T2. This observation system with predetermined categories uses the technique of observation by small intervals (i.e., 6 s) and allows to measure individual learning by coding observable variables of their behaviors when they have been in a learning situation. This grid also permits the specification of the quantity and quality with which the participants engaged in the requested work and was graded, broadly, on two characteristics: the type of situation offered to the group by the teacher and the behavior of the target participant. The situation offered to the group was subdivided into three parts: preparatory situations; knowledge development situations, and motor development situations.

The observations and coding of behaviors are carried out “at intervals.” This technique is used extensively in research on behavior analysis. The coder observes the teaching situation and a particular student during each interval (Brunelle et al., 1988 ). It then makes a decision concerning the characteristic of the observed behavior. The 6-s observation interval is followed by a coding interval of 6 s too. A cassette tape recorder is used to regulate the observation and recording intervals. It is recorded for this purpose with the indices “observe” and “code” at the start of each 6-s period. During each coding unit, the observer answered the following questions: What is the type of situation in which the class group finds itself? If the class group is in a learning situation proper, in what form of commitment does the observed student find himself? The abbreviations representing the various categories of behavior have been entered in the spaces which correspond to them. The coder was asked to enter a hyphen instead of the abbreviation when the same categories of behavior follow one another in consecutive intervals (Brunelle et al., 1988 ).

During the preparatory period, the following behaviors were identified and analyzed:

• - Deviant behavior: The student adopts a behavior incompatible with a listening attitude or with the smooth running of the preparatory situations.
• - Waiting time: The student is waiting without listening or observing.
• - Organized during: The student is involved in a complementary activity that does not represent a contribution to learning (e.g., regaining his place in a line, fetching a ball that has just left the field, replacing a piece of equipment).

During the motor development situations, the following behaviors were identified and analyzed:

• - Motor engagement 1: The participant performs the motor activity with such easy that it can be inferred that their actions have little chance to engage in a learning process.
• - Motor engagement 2: The participant-despite a certain degree of difficulty, performs the motor activity with sufficient success, which makes it possible to infer that they are in the process of learning.
• - Motor engagement 3: The participant performs the motor activity with such difficulty that their efforts have very little chance of being part of a learning process.

2.4. Statistical analysis

Statistical tests were performed using statistical software 26.0 for windows (SPSS, Inc, Chicago, IL, USA). Data are presented in text and tables as means ± standard deviations and in figures as means and standard errors. Once the normal distribution of data was confirmed by the Shapiro-Wilk W -test, parametric tests were performed. Analysis of the results was performed using a mixed 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA): Groups × Time with repeated measures.

• For the learning parameters, the ANOVA took the following form: 2 Groups (Control Group vs. Experimental Group) × 3 Times (T0, T1, and T2).
• For the dimensions of motivation, the ANOVA took the following form: 2 Groups (Control Group vs. Experimental Group) × 2 Time (T0 vs. T2).

In instances where the ANOVA showed a significant effect, a Bonferroni post-hoc test was applied in order to compare the experimental data in pairs, otherwise by an independent or paired Student's T -test. Effect sizes were calculated as partial eta-squared η p 2 to estimate the meaningfulness of significant findings, where η p 2 values of 0.01, 0.06, and 0.13 represent small, moderate, and large effect sizes, respectively (Lakens, 2013 ). All observed differences were considered statistically significant for a probability threshold lower than p < 0.05.

Table 2 shows the results of learning variables during the preparatory and the development learning periods at T0, T1, and T2, in the control group and the experimental group.

Comparison of learning variables using two teaching methods in physical education.

* Significantly different from control group at p <0.05.

# Significantly different from T0 at p <0.05.

$ Significantly different from T1 at p <0.05.

For motor engagement 1 (ME1), the time devoted to this variable is equal zero for the three measurement times (T0, T1, and T2).

The analysis of variance of two factors with repeated measures showed a significant effect of group, learning, and group learning interaction for the deviant behavior. The post-hoc test revealed significantly less frequent deviant behaviors in the experimental than in the control group at T0, T1, and T2 (all p < 0.001). Additionally, the deviant behavior decreased significantly at T1 and T2 compared to T0 for both groups (all p < 0.001).

For appropriate engagement, there were no significant group effect, a significant learning effect, and a significant group learning interaction effect. The post-hoc test revealed that compared to T0, Appropriate engagement recorded at T1 and T2 increased significantly ( p = 0.032; p = 0.031, respectively) in the experimental group, whilst it decreased significantly in the control group ( p < 0.001). Additionally, Appropriate engagement was higher in the experimental vs. control group at T1 and T2 (all p < 0.001).

For waiting time, a significant interaction in terms of group effect, learning, and group learning was found. The post-hoc test revealed that waiting time was higher at T1 and T2 vs. T0 (all p < 0.001) in the control group. In addition, waiting time in the experimental group decreased significantly at T1 and T2 vs. T0 (all p < 0.001), with higher values recorded at T2 vs. T1 ( p = 0.025). Additionally, lower values were recorded in the experimental group vs. the control group at the three-time points (all p < 0.001).

For Motor engagement 2, a significant group, learning, and group-learning interaction effect was noted. The post-hoc test revealed that Motor engagement 2 increased significantly in both groups at T1 ( p < 0.0001) and T2 ( p < 0.0001) vs. T0 ( p = 0.045), with significantly higher values recorded in the experimental group at T1 and T2.

Regarding Motor engagement 3, a non-significant group effect was reported. Contrariwise, a significant learning effect and group learning interaction was reported ( Table 1 ). The post-hoc test revealed a significant decrease in the control group and the experimental group at T1 ( p = 0.294) at T2 ( p = 0.294) vs. T0 ( p = 0.0543). In addition, a non-significant difference between the two groups was found.

A significant group and learning effect was noted for the organized during, and a non-significant group learning interaction. For organized during, the paired Student T -test showed a significant decrease in the control group and the experimental group (all p < 0.001). The independent Student T -test revealed a non-significant difference between groups at the three-time points.

Results of the motivational dimensions in the control group and the experimental group recorded at T0 and T2 are presented in Table 3 .

Comparison of the four motivational dimensions in two teaching methods in physical education.

For intrinsic motivation, a significant group effect and group learning interaction and also a non-significant learning effect was found. The post-hoc test indicated that the intrinsic motivation decreased significantly in the control group ( p = 0.029), whilst it increased in the experimental group ( p = 0.04). Additionally, the intrinsic motivation of the experimental group was higher at T0 ( p = 0.026) and T2 ( p < 0.001) compared to that of the control group.

For the identified regulation, a significant group effect, a non-significant learning effect and group learning interaction were reported. The paired Student's T -test revealed that from T0 to T1, the identified motivation increased significantly only in the experimental group ( p = 0.022), while it remained unchanged in the control group. The independent Student's T -test revealed that the identified regulation recorded in the experimental group at T0 ( p = 0.012) and T2 ( p < 0.001) was higher compared to that of the control group.

The external regulation presents a significant group effect. In addition, a non-significant learning effect and group learning interaction were reported. The paired Student's T -test showed that the external regulation decreased significantly in the experimental group ( p = 0.038), whereas it remained unchanged in the control group. Further, the independent Student's T -test revealed that the external regulation recorded at T2 was higher in the control group vs. the experimental group ( p < 0.001).

Relating to amotivation, results showed a significant group effect. Furthermore, a non-significant learning effect and group learning interaction were reported. The paired Student's T -test showed that, from T0 to T2, amotivation decreased significantly in the experimental group ( p = 0.011) and did not change in the control group. The independent Student T -test revealed that amotivation recorded at T2 was lower in the experimental compared to the control group ( p = 0.002).

4. Discussion

The main purpose of this study was to compare the effects of the problem-solving vs. traditional method on motivation and learning during physical education courses. The results revealed that the problem-solving method is more effective than the traditional method in increasing students' motivation and improving their learning. Moreover, the results showed that mean wait times and deviant behaviors decreased using the problem-solving method. Interestingly, the average time spent on appropriate engagement increased using the problem-solving method compared to the traditional method. When using the traditional method, the average wait times increased and, as a result, the time spent on appropriate engagement decreased. Then, following the decrease in deviant behaviors and waiting times, an increase in the time spent warming up was evident (i.e., appropriate engagement). Indeed, there was an improvement in engagement time using the problem-solving method and a decrease using the traditional method. On the other hand, there was a decrease in motor engagement 3 in favor of motor engagement 2. Indeed, it has been shown that the problem-solving method has been used in the learning process and allows for its improvement (Docktor et al., 2015 ). In addition, it could also produce better quality solutions and has higher scores on conceptual and problem-solving measures. It is also a good method for the learning process to enhance students' academic performance (Docktor et al., 2015 ; Ali, 2019 ). In contrast, the traditional method limits the ability of teachers to reach and engage all students (Cook and Artino, 2016 ). Furthermore, it produces passive learning with an understanding of basic knowledge which is characterized by its weakness (Goldstein, 2016 ). Taken together, it appears that the problem-solving method promotes and improves learning more than the traditional method.

It should be acknowledged that other factors, such as motivation, could influence learning. In this context, our results showed that the method of problem-solving could improve the motivation of the learners. This motivation includes several variables that change depending on the situation, namely the intrinsic motivation that pushes the learner to engage in an activity for the interest and pleasure linked to the practice of the latter (Komarraju et al., 2009 ; Guiffrida et al., 2013 ; Chedru, 2015 ). The student, therefore, likes to learn through problem-solving and neglects that of the traditional method. These results are concordant with others (Deci and Ryan, 1985 ; Chedru, 2015 ; Ryan and Deci, 2020 ). Regarding the three forms of extrinsic motivation: first, extrinsic motivation by an identified regulation which manifests itself in a high degree of self-determination where the learner engages in the activity because it is important for him (Deci and Ryan, 1985 ; Chedru, 2015 ). This explains the significant difference between the two groups. Then, the motivation by external regulation which is characterized by a low degree of self-determination such as the behavior of the learner is manipulated by external circumstances such as obtaining rewards or the removal of sanctions (Deci and Ryan, 1985 ; Chedru, 2015 ). For this, the means of this variable decreased for the experimental group which is intrinsically motivated. He does not need any reward to work and is not afraid of punishment because he is self-confident. Third, amotivation is at the opposite end of the self-determination continuum. Unmotivated students are the most likely to feel negative emotions (Ratelle et al., 2007 ; David, 2010 ), to have low self-esteem (Deci and Ryan, 1995 ), and who attempts to abandon their studies (Vallerand et al., 1997 ; Blanchard et al., 2005 ). So, more students are motivated by external regulation or demotivated, less interest they show and less effort they make, and more likely they are to fail (Grolnick et al., 1991 ; Miserandino, 1996 ; Guay et al., 2000 ; Blanchard et al., 2005 ).

It is worth noting that there is a close link between motivation and learning (Bessa et al., 2021 ; Rossa et al., 2021 ). Indeed, when the learner's motivation is high, so will his learning. However, all this depends on the method used (Norboev, 2021 ). For example, the method of problem-solving increase motivation more than the traditional method, as evidenced by several researchers (Parish and Treasure, 2003 ; Artino and Stephens, 2009 ; Kim and Frick, 2011 ; Lemos and Veríssimo, 2014 ).

Given the effectiveness of the problem-solving method in improving students' learning and motivation, it should be used during physical education teaching. This could be achieved through the organization of comprehensive training programs, seminars, and workshops for teachers so to master and subsequently be able to use the problem-solving method during physical education lessons.

Despite its novelty, the present study suffers from a few limitations that should be acknowledged. First, a future study, consisting of a group taught using the mixed method would preferable so to better elucidate the true impact of this teaching and learning method. Second, no gender and/or age group comparisons were performed. This issue should be addressed in future investigations. Finally, the number of participants is limited. This may be due to working in a secondary school where the number of students in a class is limited to 30 students. Additionally, the number of participants fell to 53 after excluding certain students (exempted, absent for a session, exercising in civil clubs or member of the school association). Therefore, to account for classes of finite size, a cluster-based trial would be beneficial in the future. Moreover, future studies investigating the effect of the active method in reducing some behaviors (e.g., disruptive behaviors) and for the improvement of pupils' attention are warranted.

5. Conclusion

There was an improvement in student learning in favor of the problem-solving method. Additionally, we found that the motivation of learners who were taught using the problem-solving method was better than that of learners who were educated by the traditional method.

Data availability statement

Ethics statement.

University Research Ethics Board approval was obtained before recruiting participants who were subsequently informed of the nature, objective, methodology, and constraints. Teacher, school director, parental/guardian, and child informed consent was obtained prior to participation in the study. In addition, exclusion criteria included; the practice of handball activity in civil/competitive/amateur clubs or in the high school sports association. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin.

Author contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks for all students and physical education teaching staff from the 15 November 1955 Secondary School, who generously shared their time, experience, and materials for the proposes of this study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The reviewer MJ declared a shared affiliation, with no collaboration, with the authors GE, NS, LM, and KT to the handling editor at the time of review.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• Adunola O., Ed B., Adeniran A. (2012). The Impact of Teachers' Teaching Methods on the Academic Performance of Primary School Pupils . Ogun: Ego Booster Books. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ali S. S. (2019). Problem based learning: A student-centered approach . Engl. Lang. Teach . 12 , 73. 10.5539/elt.v12n5p73 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ang S. C., Penney D. (2013). Promoting social and emotional learning outcomes in physical education: Insights from a school-based research project in Singapore . Asia-Pac. J. Health Sport Phys. Educ . 4 , 267–286. 10.1080/18377122.2013.836768 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Artino A. R., Stephens J. M. (2009). Academic motivation and self-regulation: A comparative analysis of undergraduate and graduate students learning online . Internet. High. Educ. 12 , 146–151. 10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.02.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Arvind K., Kusum G. (2017). Teaching approaches, methods and strategy . Sch. Res. J. Interdiscip. Stud. 4 , 6692–6697. 10.21922/srjis.v4i36.10014 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ayeni A. J. (2011). Teachers' professional development and quality assurance in Nigerian secondary schools . World J. Educ. 1 , 143. 10.5430/wje.v1n2p143 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bessa C., Hastie P., Rosado A., Mesquita I. (2021). Sport education and traditional teaching: Influence on students' empowerment and self-confidence in high school physical education classes . Sustainability 13 , 578. 10.3390/su13020578 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bi M., Zhao Z., Yang J., Wang Y. (2019). Comparison of case-based learning and traditional method in teaching postgraduate students of medical oncology . Med. Teach . 4 , 1124–1128. 10.1080/0142159X.2019.1617414 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Blanchard C., Pelletier L., Otis N., Sharp E. (2005). Role of self-determination and academic ability in predicting school absences and intention to drop out . J. Educ. Sci. 30 , 105–123. 10.7202/011772ar [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Blázquez D. (2016). Métodos de enseñanza en Educación Física . Enfoques innovadores para la enseñanza de competencias . Barcelona: Inde Publisher. [ Google Scholar ]
• Brunelle J., Drouin D., Godbout P., Tousignant M. (1988). Supervision of physical activity intervention. Montreal, Canada: G. Morin, Dl . Open J. Soc. Sci. 8. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bunker D., Thorpe R. (1982). A model for the teaching of games in secondary schools . Bull. Phys. Educ . 18 , 5–8. [ Google Scholar ]
• Casey A. (2014). Models-based practice: Great white hope or white elephant? Phys. Educ. Sport Pedagog. 19 , 18–34. 10.1080/17408989.2012.726977 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Casey A., MacPhail A., Larsson H., Quennerstedt M. (2021). Between hope and happening: Problematizing the M and the P in models-based practice . Phys. Educ. Sport Pedagog. 26 , 111–122. 10.1080/17408989.2020.1789576 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chedru M. (2015). Impact of motivation and learning styles on the academic performance of engineering students . J. Educ. Sci. 41 , 457–482. 10.7202/1035313ar [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cook D. A., Artino A. R. (2016). Motivation to learn: An overview of contemporary theories . J. Med. Educ . 50 , 997–1014. 10.1111/medu.13074 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cronbach L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests . Psychometrika. J. 16 , 297–334. 10.1007/BF02310555 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cunningham J., Sood K. (2018). How effective are working memory training interventions at improving maths in schools: a study into the efficacy of working memory training in children aged 9 and 10 in a junior school? . Education 46 , 174–187. 10.1080/03004279.2016.1210192 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Darling-Hammond L., Flook L., Cook-Harvey C., Barron B., Osher D. (2020). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development . Appl. Dev. Sci. 24 , 97–140. 10.1080/10888691.2018.1537791 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• David A. (2010). Examining the relationship of personality and burnout in college students: The role of academic motivation . E. M. E. Rev. 1 , 90–104. [ Google Scholar ]
• Deci E., Ryan R. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior . Perspect. Soc. Psychol . 2271 , 7. 10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. (1995). “Human autonomy,” in Efficacy, Agency, and Self-Esteem (Boston, MA: Springer; ). [ Google Scholar ]
• Dickinson B. L., Lackey W., Sheakley M., Miller L., Jevert S., Shattuck B. (2018). Involving a real patient in the design and implementation of case-based learning to engage learners . Adv. Physiol. Educ. 42 , 118–122. 10.1152/advan.00174.2017 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Docktor J. L., Strand N. E., Mestre J. P., Ross B. H. (2015). Conceptual problem solving in high school . Phys. Rev. ST Phys. Educ. Res. 11 , 20106. 10.1103/PhysRevSTPER.11.020106 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dyson B., Grineski S. (2001). Using cooperative learning structures in physical education . J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance. 72 , 28–31. 10.1080/07303084.2001.10605831 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ergül N. R., Kargin E. K. (2014). The effect of project based learning on students' science success . Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 136 , 537–541. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.371 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fenouillet F. (2012). Les théories de la motivation . Psycho Sup : Dunod. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fidan M., Tuncel M. (2019). Integrating augmented reality into problem based learning: The effects on learning achievement and attitude in physics education . Comput. Educ . 142 , 103635. 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103635 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Garrett T. (2008). Student-centered and teacher-centered classroom management: A case study of three elementary teachers . J. Classr. Interact. 43 , 34–47. [ Google Scholar ]
• Goldstein O. A. (2016). Project-based learning approach to teaching physics for pre-service elementary school teacher education students. Bevins S, éditeur . Cogent. Educ. 3 , 1200833. 10.1080/2331186X.2016.1200833 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gordon B., Doyle S. (2015). Teaching personal and social responsibility and transfer of learning: Opportunities and challenges for teachers and coaches . J. Teach. Phys. Educ. 34 , 152–161. 10.1123/jtpe.2013-0184 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grolnick W. S., Ryan R. M., Deci E. L. (1991). Inner resources for school achievement: Motivational mediators of children's perceptions of their parents . J. Educ. Psychol . 83 , 508–517. 10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.508 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Guay F., Vallerand R. J., Blanchard C. (2000). On the assessment of situational intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS) . Motiv. Emot . 24 , 175–213. 10.1023/A:1005614228250 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Guiffrida D., Lynch M., Wall A., Abel D. (2013). Do reasons for attending college affect academic outcomes? A test of a motivational model from a self-determination theory perspective . J. Coll. Stud. Dev. 54 , 121–139. 10.1353/csd.2013.0019 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hastie P. A., Casey A. (2014). Fidelity in models-based practice research in sport pedagogy: A guide for future investigations . J. Teach. Phys. Educ . 33 , 422–431. 10.1123/jtpe.2013-0141 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hu W. (2010). Creative scientific problem finding and its developmental trend . Creat. Res. J. 22 , 46–52. 10.1080/10400410903579551 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ilkiw J. E., Nelson R. W., Watson J. L., Conley A. J., Raybould H. E., Chigerwe M., et al.. (2017). Curricular revision and reform: The process, what was important, and lessons learned . J. Vet. Med. Educ . 44 , 480–489. 10.3138/jvme.0316-068R [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnson A. P. (2010). Making Connections in Elementary and Middle School Social Studies. 2nd Edn. London: SAGE. [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnson D. W., Johnson R. T., Smith K. A. (1998). Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom. 2nd Edn. Edina, MN: Interaction Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim K. J., Frick T. (2011). Changes in student motivation during online learning . J. Educ. Comput. 44 , 23. 10.2190/EC.44.1.a [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kolesnikova I. (2016). Combined teaching method: An experimental study . World J. Educ. 6 , 51–59. 10.5430/wje.v6n6p51 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Komarraju M., Karau S. J., Schmeck R. R. (2009). Role of the Big Five personality traits in predicting college students' academic motivation and achievement . Learn. Individ. Differ. 19 , 47–52. 10.1016/j.lindif.2008.07.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lakens D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t -tests and ANOVAs . Front. Psychol . 4 , 863. 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lemos M. S., Veríssimo L. (2014). The relationships between intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and achievement, along elementary school . Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci . 112 , 930–938. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1251 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leo M. F., Mouratidis A., Pulido J. J., López-Gajardo M. A., Sánchez-Oliva D. (2022). Perceived teachers' behavior and students' engagement in physical education: the mediating role of basic psychological needs and self-determined motivation . Phys. Educ. Sport Pedagogy. 27 , 59–76. 10.1080/17408989.2020.1850667 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lonsdale C., Sabiston C., Taylor I., Ntoumanis N. (2011). Measuring student motivation for physical education: Examining the psychometric properties of the Perceived Locus of Causality Questionnaire and the Situational Motivation Scale . Psychol. Sport. Exerc . 12 , 284–292. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.11.003 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Luo Y. J. (2019). The influence of problem-based learning on learning effectiveness in students' of varying learning abilities within physical education . Innov. Educ. Teach. Int. 56 , 3–13. 10.1080/14703297.2017.1389288 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maddeh T., Amamou S., Desbiens J., françois Souissi N. (2020). The management of disruptive behavior of secondary school students by Tunisian trainee teachers in physical education: Effects of a training program in the prevention and management of indiscipline . J. Educ. Fac . 4 , 323–344. 10.34056/aujef.674931 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Manninen M., Campbell S. (2021). The effect of the sport education model on basic needs, intrinsic motivation and prosocial attitudes: A systematic review and multilevel meta-Analysis . Eur. Phys. Educ. Rev . 28 , 76–99. 10.1177/1356336X211017938 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Menendez J. I., Fernandez-Rio J. (2017). Hybridising sport education and teaching for personal and social responsibility to include students with disabilities . Eur. J. Spec. Needs Educ. 32 , 508–524 10.1080/08856257.2016.1267943 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Metzler M. (2017). Instructional Models in Physical Education . London: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• Miserandino M. (1996). Children who do well in school: Individual differences in perceived competence and autonomy in above-average children . J. Educ. Psychol . 88 , 203–214. 10.1037/0022-0663.88.2.203 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Norboev N. N. (2021). Theoretical aspects of the influence of motivation on increasing the efficiency of physical education . Curr. Res. J. Pedagog . 2 , 247–252. 10.37547/pedagogics-crjp-02-10-44 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Novak D. J. (2010). Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations . J. E-Learn. Knowl. Soc . 6 , 21–30. 10.20368/1971-8829/441 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parish L. E., Treasure D. C. (2003). Physical activity and situational motivation in physical education: Influence of the motivational climate and perceived ability . Res. Q. Exerc. Sport. 74 , 173. 10.1080/02701367.2003.10609079 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pérez-Jorge D., González-Dorta D., Del Carmen Rodríguez-Jiménez D., Fariña-Hernández L. (2021). Problem-solving teacher training, the effect of the ProyectaMates Programme in Tenerife . International Educ . 49 , 777–7791. 10.1080/03004279.2020.1786427 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Perrenoud P. (2003). Qu'est-ce qu'apprendre . Enfances Psy . 4 , 9–17. 10.3917/ep.024.0009 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pohan A., Asmin A., Menanti A. (2020). The effect of problem based learning and learning motivation of mathematical problem solving skills of class 5 students at SDN 0407 Mondang . BirLE . 3 , 531–539. 10.33258/birle.v3i1.850 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Puigarnau S., Camerino O., Castañer M., Prat Q., Anguera M. T. (2016). El apoyo a la autonomía en practicantes de centros deportivos y de fitness para aumentar su motivación . Rev. Int. de Cienc. del deporte. 43 , 48–64. 10.5232/ricyde2016.04303 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ratelle C. F., Guay F., Vallerand R. J., Larose S., Senécal C. (2007). Autonomous, controlled, and amotivated types of academic motivation: A person-oriented analysis . J. Educ. Psychol. 99 , 734–746. 10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.734 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rivera-Pérez S., Fernandez-Rio J., Gallego D. I. (2020). Effects of an 8-week cooperative learning intervention on physical education students' task and self-approach goals, and Emotional Intelligence . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health . 18 , 61. 10.3390/ijerph18010061 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rolland V. (2009). Motivation in the School Context . 5th Edn . Belguim: De Boeck Superior, 218. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rossa R., Maulidiah R. H., Aryni Y. (2021). The effect of problem solving technique and motivation toward students' writing skills . J. Pena. Edukasi. 8 , 43–54. 10.54314/jpe.v8i1.654 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ryan R., Deci E. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions . Contemp. Educ. Psychol . 61 , 101860. 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Siedentop D., Hastie P. A., Van Der Mars H. (2011). Complete Guide to Sport Education, 2nd Edn. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. [ Google Scholar ]
• Skinner B. F. (1985). Cognitive science and behaviourism . Br. J. Psychol. 76 , 291–301. 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1985.tb01953.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Standage M., Gillison F. B., Ntoumanis N., Treasure D. C. (2012). Predicting students' physical activity and health-related well-being: a prospective cross-domain investigation of motivation across school physical education and exercise settings . J. Sport. Exerc. Psychol . 34 , 37–60. 10.1123/jsep.34.1.37 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tebabal A., Kahssay G. (2011). The effects of student-centered approach in improving students' graphical interpretation skills and conceptual understanding of kinematical motion . Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. 5 , 9. [ Google Scholar ]
• Vallerand R. J., Fbrtier M. S., Guay F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting toward a motivational model of high school dropout . J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2 , 1161–1176. 10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1161 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ward P., Mitchell M. F., van der Mars H., Lawson H. A. (2021). Chapter 3: PK+12 School physical education: conditions, lessons learned, and future directions . J. Teach. Phys. Educ. 40 , 363–371. 10.1123/jtpe.2020-0241 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

• Advanced Search

Studying the student’s perceptions of engagement and problem-solving skills for academic achievement in chemistry at the higher secondary level

https://ror.org/02w7vnb60Department of Education, Bharathidasan University, Thiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

New Citation Alert added!

This alert has been successfully added and will be sent to:

You will be notified whenever a record that you have chosen has been cited.

To manage your alert preferences, click on the button below.

New Citation Alert!

Please log in to your account

• Publisher Site

Education and Information Technologies

Student engagement has emerged as a crucial factor in higher education, playing a vital role in shaping the overall quality of learning outcomes. It refers to the active involvement and participation of students in specific activities that research has consistently linked to improved academic achievements. The pervasiveness of the term ‘student engagement’ has significantly shaped the higher education landscape, reinforcing its importance in fostering effective learning environments. In the realm of higher education, educators are continuously exploring diverse pedagogical approaches to enhance student engagement through active learning. This study focuses on the problem-solving learning model and its implementation to foster a deeper understanding of student engagement, including their positive behaviour, participation in activities, and cognitive capabilities. In this study, a quasi-experimental design was employed, incorporating pre-test, post-test, and non-equivalent control group elements. This specific design was chosen due to the constraints of randomly assigning students to groups. Instead, intact classes were randomly selected and assigned to either the control or experimental groups. The sample study was 476 higher secondary-level chemistry students collected from different higher secondary schools. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select schools from the target population. Initially, schools were selected using a purposive sampling technique, focusing on those with fully equipped chemistry laboratories and qualified chemistry teachers. Additionally, consideration was given to including both female and male students in co-educational chemistry classes, as gender was considered a relevant variable for the study. This study adopts a quasi-experimental design, utilizing an achievement and retention test in chemistry as its primary instrument. The validity of this instrument was ensured through face validation by three expert evaluators. To eliminate the errors of non-equivalence arising from the non-randomization of the research subjects, the analysis of covariance (ANOVA) was used in analysing the data and to remove the error of initial differences in ability levels among the research subjects. The findings of the study demonstrated that students in the experimental group experienced a notable increase in problem-solving success compared to their counterparts in the control group, a difference that became evident right from the first intervention. This study establishes a positive correlation between student engagement and their learning outcomes, indicating that higher engagement leads to better academic performance. Additionally, it observes that the correlation between boys’ and girls’ problem-solving skills and their learning outcomes is comparatively weaker, suggesting potential variations in how problem-solving abilities impact academic achievement among genders. It also reveals that there is a positive influence on student engagement and problem-solving skills in students’ academic achievement. Despite the challenges encountered, the results demonstrated the vital role of the problem-solving learning model, when coupled with student engagement, in fostering students’ critical thinking skills concerning reaction rate material. These instructional practices were observed to foster higher levels of student engagement, ultimately resulting in enhanced academic achievement among students.

Recommendations

Using learning analytics to promote student engagement and achievement in blended learning: an empirical study.

The emergence of blended learning has huge impact on traditional learning. Blended learning has its own unique characteristics combining the advantages of traditional learning and online learning. However, some problems of blended learning have also ...

The effects of a computer mini-course in test-taking skills on student achievement in general mathematics

The effectiveness of scratchjr in enhancing preschool children's problem-solving skills.

Utilizing digital media serves as one of the teachers’ efforts to develop children's problem-solving skills. By using the ScratchJr program, teachers can develop different play activities to stimulate children's problem-solving skills. This study sought ...

Login options

Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.

Full Access

• Information
• Contributors

Published in

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023. Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

In-Cooperation

Kluwer Academic Publishers

United States

Publication History

• Published: 29 August 2023
• Accepted: 22 August 2023
• Received: 11 July 2023

Author Tags

• Student Engagement
• Problem-solving skills
• Higher secondary level
• Chemistry Learning Students
• Quasi-Experimental Design
• Multi-stage sampling technique
• And academic achievement
• research-article

Funding Sources

Other metrics.

• Bibliometrics
• Citations 0

Article Metrics

• 0 Total Citations View Citations
• 0 Total Downloads
• Downloads (Last 12 months) 0
• Downloads (Last 6 weeks) 0

This publication has not been cited yet

Digital Edition

View this article in digital edition.

Share this Publication link

https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1007/s10639-023-12165-x

Share on Social Media

• 0 References

Export Citations

• Please download or close your previous search result export first before starting a new bulk export. Preview is not available. By clicking download, a status dialog will open to start the export process. The process may take a few minutes but once it finishes a file will be downloadable from your browser. You may continue to browse the DL while the export process is in progress. Download
• Download citation
• Copy citation

We are preparing your search results for download ...

We will inform you here when the file is ready.

Your file of search results citations is now ready.

Your search export query has expired. Please try again.

• Open access
• Published: 20 June 2024

Comparison of blended learning and traditional lecture method on learning outcomes in the evidence-based medicine course: a comparative study

• Kui Liu 1   na1 ,
• Shuang Liu 2   na1 ,
• Yifei Ma 1 ,
• Jun Jiang 1 ,
• Zhenhua Liu 1 &

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  680 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

75 Accesses

Metrics details

Blended learning comprised with flipped classroom (FC) and “internet plus” is a new learning strategy that reverses the position of teacher and students in class, and provides abundant learning resources before and after class. This study aimed to assess the impact of blended learning on learning outcomes in evidence-based medicine course, and compare with traditional learning method.

The participants of the two groups were from two difference cohorts in Air force medical university in China. The two groups toke the same pre-test before class and then were given the teaching of same chapters of evidence-based medicine with two different learning strategy. In the blended learning group, the participants were required to create a debriefing slide about their learning outcomes and the answers of questions given in advance after study the learning material sent by teacher a week before class, and the teacher gave a detailed summary based on the common problems, and distributed multimedia resources for review. After the experiment was carried out, learning outcomes including mastering knowledge, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation were compared.

37 and 39 participants were enrolled to blended learning and traditional learning groups, respectively, and no statistically significant difference were found in baseline information and pre-test grades. Statistically significant differences were found in learning outcomes including post-test score ( t  = 2.90, p  = 0.005), changes of scores between pre-test and post-test ( t  = 2.49, p  = 0.022), learning satisfaction ( t  = 12.41, p  = 0.001), and self-evaluation of the two groups ( t  = 7.82, p  = 0.001). Especially, the changes of scores between pre-test and post-test of blended learning and traditional learning groups were 4.05 (4.26), and 2.00 (2.85), respectively.

Conclusions

This study showed that compared with traditional learning strategy, blended learning can effectively enhanced participants’ acquisition of knowledge, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation in evidence-based medicine. Using blended learning method including “internet plus” and flipped classroom is recommended in the teaching of evidence-based medicine course.

Peer Review reports

Evidence-based medicine has played a prominent role in public health and basic medical research, including exploring the risk factors of diseases [ 1 ], early diagnosis of disease [ 2 ], proper and rational treatment of disease [ 3 ], and judgment of disease prognosis [ 4 ]. Therefore, evidence-based medicine is an indispensable course, which covers 5 main steps for applying it to clinical practice: defining a clinically relevant question, searching for the best evidence, critically appraising the evidence, applying the evidence, and evaluating the performance of evidence-based medicine [ 5 ]. Evidence-based medicine demands practitioner’s solid theoretical knowledge and skilled application ability for it, which puts forward high requirements for the course teaching. Through the study of this course, the graduate students should not only master the basic theory of evidence-based medicine, but also master the thought and method of evidence-based medicine to lay a foundation for their future application in clinical practice. Unfortunately, current medical postgraduate education mainly focuses on learning clinical expertise, which leaves inadequate time to learn evidence-based medicine. Consequently, it is important to develop an effective learning strategy for the evidence-based medicine course to allow medical postgraduates to master knowledge in limited classroom time.

However, the traditional instructional approach also known as lecture-based learning is a passive format learning [ 6 ], which mainly relies on lectures from teachers to transfer knowledge, and students only accept the knowledge passively [ 7 ]. For medical courses, which involves the acquisition of a large quantity of knowledge [ 8 ], the learning result achieved by lecture-based method is far from the expected goal and the requirement of professional work. For medical postgraduates, practical abilities of evidence-based medicine are of great importance, while lecture-based learning did not provide them with any opportunity for practical application of theoretical knowledge but only homework on paper to do [ 7 ]. Moreover, critical thinking ability, problem-solving ability and integrated thinking abilities are essential for evidence-based medicine, and it has been proved that lecture-based learning strategies are insufficient in training these abilities [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. In summary, previous studies have proved that knowledge transfer is poor during passive format learning, result in no need to keep traditional teaching and learning strategies in medical education. Therefore, to overcome the disadvantages of the lecture-based learning method, the implementation of new learning strategies with active participation of learners and more innovative methods are required in the teaching process of evidence-based medicine of postgraduates.

Flipped classroom (FC) approach reverses the position of teacher and student in class, in which students acquire basic knowledge though self-learning before class, and apply the knowledge to solve problems proposed by teachers with individual homework or group activities, then report on the result of learning and problem solving and apply the acquired knowledge to solve practical problems under the guidance of the instructor in class [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Recently, there are more and more implantation of the FC approach in health care course education [ 16 ]. Students who attend flipped classroom gave highly positive response on motivation of learning, engagement in learning, and learning satisfaction [ 17 ]. However, there are also studies found that FC did not improve learning competence, such as Ilic et al. [ 18 ] applied FC approach in evidence-based medicine course, and the experimental group did not achieve higher score as expected. Therefore, further investigations are demanded to evaluate the impact of FC approach in evidence-based medicine course.

The “internet plus” is not an independent learning or teaching method, instead, it’s a combination of internet technology and the process of teaching and learning. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, lots of medical universities started online classes by actively preparing for teaching online, owing to the lockdowns, travel restrictions, and quarantines to control the spread of the pandemic [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Yu-Xin Cao et al. explored lemology teaching with “internet plus” flipped classroom pedagogy with clinical medicine students, and proved that the pedagogy boosted students’ theory learning ability, case analysis ability, and learning satisfaction [ 22 ]. Therefore, this comparative study aimed to assess the impact of blended learning comprised with “internet plus” and flipped classroom on learning outcomes in evidence-based medicine course, and compare with lecture-based method to provide reference for full implementation of the new teaching method.

Study participants

To comprehensively evaluate the effects of “internet plus” FC on medical postgraduates, the participants of the study were the postgraduates of a medical university from the 2022–2023 cohort, who majored in multiple disciplines pertain to medical specialty. And the students were assigned into two groups: students form 2022 cohort were allocated into control group which conducted with lecture-based learning, and students from 2023 cohort were allocated into experimental group which conducted with blended learning, “internet plus” flipped classroom. It is worth mentioning that although the two groups were not contemporaneous controls, they were both from the first year of graduate students, it is therefore reasonable to assume that the two groups of students have the same level of knowledge. The inclusion criteria were as follows: voluntary participations who were informed of the objective of the study in advance, have completed professional basic courses of their own majors, and finished the first chapter of the class: Introduction of evidence-based medicine. Finally, 76 students were included in this study, 37 students for blended learning group, and 39 students for lecture-based learning group. The sample size was calculated 31 students for each group using G power 3.1.9 with significance level α = 0.05, effect size (ρ) = 0.70, and power = 0.85. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Air Force Medical University (KY20222232-C-1).

Study design

This study chose the same sections from evidence-based medicine course as learning content, including “How to identify and raise a question in clinical practice”, “Classification, quality, grading and recommendation of evidence”, and “The source and retrieval of the evidence”, which covered the main content of the basic knowledge of evidence-based medicine. Therefore, a high degree of consistency was also maintained in terms of the content of the lectures and the teaching staff, which also made sure the balance between the two groups. Both groups took pre-test before class, and post-test, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation questionnaire two weeks after the class.

The control group was taught with traditional learning method, as known as lecture-based method. The teacher first gave a lecture about theoretical knowledge according to the specific requirements of syllabus, students answered the questions raised by teacher in class, and took notes. Before the end of the class, the teacher gave a brief summary of the content of the chapter. After class, students completed homework as required, and submitted it three days after class.

The experimental group used the blended learning comprised of “internet plus” and FC. One week before the classroom session, a learning material including short videos, handouts, and knowledge maps about the lecture was sent to students with several questions about the content. And students were required to formed into 5 subgroups by themselves, and each subgroup needed to create a debriefing slide about their learning outcomes and the answers of questions given in advance. After each group finished their debrief, the instructor gave a brief comment on their report, point out deficiencies in the report, and scored for it according to content integrity, response to questions, production of slides, and fluency of presentation. And before the end of the class, the instructor gave a detailed summary, that mainly focused on the problems existing commonly in the reports, and provided multimedia resources for review, consolidation, and extension. Then the students submitted their homework three days after the class. Figure  1 depicts the blended learning design of this study.

The blended learning design including “internet plus” and FC used in this study

Effectiveness assessment

After the teaching and learning process of the two groups was completed, a comprehensive assessment including mastering knowledge, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation were implemented.

The situation of mastering theoretical knowledge was evaluated by post-test after two weeks of the class, which examined the same knowledge as pre-test. The examination with 10 indefinite choice questions were assigned by the instructor according to the syllabus.

A questionnaire with fourteen questions that focused on learning satisfaction was developed by the Graduate School of Air Force Medical University. This scale comprises 14 items to be answered, each of them has 5 points ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree (Table  1 ). The Cronbach alpha coefficient and the KMO coefficient of the questionnaire were 0.759 and 0.696, respectively, and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated that the questionnaire were with enough construct validity ( P  < 0.001). After students completed the scale, the average score was calculated, and higher score represents better learning satisfaction.

Furthermore, to measure the difference of the improvement of the capacity for scientific research between two groups, we developed a questionnaire that evaluated student’s ability by their own. The questionnaire were with 5 items that mainly focused on the ability of find, analyze, and solve scientific problems, including the following questions: (1) Do you think your ability to find scientific problems has improved through the study of this course; (2) Do you think your ability to analyze scientific problems has improved through the study of this course; (3) Do you think your ability to solve scientific problems has improved through the study of this course; (4) Do you think your ability to engage in critical thinking has improved through the study of this course; (5) Do you think your ability of independent learning has improved through the study of this course. Each question has 5 points ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Using this scale, the average score was calculated, and higher score represents better self-improvement.

Statistical analysis

Demographic baseline data and scores of examinations and questionnaire from two groups were described with means and standards. And independent t -tests were used to compare the demographic characteristics and scores of the pre-test of two groups to investigate whether there was a difference between the two groups before the intervention. Meanwhile, differences between the two groups in knowledge after experiment, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation were analyzed by independent t-test and ANCOVA analysis as well. All statistical analyses were performed with the R (version 4.31) software, the Microsoft Office 2019, and IBM SPSS for Windows 27. And p -values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Participant characteristics

Table  2 offers the baseline information of the participants. All the participants of the study were chosen from the same medical university, and their age ranged from 21 to 23, and t- test indicated that there was no significant difference between two groups ( p  = 0.32). All participants completed the experiment, and there was no dropout during the experiment. The average grades of the experimental and control group were 83.08 ± 4.87, and 82.00 ± 6.27, and the independent samples t -test indicated that there was no significant difference between two groups ( p  = 0.16). In addition, there was also no statistically significant difference in gender ratio and the grades of pre-test of two groups (all p  > 0.05), using one way ANOVA analysis.

Comparison of learning outcome variables between the two groups

As is mentioned above, no significant difference was found between the two groups in pre-intervention variables. 76 questionnaires were distributed and 76 were effectively received with an effective recovery rate of 100%. We compared the variables of learning outcome of the two groups, including the grades of post-test, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation (Table  3 ). The post-test score of the blended learning and traditional teaching groups were 88.08 ± 3.28 and 86.08 ± 2.74, respectively. We performed ANCOVA analysis in the post-test score and changes of score of the two groups, using pre-test score as covariate, the result showed that statistical significance between two groups on the post-test score and changes of score after adjusted by pre-test scores ( p  < 0.001). And statistical differences were found by t -test for the difference between the twice test scores of the two groups ( t  = 2.49, p  = 0.022), which indicated that compared with traditional teaching, blended learning can significantly improve the learning outcomes of the students.

Furthermore, learning satisfaction of the blended learning group was significantly higher than the traditional learning group ( t  = 12.41, p  < 0.001). Additionally, the self-evaluation score of the two groups also shows that the blended learning methods can produce higher self-evaluation scores ( t  = 7.82, p  < 0.001), which indicated that blended learning methods can significantly improve the ability of problem-solving of the participants. Figure  2 showed that the blended learning group achieved higher score in every question than the traditional group in self-evaluation ( p  < 0.001). The result of t -test for all 14 questions of learning satisfaction showed that except for question 3, all the questions achieved higher scores in blended learning group (Table  4 ). Further analysis revealed that statistically significant difference was found on all 5 questions of self-evaluation( p  < 0.05).

Mean scores of student’s self-evaluation

This study explored the influence of blended learning on learning outcomes in evidence-based medicine course. Based on the results of the study, after blended learning method was implemented, the learning outcomes of participants were significantly enhanced, including theoretical knowledge, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation, the results were consistent with previous research on another course [ 12 ]. Especially, the changes of score between pre-test and post-test of two groups, the scores of participants from blended learning groups improved by 4.05 (4.26), while traditional learning group improved by 2.00 (2.85), indicated that the blended learning method can significantly improve students’ theoretical knowledge acquisition than traditional learning, which is consistent with several previous studies that focused on medical courses [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Participants of blended learning group learned independently in advance, which is the essence of the methods: learning first and then teach, and also make lectures can be not just knowledge imparters, but also a guide and edifier [ 22 ]. Moreover, blended learning group has been provided more multimedia resources to review and test the knowledge than the traditional learning group, which also contributed to the difference between the two groups.

On the aspects of learning satisfaction, it is noted that the scores of most questions were found statistically significant difference between two groups, except Q2 and Q3, with p values of 0.439 and 0.058 from t test, respectively. Question 2 was “Do you consider the class content is helpful for your major learning?”, and the participants of the study were from multiple disciplines pertain to medical specialty, which may result in no statistically significant difference. Question 3 was “How do you think the content of the class is interesting?”, the non-statistical significance of the results may be due to the selection of the basic content of evidence-based medicine in the teaching content. Natheless, in the total score of learning satisfaction blended learning group is significantly higher than traditional learning group, indicated that the blended learning methods can attain higher learning satisfaction, which is consistent with previous studies [ 26 , 27 ]. Furthermore, blended learning group obtained significantly higher satisfaction on teaching design, classroom interaction, teaching environment set, which indicated that blended learning was superior in student-centered teaching, and can make students become the main body of classroom implementation and improve student’s classroom participation and learning effect.

Moreover, regarding self-evaluation, it is worth noting that although the results of all 5 questions were found statically different between two groups, p value from t test of Q2 was 0.048, which is very close to 0.05. Question 2 was “Do you think your ability to analyze scientific problems has improved through the study of this course”, and the chapters of the study were chosen from evidence-based medicine, only including find question and evidence, this may be the reason of p value of Q2 close to 0.05. A study from South Korea based on public healthcare education course indicated that blended learning method was effective in enhancing participants’ problem-solving abilities ( p  < 0.001), using a scale comprises 45 items developed by the Korean Educational Development Institute [ 12 ]. Our study only used 5 questions to assess the problem-solving ability of the participants, which may have caused the deviation.

Considering that the participants from the two groups were from two different grades, which may causer potential bias, as a result, reduce the credibility of the results, we compared the average grades and baseline information of the two groups in the semester before the study was carried out, and no statistically significant difference of the grades of pre-test was found, which effectively ensured the equilibrium and comparability of the two groups. Furthermore, the implementation of course teaching of the two groups was both in the first year of graduate students, which effectively avoid bias may be caused by the courses that have been studied, the learning and scientific research ability and cognitive level of participants. Moreover, the design of this study contained “internet plus” and flipped classroom, which is the mainstream model of the implementation of blended learning [ 12 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Furthermore, we ordered different questions based on the same knowledge in the pre-test and post-test, which effectively avoided memory and selection bias.

Our study still had several limitations. Firstly, compared to traditional learning, the blended learning required teachers input on transition of the learning pattern, and its effectiveness was affected by the time, energy, and especially experience invested by the teachers which might cause certain bias in the results. To address this issue, the teachers’ team were kept the same for the two groups to reduce the potential influence. Furthermore, to carry out blended learning, pre-class preparation and classroom implementation place great demands on the quality and ability of the teachers, hence it is vital to cultivate teachers who can constantly adjust the teaching plan according to the feedback of students [ 22 ]. Moreover, “internet plus” raises requirements for classroom equipment, including projectors, screen, appropriate accessories including complex lighting and other technological issues, which has caused some difficulties for the implementation of blended learning [ 31 , 32 ].

The first step of implementing blended learning is to be fully prepared before class, hence, it is important to provide appropriate resources such as videos and handouts for students. Future studies should focus on providing richer learning resources for students, such as massive open online course (MOOC) and Micro course. Furthermore, the team of teachers should explore more diversified teaching methods, including concept map, micro-class, and case-based teaching method [ 33 , 34 , 35 ], to improving learning outcomes.

The results of the study showed that blended learning can effectively improve participants’ learning outcome, including test-score, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation. Especially, in the terms of scores improvement, the results indicated that blended learning methods can enhance the performance of students significantly compared with traditional learning. Using blended learning method including “internet plus” and flipped classroom is recommended in the teaching of evidence-based medicine course.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author.

Liu YH, Ma LL, Hu LK, Lu C, Li YL, Ning C, Kun Y, Yu Z, Yan YX. The joint effects of Sarcopenia and cardiometabolic risk factors on declined cognitive function: evidence from a 7-year cohort study. J Affect Disord 2023.

Luckett AM, Weedon MN, Hawkes G, Leslie RD, Oram RA, Grant SFA. Utility of genetic risk scores in type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2023;66(9):1589–600.

Article   Google Scholar  

Laakso M, Fernandes Silva L. Statins and risk of type 2 diabetes: mechanism and clinical implications. Front Endocrinol. 2023;14:1239335.

Zhu Y, He H, Qiu H, Zhang X, Wang L, Li W. Prognostic Nutritional Index combined with triglyceride-glucose index to contrast a Nomogram for Predicting contrast-Induced kidney Injury in type 2 diabetes Mellitus patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome after Percutaneous Coronary intervention. Clin Interv Aging. 2023;18:1663–73.

Tenny S, Varacallo M. Evidence Based Medicine. In: StatPearls edn. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing Copyright © 2024, StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2024.

Falk K, Falk H, Jakobsson Ung E. When practice precedes theory - A mixed methods evaluation of students’ learning experiences in an undergraduate study program in nursing. Nurse Educ Pract. 2016;16(1):14–9.

Lautrette A, Schwebel C, Gruson D, Talbot RW, Timsit JF, Souweine B. Transfer of take-home messages in graduate ICU education. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37(8):1323–30.

Schwarz MR, Wojtczak A, Zhou T. Medical education in China’s leading medical schools. Med Teach. 2004;26(3):215–22.

Walsh K. S Maloney 2018 Self-directed learning using clinical decision support: costs and outcomes. Br J Hosp Med (London England: 2005) 79 7 408–9.

Ilkiw JE, Nelson RW, Watson JL, Conley AJ, Raybould HE, Chigerwe M, Boudreaux K. Curricular revision and reform: the process, what was important, and lessons learned. J Vet Med Educ. 2017;44(3):480–9.

Dickinson BL, Lackey W, Sheakley M, Miller L, Jevert S, Shattuck B. Involving a real patient in the design and implementation of case-based learning to engage learners. Adv Physiol Educ. 2018;42(1):118–22.

Kang HY, Kim HR. Impact of blended learning on learning outcomes in the public healthcare education course: a review of flipped classroom with team-based learning. BMC Med Educ. 2021;21(1):78.

Pierce R, Fox J. Vodcasts and active-learning exercises in a flipped classroom model of a renal pharmacotherapy module. Am J Pharm Educ. 2012;76(10):196.

Erbil DG. A review of flipped Classroom and Cooperative Learning Method within the context of Vygotsky Theory. Front Psychol. 2020;11:1157.

Sun L, Liu D, Lian J, Yang M. Application of flipped classroom combined with virtual simulation platform in clinical biochemistry practical course. BMC Med Educ. 2023;23(1):771.

Hew KF, Lo CK. Flipped classroom improves student learning in health professions education: a meta-analysis. BMC Med Educ. 2018;18(1):38.

Sait MS, Siddiqui Z, Ashraf Y. Advances in medical education and practice: student perceptions of the flipped classroom. Adv Med Educ Pract. 2017;8:317–20.

Ilic D, Nordin RB, Glasziou P, Tilson JK, Villanueva E. A randomised controlled trial of a blended learning education intervention for teaching evidence-based medicine. BMC Med Educ. 2015;15:39.

Peters MA, Rizvi F, McCulloch G, Gibbs P, Gorur R, Hong M, Hwang Y, Zipin L, Brennan M, Robertson S, et al. Reimagining the new pedagogical possibilities for universities post-covid-19. Educational Philos Theory. 2022;54(6):717–60.

Wang Q, Zhang F. What does the China’s economic recovery after COVID-19 pandemic mean for the economic growth and energy consumption of other countries? J Clean Prod. 2021;295:126265.

Zhang Y, Liu J, Liang J, Lang J, Zhang L, Tang M, Chen X, Xie Y, Zhang J, Su L, Wang X. Online education isn’t the best choice: evidence-based medical education in the post-epidemic era-a cross-sectional study. BMC Med Educ. 2023;23(1):744.

Cao YX, Xia SL, Zhu ZY, Zeng FR, Li HN, Zhang TT, Liu YJ. Exploring lemology teaching with internet plus flipped classroom pedagogy. BMC Med Educ. 2023;23(1):341.

O’Connor EE, Fried J, McNulty N, Shah P, Hogg JP, Lewis P, Zeffiro T, Agarwal V, Reddy S. Flipping Radiology Education Right Side Up. Acad Radiol. 2016;23(7):810–22.

Liebert CA, Lin DT, Mazer LM, Bereknyei S, Lau JN. Effectiveness of the surgery core clerkship flipped Classroom: a prospective cohort trial. Am J Surg. 2016;211(2):451–e457451.

Evans KH, Thompson AC, O’Brien C, Bryant M, Basaviah P, Prober C, Popat RA. An innovative blended preclinical curriculum in clinical epidemiology and Biostatistics: impact on student satisfaction and performance. Acad Med. 2016;91(5):696–700.

Mudenda S, Daka V, Mufwambi W, Matafwali SK, Chabalenge B, Skosana P, Mfune RL, Kasanga M, Okonji OC, Mayoka G, et al. Student’s perspectives, satisfaction and experiences with online and classroom learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: findings and implications on blended learning. SAGE open Med. 2023;11:20503121231218904.

Mortagy M, Abdelhameed A, Sexton P, Olken M, Hegazy MT, Gawad MA, Senna F, Mahmoud IA, Shah J, Aiash H. Online medical education in Egypt during the COVID-19 pandemic: a nationwide assessment of medical students’ usage and perceptions. BMC Med Educ. 2022;22(1):218.

Stoehr F, Yang Y, Müller L, Gerstenmeier P, Pinto Dos Santos D, Dietz P, Weimer A, Ludwig M, Kloeckner R, Weimer JM. A blended learning approach for teaching thoracic radiology to medical students: a proof-of-concept study. Front Med. 2023;10:1272893.

Mann AW, Cunningham J, Tumolo A, King C. Evaluating a blended learning model for Medical Student ECG Teaching. South Med J. 2023;116(1):57–61.

McCutcheon K, Lohan M, Traynor M, Martin D. A systematic review evaluating the impact of online or blended learning vs. face-to-face learning of clinical skills in undergraduate nurse education. J Adv Nurs. 2015;71(2):255–70.

Namyssova G, Tussupbekova G, Helmer J, Malone K, Tajik M, Jonbekova D. Challenges and benefits of blended learning in higher education. 2019, 2:22–31.

Alvarez A Jr. Learning from the problems and challenges in blended learning: Basis for faculty development and program enhancement. 2020, 15:112–132.

Hu K, Ma RJ, Ma C, Zheng QK, Sun ZG. Comparison of the BOPPPS model and traditional instructional approaches in thoracic surgery education. BMC Med Educ. 2022;22(1):447.

Yeo SC, Lai CKY, Tan J, Gooley JJ. A targeted e-learning approach for keeping universities open during the COVID-19 pandemic while reducing student physical interactions. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(4):e0249839.

Al-Balas M, Al-Balas HI, Jaber HM, Obeidat K, Al-Balas H, Aborajooh EA, Al-Taher R, Al-Balas B. Distance learning in clinical medical education amid COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan: current situation, challenges, and perspectives. BMC Med Educ. 2020;20(1):341.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors of this study would like to appreciate all participants.

The study was founded by research project of postgraduate education of Air Force Medical University, China (No. C–YKT202214).

Author information

Kui Liu and Shuang Liu contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Health Service, Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710032, China

Kui Liu, Yifei Ma, Jun Jiang, Zhenhua Liu & Yi Wan

Office of Academic Affairs, Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710032, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

YW conceived and designed the study. KL and SL collected, analyzed, and interpreted the data. KL and YM drafted the manuscript. KL, YW, SL, JJ and ZL critical revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yi Wan .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations ethics and consent, Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Ethics approval was obtained from the Human Ethics Committee of Air Force Medical University. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Consent for publication

Not applicable

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict interest

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Liu, K., Liu, S., Ma, Y. et al. Comparison of blended learning and traditional lecture method on learning outcomes in the evidence-based medicine course: a comparative study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 680 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05659-w

Download citation

Received : 15 January 2024

Accepted : 12 June 2024

Published : 20 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05659-w

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Blended-learning
• Evidence-based medicine
• Comparative study

BMC Medical Education

ISSN: 1472-6920

• Submission enquiries: [email protected]
• General enquiries: [email protected]

• Future Students
• Current Students
• Faculty/Staff

News and Media

• News & Media Home
• Research Stories
• School's In
• In the Media

You are here

Gse 2024 graduates leave campus to lead lives in service to learning.

From bouncing babies and cheerful children, to young adults and centenarians, the full breadth of human life was in attendance at Stanford Graduate School of Education’s (GSE) 2024 commencement ceremony on Sunday, June 16.

The air was electric as GSE students who’ve been on campus from one to five-plus years prepared to receive the fruits of their labor: a degree that will equip them to better education out in the world. Packing most of the seats, though, were the friends, family members, and loved ones that supported students along the way.

“I would like to remind everyone that graduate ceremonies are not really for the students,” said GSE Dean Dan Schwartz before asking graduates to face the audience as part of a longstanding tradition. 

“They are for the families and friends of the graduates who are proud of what they have done to help their graduates succeed.”

Virginia "Ginger" Hislop (center) holds her long-awaited master’s in education diploma surrounded by 16 family members, including grand- and great-grandchildren. (Photo: Charles Russo)

The arc of a life

Included among the throng of people cheering on their graduates was 16 family members belonging to one Virginia “Ginger” Hislop, a Stanford education student who left campus in 1941 just before turning in her master’s thesis due to her then-boyfriend, now late husband, George, getting summoned to serve in World War II.

“My job as a commencement speaker is to help everyone imagine the arc of life and its possibilities and accomplishments, from the past, to the present moment, and into the future,” Schwartz said in a moving address to students. 

“Often this involves a speech with soaring and evocative language to engender your imaginations. This year, I would like to do something different. I will show you the arc of life, and I will try not to cry.”

He went on to share Hislop’s many accomplishments since leaving Stanford 83 years ago, including heading school boards and advocating for students, exemplifying what it looks like to live a life in service of education. Schwartz then conferred Hislop’s long-awaited master of arts in education, just four days after her 105th birthday.

“To me, this degree is an appreciation of the many years I’ve put in working for the schools in the Yakima area and on state boards,” said Hislop, who was born in Palo Alto and resides in Yakima, Washington.

GSE faculty including Dean Dan Schwartz (second from left) and flag bearer Megan Selbach-Allen (far left) prepare to lead the procession at commencement. Upon graduation, Selbach-Allen will work as an education research scientist. (Photo: Charles Russo)

Principles of problem solving in education

Getting to commencement required no shortage of coursework for GSE’s class of 2024  — which this year included 130 master’s, 27 doctoral, 17 joint degree, and 28 undergraduate  honors and minors students — so it was only fitting that John Willinsky, Khosla Family Professor Emeritus, structured his speech as a last lecture of sorts. 

“It has always been the hope of those sitting on this stage [faculty] that our work will assist in all of the good that you are destined to do in education,” said Willinsky, who taught at Stanford for 15 years before retiring in July of 2022. 

His “lecture” had three simple principles for students to follow in order to solve problems in education: 

• Find what you can fix in a picture that’s wrong.
• Patiently support those who can help fix the picture.
• Be prepared to iterate and adjust your approach when you encounter unexpected consequences or challenges.

“I’m certain that you graduates – who have already done so much and who hold such promise – are going to improve a great many pictures,” Willinsky said.

For Megan Selbach-Allen PhD ’24, this year’s flag bearer at commencement, the educational picture she’s trying to fix involves the teaching and learning of math for undergraduate students. 

“It’s totally fine if someone doesn’t want to start studying a STEM [Science, Technology, Engineering, Math] subject, but if they do start wanting to pursue STEM, and decide against it because they have bad math instruction or classes, that’s a problem that I want to be a part of solving,” said Selbach-Allen, who was a Marine Corps officer prior to joining the GSE in 2018.

After graduation, Selbach-Allen will work as an education research scientist in Harvard University’s math department, where part of her work will be mentoring teaching fellows in education research.

“I’m excited to be a part of teaching the next generation of faculty in mathematics how to teach math based on education research,” she said.

Kemi Oyewole, PhD ’24, accepts her diploma from Dean Dan Schwartz after receiving the Walter J. Gores award for excellence in teaching earlier this month. (Photo: Charles Russo)

Pursuing excellence

Also among the 2024 graduates that received degrees on Sunday was Kemi Oyewole, PhD ’24, who was honored earlier this month with the Walter J. Gores Award , the university’s highest award for excellence in teaching.

“The Gores Award is a humbling recognition of the importance of the university as a place for personal, not only academic, development,” said Oyewole, whose research focuses on what instructional coaching teaches about the needs of contemporary K-12 school systems. 

“At its best, teaching asks us to combine our previous experiences with new learning to see the world more expansively,” she said. “I am committed to empowering students to examine who is harmed by unjust social policies and to critically imagine ways people can work together to address these harms.”

Following graduation, Oyewole plans on continuing her research as a provost's postdoctoral fellow at the University of Pennsylvania.

“Commencement was an overwhelming culmination of the love and learning that led me to this milestone,” she said. “My degree is an achievement shared with the family who prayed for me, friends who supported me, and educators whose experiences shaped my dissertation.”

Willinsky closed out his commencement speech by mirroring the way Schwartz opened it: asking students to recognize the community that led them to this auspicious chapter.

“The graduates have been a source of insight, inspiration, and understanding for all of us,” he said. 

“Members of the GSE community, by which I mean everyone assembled here, turn to your right and to your left, look forward and turn around, to say thank you to those all around you for helping bring us to this moment. All of us here are a part of it all.”

More GSE News

⟵ Go to all GSE News

Get the Educator

Subscribe to our monthly newsletter.

Stanford Graduate School of Education

482 Galvez Mall Stanford, CA 94305-3096 Tel: (650) 723-2109

• Contact Admissions
• GSE Leadership
• Site Feedback
• Web Accessibility
• Career Resources
• Faculty Open Positions
• Explore Courses
• Academic Calendar
• Office of the Registrar
• Cubberley Library
• StanfordWho
• StanfordYou

Improving lives through learning

• Stanford Home
• Maps & Directions
• Search Stanford
• Emergency Info
• Terms of Use
• Non-Discrimination
• Accessibility

© Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 .

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

An undersampling method approaching the ideal classification boundary for imbalance problems.

Share and Cite

Zhou, W.; Liu, C.; Yuan, P.; Jiang, L. An Undersampling Method Approaching the Ideal Classification Boundary for Imbalance Problems. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 5421. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135421

Zhou W, Liu C, Yuan P, Jiang L. An Undersampling Method Approaching the Ideal Classification Boundary for Imbalance Problems. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(13):5421. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135421

Zhou, Wensheng, Chen Liu, Peng Yuan, and Lei Jiang. 2024. "An Undersampling Method Approaching the Ideal Classification Boundary for Imbalance Problems" Applied Sciences 14, no. 13: 5421. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135421

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals