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NEW PODCAST SERIES - Working with Emotional Intelligence

Check out our new EVENTS section to find out about the latest conferences and training opportunities involving members of the EI Consortium.

NEW Doctoral Program in Organizational Psychology

Rutgers University - Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology (GSAPP) is now offering a doctoral program in Organizational Psychology and is accepting applications for students. The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations is headquartered within Rutgers, providing students the opportunity to conduct research and collaborate with leading experts in the field of emotional intelligence. Click here for additional information.

NEW Research Fellowship

think2perform Research Institute’s Research Fellowship program invites proposals from doctoral candidates, post-docs and junior faculty pursuing self-defined research focused on moral intelligence, purpose, and/or emotional intelligence. Click here for more information.

Listen to Consortium member Chuck Wolfe interview some of the thought leaders in emotional intelligence.

Harvard Alumni Panel - Why is interest in Emotional Intelligence Soaring?

Consortium member Chuck Wolfe hosts a panel of world class leaders in the field of emotional intelligence (EI) to talk about why interest in EI is soaring. Panel members include EI Consortium members Dr. Richard Boyatzis , Dr. Cary Cherniss and Dr. Helen Riess . Click here to view the panel discussion.

Interview with Dr. Cary Cherniss and Dr. Cornelia Roche

Host, Chuck Wolfe interviews Drs. Cary Cherniss and Cornelia Roche about their new book Leading with Feeling: Nine Strategies of Emotionally Intelligent Leadership . The authors share powerful stories of cases involving outstanding leaders using strategies that can be learned that demonstrate effective use of emotional intelligence. Click here to see the interview.

Interview with Dr. Rick Aberman

See Chuck Wolfe interview Consortium member and sports psychologist Dr. Rick Aberman on peak performance and dealing with the pandemic. The interview is filled with insights, humorous anecdotes, and strategies for achieving peak performance in athletics and in life. Click here to see the interview.

Interview with Dr. David Caruso

Chuck Wolfe interviews Consortium member David Caruso talking about their work together, the ability model of emotional intelligence, and insights into how to use emotional intelligence to address staying emotionally and mentally healthy during times of crisis and uncertainty. Click  here   to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Richard Boyazis

How can you help someone to change? Richard Boyatzis is an expert in multiple areas including emotional intelligence. Richard and his coauthors, Melvin Smith, and Ellen Van Oosten , have discovered that helping people connect to their positive vision of themselves or an inspiring dream or goal they've long held is key to creating changes that last. In their book Helping People Change the authors share real stories and research that shows choosing a compassionate over a compliance coaching approach is a far more engaging and successful way to Helping People Change. Click  here   to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Marc Brackett

Marc Brackett , Director of the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, has written a wonderful book about feelings. I worked with Marc when he was first crafting his world class social and emotional learning program, RULER. Our interview highlights how Marc has achieved his own and his Uncle's vision for encouraging each of us to understand and manage our feelings. My conversation with Marc is inspiring, humorous, and engaging at times. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Helen Riess

Helen Riess is a world class expert on empathy. She is an associate clinical professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and director of the Empathy and Relational Science Program at Mass General Hospital. Helen discusses her new book and shares insights, learnings and techniques such as the powerful seven-step process for understanding and increasing empathy. She relates information and cases whereby she uses empathy to make a meaningful difference in areas such as parenting and leading. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Maurice Elias

The show is about the Joys and Oys of Parenting , a book written by a respected colleague, Dr. Maurice Elias, an expert in parenting and emotional and social intelligence. Dr. Elias wrote a book tying Judaism and emotional intelligence together to help parents with the challenging, compelling task of raising emotionally healthy children. And while there are fascinating links to Judaism the book is really for everybody. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Geetu Bharwaney

Challenges abound and life is stressful for many. So how do we cope? Chuck Wolfe interviews Geetu Bharwaney about her book, Emotional Resilience . Geetu offers research, insights, and most importantly practical tips for helping people bounce back from adversity. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Daniel Goleman

Listen to an interview by with Dr. Goleman on his new book Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence . In the book Dan helps readers to understand the importance and power of the ability to focus one's attention, will power, and cognitive control in creating life success. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. John Mayer

How Personal Intelligence Shapes Our Lives: A Conversation with John D. Mayer. From picking a life partner, to choosing a career, Jack explains how personal intelligence has a major impact on our ability to make successful decisions. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Cary Cherniss

Click HERE to listen to an interview with Dr. Cary Cherniss co-chair of the EI Consortium. Dr. Cherniss discusses the issue of emotional intelligence and workplace burnout.

Click HERE to listen to an interview with Dr. Marc Brackett , the newly appointed leader of the Center of Emotional Intelligence which will begin operation at Yale University in April, 2013. In this interview Dr. Brackett shares his vision for the new center.

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Emotional Intelligence

3 takeaways from the latest emotional intelligence study, a new review paper shows the secrets to success of having a high eq..

Posted May 9, 2023 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• High emotional intelligence, or EQ, is considered an asset.
• A new review suggests that EQ is a skill that people can acquire to help promote career success.
• By developing adaptability and self-efficacy, we can gain the success that comes naturally to high-EQ people.

You’ve undoubtedly heard of the concept of “ emotional intelligence ,” or “EQ.” It took hold in the 1990s and has only continued to attract the attention of both everyday people and academic psychology. Claims about its contribution to success in life, announced even before its heyday, still remain somewhat controversial, however. In part, this is because the concept has become so blurry and all-encompassing that some of the original subtleties in its definition have since become long lost.

To understand whether EQ really matters for life success, it’s necessary to dig down deep into its original meaning and then take a clear-headed look at the available research. Fortunately, this is now possible due to the publication (in press) of a new major review article that does just that.

What Is Emotional Intelligence?

According to this new paper headed up by UCLouvain’s Thomas Pirsoul and colleagues (2023), this blurring of definitional lines is a major problem in evaluating EQ’s role in promoting life success. In their words, the “plethora of definitions and conceptualizations” can be categorized into two main areas: EQ as a trait-like quality or ability (personal resources approach) and EQ as a behavioral disposition that helps people feel better about their ability to navigate emotional situations ( self-efficacy approach).

From the standpoint of EQ’s role in promoting life success, the Belgian authors narrowed their search through the vast literature to studies specifically focused on career . If EQ helps promote career success, it would do so by “developing awareness of one’s emotions” (p. 3). Defined as a general form of adaptive functioning, EQ allows people to “identify, understand, express, regulate, and use one’s own and others’ emotions” (p. 2).

Think now about people you would consider high in EQ. Perhaps you know someone at work, or who works with someone you’re close to, whom you regard as not just friendly but also sensitive, kind, and willing to listen. You trust this individual to show consideration to you but also to make good choices in their own life. They seem confident but not conceited, and you’ve seen them progress through their career in ways that you admire. Importantly, they are liked both by coworkers and supervisors, meaning that their progress up their career ladder seems that it should be easier for them than is true for most people.

EQ and Job Success

The route from high EQ to career ladder progression, as the UCLouvain authors propose, is charted through the intermediary step of adaptability. As you no doubt know from your own life experiences, being adaptable means that you can anticipate problems and then cope with them once they arise. If you are high in EQ, you can use your emotions to guide yourself through these difficulties.

High self-efficacy can build upon the strengths gained through career adaptability by helping individuals feel more confident about their ability to navigate work-related decisions. If you can, as high EQ implies, listen to your “gut,” you’ll feel that you have a more accurate career compass.

Self-efficacy can also contribute to an individual’s confidence in their so-called “entrepreneurial” skills. The belief that you can sell yourself, which is part of this skill, can help you be a more effective communicator of your own personal strengths. You might also be better able to read people, making you a better negotiator. Finally, you could be better able to launch new ventures based on EQ’s role in helping you manage the stress associated with striking out on your own.

The ability to manage stress becomes its own contributor to occupational success for those high in EQ. There are many situations in work settings, from job interviews to performance evaluations, in which people have to exert effort as they try to keep their stress down to manageable levels.

In evaluating the contribution of all of these factors to career success, the authors contrasted two theoretical models. In the trait or resource model, EQ alone would be enough to predict the objective favorable career-related outcome of salary and the subjective outcomes of feelings of job and career satisfaction. If career adaptability and self-efficacy serve as the intermediary influences on these outcomes, then this would support a model in which factors involving these two components are statistically better predictors than EQ is on its own.

After extracting data from more than 150 samples representing nearly 51,000 participants, Pirsoul and his collaborators concluded that the behavioral, rather than the trait or resource model, proved to have the strongest relationship to measures of objective and subjective career success. Supporting what they call the “career self- management model,” these findings show that people high in EQ do well because they are higher in self-efficacy. Supporting the “career construction model,” the findings also showed that people high in EQ do well because they can adapt to their circumstances, and they can also make better career decisions.

One set of findings also provided intriguing support for the notion that people high in EQ are lower in career turnover intentions, meaning that they are less likely to decide to quit their jobs or abandon their careers. Their greater self-understanding means that they choose a pathway that will be consistent with their needs and interests. Their better emotional self-regulation could also make them less likely to have problems with their coworkers and supervisors, going back to the idea that people high in EQ are just nice to have around.

Supporting the idea that EQ can continue to grow in adulthood, as is evident from prior research, the effect sizes for EQ and career outcomes were stronger for older samples included in the meta-analysis. It is possible that as people gain greater self-understanding, their EQ growth is reflected in these career adaptability and self-efficacy dimensions.

3 Ways to Get EQ to Work for You

These three takeaways from this study suggest that EQ is more than just a popular idea without academic merit:

• People high in EQ do well in their careers, not just because they possess an overall higher level of knowledge about themselves but also because they know how to make good decisions and can approach work-related challenges with expectations that they can succeed. They also have greater internal self-awareness, allowing them to have a better idea of what they want out of their work lives. They can also negotiate with others more effectively, meaning that they are both better collaborators and also better strategists.
• The UCLouvain study focused on work and, therefore, wouldn’t have direct applicability to relationships or other areas of adult life. However, given the importance of satisfaction with and success in one’s work role, it would make sense that the EQ findings would have favorable implications for well-being in general. There is extensive evidence throughout the career–family literature showing that satisfaction at work is related positively to satisfaction with one’s home life.
• The final important conclusion of this study was the view that EQ isn’t a “thing” that you have or don’t have. Although high EQ may help improve an individual’s adaptability and self-efficacy, these latter two components of the Belgian model are behavioral in nature and, therefore, can be acquired.

To sum up, if you’re not naturally high in EQ, the Pirsoul et al. findings suggest that by using the skills that high-EQ individuals seem to have cultivated, you can find fulfilling outcomes in your most important life pursuits.

Pirsoul, T., Parmentier, M., Sovet, L., & Nils, F. (2023). Emotional intelligence and career-related outcomes: A meta-analysis. Human Resource Management Review . doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2023.100967

Susan Krauss Whitbourne, Ph.D. , is a Professor Emerita of Psychological and Brain Sciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Her latest book is The Search for Fulfillment.

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Understanding what emotional intelligence looks like and the steps needed to improve it could light a path to a more emotionally adept world.

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Emotional Intelligence: What the Research Says

Measuring emotional intelligence, predictive value, what can schools do, choosing approaches, how might the ability curriculum work, emotional intelligence in schools.

Davies, M., Stankov, L., & Roberts, R. D. (1998). Emotional intelligence: In search of an elusive construct. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 75 , 989–1015.

Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Frey, K. S., Greenberg, M. T., Haynes, N. M., Kessler, R., Schwab-Stone, M. E., & Schriver, T. P. (1997). Promoting social and emotional learning: Guidelines for educators . Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Epstein, S. (1998). Constructive thinking: The key to emotional intelligence . Westport, CT: Praeger.

Forgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgement: The affect infusion model (AIM). Psychological Bulletin, 117 (1), 39–66.

Gibbs, N. (1995, October 2). The EQ factor. Time, 146 (14), 60–68.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence . New York: Bantam.

Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional intelligence: A new vision for educators [Videotape]. Port Chester, NY: National Professional Resources.

Goleman, D. (1998, November/ December). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 76 , 93–102.

Joachim, K. (1996). The politics of self-esteem. American Educational Research Journal, 33 , 3–22.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets standards for a traditional intelligence. Intelligence, 27 , 267–298.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., Salovey, P., Formica, S., & Woolery, A. (2000). Unpublished raw data.

Mayer, J. D., & Cobb, C. D. (2000). Educational policy on emotional intelligence: Does it make sense? Educational Psychology Review, 12 (2), 163–183.

Mayer, J. D., DiPaolo, M. T., & Salovey, P. (1990). Perceiving affective content in ambiguous visual stimuli: A component of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54 , 772–781.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17 (4), 433–442.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators (pp. 3–31). New York: BasicBooks.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2000). Models of emotional intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 396–420). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Newmann, F. M. (1987). Higher order thinking in the teaching of social studies: Connections between theory and practice . Madison, WI: National Center on Effective Secondary Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 332 880)

Rhode Island Emotional Competency Partnership. (1998). Update on emotional competency . Providence, RI: Rhode Island Partners.

Rubin, M. M. (1999). Emotional intelligence and its role in mitigating aggression: A correlational study of the relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression in urban adolescents . Unpublished manuscript, Immaculata College, Immaculata, PA.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, & Personality, 9 (3), 185–211.

Trinidad, D. R., & Johnson, A. (2000). The association between emotional intelligence and early adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. Unpublished manuscript, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.

Casey D. Cobb has contributed to Educational Leadership magazine.

John D. Mayer has contributed to Educational Leadership magazine.

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Harvard researcher says the most emotionally intelligent people have these 12 traits. Which do you have?

What makes someone great at their job? Having knowledge, smarts and vision, to be sure. But what really distinguishes the world's most successful leaders is emotional intelligence — or the ability to identify and monitor emotions (of their own and of others).

Companies today are increasingly looking through the lens of emotional intelligence when hiring, promoting and developing their employees. Years of studies show that the more emotional intelligence someone has, the better their performance.

What most people fail to realize, though, is that mastering emotional intelligence doesn't come naturally. Tom, for example, considers himself an emotionally intelligent person. He's a well-liked manager who is kind, respectful, nice to be around and sensitive to the needs of others.

And yet, he often wonders, I have all the qualities of emotional intelligence, so why do I still feel stuck in my career?

This is a common trap: Tom is defining emotional intelligence too narrowly. By focusing on his sociability and likability, he loses sight of all other essential emotional intelligence traits he may be lacking — ones that can make him a stronger, more effective leader.

After spending 25 years writing books and fostering research on this topic , I've found that emotional intelligence is comprised of four domains. And nested within these domains are 12 core competencies.

(Click here to enlarge chart)

Don't shortchange your development by assuming that emotional intelligence is all about being sweet and chipper. By reviewing the competencies below and doing an honest assessment of your strengths and weaknesses, you can better identify where there's room to grow.

1. Self-awareness

Self-awareness is the capacity to tune into your own emotions. It allows you to know what you are feeling and why, as well as how those feelings help or hurt what you're trying to do.

Do you have the core competency of self-awareness ?

• Emotional self-awareness : You understand your own strengths and limitations; you operate from competence and know when to rely on someone else on the team. You also have clarity on your values and sense of purpose, which allows you to be more decisive when setting a course of action. 

Developing the skills:

Every moment is an opportunity to practice self-awareness. One of the biggest keys is to acknowledge your weaknesses. If you're struggling with something at work, for example, be honest about the skills you need to work on in order to succeed.

Be conscious of the situations and events in your life, too. During times of frustration, pinpoint the root and cause of your frustration. Think about any signals that accompany how you feel in that moment. 

2. Self-management

Self-management is the ability to keep disruptive emotions and impulses under control. This is a powerful skill for leaders, especially during a crisis — because will people look to them for reassurance, and if their leader is calm, they can be, too.

What core competencies of self-management  do you have?

• Emotional self-control : You stay calm under pressure and recover quickly from upsets. You know how to balance your feelings for the good of yourself and others, or for the good of a given task, mission or vision.
• Adaptability : This shows up as agility in the face of change and uncertainty. You're able to find new ways of dealing with fast-morphing challenges and can balance multiple demands at once.
• Achievement orientation : You strive to meet or exceed a standard of excellence. You genuinely appreciate feedback on your performance, and are constantly seeking ways to do things better.
• Positive outlook : You see the good in people, situations and events. This is an incredibly valuable competency, as it can build resilience and set the stage for innovation and opportunity.

During moments of distress, do not brood or panic. Take a deep breath and check in with your emotions. Instead of blowing up at people, let them know what's wrong and offer some solutions.

Accept that there will always be sudden changes and challenges in life. Try to understand the context of the given situation and adjust your strategy or priorities based on what is most important at the time.

3. Social awareness 

Social awareness indicates accuracy in reading and interpreting other people's emotions, often through non-verbal cues.  Socially aware leaders are able to relate to many different types of people, listen attentively and communicate effectively.

What core competencies of social awareness  do you have?

• Empathy : You pay full attention to the other person and take time to understand what they are saying and how they are feeling. You always try to put yourself in other people's shoes in a meaningful way.
• Organizational awareness :  You can easily read the emotional currents and dynamics within a group or organization. You can sometimes even predict how someone on your team or leaders of a company you do business with might react to certain situations, allowing you to approach situations strategically.

First and foremost, social awareness requires good listening skills. Do not talk over someone else or try to hijack the agenda. Ask questions and invite others to do the same.

Challenging your prejudices and discovering commonalities is also key. Practice putting yourself in other people's shoes. When we do this, we are often more sensitive to what that person is experiencing and are less likely to tease, judge or bully them. 

4. Relationship management

Relationship management is an interpersonal skill set that allows one to act in ways that motivate, inspire and harmonize with others, while also maintaining important relationships.

Which core competencies of relationship management do you have?

• Influence : You're a natural leader who can gather support from others with relative ease, creating a group that is engaged, mobilized and ready to execute the tasks at hand. 
• Coach and mentor : You foster the long-term learning by giving feedback and support. You put your points into persuasive and clear ways so that people are motivated as well as clear about expectations.
• Conflict management : You're comfortable dealing with disagreements between multiple sides and can bring simmering disputes into the open and find win-win solutions. 
• Teamwork : You interact well as a group member and can work with others. You participate actively, share responsibility and rewards, and contribute to the capability of your team as a whole. 
• Inspirational leadership : You inspire and guide others towards the overall vision. You always get the job done and bring out your team's best qualities along the way. 

If you're a constantly negative person, you'll have a very difficult time managing long-term relationships. Instead of focusing on "the worst that can happen," try to see yourself as an agent of positive change. 

Don't be afraid to go against the grain of conventional norms or take risks, either. These kinds of people ultimately leave the people they work with feeling inspired, motivated and connected.

Daniel Goleman  is a psychologist and best-selling author of  "Emotional Intelligence"  and  "Social Intelligence."  His latest book is "What Makes a Leader: Why Emotional Intelligence Matters."  Daniel received his PhD in psychology and personality development from Harvard University. His work has appeared in The New York Times and Harvard Business Review. Follow him on Twitter @DanielGolemanEI .

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Emotional Intelligence: How We Perceive, Evaluate, Express, and Control Emotions

Is EQ more important than IQ?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Shereen Lehman, MS, is a healthcare journalist and fact checker. She has co-authored two books for the popular Dummies Series (as Shereen Jegtvig).

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• How Do I Know If I'm Emotionally Intelligent?
• How It's Measured

Why Is Emotional Intelligence Useful?

• Ways to Practice
• Tips for Improving

Emotional intelligence (AKA EI or EQ for "emotional quotient") is the ability to perceive, interpret, demonstrate, control, evaluate, and use emotions to communicate with and relate to others effectively and constructively. This ability to express and control  emotions  is essential, but so is the ability to understand, interpret, and respond to the emotions of others. Some experts suggest that emotional intelligence is  more important than IQ  for success in life.

While being book-smart might help you pass tests, emotional intelligence prepares you for the real world by being aware of the feelings of others as well as your own feelings.

How Do I Know If I'm Emotionally Intelligent?

Some key signs and examples of emotional intelligence include:

• An ability to identify and describe what people are feeling
• An awareness of personal strengths and limitations
• Self-confidence and self-acceptance
• The ability to let go of mistakes
• An ability to accept and embrace change
• A strong sense of curiosity, particularly about other people
• Feelings of empathy and concern for others
• Showing sensitivity to the feelings of other people
• Accepting responsibility for mistakes
• The ability to manage emotions in difficult situations

How Is Emotional Intelligence Measured?

A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of emotional intelligence. Such tests generally fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.

Self-report tests are the most common because they are the easiest to administer and score. On such tests, respondents respond to questions or statements by rating their own behaviors. For example, on a statement such as "I often feel that I understand how others are feeling," a test-taker might describe the statement as disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly agree.

Ability tests, on the other hand, involve having people respond to situations and then assessing their skills. Such tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which are then rated by a third party.

If you are taking an emotional intelligence test administered by a mental health professional, here are two measures that might be used:

• Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is an ability-based test that measures the four branches of Mayer and Salovey's EI model. Test-takers perform tasks designed to assess their ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.
• Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI)   is based on an older instrument known as the Self-Assessment Questionnaire and involves having people who know the individual offer ratings of that person’s abilities in several different emotional competencies. The test is designed to evaluate the social and emotional abilities that help distinguish people as strong leaders.

There are also plenty of more informal online resources, many of them free, to investigate your emotional intelligence.

What Are the 4 Components of Emotional Intelligence?

Researchers suggest that there are four different levels of emotional intelligence including emotional perception, the ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotions, and the ability to manage emotions.  

• Perceiving emotions : The first step in understanding emotions is to perceive them accurately. In many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.
• Reasoning with emotions : The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our attention.
• Understanding emotions :   The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of the person's anger and what it could mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that they are dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because they got a speeding ticket on their way to work that morning or that they've been fighting with their partner.
• Managing emotions : The ability to manage emotions effectively is a crucial part of emotional intelligence and the highest level. Regulating emotions and responding appropriately as well as responding to the emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional management.

Recognizing emotions - yours and theirs - can help you understand where others are coming from, the decisions they make, and how your own feelings can affect other people.

The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with the more basic processes at the lower levels and the more advanced processes at the higher levels. For example, the lowest levels involve perceiving and expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater conscious involvement and involve regulating emotions.

Interest in teaching and learning social and emotional intelligence has grown in recent years. Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs have become a standard part of the curriculum for many schools.

The goal of these initiatives is not only to improve health and well-being but also to help students succeed academically and prevent bullying. There are many examples of how emotional intelligence can play a role in daily life.

Thinking Before Reacting

Emotionally intelligent people know that emotions can be powerful, but also temporary. When a highly charged emotional event happens, such as becoming angry with a co-worker, the emotionally intelligent response would be to take some time before responding.

This allows everyone to calm their emotions and think more rationally about all the factors surrounding the argument.

Greater Self-Awareness

Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at thinking about how other people might feel but they are also adept at understanding their own feelings. Self-awareness allows people to consider the many different factors that contribute to their emotions.

Empathy for Others

A large part of emotional intelligence is being able to think about and empathize with how other people are feeling. This often involves considering how you would respond if you were in the same situation.

People who have strong emotional intelligence are able to consider the perspectives, experiences, and emotions of other people and use this information to explain why people behave the way that they do.

How You Can Practice Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence can be used in many different ways in your daily life. Some different ways to practice emotional intelligence include:

• Being able to accept criticism and responsibility
• Being able to move on after making a mistake
• Being able to say no when you need to
• Being able to share your feelings with others
• Being able to solve problems in ways that work for everyone
• Having empathy for other people
• Having great listening skills
• Knowing why you do the things you do
• Not being judgemental of others

Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal communication. Some experts believe that this ability is more important in determining life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things that you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence.

Understanding emotions can be the key to better relationships, improved well-being, and stronger communication skills. 

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Are There Downsides to Emotional Intelligence?

Having lower emotional intelligence skills can lead to a number of potential pitfalls that can affect multiple areas of life including work and relationships. People who have fewer emotional skills tend to get in more arguments, have lower quality relationships, and have poor emotional coping skills.

Being low on emotional intelligence can have a number of drawbacks, but having a very high level of emotional skills can also come with challenges. For example:

• Research suggests that people with high emotional intelligence may actually be less creative and innovative.
• Highly emotionally intelligent people may have a hard time delivering negative feedback for fear of hurting other people's feelings.
• Research has found that high EQ can sometimes be used for manipulative and deceptive purposes.

Can I Boost My Emotional Intelligence?

While some people might come by their emotional skills naturally, some evidence suggests that this is an ability you can develop and improve. For example, a 2019 randomized controlled trial found that emotional intelligence training could improve emotional abilities in workplace settings.

Being emotionally intelligent is important, but what steps can you take to improve your own social and emotional skills? Here are some tips.

If you want to understand what other people are feeling, the first step is to pay attention. Take the time to listen to what people are trying to tell you, both verbally and non-verbally. Body language can carry a great deal of meaning. When you sense that someone is feeling a certain way, consider the different factors that might be contributing to that emotion.

Picking up on emotions is critical, but we also need to be able to put ourselves into someone else's shoes in order to truly understand their point of view. Practice empathizing with other people. Imagine how you would feel in their situation. Such activities can help us build an emotional understanding of a specific situation as well as develop stronger emotional skills in the long-term.

The ability to reason with emotions is an important part of emotional intelligence. Consider how your own emotions influence your decisions and behaviors. When you are thinking about how other people respond, assess the role that their emotions play.

Why is this person feeling this way? Are there any unseen factors that might be contributing to these feelings? How to your emotions differ from theirs? As you explore such questions, you may find that it becomes easier to understand the role that emotions play in how people think and behave.

Drigas AS, Papoutsi C. A new layered model on emotional intelligence . Behav Sci (Basel). 2018;8(5):45. doi:10.3390/bs8050045

Salovey P, Mayer J. Emotional Intelligence . Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.  1990;9(3):185-211.

Feist GJ. A meta-analysis of personality in scientific and artistic creativity . Pers Soc Psychol Rev . 1998;2(4):290-309. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0204_5

Côté S, Decelles KA, Mccarthy JM, Van kleef GA, Hideg I. The Jekyll and Hyde of emotional intelligence: emotion-regulation knowledge facilitates both prosocial and interpersonally deviant behavior . Psychol Sci . 2011;22(8):1073-80. doi:10.1177/0956797611416251

Gilar-Corbi R, Pozo-Rico T, Sánchez B, Castejón JL. Can emotional intelligence be improved? A randomized experimental study of a business-oriented EI training program for senior managers . PLoS One . 2019;14(10):e0224254. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224254

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Can emotional intelligence be improved? A randomized experimental study of a business-oriented EI training program for senior managers

Raquel gilar-corbi.

Developmental and Educational Psychology Department, University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, Alicante, Spain

Teresa Pozo-Rico

Bárbara sánchez, juan-luís castejón, associated data.

All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Purpose: This article presents the results of a training program in emotional intelligence. Design/methodology/approach: Emotional Intelligence (EI) involves two important competencies: (1) the ability to recognize feelings and emotions in oneself and others, and (2) the ability to use that information to resolve conflicts and problems to improve interactions with others. We provided a 30-hour Training Course on Emotional Intelligence (TCEI) for 54 senior managers of a private company. A pretest-posttest design with a control group was adopted. Findings: EI assessed using mixed and ability-based measures can be improved after training. Originality/value: The study’s results revealed that EI can be improved within business environments. Results and implications of including EI training in professional development plans for private organizations are discussed.

Introduction

This research study focused on EI training in business environments. Accordingly, the aim of the study was to examine the effectiveness of an original EI training program in improving the EI of senior managers. In this article, we delineate the principles and methodology of an EI training program that was conducted to improve the EI of senior managers of a private company The article begins with a brief introduction to the main models of EI that are embedded with the existing scientific literature. This is followed by a description of the EI training program that was conducted in the present study and presentation of results about its effectiveness in improving EI. Finally, the present findings are discussed in relation to the existing empirical literature, and the limitations and conclusions of the present study are articulated.

Defining EI

Various models of emotional intelligence (EI) have been proposed. The existing scientific literature offers three main models of EI: mixed, ability, and trait models. First, mixed models conceptualize EI as a combination of emotional skills and personality dimensions such as assertiveness and optimism [ 1 , 2 ]. Thus, according to the Bar-On model [ 3 ], emotional-social intelligence (ESI) is a multifactorial set of competencies, skills, and facilitators that determine how people express and understand themselves, understand and relate to others, and respond to daily situations The construct of ESI consists of 10 key components (i.e., self-regard, interpersonal relationships, impulse control, problem solving, emotional self-awareness, flexibility, reality-testing, stress tolerance, assertiveness, and empathy) and five facilitators (optimism, self-actualization, happiness, independence, and social responsibility). Emotionally and socially intelligent people accept and understand their emotions; they are also capable of expressing themselves assertively, being empathetic, cooperating with and relating to others in an appropriate manner, managing stressful situations and changes successfully, solving personal and interpersonal problems effectively, and having an optimistic perspective toward life. Second, ability models of EI focus on the processing of information and related abilities [ 3 ]. Accordingly, Mayer and Salovey [ 4 ] have conceptualized EI as a type of social intelligence that entails the ability to manage and understand one’s own and others’ emotions. Indeed, this implies that EI also entails the ability to use emotional information to manage thoughts and actions in an adaptive manner [ 5 ]. Third, the trait EI approach understands EI as emotion-related information [ 6 ]. According to trait models, EI refers to self-perceptions and dispositions that can be incorporated into fundamental taxonomies of personality. Therefore, according to Petrides and Furnham [ 7 ], trait EI is partially determined by several dimensions of personality and can be situated within the lower levels of personality hierarchies. However, it is a distinct construct that can be differentiated from other personality constructs. In addition, the construct of trait EI includes various personality dispositions as well as the self-perceived aspects of social intelligence, personal intelligence, and ability EI. The following facets are subsumed by the construct of trait EI: adaptability, assertiveness, emotion perception (self and others), emotion expression, management (others), and regulation, impulsiveness (low), relationships, self-esteem, self-motivation, social awareness, stress management, trait empathy, happiness, and optimism [ 7 ]. Finally, as Hodzic et al. [ 8 ] have indicated, most existing definitions of EI permit us to draw the conclusion that EI is a measurable individual characteristic that refers to a way of experiencing and processing emotions and emotional information. It is noteworthy that these models are not mutually exclusive [ 7 ].

Effects of EI on different outcomes

EI has been found to be related to workplace performance in highly demanding work environments (see e.g. [ 9 ]). Consequently, companies, entities, and organizations tend to recognize the importance of EI, promote it on a daily basis to facilitate career growth, and recruit those who possess this ability. [ 10 ].

With regard to research that has examined the EI-performance link, Van Rooy and Viswesvaran [ 11 ] conducted a metanalytic study to examine the predictive power of EI in the workplace. They found that approximately 5% of the variance in workplace performance was explained by EI, and this percentage is adequately significant to increase savings and promote improvements within organizations. In addition, the authors concluded that further in-depth investigations are needed to comprehensively understand the construct of EI.

However, the EI-performance link must be interpreted with caution. Specifically, Joseph and Newman [ 12 ] examined emotional competence in the workplace and found that EI predicts performance among those with high emotional labor jobs but not their counterparts with low emotional labor jobs. In addition, they indicated that further research is required to delineate the relationship between EI and actual job performance, gender and race differences in EI, and the utility of different types of EI measures that are based on ability or mixed models in training and selection. Accordingly, Pérez-González and Qualter [ 13 ] have underscored the need for emotional education. Further, Brasseur et al. [ 14 ] found that better job performance is related to EI, especially among those with jobs for which interpersonal contact is very important.

It is noteworthy that EI is positively related to job satisfaction. Accordingly, Chiva and Alegre [ 15 ] found that there was an indirect positive relationship between self-reported EI (i.e., as per mixed models) and job satisfaction. A total of 157 workers from several companies participated in this study. These findings suggest that people with higher levels of EI are more satisfied with their jobs and demonstrate a greater capacity for learning than their counterparts with lower levels of EI.

Similarly, Sener, Demirel, and Sarlak [ 16 ] adopted a mixed model of EI and examine its effect on job satisfaction. They found that individuals with strong emotional and social competencies demonstrated greater self-control. A total of 80 workers participated in this study. They were able to manage and understand their own and others’ emotions in an intelligent and adaptive manner in their personal and professional lives.

In addition, EI (i.e., as per mixed models) predicts job success because it influences one’s ability to deal with environmental demands and pressures [ 17 ]. Therefore, it has been contended that several components of EI (i.e., as per mixed models) contribute to success and productivity in the workplace [ 18 ]; future research studies should extend this line of inquiry. Several studies have shown that people with high levels of ability EI communicate in an interesting and assertive manner, which in turn makes others feel more comfortable in the workplace [ 19 ]. In addition, it has been contended that EI (i.e., as per mixed models) plays a valuable role in group development because effective teamwork occurs when team members possess knowledge about the strengths and weaknesses of others and the ability to use these strengths when necessary [ 15 , 20 ]. It is especially important for senior managers to demonstrate high levels of EI because they play a predominant role in team management, leadership, and organizational development.

Finally, studies that have examined the relationship between EI and wellbeing have found that ability EI is a predictor of professional success, wellbeing, and socially relevant outcomes [ 21 – 23 ]. Extending this line of inquiry, Slaski and Cartwright [ 24 ] investigated the relationship between EI and the quality of working life among middle managers and found that higher levels of EI is related to better performance, health, and wellbeing.

EI and leadership

The actions of organizational leaders play a crucial role in modulating the emotional experiences of employees [ 25 ]. Accordingly, Thiel, Connelly, and Griffith [ 26 ] found that, within the workplace, emotions affect critical cognitive tasks including information processing and decision making. In addition, the authors have contended that leadership plays a key role in helping subordinates manage their emotions. In another study, Batool [ 27 ] found that the EI of leaders have a positive impact on the stress management, motivation, and productivity of employees.

Gardner and Stough [ 28 ] further investigated the relationship between leadership and EI among senior managers and found that leaders’ management of positive and negative emotions had a beneficial impact on motivation, optimism, innovation, and problem resolution in the workplace. Therefore, the EI of directors and managers is expected to be positively correlated with employees’ work motivation and achievement.

Additionally, EI competencies are involved in the following activities: choosing organizational objectives, planning and organizing work activities, maintaining cooperative interpersonal relationships, and receiving the support that is necessary to achieve organizational goals [ 29 ]. In this regard, some authors have provided compelling theoretical arguments in favor of the existence of a relationship between EI and leadership [ 30 – 34 ]. In this way, several researches [ 30 – 34 ] show that EI is a core and key variable positively related to effective and transformational leadership and this is important for positive effects on job performance and attitudes that are desirable in the organization.

Further, people with high levels of EI are more capable of regulating their emotions to reduce work stress [ 35 ]; thus, it is necessary to emphasize the importance of EI in order to meet the workplace challenges of the 21st century.

In conclusion, EI competencies are considered to be key qualities that individuals who occupy management positions must possess [ 36 ]. Further, EI transcends managerial hierarchies when an organization flourishes [ 37 ]. Finally, emotionally intelligent managers tend to create a positive work environment that improves the job satisfaction of employees [ 38 ].

EI trainings

Past studies have shown that training improves the EI of students [ 22 , 39 , 40 – 44 ], employees [ 45 – 47 ], and managers [ 48 – 52 ]. More specifically, within the academic context, Nelis et al. [ 22 ] found that group-based EI training significantly improved emotion identification and management skills. In another study, Nelis et al. [ 39 ] found that EI training significantly improved emotion regulation and comprehension and general emotional skills. It also had a positive impact on psychological wellbeing, subjective perceptions of health, quality of social relations, and employability. Similarly, several studies that have been conducted within the workplace have shown that EI can be improved through training [ 45 – 52 ] and have underscored the key role that it plays in effective performance [ 53 , 54 ].

In addition, two relevant metanalyses [ 8 , 55 ] concluded that there has been an increase in research interest in EI, recognition of its influence on various aspects of people’s lives, and the number of interventions that aim to improve EI. Relatedly, Kotsou et al. [ 55 ] and Hodzic et al. [ 8 ] reviewed the findings of past studies that have examined the effects of EI training to explore whether such training programs do indeed improve EI.

First, Hodzic et al. [ 8 ] concluded that EI training has a moderate effect on EI and that interventions that are based on ability models of EI have the largest effects. In addition, the improvements that had resulted from these interventions were found to have been temporally sustained.

Second, the conclusions of Kotsou et al.’s [ 55 ] systematic review of the literature on the effectiveness of EI training make it evident that more rigorous and controlled studies are needed to permit one to draw concrete conclusions about whether training improves ability EI. Studies that had adopted mixed models of EI tended to more consistently find that training improves EI. Accordingly, the results of Kotsou et al.’s [ 55 ] metanalytic study revealed that EI training enhances teamwork, conflict management, employability, job satisfaction, and work performance.

Finally, it is necessary to identify and address the limitations of past interventions in future studies to improve their quality and effectiveness.

Purpose of the study

In the systematic review conducted by Kotsou et al. [ 55 ] regarding research published on interventions to improve EI in adults, one out of five studies with managers, was performed on a sample of middle managers, without randomization, with an inactive control group, no immediate measures after the training, and only one evaluation was performed six months after the training. In the other four studies collected in Kotsou et al.’s systematic review [ 55 ], only one study utilized a control group (inactive control group), one employed randomizations, and two studies performed follow-up measures six months after the intervention.

The two metanalyses confirmed and identified some problems or gaps we have tried to overcome in the present study. For this reason, in our study, we propose to deepen the assessment of EI training for senior managers, aiming to overcome most of the limitations mentioned in the studies of Kotsou et al. [ 55 ] and Hodzic et al. [ 8 ] by implementing the following: 1) Include a control group (waiting list group); 2) Conduct follow-up measurements (12 months later); 3) Employ an experimental design; 3) Include a workshop approach with group discussions and interactive participation; 4) Identify specific individual differences (i.e., age, gender) that might determine the effects of interventions; and 5) Use self-report and ability measures. For these reasons, two different ways of evaluating EI have been selected in this study to assess the emotional competencies applied within the labor and business world to solve practical problems: the EQ-i questionnaire [ 2 ], based on mixed models to provide a self-perceived index of EI, and the Situational Test of Emotional Management (STEM) and the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) [ 56 ] based on the ability model. Thus, including two different EI measure we aim at obtaining a more reliable validation of the intervention used.

Therefore, the objective of our study was to investigate whether EI can be improved among employees who occupy senior management positions in a private company. Thus, the research hypothesis was that participation in the designed program would improve EI among senior managers.

EI training development

The Course on Emotional Intelligence (TCEI) was created to provide senior managers with emotional knowledge and practical emotional skills so that they can apply and transfer their new understanding to teamwork and find solutions to real company problems and challenges. In this way, TCEI prepares workers to use the emotional learning resources appropriate to each work situation. In addition, TCEI combines face-to-face work sessions with a cross-sectional training through an e-learning platform. For more details, see S1 Appendix 1.

According to Mikolajczak [ 57 ], three interrelated levels of emotional intelligence can be differentiated: a) conceptual-declarative emotion knowledge, b) emotion-related abilities, and c) emotion-related dispositions. The TCEI aims at developing emotional skills, which are included on the second level of Mikolajczak’s model. Moreover, the present study uses the mixed model and the ability model measures to assess the level of EI. In using these measures, it is possible to assess the second level of Mikolajczak’s model. Pérez-González and Qualter [ 13 ] also suggest that activities related to ability EI should be included in emotional education programs.

Thus, this EI program was designed to allow senior managers to make use of their understanding and management of emotions as a strategy to assist them in facing the challenges within their work environment and managing their workgroups. Following the recommendation of Pérez-Gonzáles and Qualter, the training intervention methodology is founded in DAPHnE key practices [ 13 ]. It is important to emphasize that this training is grounded in practicality since it works based on the resolution of real cases, utilizing participative teaching-learning techniques and cooperative learning, while promoting the transfer of all aspects of EI and applied to various situations that can occur in the workplace. The e-learning system in the Moodle platform also provides an added value since it allows the creation of an environment providing exposure to professional experiences and continuous training. This type of pedagogical approach based on skills training and mediated through e-learning is a methodology that emerged in the 1990s when business organizations sought to create environments better suited to improving the management of large groups of employees. After its success, it began to be used in other contexts, including higher education and organizational development [ 58 – 60 ].

Finally, in order to justify the chosen training, it is important to note that the following official competencies for senior managers have been designated by the company:

• Supervise the staff and guarantee optimum employee performance by fostering a motivational working environment where employees receive the appropriate support and respect and their initiatives are given the consideration they deserve.
• Make decisions and promote clear goals, efficient leadership, competitive compensation, and acknowledgment of the employees’ achievements.
• Justify their decisions to executives and directors, explaining how they have ensured training by creating opportunities for appropriate professional development for all employees and how they have facilitated conditions for a better balance in achieving the company’s objectives.

In conclusion, considering the above-mentioned professional competencies required, senior managers were selected as participants in this study since they need to possess and apply aspects related to EI in order to accomplish their leadership and staff management responsibilities.

Participants

The company participating in this study was an international company with almost 175 years of history that occupies a select position in a branch of industry in the natural gas value chain, from the source of supply to market, including supply, liquefaction, shipping, regasification, and distribution. The company is present in over 30 countries around the world.

This study was conducted involving a sample of 54 senior managers selected from a company in a European country. The sample was extracted from the entire population of senior managers within this company following a stratified random sampling procedure, taking into account the gender of the population in order to select 50% of each gender.

The mean age of participants was 37.61 years (standard deviation = 8.55) and the percentage of female senior managers was 50%. For evaluation purposes, these employees were randomly divided into two groups: the experimental group ( n = 26; mean age = 35.57 (7.54); 50% women) and the control group ( n = 28; mean age = 39.50 (9.11); 50% women). The control group received EI training after the last data collection.

Initially, a group of senior managers from the company was selected to participate in the study, as they are employees who need a special domain of EI due to the competencies assigned to their professional category. In all cases, informed consent was requested for their participation in the study.

Assignment of participants to each condition, experimental or control, was performed using a random-number program. In addition, to avoid the Hawthorne effect, participants were not told if they were assigned to the experimental or control group; only their consent to participate in research on the development of EI was asked. Participants from the control group completed the same evaluations as the training group but were not exposed to the training.

The scales were administered during the pretest phase (Time 1) on an online platform for the experimental and control groups. On average, approximately 90 minutes were needed to complete the tests.

After the data were collected in the pre-test phase, only the experimental group participated in the TCEI over seven weeks, and they received a diploma.

Later, the scales were administered during the posttest phase (Time 2). Similarly, we collected the same data one year later (Time 3). A lapse of one year was allowed to pass because all training programs carried out in this company are re-evaluated one year later to determine whether improvements in employees’ skills were maintained over time. In fact, this demonstrates a clear commitment to monitoring the results achieved. Other studies have also used reevaluations of their results. For example, according to Nelis et al. [ 22 ] and Nelis et al. [ 39 ], the purpose of their studies was to evaluate whether trait EI could be improved and if these changes remained. To accomplish this, the authors performed three assessments: prior to the intervention, at the end of the intervention, and six months later. Therefore, as recommended by Kirkpatrick [ 61 ], research on the effectiveness of training should also include a long-term assessment of skills transfer.

Finally, is important to remark that all participants were properly informed of the investigation, and their written consent was obtained. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations and the study was approved by University of Alicante Ethics Committee (UA-2015-07-06) and carried out in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.

As mentioned before, two different ways of defining and evaluating EI were selected for this study: (1) EQ-i, based on mixed models, and (2) the STEM/STEU questionnaires, based on the ability model of EI.

• 1 The Emotional Quotient Inventory [ 2 ]

To measure EI based on the mixed models, the short version of the EQ-i was used, which comprises 51 self-referencing statements and requires subjects to rate the extent to which they agree or disagree with each statement on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). An example item is the following; “In handling situations that arise, I try to think of as many approaches as I can.” The EQ-i comprises five factors: Intrapersonal EI and Self-Perception, Interpersonal EI, Adaptability and Decision Making, General Mood and Self-Expression, Stress Management, and a Total EQ-i score, which serves as a global EI measure. The author of this instrument reports a Cronbach’s alpha ranging from .69 to .86 for the 5 subscales [ 2 , 62 ] and the Cronbach’s alpha of the Emotional Quotient Inventory was .80 for the present sample of senior manager.

• 2 Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) and Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) [ 63 ]

Two tests were used to measure EI based on the ability model. Emotion understanding was evaluated by the short version of the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) [ 63 ]. This test is composed of 25 items that present an emotional situation (decontextualized, workplace-related, or private-life-related). For each item, participants have to choose which emotion will most likely elicit the described situation. Cronbach’s alpha of STEU is .83 [ 63 ] and the Cronbach’s alpha of the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding was .86 for the present sample of senior manager. An example item is the following: “An unwanted situation becomes less likely or stops altogether. The person involved is most likely to feel: (a) regret, (b) hope, (c) joy, (d) sadness, (e) relief” (in this case, the correct answer is “relief”).

On the other hand, emotion management was evaluated by the short version of the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) [ 63 ]. This test is composed of a 20-item situational judgment test (SJT) that uses hypothetical behavioral scenarios followed by a set of possible responses to the situation. Respondents must choose which option they would most likely select in a “real” situation. Cronbach’s alpha of STEM is .68 [ 63 ] and the Cronbach’s alpha of the Situational Test of Emotion Management was .84 for the present sample of senior manager. An example item is the following: “Pete has specific skills that his workmates do not, and he feels that his workload is higher because of it. What action would be the most effective for Pete? (a) Speak to his boss about this; (b) Start looking for a new job; (c) Be very proud of his unique skills; (d) Speak to his workmates about this.”

TCEI content and organization

The program schedule spanned seven weeks with a face-to-face session of 95 minutes each week, which was delivered by one of the researchers specifically trained for this purpose. All the experimental group participants were taught together in these sessions. The content of each session was the following:

1st Session : Introduction. The objectives and methodology of the training were explained to participants.

2nd Session : Intrapersonal EI and self-perception. Trainees learned to identify their own emotions.

3rd Session : Interpersonal EI. Participants learned to identify others’ emotions.

4th Session : Adaptability and decision making. The objective was to improve trainees’ ability to identify and understand the impact that their own feelings can have on thoughts, decisions, behavior, and work performance resulting in better decisions and workplace adaptability.

5th Session : General mood and self-expression. Trainees worked on expressing their emotions and improving their skills to effectively control their mood.

6th Session : Stress management. Participants learned EI skills to manage stress effectively.

7th Session : Emotional understanding and emotion management. Trainees learned skills to effectively manage their emotions as well as skills that influence the moods and emotions of others.

In addition, access to the virtual environment (Moodle platform) was required after each face-to-face session. The time spent in the platform was registered, with a minimum of five hours required per week.

The virtual environment allowed the researcher to review all the content completed in each face-to-face session.

All of the EI abilities included in the virtual part of the training have been previously used in the face-to-face part; thus, virtual training is simply a method used to consolidate EI knowledge. In fact, the virtual environment has the same function as completing a workbook about the information presented during the face-to-face session. However, the added advantage of working in an e-learning environment is that all of the trainers are connected and can share their tasks and progress with others. At times, in addition to reviewing the contents of the previous session, the e-learning environment also introduces some important terms for the next session utilizing the principles of the well-known flipped classroom methodology. In short, the following activities were carried out through the Moodle platform to consolidate the participants’ knowledge:

1st Session: Participants were informed that e-learning would be part of the training in order to consolidate EI knowledge.

2nd Session: Participants explored the skills of Intrapersonal EI and self-perception in the virtual environment through discussion forums.

3rd Session: Participants learned the skills of identifying others’ emotions and utilizing this emotional information for decision-making. This information was summarized in the virtual environment through discussion forums.

4th Session: Participants sharpened their skills of adaptability and decision-making through the production of innovative ideas and the utilization of critical thinking skills in assessing the impact that their own feelings can have on others’ work performance. Trainees learned how to express their own emotions, as well as the skill of effectively controlling their mood, through the resolution of practical cases in the virtual environment; in these cases, innovative ideas and critical thinking skills were required in order to make better decisions during emotionally impactful; situations. In addition, trainees utilized the forum to reflect on why their own emotional regulation is important for ensuring long-term workplace adaptability.

5th Session: Verbal quiz, discussion, and forum contribution. Trainees participated in an online debate about key emotional skills in order to understand how to apply them in a real work environment. In particular, the debate focused on regulating the self-expression skill and equilibrating the general mood when there are difficult situations within the company. In this way, the participants identified the skills required to effectively manage the stress experienced in order to maintain a positive mood A discussion about common stressful situations at work was carried out in the virtual environment, and strategies for regulating the mood during critical work situations were shared.

6th Session: Discussion of ideas related to EI. Trainees participated in an online debate about key emotional skills in order to understand how to apply stress management skills to the real work environment. It was necessary to share previous work experiences where stress was a significant challenge and reevaluate the emotionally intelligent way to deter stress and maintain a balanced senior manager life.

7th Session: Participants concluded the training on target strategies to effectively manage their emotions as well as skills that influence the moods and emotions of others. This session, therefore, was a period for feedback where brief answers to specific doubts were provided. In addition, the outcomes of the training were established by the participants. Finally, senior managers were encouraged to stay connected through the Moodle platform in order to resolve future challenges together using the EI skills learned and internalized during the training period.

Data analysis

An experimental pretest-posttest with a control group design was adopted. Under this design, multivariate variance analysis (MANOVA) and univariate variance analysis (ANOVA) of repeated measures were performed, in which the measures of dependent variables were treated as variables evaluated within the same subjects, and groups operated as variables between subjects. Finally, all statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS statistical software, version 21.0 (IBM, Armonk, USA).

First, sample normality analysis indicated that the population followed a normal distribution. The results of Box’s M test did not show homogeneity in the variance-covariance matrix on the EQ-i Total Scale (M = 59.29; F = 9.26, p ≥ 0.00) or on the STEM/STEU (M = 231.01; F = 36.07, p ≥0.00). However, Hair et al. [ 64 ] have stated that if the control and the experimental groups are of equal size, which was the case in this study, then that factor tends to mitigate the effects of violations of the normality assumption.

Second, to test whether there was any significant difference between the experimental group and control group at the time of pretest, Student’s t -test was performed to determine the differences in means of all the variables measured ( Table 1 ). Table 1 shows that there were no significant differences at the time of pretest. This finding suggests that both groups began in analogous situations.

Note. t1 = pretest; t2 = posttest; t3 = follow-up.

1 = direct score

Therefore, we came to the conclusion that the two groups of workers could not be distinguished by EI level before the TCEI program. In addition, the mean age of each group was analyzed and no baseline differences were found between the two groups.

To assess the impact of the program on EI, the scores obtained by both groups were compared before its implementation (pretest–Time 1) and shortly after the program was delivered (posttest–Time 2), as well as one year later (follow-up–Time 3). Group membership was the independent factor or variable, and the scores obtained by the subjects regarding EI were the criteria or dependent variables.

Two control variables, gender and age, were included in the analysis because they could affect the results. However, none of these variables showed a statistically significant effect in any of the variables assessed (p≥ .50 in all cases).

Regarding the implementation of the program, Table 2 presents the test results for intra-subject effects, which showed significant Group x Time interaction for all variables except for Adaptability.

The observed power was highest in the key scales: 1.00 for the STEU/STEM and Total EQ-i. Regarding the subscales, the observed power was also 1.00 for the Intrapersonal, Stress Management, and General Mood subscales; on the other hand, the observed power for the Interpersonal and the Adaptability subscales was .66 and .55, respectively.

Similarly, the effect size (η 2 ), the proportion of total variability attributable to a factor, and the magnitude of the difference between one time and another resulting from the interaction between the time of assessment and implementation of the program, was high for the key scales: ≥.71 for the STEU/STEM, and .82 for the Total EQ-i. With regards to the subscales, the effect size (η 2 ) was the following: .44 for Intrapersonal, .07 for Interpersonal, .32 for Stress Management, .05 for Adaptability, and .26 for General Mood.

To further explain these results, complementary analyses were performed. On the one hand, as shown in Table 1 , we carried out an average comparison between the experimental and control groups at the measurement moments T2 and T3. Results revealed significant differences between the experimental group and the control group regarding all variables and in both moments (T2 and T3), except for the Interpersonal variable, in which the experimental group obtained higher scores in these two moments but without being statistically significant these differences. This could explain the small effect size obtained for this variable.

In addition, the Adaptability variable showed statistically significant differences between the experimental group and the control group at time T2, with the control group scoring higher, while at time T3, the experimental group also obtains higher scores regarding Adaptability; however, this score difference with regards to the control group was not statistically significant. This could explain why the interaction was not significant and the small effect size obtained for this variable.

In order to compare differences between moments T1, T2, and T3, the marginal means were analyzed for both groups (experimental and control) per moment and variable ( Table 3 ).

Note. EG = experimental group; CG = control group; t1 = pretest; t2 = posttest; t3 = follow-up.

In general, in the experimental group, there was a significant improvement between moments T1 and T2 in all variables, except Interpersonal and Adaptability, which did not present changes at any of the three moments (T1, T2, T3). On the other hand, scores remained without significant changes regarding all variables between moments T2 and T3, except in the case of STEU and STEM, in which the scores continued to improve between moments T2 and T3.

In the control group, the results were the same as in the experimental group concerning the Interpersonal and Adaptability variables. However, with regards to other variables, the trend was inverse to the experimental group between moments T1 and T2; in this case, there was a significant decrease in the scores between these two moments in the rest of the variables. Between moments T2 and T3, the scores remained without significant changes in all the variables measured with the EQ-i. In the case of variables measured with the ability test, there was a significant decrease in the STEU scores between moments T2 and T3, whereas the STEM scores remained without significant changes.

Figs ​ Figs1 1 – 3 show the scores obtained in the EQ-i total scale and STEM/STEU total scales by both groups at Times 1, 2, and 3. At Times 2 and 3, the experimental group, which had received the EI training, had an increase in its scores, whereas the control group did not present any substantial change in scores.

The objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of an EI training program among the senior managers (N = 54) of a private company. Consistent with Pérez-González and Qualter [ 13 ], Hodznik et al. [ 8 ], and Kotsou et al.’s [ 55 ] recommendations, we aimed to contribute new research findings and extend the existing literature on the effectiveness of EI training in the workplace. The main findings of this study revealed that intrapersonal EI, self-perception, general mood, self-expression, and stress management were maintained after the completion of the training. On the other hand, improvements in emotional understanding and emotion management had strengthened over time. However, the results also revealed that training did not result in similar improvements across all variables. Specifically, training had a nonsignificant impact on interpersonal and adaptability skills.

Theoretical implications of the study

With regard to the theoretical implications of the present findings, the observed effectiveness of the TCEI, which was conducted using an innovative methodology that entailed face-to-face training and a virtual campus support system among senior managers, extends the existing literature on the development of EI training programs.

The training program that was conducted as a part of this study failed to improve two dimensions of EI: interpersonal and adaptability skills. There are two possible explanations for why these variables did not demonstrate improvement. First, high-quality training that addresses all the dimensions of EI is necessary to produce large effects. Therefore, the time and exercises that are devoted to these two dimensions of EI may need to be redefined. Accordingly, the second and fourth sessions of this training (i.e., interpersonal and adaptability skills, respectively) can be enriched by adding new activities and including long-term evaluation of the transfer of skills to real workplace situations in which these abilities are required to resolve challenges. Indeed, allocating more time and exercises to these topics may have offered participants greater experience in practicing these interpersonal and adaptability skills in regular and virtual classroom settings before applying them in the workplace.

On the other hand, changes in these two dimensions of EI may not be detectable immediately after the completion of the training or soon after a year has elapsed. Similarly, the studies that Kotsou et al. reviewed [ 55 ] also indicated that improvements in EI may not be detectable immediately or shortly after the completion of an intervention. Further, the conclusions of this review appear to suggest that shorter training programs do not improve some dimensions of EI. Therefore, a more intensive training and longer time gap between completion of training and assessment (i.e., after more than a year has elapsed) may yield significant results for these two dimensions of EI. Indeed, other studies have used longer time gaps such as more than two years [ 40 ] and yearly evaluations across three years [ 47 ].

In any case, the present findings suggest that the proposed training intervention is effective in improving some dimensions of EI. In particular, senior managers who received EI training demonstrated significant improvements in their ability to perceive, understand, and accept their own and others’ emotions in an effective way, be self-reliant, achieve personal goals, manage stress, have a positive attitude, and control and manage emotions; these findings are consistent with those of past studies that have aimed to improve EI by providing training in workplaces [ 45 – 52 ].

The largest effects emerged for the total scores for EI (as per mixed models; total EQ-i), followed by emotion management (STEM) and understanding (STEU), intrapersonal aspects, stress management, and finally, general mood. Moreover, improvements in emotional understanding and emotion management that had resulted from the training intervention had strengthened over time.

Similarly, several researchers have indicated that EI plays a key role in leadership development and success in the workplace [ 65 , 66 ]. The behaviors of managers shape critical stages of their subordinates’ careers as well as the provision of optimal training and promotion [ 67 , 68 ]. Given the unique significance that EI and optimal leadership bears to this group of professionals, the present study aimed to improve the EI of senior managers.

In sum, the proposed program is a training intervention that can be used to enhance the EI of senior managers because, as the previously articulated extensive literature review has demonstrated, EI plays a key role within work environments. Therefore, the present findings suggest that the TCEI is an effective training program that can improve the ability to identify one’s own and others’ emotions as well as identify and understand the impact of one’s feelings on thoughts, decisions, behaviors, and performance at work.

Practical implications

The present findings serve as empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the training program that was conducted in the present study in improving key dimensions of EI that foster the emotional skills that are both necessary and desirable in the workplace. Accordingly, the present findings have practical implications because they support the future use of the EI training program that was used in the present study. In this regard, the present findings revealed that EI training can promote the emotional development of senior managers.

In addition, the methodology of the training program is noteworthy because it required participants to use communication and work as a group to solve real practical problems that necessitate the application of EI skills in the workplace. Similarly, the use of face-to-face training alongside an e-learning platform helped participants acquire the ability to learn independently as well as synergically (i.e., with other senior managers). This encouraged the group to reflect on their knowledge about EI and apply their EI skills to handle workplace challenges.

It is important to emphasize that there were significant temporal changes in the scores of measures of emotional understanding and emotion management; in other words, the scores continued to improve a year after the completion of training. It is interesting to note that the methodology of the last training session was unique because it involved the creation of a “life and career roadmap” and “commitment to growth and development. We believe that these exercises were responsible for the continued improvement in important EI skills over time that was observed in the present study.

This finding has important practical implications because it underscores the importance of requiring senior managers to indicate their commitment to the transfer of knowledge. Indeed, the roadmap defines the results that are expected to follow the implementation of the learned emotional strategies and verifies the achievement of these results. In addition, all managers signed an online contract to indicate their commitment to remain connected through the virtual campus support system to resolve any conflicts that may arise within the company in an emotionally intelligent manner.

We believe that the method of learning that our intervention entailed is more effective than conventionally used methods. Further, the uniqueness of this method may have contributed to the observed change in scores because it allowed frustrated senior managers to share their unresolved issues. Finally, by practicing emotional understanding and emotional management during the training, the created a plan of action and implemented their solutions using EI strategies.

In addition, we believe that signing the online contract helped them understand their responsibilities and the impact that their emotional understanding and emotion management can have on the organization. The fact that their scores on measures of emotional understanding and emotion management continued to increase over time indicates that the subjects had acquired these skills and that, once they had acquired them, they continued to develop them. Similarly, Kotsou et al. [ 55 ] also found that training resulted in stable improvements in EI. In addition to providing their participants with EI tools and skills as a part of their training, they also motivated them to apply these skills and use these tools in the future.

Taken together, the present findings have promising practical implications. Specifically, the findings suggest that a training methodology that facilitates knowledge transfer (i.e., application of knowledge about EI in the management of workplace challenges) can enhance the following dimensions of EI: emotional understanding, emotion management, self-perception (through training activities that pertain to self-regard, self-actualization, and emotional self-awareness), decision making (through training activities that pertain to problem solving, reality testing, and impulse control), self-expression (through training activities that pertain to emotional expression, assertiveness, and independence), and stress management (through training activities that pertain to flexibility, stress tolerance, and optimism).

Limitations and future studies

The present study has several limitations that require explication. First, we included only age and gender as control variables and omitted other individual differences that could have influenced the results. However, it is important for future researchers to define and examine the role of individual differences in the effects of EI training in greater detail. In addition, in accordance with Kotsou et al. [ 55 ] and Hodzic et al.’s [ 8 ] suggestions, detailed behavioral indicators must be examined because they may play a crucial role in the effectiveness of EI training. Another limitation of the present study is that the intervention program was conducted in only one company. Therefore, future studies must implement this program in different companies and across varied business contexts. The present results make it apparent that further refinements are needed in order to address the aforementioned limitations of this intervention.

Another limitation of the present study is that it did not assess the effect that improvements in EI can have on other variables. Accordingly, recommendations for further research include the determination of whether improvements in EI that result from training lead to improvements in other variables such as job satisfaction and performance and successful leadership, in accordance with the results of other research studies [ 69 – 72 ]. Thus, future research studies must consider these possibilities when they examine whether the TCEI has the potential to produce all the aforementioned outcomes at an organizational level. Furthermore, the intervention can be redesigned in such a manner that it yields specific performance outcomes. Further, longitudinal studies on the effectiveness of EI training must be conducted across several sectors and countries.

Finally, senior managers define and direct the careers of the rest of a company’s personnel; Therefore, future research studies must examine how EI training can be used to promote its previously observed desirable effects such as the demonstration of good leadership behaviors, effective cooperation, and teamwork [ 29 , 31 , 34 – 38 , 69 ]. In fact, this is an interesting line of inquiry for future researchers.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the present findings contribute to the existing knowledge on the development of EI because they indicate that the training program resulted in improvements in many dimensions of the EI of senior managers. More specifically, the longitudinal effects of EI training on senior managers’ emotional skills had maintained over time, whereas the corresponding effects on emotional understanding and emotion management had strengthened at one-year follow up. Finally, the implementation of this intervention in organizational settings can nurture and promote a sense of fulfillment among employees.

Supporting information

Data underlying the findings described.

TCEI planning schedule.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (EDU2015-64562-R)

Funding Statement

This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (EDU2015-64562-R) to R.G-C. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Data Availability

HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY article

More than just emotional intelligence online: introducing “digital emotional intelligence”.

• 1 University of Teacher Education (Vaud), Lausanne, Switzerland
• 2 EHL Hospitality Business School, HES-SO, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland, Delémont, Switzerland

The ubiquitous nature of emotional intelligence, as a central theme in every aspect of our lives—be it at work, school, or home—coupled with the growing prevalence of digital interactions, makes it fundamental to develop our understanding of emotional intelligence in a digital world. However, the digital world represents more than just a contextual factor to consider, as interactions in digital environments require digital competence. The objective of this paper is to conceptualize “digital emotional intelligence” as the integration of both emotional intelligence and digital competence. The model we propose posits that trait emotional intelligence predicts attitudes toward digital competence, while digital ability emotional intelligence is predicted by digital competence skills and digital competence knowledge. Using a self-reported questionnaire on 503 respondents, a structural equation model highlights a positive relationship between trait emotional intelligence and attitudes toward digital competence.

1. Introduction

Emotional intelligence (EI) plays a central role in our lives and is related to multiple positive outcomes. Since its coining by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and its popularization by Goleman (1995) , EI has gained widespread interest in academic circles, be it in education, organizations, or society in general. In education research, results have shown the importance of EI in academic contexts ( Garner, 2010 ). In organization studies, research has demonstrated its impact on job satisfaction ( Miao et al., 2017a ) and organizational citizenship behavior ( Miao et al., 2017b ). EI has also been found to have a negative influence on burnout ( Szczygiel and Mikolajczak, 2018 ) and counterproductive work behavior ( Miao et al., 2017b ).

However, the current understanding of EI does not account for the digital context in which we all interact, work, and live today. One notable exception comes from scholars in the emotion regulation literature who have called for research on “digital emotion regulation” ( Wadley et al., 2020 ; Smith et al., 2022 ). Wadley and colleagues define it as a “process in which people evaluate their emotions in relation to their current goals and decide whether to modify them and, if so, select which regulation strategy to use” ( Wadley et al., 2020 ; p. 413) and investigate (1) how digital technology may be used to regulate emotions, and (2) how digital technologies may impact people's emotions. This emphasizes the relevance of the digital world and its importance in shaping the way we experience emotions.

Over the last 20 years, digital competence (DC) (also referred to as digital literacy or digital skills) has gained interest from scholars and policymakers as a multifaceted competence that needs to be developed in learners ( Zhao et al., 2021 ), workers ( Oberländer et al., 2020 ), and citizens ( Vuorikari et al., 2022 ). Some aspects of DC, such as technical skills, represent strict entry barriers to the digital world, while others, such as digital communication skills, drastically shape our interactions and emotional experiences online ( Sánchez-Caballé et al., 2020 ). Thus, it seems very difficult to fully experience emotions in the digital world without DC. Conversely, EI can have a strong impact on DC, especially in terms of adopting appropriate behaviors online and addressing ethical issues.

In that respect, the relationship between DC and EI might be reciprocal. Our purpose is thus to question the integration of DC and EI in a digital environment. To achieve this, this paper reviews literature on EI and DC to map out the variety of approaches to both concepts and their implications when it comes to modeling the relationship between them. Specifically, we discuss the specificities of both trait and ability approaches to EI and their relationship to DC. We also present the various frameworks of DC and their similarities and differences as well as their overall purpose, to discuss what DC ultimately consists of. Drawing on the literature review, we develop a conceptual model for “digital emotional intelligence” (dEI), comprising two key conceptual linkages between trait emotional intelligence (TEI) and DC, and between DC and ability emotional intelligence (AEI). More specifically, our conceptual model of dEI posits that TEI will predict DC-Attitudes, while digital AEI (dAEI) is predicted by DC-Skills and DC-Knowledge. Based on these propositions, we formulate a hypothesis centered on the relationship between TEI and DC-Attitudes that we empirically test.

1.1. Emotional intelligence

EI was introduced by Salovey and Mayer ( 1990 ; p. 189) as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions.” Since this seminal work, many conceptualizations and definitions have emerged around it. In the following, we will focus on TEI and AEI.

1.2. Trait emotional intelligence

One type of model describes EI as a dispositional trait ( Vesely Maillefer et al., 2018 ). This approach grounds EI in a personality perspective and differential psychology ( Petrides et al., 2016 ). In this conceptualization, TEI refers to individuals' emotional dispositions and focuses on how people perceive their emotional world ( Petrides et al., 2016 ). TEI is defined as “a constellation of emotional self-perceptions” ( Petrides, 2010 ; p. 137) such as adaptability, empathy, emotion expression and perception and self-esteem, among others. TEI can thus be assessed using self-reported questionnaires and has also been called “trait emotional self-efficacy” ( Petrides et al., 2016 ; p. 339).

1.3. Ability emotional intelligence

A second type of model defines EI as an ability. AEI is “the ability to reason validly with emotions and with emotion related information, and to use emotions to enhance thought” ( Mayer et al., 2016 ; p. 296). Based on this definition, AEI is usually measured through performance in tasks ( Olderbak et al., 2019 ).

The most prominent model focusing on AEI is the model of Salovey and Mayer ( Salovey and Mayer, 1990 ; Mayer and Salovey, 1997 ). Their model suggests that AEI comprises four factors: emotion perception, facilitation of thought using emotions, emotion understanding, and emotion management. Recent studies have suggested that a model containing three factors (removing the “using emotions” factor) presents a better empirical fit ( Vesely Maillefer et al., 2018 ). Building on that, we will rely on this three-factor model in the rest of the paper.

Emotion perception refers to one's capacity to identify emotions accurately. This factor may be oriented toward oneself (i.e., the ability to pay attention to one's own physical and psychological state regarding emotions) or toward others (i.e., the tendency to be sensitive to others' emotions)—( Mayer et al., 1999 ). This factor also refers to the capacity to identify emotional content in its environment, and notably to assess if it is accurate or not ( Mayer et al., 2016 ). Understanding emotions—the second factor of the model—refers to the ability to understand that emotions can be connected to each other and that they can change across situations and time ( Rivers et al., 2007 ). This also refers to knowing which situations can lead to certain emotions ( Mayer et al., 2016 ). The third factor of the model (managing emotions) refers to the ability of people to regulate their emotions as well as others' emotions. This factor thus taps into to the capacity to manage emotions to achieve a desired outcome, to assess different strategies that can be used to control the emotion that is being felt and to choose to engage or disengage with the emotion felt, depending on one's need.

1.4. Digital competence

To be active in a digital context, digital competence (DC) is required. DC has been shown to be not only a right but also a requirement of citizens, as it is necessary to be functional now ( Ferrari, 2012 ). Research has revealed a strong interest in the study of DC in (tertiary) educational settings ( Zhao et al., 2021 ; Audrin and Audrin, 2022 ). Zhao et al. (2021) highlight that different theoretical frameworks regarding digital competence co-exist. Audrin and Audrin (2022) further reveal that the field suffers from a lack of clarity regarding the terminology (i.e., digital literacy, digital skills, digital competence, 21st century skills, …). Despite this lack of agreement, literature agrees that DC is not only constituted of technological skills, but that it encompasses multiple literacies ( Sánchez-Caballé et al., 2020 ). Moreover, as highlighted by Sillat et al. (2021) , digital competence does not only refer to skills, but it refers to a wider sense of competence, as it comprises knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Three DC frameworks have gained traction in the literature over the last few years, coming from 91) the UK Department for Education, (2) the European Commission's science and knowledge service, and (3) van Laar et al. (2018) . These frameworks have different purposes and are aimed at different groups of actors. While the UK Department for Education's framework is intended for anyone who wants to improve their digital skills ( Department for Education., 2019 ), the DigComp framework aims to “create an agreed vision of what is needed in terms of competence to overcome the challenges that arise from digitization in almost all aspects of modern lives” ( Vuorikari et al., 2022 ; p. (4). In contrast, the framework developed by van Laar et al. (2018) aims at developing “a set of reliable measures that focus on the frequency of activities that working professionals perform to assess each core 21st-century digital skill” ( van Laar et al., 2018 ; p. 2185).

While the frameworks differ in how they are structured and operationalized, several main dimensions appear as the core of DC: Information (using digital technology to search, filter, organize information and digital content), communication and collaboration (using digital technology to transmit and share information, but also to interact with others), critical thinking, problem-solving & decision-making (using digital technology to make informed judgments, assessing the information available online, and sorting through relevant data online), safety and legality (adopting security measures, but also behaving in a respectful way online), digital foundation skills (having the basic technical skills to use digital technologies). Making sense of these categories is helpful as it makes it possible to identify what DC is about. However, this only helps scrap the surface of DC as each of these dimensions entails a wide variety of sub-dimensions.

Another way to look at these frameworks is to focus on the components that constitute their sub-dimensions, namely knowledge, skills, and attitudes ( Hämäläinen et al., 2021 ; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ), relying on the conception of competence as the integration of knowledge, skills and attitudes ( Baartman and De Bruijn, 2011 ; Lizzio and Wilson, 2004; Seufert et al., 2021 ). Vuorikari et al. (2022) further develop this distinction in their framework. In their sense, knowledge is “the outcome of the assimilation of information through learning” ( Vuorikari et al., 2022 ; p. 3). Knowledge thus bears a very informational dimension: in the context of DC, it is the knowledge that individuals have about the digital world, its tools, its rules, and how to behave online. In contrast, skills can be defined as “the ability to apply knowledge and use know-how to complete tasks and solve problems” ( Vuorikari et al., 2022 ; p. 3). Skills thus refer to “doing or acting in practice, involving motor skills as well as cognitive skills” ( Baartman and De Bruijn, 2011 ; p. 127). As such, they are embedded in practice: in the context of DC, it is the ability of individuals to carry out tasks in the digital world. Finally, attitudes is tied with individuals' beliefs ( Hämäläinen et al., 2021 ), and can be defined as “an individual's predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an object, person, or event” ( Aslan and Zhu, 2017 ; p. 555). Attitudes can thus be considered as more of predispositions toward action: in the context of DC, it is the tendency that individuals will have to behave in a certain way in the digital world. Distinguishing between knowledge, skills, and attitudes helps understand the variety of dimensions of competence required to be digitally competent.

In summary, the literature on DC is still in the process of standardizing its definition and assessment. This overview shows that some dimensions emerge as important in DC, such as: information, communication and collaboration, critical thinking, problem-solving & decision-making, safety and legality, digital foundation skills. On top of these dimensions, a transversal approach to DC focuses on the variety of its components and identifies different sets of knowledge, skills, and attitudes within each dimension.

2. An integrated model of digital emotional intelligence

The objective of this paper is to model the relationship between DC and EI in a digital environment, providing a conceptualization of “digital emotional intelligence” (dEI) that goes beyond solely “EI in a digital world” but rather as deeply integrated with DC. Based on our literature review of the concepts, considering both TEI and AEI as well as the diverse knowledge, skills, and attitudes that compose DC, we represent the conceptual model depicted in Figure 1 . To build this model, we followed the steps recommended by Thatcher and Fisher (2022) .

Figure 1 . Proposed conceptual model of dEI.

This conceptual model of dEI posits two relationships: (1) TEI and DC-Attitudes, (2) dAEI and DC-Knowledge and Skills. Note that we hereafter refer to digital AEI (dAEI) instead of simply AEI, as we formulate the proposition that DC-Knowledge and DC-Skills may allow and enhance a new form of AEI that is specific to the digital world. Our propositions are the following:

(1) TEI will predict DC-Attitudes

(2) DC-Knowledge will predict dAEI

(3) DC-Skills will predict dAEI.

In the following sections, we will justify, detail, and illustrate each of these relationships with examples. In the last part of the paper, we conduct an empirical test to investigate the proposed relationship between TEI and DC-Attitudes.

2.1. TEI and DC-attitudes

In our model of dEI, we formulate the proposition that TEI will predict DC-Attitudes. This assumption is based on the approach of TEI as a disposition toward action ( Vesely Maillefer et al., 2018 ) which impacts attitudes ( O'Connor et al., 2019 ). Studies using TEI have linked it with work attitudes, such as job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior ( Miao et al., 2017a ). As highlighted earlier, attitudes are conceptualized as “an individual's predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an object, person, or event” ( Aslan and Zhu, 2017 ; p. 555). In the context of DC, attitudes can be considered as predispositions toward action, i.e., the tendency that individuals will have to behave in a certain way in the digital world. Therefore, it makes sense to conceptualize TEI as an antecedent of individuals' DC-Attitudes. An analysis of the examples of attitudes presented in DigComp 2.2 ( Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) allows to clearly identify the link with TEI. The dimensions of TEI—wellbeing, self-control, emotionality, and sociability—( Petrides et al., 2016 ) are apparent throughout the examples of key attitudes for DC. In the following, we are going to provide illustrations of some selected items from DC-Attitudes and how they display a specific form of TEI.

Several items of DC-Attitudes (“being inclined to focus on positive impacts and avoiding the negative impacts of digital media, such as overuse, addiction, and compulsive behavior”; “being open to explore alternative pathways to find solutions to produce digital content”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) can be tied with the wellbeing dimension of TEI. The wellbeing dimension of TEI comprises optimism, self-esteem beliefs and trait happiness ( Petrides et al., 2016 ) can be identified in the selected items that present optimism (e.g., “focus on positive impacts”) and self-esteem (e.g., “being open to find solutions”) as part of DC attitudes.

Several items of DC-Attitudes (“intentionally avoiding distractions and aiming to avoid information overload when accessing and navigating information, data and content”; “being motivated to co-design and co-create new products and services using digital devices to create economic or social value for others”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) can be tied with the self-control dimension of TEI. The self-control dimension of TEI notably encompasses impulsiveness and stress management ( Petrides et al., 2016 ) can be identified in the selected items that show an attitude toward impulse control (e.g., “intentionally avoiding distractions”), and stress management (e.g., “aiming to avoid information overload”).

Several items of DC-Attitudes (“being inclined to help others to improve their digital content”; “willing to adapt an appropriate communication strategy depending on the situation and digital tool: verbal strategies, non-verbal strategies, visuals strategies or mixed strategies”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) can be tied with the emotionality dimension of TEI. The emotionality dimension of TEI refers to emotional expression, empathy, emotion perception and relationships' quality ( Petrides et al., 2016 ) and can be identified in the selected items that show an attitude toward emotion perception and expression (e.g., “willing to adapt appropriate communication strategy”) and relationships (e.g., “being inclined to help others…”).

Several items of DC-Attitudes (“being concerned that much online information and content may not be accessible to people with a disability, for example to users who rely on screen reader technologies to read aloud the content of a web page”; “considering ethics as one of the core pillars when developing or deploying AI systems”; “encouraging everyone to express their own opinions constructively when collaborating in digital environments, willing to help others to improve their digital competencies, building on their strengths and mitigating their weaknesses”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) can be tied with the sociability dimension of TEI. The sociability dimension of TEI notably focuses on assertiveness and awareness ( Petrides et al., 2016 ) and can be identified in the selected items that show an attitude toward others (e.g., “willing to help others,” “encouraging everyone to express their own opinions”) in the digital context. These examples provide an illustration of the way in which the dimensions of TEI could be reflected in DC-Attitudes. Altogether, this exercise shows how predispositions related to emotional intelligence can influence and shape DC-Attitudes.

2.2. dAEI and DC-knowledge and-skills

In our model of dEI, we formulate the proposition that dAEI (digital-AEI) will be predicted by DC-Knowledge and DC-Skills. This assumption is based on the approach of AEI that conceptualizes it as an ability ( Mayer et al., 2016 ) that can be developed ( Zeidner et al., 2002 ). Literature further highlights that training may be particularly efficient when they include instructions (designed to enhance knowledge ) and practice with feedback (designed to enhance skills ) ( Blanch-Hartigan et al., 2016 ). The same reasoning can be applied to the digital context, in which DC-Knowledge and DC-Skills should participate in improving individuals' dAEI. Knowledge is mostly informational ( Baartman and De Bruijn, 2011 ) and, in the context of DC, it refers to what individuals know about the digital world, its tools, its rules, and how to behave online. Skills are embedded in practice ( Baartman and De Bruijn, 2011 ) and, in the context of DC, it is the ability of individuals to carry out tasks in the digital world. In our model, we suggest that both knowledge of the digital world and skills to carry out tasks in the digital world are likely to impact the ability of individuals to reason validly with emotions and emotions-related information in a digital context (dAEI). Thus, we conceptualize DC-Knowledge and DC-Skills as antecedents of dAEI. An illustration of examples of knowledge and skills presented in DigComp 2.2 ( Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) allows to identify the link with AEI very clearly. In the following, we are going to provide illustrations of some selected items of (1) DC-Knowledge and (2) DC-Skills taken from Vuorikari et al. (2022) and discuss how these can impact dAEI. The following examples only represent a selection of DC-Knowledge and DC-Skills that impact dAEI and have been chosen based on their relevance. Many other examples could have been used. We have considered the three dimensions of AEI (i.e., the perception of emotions, understanding of emotion and management of emotions) and have also added a fourth transversal dimension with examples of theoretical knowledge that represents a prerequisite to dAEI.

Some selected items of DC-knowledge (i.e., “understanding the difference between disinformation and misinformation”; “being aware of the meaning of non-verbal messages used in digital environments and knowing that their use can culturally differ between countries and communities”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) illustrate well how DC-Knowledge can have an impact on the perception of emotions. Knowing the meaning of non-verbal messages used in digital environments, and knowing the difference between disinformation and misinformation can consequently improve people's ability to perceive emotions online in several ways: by enabling them to better recognize the emotions of others through non-verbal cues, and by allowing them to better assess the intentions or motivations behind the information that they are receiving.

Some selected items of DC-knowledge (i.e., “knowing that AI systems can be used to automatically create digital using existing digital content as its source”; “knowing signs of digital addictions and that digital addiction can cause psychological and physical harm”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) illustrate well how DC-Knowledge can have an impact on the understanding of emotions. Knowing that AI systems can be used to automatically create digital content which may be difficult to distinguish from human creations can help people to better understand the potential emotional impacts of interacting with AI systems. It can consequently improve their understanding of their own emotions and enhance their sensitivity toward potential emotional impacts of these interactions. Knowing signs of digital addictions (e.g., loss of control, withdrawal symptoms, dysfunctional mood regulation) and their consequences can also improve people's ability to understand their own emotions when using (too much of) digital technologies. This can also be true regarding others: such knowledge may help one to be more aware of the emotions of others who may be experiencing digital addiction and in turn improve their understanding of emotions.

Several items of DC-knowledge may be relevant to explain management of emotions (i.e., “being aware that search engines, social media and content platforms often use AI algorithms to generate responses that are adapted to the individual user”; “being aware that adapting one's behavior in digital environments depends on one's relationship with other participants and the purpose in which the communication takes place”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ). Knowing that search engines often use AI algorithms to generate responses adapted to the user can help them be more aware of the potential emotional impacts of interacting with these platforms and can consequently improve people's management of emotions. Knowing that one's behavior in digital environments should depend (1) on one's relationship with others and (2) on the specificities of said digital environments can help people better understand the ways in which emotions can be effectively managed in different social and professional contexts online and can consequently improve people's management of emotions.

Finally, some selected items of DC-knowledge may be considered as prerequisites to dAEI (i.e., “knowing the main functions of the most common digital devices; knowing some reasons why a digital device may fail to connect online”; “being aware that difficulties experienced while interacting with digital technologies may be due to technical issues, lack of confidence, one's own competence gap or inadequate choice of digital tool to solve the problem in question”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ). Indeed, without such knowledge, there is no access to the digital world in the first place. Knowing the main functions of the most common digital devices and knowing some reasons why a digital device may fail to connect online is a prerequisite to dAEI as a minimum level of knowledge is needed to interact with digital technologies. Without this knowledge, it may be difficult or impossible for people to access and use digital technologies, and as such to develop dAEI. Knowing that difficulties experienced while interacting with digital technologies may be due to technical issues, lack of confidence or competence is also a prerequisite to dAEI as such knowledge is essential for being able to effectively troubleshoot and overcome challenges that may arise when using digital technologies. Without this understanding, people may be less able to access and use digital technologies, which can limit their participation in the digital world.

These examples provide an illustration of the way in which DC-Knowledge can play a role in enhancing and improving the different dimensions of dAEI. Altogether, this exercise shows how DC-Knowledge can help develop dAEI.

Some selected items of DC-Skills (i.e., “knowing how to analyze and critically evaluate search results and social media activity streams, to identify their origins, to distinguish fact-reporting from opinion, and to determine whether outputs are truthful or have other limitations”; “knowing how and when to use machine translation solutions and simultaneous interpretation apps to get a rough understanding of a document or conversation, but also knowing that when the content requires an accurate translation a more precise translation may be needed”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) illustrate well how DC-Skills can have an impact on the perception of emotions. Having the skills to analyze and critically evaluate search results and social media activity streams can help people to better understand the context and perspective behind different types of online information and content and can consequently improve people's perception of their own emotions as well as the perceptions of others' emotions. Knowing how and when to use machine translation solutions to get an understanding of a document or conversation can help people better understand the emotional content of such content and can consequently improve people's perception of emotions.

Our model further posits that DC-Skills may predict understanding of emotions. We believe this is particularly true for the following items (i.e., “knowing how to curate content on content sharing platforms so as to add value for oneself and others”; “knowing how to recognize embedded user experience techniques designed to manipulate and/or to weaken one's ability to be in control of decisions”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ). Being able to curate content on content sharing platforms can allow people to better understand the interests and perspectives of the people they are interacting with and consequently improve their understanding of others' emotions. Being able to recognize embedded user experience techniques can allow people to better understand the motivations and intentions behind certain online interactions or behaviors and can consequently improve their understanding of others' emotions.

Some selected items of DC-Skills (i.e., “knowing how to adopt information and communication practices in order to build a positive online identity”; “being able to apply and follow protection strategies to fight online victimization”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) illustrate well how DC-Skills can have an impact on the management of emotions. Being able to adopt information and communication practices that build a positive online identity can allow people to present themselves in a way that reflects the emotions they want to display and can consequently improve the way they manage their own emotions. Being able to apply and follow protection strategies to fight online victimization can allow people to take control of their online interactions and protect themselves from harmful or negative experiences and can consequently improve the way they manage their emotions. Both skills can also help people show consideration for the wellbeing and safety of those they are interacting with online and thus improve the way they manage the emotions of others.

Finally, some selected items of DC-Skills (i.e., “knowing how to identify and solve a camera and/or a microphone issue when in an online meeting”; “taking a step-by-step approach to identify the root of a technical problem and exploring various solutions when facing a technical malfunction”; Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) illustrate well how DC-Skills can have a broader impact on dAEI and can be considered as prerequisites to dAEI in that, without them, there is no access to the digital world in the first place. The skills listed in the examples are essential for accessing the digital world and show the importance of developing DC-Skills through training. Being able to identify and solve problems with cameras and microphones, for example, is important for participating in online meetings and communication. Having the skills to take a step-by-step approach to problem-solving and explore various solutions can help individuals effectively troubleshoot technical issues. Being able to find solutions on the internet is also a valuable skill, as it allows individuals to access a wealth of information and resources that can help them resolve technical problems and access the digital world.

These examples provide an illustration of the way in which DC-Skills can play a role in enhancing and improving the different dimensions of dAEI. Altogether, this exercise shows how DC-Knowledge can help develop dAEI. In the following section we empirically test one of the conceptual links developed above, more specifically, how DC-Attitudes are predicted by TEI.

3. Empirical premises of digital emotional intelligence

3.1. materials and methods, 3.1.1. participants and procedure.

Participants were recruited on Mturk and completed the questionnaires on Qualtrics. We required participants to (1) have a HIT (human intelligence task) approval rate of more than 95%, (2) be located US and (3) be currently employed. Among the whole sample, 40.9% of the participants were male and most of the participants between 25 and 45 years old (63.5%). Participants were first asked to provide their consent to participate in the study. Then, they reported information regarding their age, gender, employment status and flexible work possibilities. Participants were then presented with DigComp ( Clifford et al., 2020 ) and TeiqueSF scales ( Petrides and Furnham, 2001 ). Within each scale, we included five validity items randomly presented to control for participants' concentration during the survey. After removing participants who did not correctly answer validity items, our final sample consisted of 503 participants.

3.1.2. Measures

Digital competence was measured using the DigComp framework ( Clifford et al., 2020 ). This framework was selected for its global relevance, as opposed to van Laar et al. (2018) instrument that focuses on a specific category of professionals. Participants were asked to answer on a scale from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly agree”) to assess their perceived competence regarding digital competence. The questionnaire consists of 82 items measuring DC-Attitudes as well as DC-Knowledge and DC-Skills across the 5 subscales of DC (information, communication and collaboration, problem solving, safety, digital content creation). In this paper, we focus on the items measuring attitudes (21 items, alpha = 0.85). We thus had items measuring attitudes toward information (e.g., “I critically check if the information I find online is reliable”), communication and collaboration (e.g., “I am open toward sharing digital content that I think might be interesting and useful to others”), problem solving (e.g., “I am interested in understanding how a task can be broken down into steps so that it can be automated, for example in software or by a robot”), safety (e.g., “I am careful about checking the privacy policies of the digital services that I use”), and digital content creation (e.g., “I am interested in understanding how a task can be broken down into steps so that it can be automated, for example in software or by a robot”). We further aggregated the items for each subscale.

EI was measured using the TeiqueSF ( Petrides and Furnham, 2001 ). This questionnaire distinguishes between four dimensions of EI: Emotionality (6 items such as “Expressing my emotions with words is not a problem for me” alpha = 0.84), Self-Control (6 items such as “I usually find it difficult to regulate my emotions”—reversed item I'm usually able to find ways to control my emotions when I want to”, alpha = 0.74), Wellbeing (6 items such as “I feel that I have a number of good qualities”, alpha = 0.62) and Sociability (6 items such as “I can deal effectively with people”, alpha = 0.74). The hypothesized model is depicted in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2 . Hypothesized link between TEI and DC-attitudes. ID, Information and Data Literacy; CC, Communication and Collaboration; DCC, Digital Content Creation.

3.1.3. Statistical analyses

Analyses were performed in R using lavaan ( Rosseel et al., 2020 ). We first performed a two-factor confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the existence of the two factors hypothesized in Figure 2 as well as their correlation (as in Sergi et al., 2007 ). In this model, we introduced TEI dimensions (emotionality, self-control, wellbeing and sociability) as well as the DC-Attitudes (information, communication and collaboration, problem solving, safety and digital content creation). We then performed a structural equation model (SEM) in which we introduced the same factors as in the CFA but we tested here the regression coefficient between TEI and DC-Attitudes. To assess the fit of the model, we used the comparative fit index (CFI), the standardized root square mean residual (SRMR), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI). We expected a good model to have a CFI above.95, an SRMR below.08, an RMSEA below.08 and a TLI above 0.90 (or above 0.95 to provide a good fit).

3.2. Results

We first report correlation matrix between the subdimensions of DC-Attitudes and with the dimensions of EI (i.e., wellbeing, sociability, emotionality, and self-control—see Table 1 ). Results highlight that all subdimensions of DC-Attitudes are positively related to each other ( r = [0.416; 0.708]). This is also true for the dimension of EI ( r = [0.609; 0.717]). Interestingly, the wellbeing dimension of EI is significantly and positively related to DC-attitudes ( r = [0.288; 0.390]). Sociability is also related to most dimensions of DC-Attitudes ( r = [0.162; 0.241]), except for the communication and collaboration attitudes ( r = 0.086, p = 0.053). This is also true for the self-control dimensions, which is positively correlated with the DC-Attitudes ( r = [0.09; 0.168], except for the communication and collaboration ( r = −0.72, p = 0.613). Finally, emotionality is positively correlated with DC-Attitudes related to identification ( r =.163, p < 0.001), safety ( r = 0.095, p = 0.033), and problem-solving ( r = 0.113, p = 0.011).

Table 1 . Correlation coefficients between DC-Attitudes and TEI sub-dimensions.

In the following, we report the results from the CFA model presented in Figure 2 . Factors loadings are reported in Table 2 below. These results highlight that (1) all the hypothesized dimension load on their respective factors and (2) that TEI and DC-Attitudes are positively correlated (b = 0.26, 95%CI = [0.15; 0.32], z = 4.16, p < 0.001).

Table 2 . Factor loadings for the two factors CFA linking DC-Attitudes and TEI.

Below, we report the results from the SEM model, which is presented in Figure 3 . Except for the RMSEA indices, the model provided an acceptable fit (RMSEA = 0.096, SRMR = 0.075, CFI = 0.954, TLI = 0.929). Factor loadings are reported in the Appendix . The results further highlight that trait EI significantly and positively predict DC-Attitudes (b = 0.339, 95%CI = [0.320; 0.340], z = 5.61, p < 0.001), suggesting that the higher trait EI, the more positive DC-Attitudes.

Figure 3 . Tested links (standardized estimate) between TEI and DC-Attitudes. ID, Information and Data Literacy; CC, Communication and Collaboration; DCC, Digital Content Creation.

4. Discussion

The purpose of this work was to introduce the concept of “digital emotional intelligence” and propose it as a conceptual integration between EI and DC, emphasizing that it goes beyond solely EI in the digital context. Our conceptual model considers the two most prominent perspectives on EI (i.e., TEI and AEI). In terms of DC, we chose not to emphasize the different dimensions of DC (i.e., communication, digital content creation, safety or ethical issues) but instead focused on the transversal aspects of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Therefore, our model conceptualizes how EI and DC might impact each other to create dEI. We also conducted primary empirical testing of the relationship between EI and DC by focusing on how TEI can predict DC-Attitudes.

This work offers theoretical contributions to research on EI. Firstly, we build on the integrative conceptualization of EI, which combines both AEI and TEI (e.g., Mikolajczak, 2009 ). We believe that such a conceptualization provides a unifying view of EI. Although the term “digital emotional intelligence” already appears in the literature, the definitions used rather tend to rely on the sole ability model ( Na-Nan et al., 2019 ). In this paper, we adopt a more global and unified view of dEI.

By conceptualizing dEI, we suggest that it is distinct from “traditional” EI and thus requires specific attention and measures. However, further testing is needed to ensure that “traditional” EI is indeed distinct from dEI. Additionally, the relationship between dEI and outcomes related to the digital world (in a professional or learning context) needs further investigation considering the new model of dEI. Lastly, we propose that the relationships between EI and DC are reciprocal, thereby contributing to research on EI by distinguishing between TEI as an antecedent and dAEI as an outcome of DC.

This paper offers a premise of empirical testing of the link between TEI and DC-Attitudes in DigComp. The primary results indicate a significant relationship between the two constructs, suggesting that TEI positively predicts DC-Attitudes. The relationship between DC-Knowledge and -Skills and dAEI requires further construct development and testing, as dAEI is proposed to be distinct from AEI.

This work makes a significant theoretical contribution to research on DC by highlighting its relationship with EI and emphasizing its relevance for dEI. Although there are some mentions of dEI in the literature ( Oluwatofunmi and Amietsenwu, 2019 ; Sarnok et al., 2021 ), the embeddedness of the construct in a global digital competence framework has rarely been theoretically discussed. Traditional DC frameworks often do not explicitly consider emotions and EI. As shown previously, DigComp ( Vuorikari et al., 2022 ) makes use of several examples that can be tied with a form of EI, but the link is not explicitly made. By elucidating this relationship, it becomes possible to investigate it and question how to study DC and EI jointly. More specifically, by suggesting distinct types of relationships between different forms of EI and different dimensions of DC, eventually with different frameworks, this paper offers a more comprehensive reflection on the various components of DC and their development and assessment.

This research also offers several practical implications. Almost 30 years ago, Goleman raised awareness of the importance of EI in the workplace ( Goleman, 1995 ). In the intervening years, the world has undergone significant changes with the rise of mobile technologies, social media, and digital communication transforming the way we work, learn, and interact with others. As a result, it is crucial to update our understanding of EI to account for the specificities of the digital world and the knowledge and skills required to be “digitally emotionally intelligent.” This conceptual paper offers a renewed perspective on EI that aligns with contemporary notions of dEI.

This updated conceptualization has implications for policymakers, organizations, managers, and employees. Policymakers can integrate dEI more systematically into their frameworks and lead initiatives on DC that systematically account for dEI. Organizations can use this conceptualization to develop corporate training and policies that foster the development of dEI among their workforce. In particular, for remote work and virtual teams, raising awareness about the importance of dEI across the workforce is essential. Organizations can also consider dEI as a selection criterion for their workforce, especially for managerial positions. The conceptualization also highlights the importance of basic DC without which individuals cannot develop any form of dEI. It is therefore critical to foster the development of DC with adequate training initiatives at different levels (educational level, organizational level, etc.) to make sure that people are indeed able to develop dEI. The current conceptualization provides a spark of interest, but measurement instruments need to be developed to help institutions in their use of dEI. Organizations could thus improve their selection practices (for example to select remote workers who will require dEI in their day-to-day digital interactions at work). Measuring dEI would also be beneficial to organizations and training institutions in respect to digital learning as it would help them identify potential issues in their learners. This conceptualization can also help managers, employees, educators, and learners better understand the challenges they face in their work or learning environments Altogether, raising awareness of the concept of dEI makes it possible to consider DC and EI jointly into various programs and trainings to build a more digitally emotionally intelligent workforce and society.

This research offers several opportunities for future studies. Our model provides conceptual paths between TEI and DC-Attitudes and DC-Knowledge and DC-Skills and dAEI. Future studies are needed to (1) operationalize these concepts—specifically dAEI—and (2) test the relationships proposed in our model. By conceptualizing this new construct of dEI, this research also suggests that its relationship with various outcomes (organizational ones as well as learning ones) needs to be reassessed. For example, the relationship between collaborative behaviors, organizational citizenship behavior and dEI could be measured to account for specific digital learning setups and virtual teams. Another interesting line of research consists in the integration of a relatively new component of EI, namely emotion information processing (EIP; Fiori and Vesely-Maillefer, 2018 ). EIP refers to how people pay attention to, encode, retain, and retrieve information related to emotion ( Vesely Maillefer et al., 2018 ). The specific articulation between EIP and dEI, and notably how EIP may or not be important in a digital context, and how it interacts with DC calls for future studies.

5. Conclusion

EI has been shown to be crucial in educational and organizational contexts as well as in everyday life. As more of our life takes place online, this paper proposes to formally coin “digital emotional intelligence” as an integration between EI and DC. The framework builds on both trait EI and ability EI and associates them with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of DC. The paper also provides empirical premises on the relationship between TEI and DC-Attitudes, suggesting that TEI positively predicts DC-Attitudes, and highlights the importance of further investigating the relationship between EI and DC, especially regarding dAEI and DC-Knowledge and Skills. The framework proposed in this study provides a foundation for future research on dEI and its impact on work, learning, and everyday life. By pointing out the specificities of the digital context and the importance of DC in dEI, this paper develops the concept of dEI as more than just “emotional intelligence online.”

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the author upon request.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

CA: study conception, data analysis, and manuscript writing. BA: study conception, data acquisition, and manuscript writing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Open access funding by Haute école pédagogique du canton de Vaud (HEP Vaud).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank their parents for their continuous support and guidance.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Factor loadings for the SEM liking DC-attitudes and TEI.

Keywords: emotional intelligence, digital competence, digital skills, digital emotional intelligence, ability emotional intelligence, trait emotional intelligence

Citation: Audrin C and Audrin B (2023) More than just emotional intelligence online: introducing “digital emotional intelligence”. Front. Psychol. 14:1154355. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1154355

Received: 30 January 2023; Accepted: 07 April 2023; Published: 02 May 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Audrin and Audrin. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Catherine Audrin, Catherine.audrin@hepl.ch

† ORCID: Catherine Audrin orcid.org/0000-0003-2905-6000 Bertrand Audrin orcid.org/0000-0003-2510-0924

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