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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

• What is the purpose of literature review? 
• a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
• b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
• c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
• d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 

How to write a good literature review 

• Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
• Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
• Select Databases for Searches: 
• Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
• Review the Literature: 
• Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
• How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal? 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 

2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 

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3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 

4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 

5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 

6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

• Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
• Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
• Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
• Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
• Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

• Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
• Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
• Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
• Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
• Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

• Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
• Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
• Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
• Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
• Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

• Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
• Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

• Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
• Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
• Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

• Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
• Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

• Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
• Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
• Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

• Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
• Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
• Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
• Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
• Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

• Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
• Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
• Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
• Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

Whether you’re exploring a new research field or finding new angles to develop an existing topic, sifting through hundreds of papers can take more time than you have to spare. But what if you could find science-backed insights with verified citations in seconds? That’s the power of Paperpal’s new Research feature!  

How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?

Paperpal, an AI writing assistant, integrates powerful academic search capabilities within its writing platform. With the Research feature, you get 100% factual insights, with citations backed by 250M+ verified research articles, directly within your writing interface with the option to save relevant references in your Citation Library. By eliminating the need to switch tabs to find answers to all your research questions, Paperpal saves time and helps you stay focused on your writing.   

Here’s how to use the Research feature:  

• Ask a question: Get started with a new document on paperpal.com. Click on the “Research” feature and type your question in plain English. Paperpal will scour over 250 million research articles, including conference papers and preprints, to provide you with accurate insights and citations. 
• Review and Save: Paperpal summarizes the information, while citing sources and listing relevant reads. You can quickly scan the results to identify relevant references and save these directly to your built-in citations library for later access. 
• Cite with Confidence: Paperpal makes it easy to incorporate relevant citations and references into your writing, ensuring your arguments are well-supported by credible sources. This translates to a polished, well-researched literature review. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a good literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. By combining effortless research with an easy citation process, Paperpal Research streamlines the literature review process and empowers you to write faster and with more confidence. Try Paperpal Research now and see for yourself.  

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

• Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
• Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
• Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

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• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

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• Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide
• Introduction

Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide — Introduction

• Getting Started
• How to Pick a Topic
• Strategies to Find Sources
• Evaluating Sources & Lit. Reviews
• Tips for Writing Literature Reviews
• Writing Literature Review: Useful Sites
• Citation Resources
• Other Academic Writings

What are Literature Reviews?

So, what is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries." Taylor, D.  The literature review: A few tips on conducting it . University of Toronto Health Sciences Writing Centre.

Goals of Literature Reviews

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?  A literature could be written to accomplish different aims:

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews .  Review of General Psychology , 1 (3), 311-320.

What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?

• A research paper assigned in a course
• A thesis or dissertation
• A grant proposal
• An article intended for publication in a journal

All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.

Types of Literature Reviews

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.

• Example : Predictors and Outcomes of U.S. Quality Maternity Leave: A Review and Conceptual Framework:  10.1177/08948453211037398  

Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L. K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . Plural Publishing.

• Example : The effect of leave policies on increasing fertility: a systematic review:  10.1057/s41599-022-01270-w

Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Blackwell Publishing.

• Example : Employment Instability and Fertility in Europe: A Meta-Analysis:  10.1215/00703370-9164737

Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts .  Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53 (3), 311-318.

• Example : Women’s perspectives on career successes and barriers: A qualitative meta-synthesis:  10.1177/05390184221113735

Literature Reviews in the Health Sciences

• UConn Health subject guide on systematic reviews Explanation of the different review types used in health sciences literature as well as tools to help you find the right review type
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Literature review

How to write a literature review in 6 steps

How do you write a good literature review? This step-by-step guide on how to write an excellent literature review covers all aspects of planning and writing literature reviews for academic papers and theses.

How to write a systematic literature review [9 steps]

How do you write a systematic literature review? What types of systematic literature reviews exist and where do you use them? Learn everything you need to know about a systematic literature review in this guide

What is a literature review? [with examples]

Not sure what a literature review is? This guide covers the definition, purpose, and format of a literature review.

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How to Write a Literature Review

• 7. Write a Literature Review
• Literature Reviews: A Recap
• Reading Journal Articles
• Does it Describe a Literature Review?
• 1. Identify the Question
• 2. Review Discipline Styles
• Searching Article Databases
• Finding Full-Text of an Article
• Citation Chaining
• When to Stop Searching
• 4. Manage Your References
• 5. Critically Analyze and Evaluate
• 6. Synthesize

Write a Literature Review

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Some points to remember

• Include only the most important points from each source -- you want to digest, not quote from, the sources.
• The value of the review for you audience will consist in a clear, well-organized synopsis of what has been found so far on your topic. 
• Avoid plagiarism in your lit review. Consult this UO Libraries tutorial on Academic Integrity if you need some guidance.

If you would like more pointers about how to approach your literature review, this this handout from The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill  suggests several effective strategies.

From UNC-Chapel Hill  and  University of Toronto

Note : Please check the websites below for availability of online or remote services:

• Writing Lab Service Customized academic assistance for all international students
• How to Write a Literature Review (UO Libraries tutorial)
• Exploring Academic Integrity in Your Research

If you have questions related to a field or discipline, consider reaching out to a Subject Librarian by email, phone, or by scheduling an appointment for a free consultation:

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Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide: Literature Reviews?

• Literature Reviews?
• Strategies to Finding Sources
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• Other Academic Writings

What is a Literature Review?

So, what is a literature review .

"A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available or a set of summaries." - Quote from Taylor, D. (n.d)."The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting it".

• Citation: "The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting it"

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Each field has a particular way to do reviews for academic research literature. In the social sciences and humanities the most common are:

• Narrative Reviews: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific research topic and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weaknesses, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section that summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.
• Book review essays/ Historiographical review essays : A type of literature review typical in History and related fields, e.g., Latin American studies. For example, the Latin American Research Review explains that the purpose of this type of review is to “(1) to familiarize readers with the subject, approach, arguments, and conclusions found in a group of books whose common focus is a historical period; a country or region within Latin America; or a practice, development, or issue of interest to specialists and others; (2) to locate these books within current scholarship, critical methodologies, and approaches; and (3) to probe the relation of these new books to previous work on the subject, especially canonical texts. Unlike individual book reviews, the cluster reviews found in LARR seek to address the state of the field or discipline and not solely the works at issue.” - LARR

What are the Goals of Creating a Literature Review?

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 
• Baumeister, R.F. & Leary, M.R. (1997). "Writing narrative literature reviews," Review of General Psychology , 1(3), 311-320.

When do you need to write a Literature Review?

• When writing a prospectus or a thesis/dissertation
• When writing a research paper
• When writing a grant proposal

In all these cases you need to dedicate a chapter in these works to showcase what has been written about your research topic and to point out how your own research will shed new light into a body of scholarship.

Where I can find examples of Literature Reviews?

Note:  In the humanities, even if they don't use the term "literature review", they may have a dedicated  chapter that reviewed the "critical bibliography" or they incorporated that review in the introduction or first chapter of the dissertation, book, or article.

• UCSB electronic theses and dissertations In partnership with the Graduate Division, the UC Santa Barbara Library is making available theses and dissertations produced by UCSB students. Currently included in ADRL are theses and dissertations that were originally filed electronically, starting in 2011. In future phases of ADRL, all theses and dissertations created by UCSB students may be digitized and made available.

Where to Find Standalone Literature Reviews

Literature reviews are also written as standalone articles as a way to survey a particular research topic in-depth. This type of literature review looks at a topic from a historical perspective to see how the understanding of the topic has changed over time. 

• Find e-Journals for Standalone Literature Reviews The best way to get familiar with and to learn how to write literature reviews is by reading them. You can use our Journal Search option to find journals that specialize in publishing literature reviews from major disciplines like anthropology, sociology, etc. Usually these titles are called, "Annual Review of [discipline name] OR [Discipline name] Review. This option works best if you know the title of the publication you are looking for. Below are some examples of these journals! more... less... Journal Search can be found by hovering over the link for Research on the library website.

Social Sciences

• Annual Review of Anthropology
• Annual Review of Political Science
• Annual Review of Sociology
• Ethnic Studies Review

Hard science and health sciences:

• Annual Review of Biomedical Data Science
• Annual Review of Materials Science
• Systematic Review From journal site: "The journal Systematic Reviews encompasses all aspects of the design, conduct, and reporting of systematic reviews" in the health sciences.
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What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

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APA Style Blog - for those harder to find answers

1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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Literature Reviews

• 6. Write the review
• Getting started
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• 1. Define your research question
• 2. Plan your search
• 3. Search the literature
• 4. Organize your results
• 5. Synthesize your findings
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Organize your review according to the following structure:

• Provide a concise overview of your primary thesis and the studies you explore in your review.
• Present the subject of your review
• Outline the key points you will address in the review
• Use your thesis to frame your paper
• Explain the significance of reviewing the literature in your chosen topic area (e.g., to find research gaps? Or to update your field on the current literature?)
• Consider dividing it into sections, particularly if examining multiple methodologies
• Examine the literature thoroughly and systematically, maintaining organization — don't just paraphrase researchers, add your own interpretation and discuss the significance of the papers you found)
• Reiterate your thesis
• Summarize your key findings 
• Ensure proper formatting of your references (stick to a single citation style — be consistent!)
• Use a citation manager, such as Zotero or EndNote, for easy formatting!

Check out UNC's guide on literature reviews, especially the section " Organizing the Body ."

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How to Write a Literature Review

• What Is a Literature Review
• What Is the Literature

Writing the Review

Why Are You Writing This?

There are two primary points to remember as you are writing your literature review:

• Stand-alone review: provide an overview and analysis of the current state of research on a topic or question
• Research proposal: explicate the current issues and questions concerning a topic to demonstrate how your proposed research will contribute to the field
• Research report: provide the context to which your work is a contribution.
• Write as you read, and revise as you read more. Rather than wait until you have read everything you are planning to review, start writing as soon as you start reading. You will need to reorganize and revise it all later, but writing a summary of an article when you read it helps you to think more carefully about the article. Having drafts and annotations to work with will also make writing the full review easier since you will not have to rely completely on your memory or have to keep thumbing back through all the articles. Your draft does not need to be in finished, or even presentable, form. The first draft is for you, so you can tell yourself what you are thinking. Later you can rewrite it for others to tell them what you think.

General Steps for Writing a Literature Review

Here is a general outline of steps to write a thematically organized literature review. Remember, though, that there are many ways to approach a literature review, depending on its purpose.

• Stage one: annotated bibliography. As you read articles, books, etc, on your topic, write a brief critical synopsis of each. After going through your reading list, you will have an abstract or annotation of each source you read. Later annotations are likely to include more references to other works since you will have your previous readings to compare, but at this point the important goal is to get accurate critical summaries of each individual work.
• Stage two: thematic organization. Find common themes in the works you read, and organize the works into categories. Typically, each work you include in your review can fit into one category or sub-theme of your main theme, but sometimes a work can fit in more than one. (If each work you read can fit into all the categories you list, you probably need to rethink your organization.) Write some brief paragraphs outlining your categories, how in general the works in each category relate to each other, and how the categories relate to each other and to your overall theme.
• Stage three: more reading. Based on the knowledge you have gained in your reading, you should have a better understanding of the topic and of the literature related to it. Perhaps you have discovered specific researchers who are important to the field, or research methodologies you were not aware of. Look for more literature by those authors, on those methodologies, etc. Also, you may be able to set aside some less relevant areas or articles which you pursued initially. Integrate the new readings into your literature review draft. Reorganize themes and read more as appropriate.
• Stage four: write individual sections. For each thematic section,  use your draft annotations (it is a good idea to reread the articles and revise annotations, especially the ones you read initially) to write a section which discusses the articles relevant to that theme. Focus your writing on the theme of that section, showing how the articles relate to each other and to the theme, rather than focusing your writing on each individual article. Use the articles as evidence to support your critique of the theme rather than using the theme as an angle to discuss each article individually.
• Stage five: integrate sections. Now that you have the thematic sections, tie them together with an introduction, conclusion, and some additions and revisions in the sections to show how they relate to each other and to your overall theme.

Specific Points to Include

More specifically, here are some points to address when writing about specific works you are reviewing. In dealing with a paper or an argument or theory, you need to assess it (clearly understand and state the claim) and analyze it (evaluate its reliability, usefulness, validity). Look for the following points as you assess and analyze papers, arguments, etc. You do not need to state them all explicitly, but keep them in mind as you write your review:

• Be specific and be succinct. Briefly state specific findings listed in an article, specific methodologies used in a study, or other important points. Literature reviews are not the place for long quotes or in-depth analysis of each point.
• Be selective. You are trying to boil down a lot of information into a small space. Mention just the most important points (i.e. those most relevant to the review's focus) in each work you review.
• Is it a current article? How old is it? Have its claims, evidence, or arguments been superceded by more recent work? If it is not current, is it important for historical background?
• What specific claims are made? Are they stated clearly?
• What evidence, and what type (experimental, statistical, anecdotal, etc) is offered? Is the evidence relevant? sufficient?
• What arguments are given? What assumptions are made, and are they warranted?
• What is the source of the evidence or other information? The author's own experiments, surveys, etc? Historical records? Government documents? How reliable are the sources?
• Does the author take into account contrary or conflicting evidence and arguments? How does the author address disagreements with other researchers?
• What specific conclusions are drawn? Are they warranted by the evidence?
• How does this article, argument, theory, etc, relate to other work?

These, however, are just the points that should be addressed when writing about a specific work. It is not an outline of how to organize your writing. Your overall theme and categories within that theme should organize your writing, and the above points should be integrated into that organization. That is, rather than write something like:

     Smith (2019) claims that blah, and provides evidence x to support it, and says it is probably because of blip. But Smith seems to have neglected factor b.      Jones (2021) showed that blah by doing y, which, Jones claims, means it is likely because of blot. But that methodology does not exclude other possibilities.      Johnson (2022) hypothesizes blah might be because of some other cause.

list the themes and then say how each article relates to that theme. For example:

     Researchers agree that blah (Smith 2019, Jones 2021, Johnson 2022), but they do not agree on why. Smith claims it is probably due to blip, but Jones, by doing y, tries to show it is likely because of blot. Jones' methodology, however, does not exclude other possibilities. Johnson hypothesizes ...

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is a critical analysis of the literature related to your research topic. It evaluates and critiques the literature to establish a theoretical framework for your research topic and/or identify a gap in the existing research that your research will address.

A literature review is not a summary of the literature. You need to engage deeply and critically with the literature. Your literature review should show your understanding of the literature related to your research topic and lead to presenting a rationale for your research.

A literature review focuses on:

• the context of the topic
• key concepts, ideas, theories and methodologies
• key researchers, texts and seminal works
• major issues and debates
• identifying conflicting evidence
• the main questions that have been asked around the topic
• the organisation of knowledge on the topic
• definitions, particularly those that are contested
• showing how your research will advance scholarly knowledge (generally referred to as identifying the ‘gap’).

This module will guide you through the functions of a literature review; the typical process of conducting a literature review (including searching for literature and taking notes); structuring your literature review within your thesis and organising its internal ideas; and styling the language of your literature review.

The purposes of a literature review

A literature review serves two main purposes:

1) To show awareness of the present state of knowledge in a particular field, including:

• seminal authors
• the main empirical research
• theoretical positions
• controversies
• breakthroughs as well as links to other related areas of knowledge.

2) To provide a foundation for the author’s research. To do that, the literature review needs to:

• help the researcher define a hypothesis or a research question, and how answering the question will contribute to the body of knowledge;
• provide a rationale for investigating the problem and the selected methodology;
• provide a particular theoretical lens, support the argument, or identify gaps.

Before you engage further with this module, try the quiz below to see how much you already know about literature reviews.

Research and Writing Skills for Academic and Graduate Researchers Copyright © 2022 by RMIT University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What Is A Literature Review?

A plain-language explainer (with examples).

By:  Derek Jansen (MBA) & Kerryn Warren (PhD) | June 2020 (Updated May 2023)

If you’re faced with writing a dissertation or thesis, chances are you’ve encountered the term “literature review” . If you’re on this page, you’re probably not 100% what the literature review is all about. The good news is that you’ve come to the right place.

Literature Review 101

• What (exactly) is a literature review
• What’s the purpose of the literature review chapter
• How to find high-quality resources
• How to structure your literature review chapter
• Example of an actual literature review

What is a literature review?

The word “literature review” can refer to two related things that are part of the broader literature review process. The first is the task of  reviewing the literature  – i.e. sourcing and reading through the existing research relating to your research topic. The second is the  actual chapter  that you write up in your dissertation, thesis or research project. Let’s look at each of them:

Reviewing the literature

The first step of any literature review is to hunt down and  read through the existing research  that’s relevant to your research topic. To do this, you’ll use a combination of tools (we’ll discuss some of these later) to find journal articles, books, ebooks, research reports, dissertations, theses and any other credible sources of information that relate to your topic. You’ll then  summarise and catalogue these  for easy reference when you write up your literature review chapter. 

The literature review chapter

The second step of the literature review is to write the actual literature review chapter (this is usually the second chapter in a typical dissertation or thesis structure ). At the simplest level, the literature review chapter is an  overview of the key literature  that’s relevant to your research topic. This chapter should provide a smooth-flowing discussion of what research has already been done, what is known, what is unknown and what is contested in relation to your research topic. So, you can think of it as an  integrated review of the state of knowledge  around your research topic. 

What’s the purpose of a literature review?

The literature review chapter has a few important functions within your dissertation, thesis or research project. Let’s take a look at these:

Purpose #1 – Demonstrate your topic knowledge

The first function of the literature review chapter is, quite simply, to show the reader (or marker) that you  know what you’re talking about . In other words, a good literature review chapter demonstrates that you’ve read the relevant existing research and understand what’s going on – who’s said what, what’s agreed upon, disagreed upon and so on. This needs to be  more than just a summary  of who said what – it needs to integrate the existing research to  show how it all fits together  and what’s missing (which leads us to purpose #2, next). 

Purpose #2 – Reveal the research gap that you’ll fill

The second function of the literature review chapter is to  show what’s currently missing  from the existing research, to lay the foundation for your own research topic. In other words, your literature review chapter needs to show that there are currently “missing pieces” in terms of the bigger puzzle, and that  your study will fill one of those research gaps . By doing this, you are showing that your research topic is original and will help contribute to the body of knowledge. In other words, the literature review helps justify your research topic.  

Purpose #3 – Lay the foundation for your conceptual framework

The third function of the literature review is to form the  basis for a conceptual framework . Not every research topic will necessarily have a conceptual framework, but if your topic does require one, it needs to be rooted in your literature review. 

For example, let’s say your research aims to identify the drivers of a certain outcome – the factors which contribute to burnout in office workers. In this case, you’d likely develop a conceptual framework which details the potential factors (e.g. long hours, excessive stress, etc), as well as the outcome (burnout). Those factors would need to emerge from the literature review chapter – they can’t just come from your gut! 

So, in this case, the literature review chapter would uncover each of the potential factors (based on previous studies about burnout), which would then be modelled into a framework. 

Purpose #4 – To inform your methodology

The fourth function of the literature review is to  inform the choice of methodology  for your own research. As we’ve  discussed on the Grad Coach blog , your choice of methodology will be heavily influenced by your research aims, objectives and questions . Given that you’ll be reviewing studies covering a topic close to yours, it makes sense that you could learn a lot from their (well-considered) methodologies.

So, when you’re reviewing the literature, you’ll need to  pay close attention to the research design , methodology and methods used in similar studies, and use these to inform your methodology. Quite often, you’ll be able to  “borrow” from previous studies . This is especially true for quantitative studies , as you can use previously tried and tested measures and scales. 

How do I find articles for my literature review?

Finding quality journal articles is essential to crafting a rock-solid literature review. As you probably already know, not all research is created equally, and so you need to make sure that your literature review is  built on credible research . 

We could write an entire post on how to find quality literature (actually, we have ), but a good starting point is Google Scholar . Google Scholar is essentially the academic equivalent of Google, using Google’s powerful search capabilities to find relevant journal articles and reports. It certainly doesn’t cover every possible resource, but it’s a very useful way to get started on your literature review journey, as it will very quickly give you a good indication of what the  most popular pieces of research  are in your field.

One downside of Google Scholar is that it’s merely a search engine – that is, it lists the articles, but oftentimes  it doesn’t host the articles . So you’ll often hit a paywall when clicking through to journal websites. 

Thankfully, your university should provide you with access to their library, so you can find the article titles using Google Scholar and then search for them by name in your university’s online library. Your university may also provide you with access to  ResearchGate , which is another great source for existing research. 

Remember, the correct search keywords will be super important to get the right information from the start. So, pay close attention to the keywords used in the journal articles you read and use those keywords to search for more articles. If you can’t find a spoon in the kitchen, you haven’t looked in the right drawer. 

Need a helping hand?

How should I structure my literature review?

Unfortunately, there’s no generic universal answer for this one. The structure of your literature review will depend largely on your topic area and your research aims and objectives.

You could potentially structure your literature review chapter according to theme, group, variables , chronologically or per concepts in your field of research. We explain the main approaches to structuring your literature review here . You can also download a copy of our free literature review template to help you establish an initial structure.

In general, it’s also a good idea to start wide (i.e. the big-picture-level) and then narrow down, ending your literature review close to your research questions . However, there’s no universal one “right way” to structure your literature review. The most important thing is not to discuss your sources one after the other like a list – as we touched on earlier, your literature review needs to synthesise the research , not summarise it .

Ultimately, you need to craft your literature review so that it conveys the most important information effectively – it needs to tell a logical story in a digestible way. It’s no use starting off with highly technical terms and then only explaining what these terms mean later. Always assume your reader is not a subject matter expert and hold their hand through a journe y of the literature while keeping the functions of the literature review chapter (which we discussed earlier) front of mind.

Example of a literature review

In the video below, we walk you through a high-quality literature review from a dissertation that earned full distinction. This will give you a clearer view of what a strong literature review looks like in practice and hopefully provide some inspiration for your own. 

Wrapping Up

In this post, we’ve (hopefully) answered the question, “ what is a literature review? “. We’ve also considered the purpose and functions of the literature review, as well as how to find literature and how to structure the literature review chapter. If you’re keen to learn more, check out the literature review section of the Grad Coach blog , as well as our detailed video post covering how to write a literature review . 

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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16 Comments

Thanks for this review. It narrates what’s not been taught as tutors are always in a early to finish their classes.

Thanks for the kind words, Becky. Good luck with your literature review 🙂

This website is amazing, it really helps break everything down. Thank you, I would have been lost without it.

This is review is amazing. I benefited from it a lot and hope others visiting this website will benefit too.

Timothy T. Chol [email protected]

Thank you very much for the guiding in literature review I learn and benefited a lot this make my journey smooth I’ll recommend this site to my friends

This was so useful. Thank you so much.

Hi, Concept was explained nicely by both of you. Thanks a lot for sharing it. It will surely help research scholars to start their Research Journey.

The review is really helpful to me especially during this period of covid-19 pandemic when most universities in my country only offer online classes. Great stuff

Great Brief Explanation, thanks

So helpful to me as a student

GradCoach is a fantastic site with brilliant and modern minds behind it.. I spent weeks decoding the substantial academic Jargon and grounding my initial steps on the research process, which could be shortened to a couple of days through the Gradcoach. Thanks again!

This is an amazing talk. I paved way for myself as a researcher. Thank you GradCoach!

Well-presented overview of the literature!

This was brilliant. So clear. Thank you

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How to write a literature review

What is a literature review.

The literature review is a written overview of major writings and other sources on a selected topic. Sources covered in the review may include scholarly journal articles, books, government reports, Web sites, etc. The literature review provides a description, summary and evaluation of each source. It is usually presented as a distinct section of a graduate thesis or dissertation.

Purpose of the literature review

The purpose of the literature review is to provide a critical written account of the current state of research on a selected topic:

• Identifies areas of prior scholarship
• Places each source in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the specific issue, area of research, or theory under review.
• Describes the relationship of each source to the others that you have selected
• Identifies new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research
• Points the way forward for further research.

Components of the literature review

The literature review should include the following:

• Objective of the literature review
• Overview of the subject under consideration.
• particular position, those opposed, and those offering completely different arguments.
• Discussion of both the distinctiveness of each source and its similarities with the others.

Steps in the literature review process

Preparation of a literature review may be divided into four steps:

• Define your subject and the scope of the review.
• Search the library catalogue, subject specific databases and other search tools to find sources that are relevant to your topic.
• Read and evaluate the sources and to determine their suitability to the understanding of topic at hand (see the Evaluating sources section).
• Analyse, interpret and discuss the findings and conclusions of the sources you selected.

Evaluating sources

In assessing each source, consideration should be given to:

• What is the author's expertise in this particular field of study (credentials)?
• Are the author's arguments supported by empirical evidence (e.g. quantitative/qualitative studies)?
• Is the author's perspective too biased in one direction or are opposing studies and viewpoints also considered?
• Does the selected source contribute to a more profound understanding of the subject?

Examples of a published literature review

Literature reviews are often published as scholarly articles, books, and reports. Here is an example of a recent literature review published as a scholarly journal article:

Ledesma, M. C., & Calderón, D. (2015). Critical race theory in education: A review of past literature and a look to the future. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3), 206-222. Link to the article

Additional sources on writing literature reviews

Further information on the literature review process may be found below:

• Booth, A., Papaioannou, D., & Sutton, A. (2012). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review
• Fink, A. (2010). Conducting research literature reviews: From the Internet to paper
• Galvin, J. (2006). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences
• Machi, L. A., & McEvoy, B. T. (2012). The literature review: Six steps to success

Adapted with permission and thanks from How to Write a Literature Review originally created by Kenneth Lyons, McHenry Library, University of California, Santa Cruz.

• Process: Literature Reviews
• Literature Review
• Managing Sources

Ask a Librarian

Does your assignment or publication require that you write a literature review? This guide is intended to help you understand what a literature is, why it is worth doing, and some quick tips composing one.

Understanding Literature Reviews

What is a literature review  .

Typically, a literature review is a written discussion that examines publications about  a particular subject area or topic. Depending on disciplines, publications, or authors a literature review may be: 

A summary of sources An organized presentation of sources A synthesis or interpretation of sources An evaluative analysis of sources

A Literature Review may be part of a process or a product. It may be:

A part of your research process A part of your final research publication An independent publication

Why do a literature review?

The Literature Review will place your research in context. It will help you and your readers:  

Locate patterns, relationships, connections, agreements, disagreements, & gaps in understanding Identify methodological and theoretical foundations Identify landmark and exemplary works Situate your voice in a broader conversation with other writers, thinkers, and scholars

The Literature Review will aid your research process. It will help you to:

Establish your knowledge Understand what has been said Define your questions Establish a relevant methodology Refine your voice Situate your voice in the conversation

What does a literature review look like?

The Literature Review structure and organization may include sections such as:  

An introduction or overview A body or organizational sub-divisions A conclusion or an explanation of significance

The body of a literature review may be organized in several ways, including:

Chronologically: organized by date of publication Methodologically: organized by type of research method used Thematically: organized by concept, trend, or theme Ideologically: organized by belief, ideology, or school of thought

• Find a focus
• Find models
• Review your target publication
• Track citations
• Read critically
• Manage your citations
• Ask friends, faculty, and librarians

Additional Sources

• Reviewing the literature. Project Planner.
• Literature Review: By UNC Writing Center
• PhD on Track
• CU Graduate Students Thesis & Dissertation Guidance
• CU Honors Thesis Guidance

• Next: Managing Sources >>
• University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
• Research Guides
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• Last Updated: May 19, 2024 12:40 PM
• URL: https://libguides.colorado.edu/strategies/litreview
• © Regents of the University of Colorado

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Literature Reviews

• What is a literature review?
• Steps in the Literature Review Process
• Define your research question
• Determine inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Choose databases and search
• Review Results
• Synthesize Results
• Analyze Results
• Librarian Support

What is a Literature Review?

A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important past and current research and practices. It provides background and context, and shows how your research will contribute to the field. 

A literature review should: 

• Provide a comprehensive and updated review of the literature;
• Explain why this review has taken place;
• Articulate a position or hypothesis;
• Acknowledge and account for conflicting and corroborating points of view

From  S age Research Methods

Purpose of a Literature Review

A literature review can be written as an introduction to a study to:

• Demonstrate how a study fills a gap in research
• Compare a study with other research that's been done

Or it can be a separate work (a research article on its own) which:

• Organizes or describes a topic
• Describes variables within a particular issue/problem

Limitations of a Literature Review

Some of the limitations of a literature review are:

• It's a snapshot in time. Unlike other reviews, this one has beginning, a middle and an end. There may be future developments that could make your work less relevant.
• It may be too focused. Some niche studies may miss the bigger picture.
• It can be difficult to be comprehensive. There is no way to make sure all the literature on a topic was considered.
• It is easy to be biased if you stick to top tier journals. There may be other places where people are publishing exemplary research. Look to open access publications and conferences to reflect a more inclusive collection. Also, make sure to include opposing views (and not just supporting evidence).

Source: Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. “A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies.” Health Information & Libraries Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, June 2009, pp. 91–108. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.

Meryl Brodsky : Communication and Information Studies

Hannah Chapman Tripp : Biology, Neuroscience

Carolyn Cunningham : Human Development & Family Sciences, Psychology, Sociology

Larayne Dallas : Engineering

Janelle Hedstrom : Special Education, Curriculum & Instruction, Ed Leadership & Policy ​

Susan Macicak : Linguistics

Imelda Vetter : Dell Medical School

For help in other subject areas, please see the guide to library specialists by subject .

Periodically, UT Libraries runs a workshop covering the basics and library support for literature reviews. While we try to offer these once per academic year, we find providing the recording to be helpful to community members who have missed the session. Following is the most recent recording of the workshop, Conducting a Literature Review. To view the recording, a UT login is required.

• October 26, 2022 recording
• Last Updated: Oct 26, 2022 2:49 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/literaturereviews

Conduct a literature review

What is a literature review.

A literature review is a summary of the published work in a field of study. This can be a section of a larger paper or article, or can be the focus of an entire paper. Literature reviews show that you have examined the breadth of knowledge and can justify your thesis or research questions. They are also valuable tools for other researchers who need to find a summary of that field of knowledge.

Unlike an annotated bibliography, which is a list of sources with short descriptions, a literature review synthesizes sources into a summary that has a thesis or statement of purpose—stated or implied—at its core.

How do I write a literature review?

Step 1: define your research scope.

• What is the specific research question that your literature review helps to define?
• Are there a maximum or minimum number of sources that your review should include?

Ask us if you have questions about refining your topic, search methods, writing tips, or citation management.

Step 2: Identify the literature

Start by searching broadly. Literature for your review will typically be acquired through scholarly books, journal articles, and/or dissertations. Develop an understanding of what is out there, what terms are accurate and helpful, etc., and keep track of all of it with citation management tools . If you need help figuring out key terms and where to search, ask us .

Use citation searching to track how scholars interact with, and build upon, previous research:

• Mine the references cited section of each relevant source for additional key sources
• Use Google Scholar or Scopus to find other sources that have cited a particular work

Step 3: Critically analyze the literature

Key to your literature review is a critical analysis of the literature collected around your topic. The analysis will explore relationships, major themes, and any critical gaps in the research expressed in the work. Read and summarize each source with an eye toward analyzing authority, currency, coverage, methodology, and relationship to other works. The University of Toronto's Writing Center provides a comprehensive list of questions you can use to analyze your sources.

Step 4: Categorize your resources

Divide the available resources that pertain to your research into categories reflecting their roles in addressing your research question. Possible ways to categorize resources include organization by:

• methodology
• theoretical/philosophical approach

Regardless of the division, each category should be accompanied by thorough discussions and explanations of strengths and weaknesses, value to the overall survey, and comparisons with similar sources. You may have enough resources when:

• You've used multiple databases and other resources (web portals, repositories, etc.) to get a variety of perspectives on the research topic.
• The same citations are showing up in a variety of databases.

Additional resources

Undergraduate student resources.

• Literature Review Handout (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)
• Learn how to write a review of literature (University of Wisconsin-Madison)

Graduate student and faculty resources

• Information Research Strategies (University of Arizona)
• Literature Reviews: An Overview for Graduate Students (NC State University)
• Oliver, P. (2012). Succeeding with Your Literature Review: A Handbook for Students [ebook]
• Machi, L. A. & McEvoy, B. T. (2016). The Literature Review: Six Steps to Success [ebook]
• Graustein, J. S. (2012). How to Write an Exceptional Thesis or Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Guide from Proposal to Successful Defense [ebook]
• Thomas, R. M. & Brubaker, D. L. (2008). Theses and Dissertations: A Guide to Planning, Research, and Writing

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Rapid literature review: definition and methodology

Beata smela.

a Assignity, Cracow, Poland

Mondher Toumi

b Public Health Department, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France

Karolina Świerk

Clement francois, małgorzata biernikiewicz.

c Studio Slowa, Wroclaw, Poland

Emilie Clay

d Clever-Access, Paris, France

Laurent Boyer

Introduction: A rapid literature review (RLR) is an alternative to systematic literature review (SLR) that can speed up the analysis of newly published data. The objective was to identify and summarize available information regarding different approaches to defining RLR and the methodology applied to the conduct of such reviews.

Methods: The Medline and EMBASE databases, as well as the grey literature, were searched using the set of keywords and their combination related to the targeted and rapid review, as well as design, approach, and methodology. Of the 3,898 records retrieved, 12 articles were included.

Results: Specific definition of RLRs has only been developed in 2021. In terms of methodology, the RLR should be completed within shorter timeframes using simplified procedures in comparison to SLRs, while maintaining a similar level of transparency and minimizing bias. Inherent components of the RLR process should be a clear research question, search protocol, simplified process of study selection, data extraction, and quality assurance.

Conclusions: There is a lack of consensus on the formal definition of the RLR and the best approaches to perform it. The evidence-based supporting methods are evolving, and more work is needed to define the most robust approaches.

Introduction

A systematic literature review (SLR) summarizes the results of all available studies on a specific topic and provides a high level of evidence. Authors of the SLR have to follow an advanced plan that covers defining a priori information regarding the research question, sources they are going to search, inclusion criteria applied to choose studies answering the research question, and information regarding how they are going to summarize findings [ 1 ].

The rigor and transparency of SLRs make them the most reliable form of literature review [ 2 ], providing a comprehensive, objective summary of the evidence for a given topic [ 3 , 4 ]. On the other hand, the SLR process is usually very time-consuming and requires a lot of human resources. Taking into account a high increase of newly published data and a growing need to analyze information in the fastest possible way, rapid literature reviews (RLRs) often replace standard SLRs.

There are several guidelines on the methodology of RLRs [ 5–11 ]; however, only recently, one publication from 2021 attempted to construct a unified definition [ 11 ]. Generally, by RLRs, researchers understand evidence synthesis during which some of the components of the systematic approach are being used to facilitate answering a focused research question; however, scope restrictions and a narrower search strategy help to make the project manageable in a shorter time and to get the key conclusions faster [ 4 ].

The objective of this research was to collect and summarize available information on different approaches to the definition and methodology of RLRs. An RLR has been run to capture publications providing data that fit the project objective.

To find publications reporting information on the methodology of RLRs, searches were run in the Medline and EMBASE databases in November 2022. The following keywords were searched for in titles and abstracts: ‘targeted adj2 review’ OR ‘focused adj2 review’ OR ‘rapid adj2 review’, and ‘methodology’ OR ‘design’ OR ‘scheme’ OR ‘approach’. The grey literature was identified using Google Scholar with keywords including ‘targeted review methodology’ OR ‘focused review methodology’ OR ‘rapid review methodology’. Only publications in English were included, and the date of publication was restricted to year 2016 onward in order to identify the most up-to-date literature. The reference lists of each included article were searched manually to obtain the potentially eligible articles. Titles and abstracts of the retrieved records were first screened to exclude articles that were evidently irrelevant. The full texts of potentially relevant papers were further reviewed to examine their eligibility.

A pre-defined Excel grid was developed to extract the following information related to the methodology of RLR from guidelines:

• Definition,
• Research question and searches,
• Studies selection,
• Data extraction and quality assessment,
• Additional information.

There was no restriction on the study types to be analyzed; any study reporting on the methodology of RLRs could be included: reviews, practice guidelines, commentaries, and expert opinions on RLR relevant to healthcare policymakers or practitioners. The data extraction and evidence summary were conducted by one analyst and further examined by a senior analyst to ensure that relevant information was not omitted. Disagreements were resolved by discussion and consensus.

Studies selection

A total of 3,898 records (3,864 articles from a database search and 34 grey literature from Google Scholar) were retrieved. After removing duplicates, titles and abstracts of 3,813 articles were uploaded and screened. The full texts of 43 articles were analyzed resulting in 12 articles selected for this review, including 7 guidelines [ 5–11 ] on the methodology of RLRs, together with 2 papers summarizing the results of the Delphi consensus on the topic [ 12 , 13 ], and 3 publications analyzing and assessing different approaches to RLRs [ 4 , 14 , 15 ].

Overall, seven guidelines were identified: from the World Health Organization (WHO) [ 5 ], National Collaborating Centre for Methods and Tools (NCCMT) [ 7 ], the UK government [ 8 ], the Oxford Centre for Evidence Based Medicine [ 9 ], the Cochrane group [ 6 , 11 ], and one multi-national review [ 10 ]. Among the papers that did not describe the guidelines, Gordon et al. [ 4 ] proposed 12 tips for conducting a rapid review in the right settings and discussed why these reviews may be more beneficial in some circumstances. The objective of work conducted by Tricco et al. [ 13 ] and Pandor et al. [ 12 ] was to collect and compare perceptions of rapid reviews from stakeholders, including researchers, policymakers, industry, journal editors, and healthcare providers, and to reach a consensus outlining the domains to consider when deciding on approaches for RLRs. Haby et al. [ 14 ] run a rapid review of systematic reviews and primary studies to find out the best way to conduct an RLR in health policy and practice. In Tricco et al. (2022) [ 15 ], JBI position statement for RLRs is presented.

From all the seven identified guidelines information regarding definitions the authors used for RLRs, approach to the PICOS criteria and search strategy development, studies selection, data extractions, quality assessment, and reporting were extracted.

Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group developed methods guidance based on scoping review of the underlying evidence, primary methods studies conducted, as well as surveys sent to Cochrane representative and discussion among those with expertise [ 11 ]. They analyzed over 300 RLRs or RLR method papers and based on the methodology of those studies, constructed a broad definition RLR, one that meets a minimum set of requirements identified in the thematic analysis: ‘ A rapid review is a form of knowledge synthesis that accelerates the process of conducting a traditional systematic review through streamlining or omitting a variety of methods to produce evidence in a resource-efficient manner .’ This interpretation aligns with more than 50% of RLRs identified in this study. The authors additionally provided several other definitions, depending on specific situations or requirements (e.g., when RLR is produced on stakeholder’s request). It was additionally underlined that RLRs should be driven by the need of timely evidence for decision-making purposes [ 11 ].

Rapid reviews vary in their objective, format, and methods used for evidence synthesis. This is a quite new area, and still no agreement on optimal methods can be found [ 5 ]. All of the definitions are highlighting that RLRs are completed within shorter timeframes than SLRs, and also lack of time is one of the main reasons they are conducted. It has been suggested that most rapid reviews are conducted within 12 weeks; however, some of the resources suggest time between a few weeks to no more than 6 months [ 5 , 6 ]. Some of the definitions are highlighting that RLRs follow the SLR process, but certain phases of the process are simplified or omitted to retrieve information in a time-saving way [ 6 , 7 ]. Different mechanisms are used to enhance the timeliness of reviews. They can be used independently or concurrently: increasing the intensity of work by intensifying the efforts of multiple analysts by parallelization of tasks, using review shortcuts whereby one or more systematic review steps may be reduced, automatizing review steps by using new technologies [ 5 ]. The UK government report [ 8 ] referred to two different RLRs: in the form of quick scoping reviews (QSR) or rapid evidence assessments (REA). While being less resource and time-consuming compared to standard SLRs, QSRs and REAs are designed to be similarly transparent and to minimize bias. QSRs can be applied to rather open-ended questions, e.g., ‘what do we know about something’ but both, QSRs and REAs, provide an understanding of the volume and characteristics of evidence on a specific topic, allowing answering questions by maximizing the use of existing data, and providing a clear picture of the adequacy of existing evidence [ 8 ].

Research questions and searches

The guidelines suggest creating a clear research question and search protocol at the beginning of the project. Additionally, to not duplicate RLRs, the Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group encourages all people working on RLRs to consider registering their search protocol with PROSPERO, the international prospective register of reviews; however, so far they are not formally registered in most cases [ 5 , 6 ]. They also recommend involving key stakeholders (review users) to set and refine the review question, criteria, and outcomes, as well as consulting them through the entire process [ 11 ].

Regarding research questions, it is better to structure them in a neutral way rather than focus on a specific direction for the outcome. By doing so, the researcher is in a better position to identify all the relevant evidence [ 7 ]. Authors can add a second, supportive research question when needed [ 8 ]. It is encouraged to limit the number of interventions, comparators and outcomes, to focus on the ones that are most important for decision-making [ 11 ]. Useful could be also reviewing additional materials, e.g., SLRs on the topic, as well as conducting a quick literature search to better understand the topic before starting with RLRs [ 7 ]. In SLRs researchers usually do not need to care a lot about time spent on creating PICOS, they need to make sure that the scope is broad enough, and they cannot use many restrictions. When working on RLRs, a reviewer may spend more or less time defining each of the components of the study question, and the main step is making sure that PICOS addresses the needs of those who requested the rapid review, and at the same time, it is feasible within the required time frame [ 7 ]. Search protocol should contain an outline of how the following review steps are to be carried out, including selected search keywords and a full strategy, a list of data sources, precise inclusion and exclusion criteria, a strategy for data extraction and critical appraisal, and a plan of how the information will be synthesized [ 8 ].

In terms of searches running, in most cases, an exhaustive process will not be feasible. Researchers should make sure that the search is effective and efficient to produce results in a timely manner. Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group recommends involving an information specialist and conducting peer review of at least one search strategy [ 11 ]. According to the rapid review guidebook by McMaster University [ 7 ], it is important that RLRs, especially those that support policy and program decisions, are being fed by the results of a body of literature, rather than single studies, when possible. It would result in more generalizable findings applied at the level of a population and serve more realistic findings for program decisions [ 7 ]. It is important to document the search strategy, together with a record of the date and any date limits of the search, so that it can easily be run again, modified, or updated. Furthermore, the information on the individual databases included in platform services should always be reported, as this depends on organizations’ subscriptions and must be included for transparency and repeatability [ 7 , 8 ]. Good solution for RLRs is narrowing the scope or searching a limited number of databases and other sources [ 7 ]. Often, the authors use the PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, and Embase databases. In most reviews, two or more databases are searched, and common limits are language (usually restricted to English), date, study design, and geographical area. Some RLRs include searching of grey literature; however, contact with authors is rather uncommon [ 5 , 8 ]. According to the flexible framework for restricted systematic review published by the University of Oxford, the search should be run in at least one major scientific database such as PubMed, and one other source, e.g., Google Scholar [ 9 ]. Grey literature and unpublished evidence may be particularly needed and important for intervention questions. It is related to the fact that studies that do not report the effects of interventions are less likely to be published [ 8 ]. If there is any type of evidence that will not be considered by the RLRs, e.g., reviews or theoretical and conceptual studies, it should also be stated in the protocol together with justification [ 8 ]. Additionally, authors of a practical guide published by WHO suggest using a staged search to identify existing SLRs at the beginning, and then focusing on studies with other designs [ 5 ]. If a low number of citations have been retrieved, it is acceptable to expand searches, remove some of the limits, and add additional databases and sources [ 7 ].

Searching for RLRs is an iterative process, and revising the approach is usually needed [ 7 ]. Changes should be confirmed with stakeholders and should be tracked and reflected in the final report [ 5 ].

The next step in the rapid review is the selection of studies consisting of two phases: screening of titles and abstracts, and analysis of full texts. Prior to screening initiation, it is recommended to conduct a pilot exercise using the same 30–50 abstracts and 5–10 full-texts for the entire screening team in order to calibrate and test the review form [ 11 ]. In contrast to SLRs, it can be done by one reviewer with or without verification by a second one. If verification is performed, usually the second reviewer checks only a subset of records and compares them. Cochrane Group, in contrast, recommends a stricter approach: at least 20% of references should be double-screened at titles and abstracts stage, and while the rest of the references may be screened by one reviewer, the excluded items need to be re-examined by second reviewer; similar approach is used in full-text screening [ 11 ]. This helps to ensure that bias was reduced and that the PICOS criteria are applied in a relevant way [ 5 , 8 , 9 , 11 ]. During the analysis of titles and abstracts, there is no need to report reasons for exclusion; however, they should be tracked for all excluded full texts [ 7 ].

Data extraction and quality assessment

According to the WHO guide, the most common method for data extraction in RLRs is extraction done by a single reviewer with or without partial verification. The authors point out that a reasonable approach is to use a second reviewer to check a random sample of at least 10% of the extractions for accuracy. Dual performance is more necessary for the extraction of quantitative results than for descriptive study information. In contrast, Cochrane group recommends that second reviewer should check the correctness and completeness of all data [ 11 ]. When possible, extractions should be limited to key characteristics and outcomes of the study. The same approach to data extraction is also suggested for a quality assessment process within rapid reviews [ 5 , 9 , 11 ]. Authors of the guidebook from McMaster University highlight that data extraction should be done ideally by two reviewers independently and consensus on the discrepancies should always be reached [ 7 ]. The final decision on the approach to this important step of review should depend on the available time and should also reflect the complexity of the research question [ 9 ].

For screening, analysis of full texts, extractions, and quality assessments, researchers can use information technologies to support them by making these review steps more efficient [ 5 ].

Before data reporting, a reviewer should prepare a document with key message headings, executive summary, background related to the topic and status of the current knowledge, project question, synthesis of findings, conclusions, and recommendations. According to the McMaster University guidebook, a report should be structured in a 1:2:20 format, that is, one page for key messages, two pages for an executive summary, and a full report of up to 20 pages [ 7 ]. All the limitations of the RLRs should be analyzed, and conclusions should be drawn with caution [ 5 ]. The quality of the accumulated evidence and the strength of recommendations can be assessed using, e.g., the GRADE system [ 5 ]. When working on references quoting, researchers should remember to use a primary source, not secondary references [ 7 ]. It would be worth considering the support of some software tools to automate reporting steps. Additionally, any standardization of the process and the usage of templates can support report development and enhance the transparency of the review [ 5 ].

Ideally, all the review steps should be completed during RLRs; however, often some steps may need skipping or will not be completed as thoroughly as should because of time constraints. It is always crucial to decide which steps may be skipped, and which are the key ones, depending on the project [ 7 ]. Guidelines suggest that it may be helpful to invite researchers with experience in the operations of SLRs to participate in the rapid review development [ 5 , 9 ]. As some of the steps will be completed by one reviewer only, it is important to provide them with relevant training at the beginning of the process, as well as during the review, to minimize the risk of mistakes [ 5 ].

Additional information

Depending on the policy goal and available resources and deadlines, methodology of the RLRs may be modified. Wilson et al. [ 10 ] provided extensive guidelines for performing RLR within days (e.g., to inform urgent internal policy discussions and/or management decisions), weeks (e.g., to inform public debates), or months (e.g., to inform policy development cycles that have a longer timeline, but that cannot wait for a traditional full systematic review). These approaches vary in terms of data synthesis, types of considered evidence and project management considerations.

In shortest timeframes, focused questions and subquestions should be formulated, typically to conduct a policy analysis; the report should consist of tables along with a brief narrative summary. Evidence from SLRs is often considered, as well as key informant interviews may be conducted to identify additional literature and insights about the topic, while primary studies and other types of evidence are not typically feasible due to time restrictions. The review would be best conducted with 1–2 reviewers sharing the work, enabling rapid iterations of the review. As for RLRs with longer timeline (weeks), these may use a mix of policy, systems and political analysis. Structure of the review would be similar to shorter RLRs – tabular with short narrative summary, as the timeline does not allow for comprehensive synthesis of data. Besides SLRs, primary studies and other evidence may be feasible in this timeframe, if obtained using the targeted searches in the most relevant databases. The review team should be larger, and standardized procedures for reviewing of the results and data extraction should be applied. In contrast to previous timeframe, merit review process may be feasible. For both timeframes, brief consultations with small transdisciplinary team should be conducted at the beginning and in the final stage of the review to discuss important matters.

For RLRs spanning several months, more comprehensive methodology may be adapted in terms of data synthesis and types of evidence. However, authors advise that review may be best conducted with a small review team in order to allow for more in-depth interpretation and iteration.

Studies analyzing methodology

There have been two interesting publications summarizing the results of Delphi consensus on the RLR methodology identified and included in this review [ 12 , 13 ].

Tricco et al. [ 13 ] first conducted an international survey and scoping review to collect information on the possible approaches to the running of rapid reviews, based on which, they employed a modified Delphi method that included inputs from 113 stakeholders to explore the most optimized approach. Among the six most frequent rapid review approaches (not all detailed here) being evaluated, the approach that combines inclusion of published literature only, a search of more than one database and limitations by date and language, study selection by one analyst, data extraction, and quality assessment by one analyst and one verifier, was perceived as the most feasible approach (72%, 81/113 responses) with the potentially lowest risk of bias (12%, 12/103). The approach ranked as the first one when considering timelines assumes updating of the search from a previously published review, no additional limits on search, studies selection and data extraction done by one reviewer, and no quality assessment. Finally, based on the publication, the most comprehensive RLRs can be made by moving on with the following rules: searching more than one database and grey literature and using date restriction, and assigning one reviewer working on screening, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment ( Table 1 ). Pandor et al. [ 12 ] introduced a decision tool for SelecTing Approaches for Rapid Reviews (STARR) that were produced through the Delphi consensus of international experts through an iterative and rigorous process. Participants were asked to assess the importance of predefined items in four domains related to the rapid review process: interaction with commissioners, understanding the evidence base, data extraction and synthesis methods, and reporting of rapid review methods. All items assigned to four domains achieved > 70% of consensus, and in that way, the first consensus-driven tool has been created that supports authors of RLRs in planning and deciding on approaches.

Six most frequent approaches to RLRs (adapted from Tricco et al. [ 13 ]).

Haby et al. [ 14 ] run searches of 11 databases and two websites and developed a comprehensive overview of the methodology of RLRs. With five SLRs and one RCT being finally included, they identified the following approaches used in RLRs to make them faster than full SLRs: limiting the number and scope of questions, searching fewer databases, limited searching of grey literature, restrictions on language and date (e.g., English only, most recent publications), updating the existing SLRs, eliminating or limiting hand searches of reference lists, noniterative search strategies, eliminating consultation with experts, limiting dual study selection, data extraction and quality assessment, minimal data synthesis with short concise conclusions or recommendations. All the SLRs included in this review were consistent in stating that no agreed definition of rapid reviews is available, and there is still no final agreement on the best methodological rules to be followed.

Gordon et al. [ 4 ] explained the advantages of performing a focused review and provided 12 tips for its conduction. They define focused reviews as ‘a form of knowledge synthesis in which the components of the systematic process are applied to facilitate the analysis of a focused research question’. The first tip presented by the authors is related to deciding if a focused review is a right solution for the considered project. RLRs will suit emerging topics, approaches, or assessments where early synthesis can support doctors, policymakers, etc., but also can direct future research. The second, third, and fourth tips highlight the importance of running preliminary searches and considering narrowing the results by using reasonable constraints taking into account the local context, problems, efficiency perspectives, and available time. Further tips include creating a team of experienced reviewers working on the RLRs, thinking about the target journal from the beginning of work on the rapid review, registering the search protocol on the PROSPERO registry, and the need for contacting authors of papers when data available in publications are missing or incongruent. The last three tips are related to the choice of evidence synthesis method, using the visual presentation of data, and considering and describing all the limitations of the focused review.

Finally, a new publication by Tricco et al. from 2022, describing JBI position statement [ 15 ] underlined that for the time being, there is no specific tool for critical appraisal of the RLR’s methodological quality. Instead, reviewers may use available tools to assess the risk of bias or quality of SLRs, like ROBIS, the JBI critical appraisal tools, or the assessment of multiple systematic reviews (AMSTAR).

Inconsistency in the definitions and methodologies of RLR

Although RLR was broadly perceived as an approach to quicken the conduct of conventional SLR, there is a lack of consensus on the formal definition of the RLR, so as to the best approaches to perform it. Only in 2021, a study proposing unified definition was published; however, it is important to note that the most accurate definition was only matching slightly over 50% of papers analysed by the authors, which underlines the lack of homogeneity in the field [ 11 ]. The evidence-based supporting methods are evolving, and more evidence is needed to define the most robust approaches [ 5 ].

Diverse terms are used to describe the RLR, including ‘rapid review’, focused systematic review’, ‘quick scoping reviews’, and ‘rapid evidence assessments’. Although the general principles of conducting RLR are to accelerate the whole process, complexity was seen in the methodologies used for RLRs, as reflected in this study. Also, inconsistencies related to the scope of the questions, search strategies, inclusion criteria, study screening, full-text review, quality assessment, and evidence presentation were implied. All these factors may hamper decision-making about optimal methodologies for conducting rapid reviews, and as a result, the efficiency of RLR might be decreased. Additionally, researchers may tend to report the methodology of their reviews without a sufficient level of detail, making it difficult to appraise the quality and robustness of their work.

Advantages and weaknesses of RLR

Although RLR used simplified approaches for evidence synthesis compared with SLR, the methodologies for RLR should be replicable, rigorous, and transparent to the greatest extent [ 16 ]. When time and resources are limited, RLR could be a practical and efficient tool to provide the summary of evidence that is critical for making rapid clinical or policy-related decisions [ 5 ]. Focusing on specific questions that are of controversy or special interest could be powerful in reaffirming whether the existing recommendation statements are still appropriate [ 17 ].

The weakness of RLR should also be borne in mind, and the trade-off of using RLR should be carefully considered regarding the thoroughness of the search, breadth of a research question, and depth of analysis [ 18 ]. If allowed, SLR is preferred over RLR considering that some relevant studies might be omitted with narrowed search strategies and simplified screening process [ 14 ]. Additionally, omitting the quality assessment of included studies could result in an increased risk of bias, making the comprehensiveness of RLR compromised [ 13 ]. Furthermore, in situations that require high accuracy, for example, where a small relative difference in an intervention has great impacts, for the purpose of drafting clinical guidelines, or making licensing decisions, a comprehensive SLR may remain the priority [ 19 ]. Therefore, clear communications with policymakers are recommended to reach an agreement on whether an RLR is justified and whether the methodologies of RLR are acceptable to address the unanswered questions [ 18 ].

Disclosure statement

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Responsible Leadership in Projects: A Literature Review

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• Elisa Guardiani 14 ,
• Edoardo Favari 14 &
• Paolino Fierro 15  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ((LNCE,volume 493))

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The study aims to highlight the growing impact of responsible leadership in projects and temporary organizations, examining the existing literature on the subject to validate shared definitions and understand implications for project management goals and behaviors.

Responsible leadership has increasingly become a trending subject in academic literature over the last 20 years, especially given that many scandals in the business world have been traced back to ethical decision-making issues. The practical implications of responsible leadership in project management have only recently started to be studied and analyzed. Project managers often encounter various types of ethical issues related to transparency, relationships, optimization, and political or legal questions. However, there are currently few empirical studies on how these problems arise and are addressed.

After highlighting how ethical decision-making has gained prominence in recent years, this article seeks to review the existing literature on the subject and understand the meaning and impact of responsible leadership for project managers, team members, and stakeholders.

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Guardiani, E., Favari, E., Fierro, P. (2024). Responsible Leadership in Projects: A Literature Review. In: Cantoni, F., Corazza, L., De Nito, E., Di Nauta, P., Favari, E. (eds) Complexity and Sustainability in Megaprojects. MERIT 2023. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 493. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-59703-9_12

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• Published: 24 May 2024

Beyond probability-impact matrices in project risk management: A quantitative methodology for risk prioritisation

• F. Acebes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4525-2610 1 ,
• J. M. González-Varona 2 ,
• A. López-Paredes 2 &
• J. Pajares 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  670 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The project managers who deal with risk management are often faced with the difficult task of determining the relative importance of the various sources of risk that affect the project. This prioritisation is crucial to direct management efforts to ensure higher project profitability. Risk matrices are widely recognised tools by academics and practitioners in various sectors to assess and rank risks according to their likelihood of occurrence and impact on project objectives. However, the existing literature highlights several limitations to use the risk matrix. In response to the weaknesses of its use, this paper proposes a novel approach for prioritising project risks. Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) is used to perform a quantitative prioritisation of risks with the simulation software MCSimulRisk. Together with the definition of project activities, the simulation includes the identified risks by modelling their probability and impact on cost and duration. With this novel methodology, a quantitative assessment of the impact of each risk is provided, as measured by the effect that it would have on project duration and its total cost. This allows the differentiation of critical risks according to their impact on project duration, which may differ if cost is taken as a priority objective. This proposal is interesting for project managers because they will, on the one hand, know the absolute impact of each risk on their project duration and cost objectives and, on the other hand, be able to discriminate the impacts of each risk independently on the duration objective and the cost objective.

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Introduction.

The European Commission ( 2023 ) defines a project as a temporary organizational structure designed to produce a unique product or service according to specified constraints, such as time, cost, and quality. As projects are inherently complex, they involve risks that must be effectively managed (Naderpour et al. 2019 ). However, achieving project objectives can be challenging due to unexpected developments, which often disrupt plans and budgets during project execution and lead to significant additional costs. The Standish Group ( 2022 ) notes that managing project uncertainty is of paramount importance, which renders risk management an indispensable discipline. Its primary goal is to identify a project’s risk profile and communicate it by enabling informed decision making to mitigate the impact of risks on project objectives, including budget and schedule adherence (Creemers et al. 2014 ).

Several methodologies and standards include a specific project risk management process (Axelos, 2023 ; European Commission, 2023 ; Project Management Institute, 2017 ; International Project Management Association, 2015 ; Simon et al. 1997 ), and there are even specific standards and guidelines for it (Project Management Institute, 2019 , 2009 ; International Organization for Standardization, 2018 ). Despite the differences in naming each phase or process that forms part of the risk management process, they all integrate risk identification, risk assessment, planning a response to the risk, and implementing this response. Apart from all this, a risk monitoring and control process is included. The “Risk Assessment” process comprises, in turn, risk assessments by qualitative methods and quantitative risk assessments.

A prevalent issue in managing project risks is identifying the significance of different sources of risks to direct future risk management actions and to sustain the project’s cost-effectiveness. For many managers busy with problems all over the place, one of the most challenging tasks is to decide which issues to work on first (Ward, 1999 ) or, in other words, which risks need to be paid more attention to avoid deviations from project objectives.

Given the many sources of risk and the impossibility of comprehensively addressing them, it is natural to prioritise identified risks. This process can be challenging because determining in advance which ones are the most significant factors, and how many risks merit detailed monitoring on an individual basis, can be complicated. Any approach that facilitates this prioritisation task, especially if it is simple, will be welcomed by those willing to use it (Ward, 1999 ).

Risk matrices emerge as established familiar tools for assessing and ranking risks in many fields and industry sectors (Krisper, 2021 ; Qazi et al. 2021 ; Qazi and Simsekler, 2021 ; Monat and Doremus, 2020 ; Li et al. 2018 ). They are now so commonplace that everyone accepts and uses them without questioning them, along with their advantages and disadvantages. Risk matrices use the likelihood and potential impact of risks to inform decision making about prioritising identified risks (Proto et al. 2023 ). The methods that use the risk matrix confer higher priority to those risks in which the product of their likelihood and impact is the highest.

However, the probability-impact matrix has severe limitations (Goerlandt and Reniers, 2016 ; Duijm, 2015 ; Vatanpour et al. 2015 ; Ball and Watt, 2013 ; Levine, 2012 ; Cox, 2008 ; Cox et al. 2005 ). The main criticism levelled at this methodology is its failure to consider the complex interrelations between various risks and use precise estimates for probability and impact levels. Since then, increasingly more academics and practitioners are reluctant to resort to risk matrices (Qazi et al. 2021 ).

Motivated by the drawbacks of using risk matrices or probability-impact matrices, the following research question arises: Is it possible to find a methodology for project risk prioritisation that overcomes the limitations of the current probability-impact matrix?

To answer this question, this paper proposes a methodology based on Monte Carlo Simulation that avoids using the probability-impact matrix and allows us to prioritise project risks by evaluating them quantitatively, and by assessing the impact of risks on project duration and the cost objectives. With the help of the ‘MCSimulRisk’ simulation software (Acebes et al. 2024 ; Acebes et al. 2023 ), this paper determines the impact of each risk on project duration objectives (quantified in time units) and cost objectives (quantified in monetary units). In this way, with the impact of all the risks, it is possible to establish their prioritisation based on their absolute (and not relative) importance for project objectives. The methodology allows quantified results to be obtained for each risk by differentiating between the project duration objective and its cost objective.

With this methodology, it also confers the ‘Risk Assessment’ process cohesion and meaning. This process forms part of the general Risk Management process and is divided into two subprocesses: qualitative and quantitative risk analyses (Project Management Institute, 2017 ). Although Monte Carlo simulation is widely used in project risk assessments (Tong et al. 2018 ; Taroun, 2014 ), as far as we know, the literature still does not contain references that use the data obtained in a qualitative analysis (data related to the probability and impact of each identified risk) to perform a quantitative risk analysis integrated into the project model. Only one research line by A. Qazi (Qazi et al. 2021 ; Qazi and Dikmen, 2021 ; Qazi and Simsekler, 2021 ) appears, where the authors propose a risk indicator with which they determine the level of each identified risk that concerns the established threshold. Similarly, Krisper ( 2021 ) applies the qualitative data of risk factors to construct probability functions, but once again falls in the error of calculating the expected value of the risk for risk prioritisation. In contrast, the novelty proposed in this study incorporates into the project simulation model all the identified risks characterised by their probability and impact values, as well as the set of activities making up the project.

In summary, instead of the traditional risk prioritisation method to qualitatively estimate risk probabilities and impacts, we model probabilities and impacts (duration and cost) at the activity level as distribution functions. When comparing both methods (traditional vs. our proposal), the risk prioritisation results are entirely different and lead to a distinct ranking.

From this point, and to achieve our purpose, the article comes as follows. Literature review summarises the relevant literature related to the research. Methodology describes the suggested methodology. Case study presents the case study used to show how to apply the presented method before discussing the obtained results. Finally, Conclusions draws conclusions about the proposed methodology and identifies the research future lines that can be developed from it.

Literature review

This section presents the literature review on risk management processes and probability-impact matrices to explain where this study fits into existing research. This review allows us to establish the context where our proposal lies in integrated risk management processes. Furthermore, it is necessary to understand the reasons for seeking alternatives to the usual well-known risk matrices.

Risk management methodologies and standards

It is interesting to start with the definition of ‘Risk’ because it is a term that is not universally agreed on, even by different standards and norms. Thus, for example, the International Organization for Standardization ( 2018 ) defines it as “the effect of uncertainty on objectives”, while the Project Management Institute ( 2021 ) defines it as “an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on one or more project objectives”. This paper adopts the definition of risk proposed by Hillson ( 2014 ), who uses a particular concept: “risk is uncertainty that matters”. It matters because it affects project objectives and only the uncertainties that impact the project are considered a ‘risk’.

Other authors (Elms, 2004 ; Frank, 1999 ) identify two uncertainty categories: aleatoric, characterised by variability and the presence of a wide range of possible values; epistemic, which arises due to ambiguity or lack of complete knowledge. Hillson ( 2014 ) classifies uncertainties into four distinct types: aleatoric, due to the reliability of activities; stochastic, recognised as a risk event or a possible future event; epistemic, also due to ambiguity; ontological, that which we do not know (black swan). Except for ontological uncertainty, which cannot be modelled due to absolute ignorance of risk, the other identified uncertainties are incorporated into our project model. For this purpose, the probability and impact of each uncertainty are modelled as distribution functions to be incorporated into Monte Carlo simulation.

A risk management process involves analysing the opportunities and threats that can impact project objectives, followed by planning appropriate actions for each one. This process aims to maximise the likelihood of opportunities occurring and to minimise the likelihood of identified threats materialising.

Although it is true that different authors have proposed their particular way of understanding project risk management (Kerzner, 2022 ; Hillson and Simon, 2020 ; Chapman and Ward, 2003 ; Chapman, 1997 ), we wish to look at the principal methodologies, norms and standards in project management used by academics and practitioners to observe how they deal with risk (Axelos, 2023 ; European Commission, 2023 ; International Organization for Standardization, 2018 ; Project Management Institute, 2017 ; International Project Management Association, 2015 ) (Table 1 ).

Table 1 shows the main subprocesses making up the overall risk management process from the point of view of each different approach. All the aforementioned approaches contain a subprocess related to risk assessment. Some of these approaches develop the subprocess by dividing it into two parts: qualitative assessment and quantitative assessment. Individual project risks are ranked for further analyses or action with a qualitative assessment by evaluating the probability of their occurrence and potential impact. A quantitative assessment involves performing a numerical analysis of the joint effect of the identified individual risks and additional sources of uncertainty on the overall project objectives (Project Management Institute, 2017 ). In turn, all these approaches propose the probability-impact or risk matrix as a technique or tool for prioritising project risks.

Within this framework, a ranking of risks by a quantitative approach applies as opposed to the qualitative assessment provided by the risk matrix. To do so, we use estimates of the probability and impact associated with each identified risk. The project model includes these estimates to determine the absolute value of the impact of each risk on time and cost objectives.

Probability-impact matrix

The risk matrix, or probability-impact matrix, is a tool included in the qualitative analysis for risk management and used to analyse, visualise and prioritise risks to make decisions on the resources to be employed to combat them (Goerlandt and Reniers, 2016 ; Duijm, 2015 ). Its well-established use appears in different sectors, ranging from the construction industry (Qazi et al. 2021 ), oil and gas industries (Thomas et al. 2014 ), to the healthcare sector (Lemmens et al. 2022 ), engineering projects (Koulinas et al. 2021 ) and, of course, project management (International Organization for Standardization, 2019 ; Li et al. 2018 ).

In a table, the risk matrix represents the probability (usually on the vertical axis of the table) and impact (usually on the horizontal axis) categories (Ale et al. 2015 ). These axes are further divided into different levels so that risk matrices of 3×3 levels are found with three levels set for probability and three others to define impact, 5 × 5, or even more levels (Duijm, 2015 ; Levine, 2012 ; Cox, 2008 ). The matrix classifies risks into different risk categories, normally labelled with qualitative indicators of severity (often colours like “Red”, “Yellow” and “Green”). This classification combines each likelihood level with every impact level in the matrix (see an example of a probability-impact matrix in Fig. 1 ).

Probability – impact matrix. An example of use.

There are three different risk matrix typologies based on the categorisation of likelihood and impact: qualitative, semiquantitative, and quantitative. Qualitative risk matrices provide descriptive assessments of probability and consequence by establishing categories as “low,” “medium” or “high” (based on the matrix’s specific number of levels). In contrast, semiquantitative risk matrices represent the input categories by ascending scores, such as 1, 2, or 3 (in a 3×3 risk matrix), where higher scores indicate a stronger impact or more likelihood. Finally, in quantitative risk matrices, each category receives an assignment of numerical intervals corresponding to probability or impact estimates. For example, the “Low” probability level is associated with a probability interval [0.1 0.3] (Li et al. 2018 ).

Qualitative matrices classify risks according to their potential hazard, depending on where they fit into the matrix. The risk level is defined by the “colour” of the corresponding cell (in turn, this depends on the probability and impact level), with risks classified with “red” being the most important and the priority ones to pay attention to, but without distinguishing any risks in the different cells of the same colour. In contrast, quantitative risk matrices allow to classify risks according to their risk level (red, yellow, or green) and to prioritise each risk in the same colour by indicating which is the most important. Each cell is assigned a colour and a numerical value, and the product of the value is usually assigned to the probability level and the value assigned to the impact level (Risk = probability × impact).

Risk matrix use is frequent, partly due to its simple application and easy construction compared to alternative risk assessment methods (Levine, 2012 ). Risk matrices offer a well-defined structure for carrying out a methodical risk assessment, provide a practical justification for ranking and prioritising risks, visually and attractively inform stakeholders, among other reasons (Talbot, 2014 ; Ball and Watt, 2013 ).

However, many authors identify problems in using risk matrices (Monat and Doremus, 2020 ; Peace, 2017 ; Levine, 2012 ; Ni et al. 2010 ; Cox, 2008 ; Cox et al. 2005 ), and even the International Organization for Standardization ( 2019 ) indicates some drawbacks. The most critical problems identified in using risk matrices for strategic decision-making are that risk matrices can be inaccurate when comparing risks and they sometimes assign similar ratings to risks with significant quantitative differences. In addition, there is the risk of giving excessively high qualitative ratings to risks that are less serious from a quantitative perspective. This can lead to suboptimal decisions, especially when threats have negative correlations in frequency and severity terms. Such lack of precision can result in inefficient resource allocation because they cannot be based solely on the categories provided by risk matrices. Furthermore, the categorisation of the severity of consequences is subjective in uncertainty situations, and the assessment of probability, impact and risk ratings very much depends on subjective interpretations, which can lead to discrepancies between different users when assessing the same quantitative risks.

Given this background, several authors propose solutions to the posed problems. Goerlandt and Reniers ( 2016 ) review previous works that have attempted to respond to the problems identified with risk matrices. For example, Markowski and Mannan ( 2008 ) suggest using fuzzy sets to consider imprecision in describing ordinal linguistic scales. Subsequently, Ni et al. ( 2010 ) propose a methodology that employs probability and consequence ranks as independent score measures. Levine ( 2012 ) puts forward the use of logarithmic scales on probability and impact axes. Menge et al. (2018) recommend utilising untransformed values as scale labels due to experts’ misunderstanding of logarithmic scales. Ruan et al. ( 2015 ) suggest an approach that considers decision makers’ risk aversion by applying the utility theory.

Other authors, such as Duijm ( 2015 ), propose a continuous probability consequence diagram as an alternative to the risk matrix, and employing continuous scales instead of categories. They also propose utilising more comprehensive colour ranges in risk matrices whenever necessary to prioritise risks and to not simply accept them. In contrast, Monat and Doremus ( 2020 ) put forward a new risk prioritisation tool. Alternatively, Sutherland et al. ( 2022 ) suggest changing matrix size by accommodating cells’ size to the risk’s importance. Even Proto et al. ( 2023 ) recommend avoiding colour in risk matrices so that the provided information is unbiased due to the bias that arises when using coloured matrices.

By bearing in mind the difficulties presented by the results offered by risk matrices, we propose a quantitative method for risk prioritisation. We use qualitative risk analysis data by maintaining the estimate of the probability of each risk occurring and its potential impact. Nevertheless, instead of entering these data into the risk matrix, our project model contains them for Monte Carlo simulation. As a result, we obtain a quantified prioritisation of each risk that differentiates the importance of each risk according to the impact on cost and duration objectives.

Methodology

Figure 2 depicts the proposed method for prioritising project risks using quantitative techniques. At the end of the process, and with the prioritised risks indicating the absolute value of the impact of each risk on the project, the organisation can efficiently allocate resources to the risks identified as the most critical ones.

Quantitative Risk Assessment Flow Chart.

The top of the diagram indicates the risk phases that belong to the overall risk management process. Below them it reflects the steps of the proposed model that would apply in each phase.

The first step corresponds to the project’s “ risk identification ”. Using the techniques or tools established by the organisation (brainstorming, Delphi techniques, interviews, or others), we obtain a list of the risks ( R ) that could impact the project objectives (Eq. 1 ), where m is the number of risks identified in the project.

Next we move on to the “ risk estimation ” phase, in which a distribution function must be assigned to the probability that each identified risk will appear. We also assign the distribution function associated with the risk’s impact. Traditionally, the qualitative risk analysis defines semantic values (low, medium, high) to assign a level of probability and risk impact. These semantic values are used to evaluate the risk in the probability-impact matrix. Numerical scales apply in some cases, which help to assign a semantic level to a given risk (Fig. 3 ).

Source: Project Management Institute ( 2017 ).

Our proposed model includes the three uncertainty types put forward by Hillson ( 2014 ), namely aleatoric, stochastic and epistemic, to identify and assess different risks. Ontological uncertainty is not considered because it goes beyond the limits of human knowledge and cannot, therefore, be modelled (Alleman et al. 2018a ).

A risk can have aleatoric uncertainty as regards the probability of its occurrence, and mainly for its impact if its value can fluctuate over a set range due to its variability. This aleatoric risk uncertainty can be modelled using a probability distribution function (PDF), exactly as we do when modelling activity uncertainty (Acebes et al. 2015 , 2014 ). As the risk management team’s (or project management team’s) knowledge of the project increases, and as more information about the risk becomes available, the choice of the PDF (normal, triangular, beta, among others) and its parameters become more accurate.

A standard definition of risk is “an uncertain event that, if it occurs, may impact project objectives” (Project Management Institute, 2017 ). A risk, if defined according to the above statement, perfectly matches the stochastic uncertainty definition proposed by Hillson ( 2014 ). Moreover, one PDF that adequately models this type of uncertainty is a Bernoulli distribution function (Vose, 2008 ). Thus for deterministic risk probability estimates (the same as for risk impact), we model this risk (probability and impact) with a Bernoulli-type PDF that allows us to introduce this type of uncertainty into our simulation model.

Finally, epistemic uncertainties remain to be modelled, such as those for which we do not have absolute information about and that arise from a lack of knowledge (Damnjanovic and Reinschmidt, 2020 ; Alleman et al. 2018b ). In this case, risks (in likelihood and impact terms) are classified into different levels, and all these levels are assigned a numerical scale (as opposed to the methodology used in a qualitative risk analysis, where levels are classified with semantic values: “high”, “medium” and “low”).

“ Epistemic uncertainty is characterised by not precisely knowing the probability of occurrence or the magnitude of a potential impact. Traditionally, this type of risk has been identified with a qualitative term: “Very Low”, “Low”, “Medium”, “High” and “Very High” before using the probability-impact matrix. Each semantic category has been previously defined numerically by identifying every numerical range with a specific semantic value (Bae et al. 2004 ). For each established range, project managers usually know the limits (upper and lower) between which the risk (probability or impact) can occur. However, they do not certainly know the value it will take, not even the most probable value within that range. Therefore, we employ a uniform probability function to model epistemic uncertainty (i.e., by assuming that the probability of risk occurrence lies within an equiprobable range of values). Probabilistic representations of uncertainty have been successfully employed with uniform distributions to characterise uncertainty when knowledge is sparse or absent (Curto et al. 2022 ; Vanhoucke, 2018 ; Helton et al. 2006 ).

The choice of the number and range of each level should be subject to a thorough analysis and consideration by the risk management team. As each project is unique, there are ranges within which this type of uncertainty can be categorised. Different ranges apply to assess likelihood and impact. Furthermore for impact, further subdivision helps to distinguish between impact on project duration and impact on project costs. For example, when modelling probability, we can set five probability levels corresponding to intervals: [0 0.05], [0.05 0.2], [0.2 0.5], and so on. With the time impact, for example, on project duration, five levels as follows may apply: [0 1], [1 4], [4 12], …. (measured in weeks, for example).

Modelling this type of uncertainty requires the risk management team’s experience, the data stored on previous projects, and constant consultation with project stakeholders. The more project knowledge available, the more accurate the proposed model is for each uncertainty, regardless of it lying in the number of intervals, their magnitude or the type of probability function (PDF) chosen to model that risk.

Some authors propose using uniform distribution functions to model this type of epistemic uncertainty because it perfectly reflects lack of knowledge about the expected outcome (Eldosouky et al. 2014 ; Vose, 2008 ). On the contrary, others apply triangular functions, which require more risk knowledge (Hulett, 2012 ). Following the work by Curto et al. ( 2022 ), we employ uniform distribution functions.

As a result of this phase, we obtain the model and the parameters that model the distribution functions of the probability ( P ) and impact ( I ) of each identified risk in the previous phase (Eq. 2 ).

Once the risks identified in the project have been defined and their probabilities and impacts modelled, we move on to “ quantitative risk prioritisation ”. We start by performing MCS on the planned project model by considering only the aleatoric uncertainty of activities. In this way, we learn the project’s total duration and cost, which is commonly done in a Monte Carlo analysis. In Monte Carlo Methods (MCS), expert judgement and numerical methods are combined to generate a probabilistic result through simulation routine (Ammar et al. 2023 ). This mathematical approach is noted for its ability to analyse uncertain scenarios from a probabilistic perspective. MCS have been recognised as outperforming other methods due to their accessibility, ease of use and simplicity. MCS also allow the analysis of opportunities, uncertainties, and threats (Al-Duais and Al-Sharpi, 2023 ). This technique can be invaluable to risk managers and helpful for estimating project durations and costs (Ali Elfarra and Kaya, 2021 ).

As inputs to the simulation process, we include defining project activities (duration, cost, precedence relationship). We also consider the risks identified in the project, which are those we wish to prioritise and to obtain a list ordered by importance (according to their impact on not only duration, but also on project cost). The ‘MCSimulRisk’ software application (Acebes, Curto, et al. 2023 ; Acebes, De Antón, et al. 2023 ) allows us to perform MCS and to obtain the main statistics that result from simulation (including percentiles) that correspond to the total project duration ( Tot_Dur ) and to its total cost ( Tot_Cost ) (Eq. 3 ).

Next, we perform a new simulation by including the first of the identified risks ( R 1 ) in the project model, for which we know its probability ( P 1 ) and its Impact ( I 1 ). After MCS, we obtain the statistics corresponding to this simulation ([ Tot_Dur 1 Tot_Cost 1 ]). We repeat the same operation with each identified risk ( R i , i  =  1, …, m ) and obtain the main statistics corresponding to each simulation (Eq. 4 ).

Once all simulations (the same number as risks) have been performed, we must choose a confidence percentile to calculate risk prioritisation (Rezaei et al. 2020 ; Sarykalin et al. 2008 ). Given that the total duration and cost results available to us, obtained by MCS, are stochastic and have variability (they are no longer constant or deterministic), we must choose a percentile (α) that conveys the risk appetite that we are willing to assume when calculating. Risk appetite is “ the amount and type of risk that an organisation is prepared to pursue, retain or take ” (International Organization for Standardization, 2018 ).

A frequently employed metric for assessing risk in finance is the Value at Risk (VaR) (Caron, 2013 ; Caron et al. 2007 ). In financial terms, it is traditional to choose a P95 percentile as risk appetite (Chen and Peng, 2018 ; Joukar and Nahmens, 2016 ; Gatti et al. 2007 ; Kuester et al. 2006 ; Giot and Laurent, 2003 ). However in project management, the P80 percentile is sometimes chosen as the most appropriate percentile to measure risk appetite (Kwon and Kang, 2019 ; Traynor and Mahmoodian, 2019 ; Lorance and Wendling, 2001 ).

Finally, after choosing the risk level we are willing to assume, we need to calculate how each risk impacts project duration ( Imp_D Ri ) and costs ( Imp_C Ri ). To do so, we subtract the original value of the total project expected duration and costs (excluding all risks) from the total duration and costs of the simulation in which we include the risk we wish to quantify (Eq. 5 ).

Finally, we present these results on two separate lists, one for the cost impact and one for the duration impact, by ranking them according to their magnitude.

In this section, we use a real-life project to illustrate how to apply the proposed method for quantitative risk prioritisation purposes. For this purpose, we choose an engineering, procurement and construction project undertaken in South America and used in the literature by Votto et al. ( 2020a , 2020b ).

Project description

The project used as an application example consists of the expansion of an industrial facility. It covers a wide spectrum of tasks, such as design and engineering work, procurement of machinery and its components, civil construction, installation of all machinery, as well as commissioning and starting up machines (Votto et al. 2020a , 2020b ).

Table 2 details the parameters that we use to define activities. The project comprises 32 activities, divided into three groups: engineering, procurement and construction (EPC). A fictitious initial activity ( Ai ) and a fictitious final activity ( Af ) are included. We employ triangular distribution functions, whose parameters are the minimum value ( Min ), the most probable value ( Mp ) and the maximum value ( Max ), to model the random duration of activities, expressed as days. We divide the cost of each activity in monetary units into a fixed cost ( FC ), independently of activity duration, and the variable cost ( VC ), which is directly proportional to project duration. As activity duration can vary, and the activity cost increases directly with its duration, the total project cost also exhibits random variations.

Under these conditions, the planned project duration is 300 days and has a planned cost of 30,000 (x1000) monetary units. Figure 4 shows the Planned Value Curve of the project.

Planned value curve of the real-life project.

The next step in the methodology (Fig. 2 ) is to identify the project risks. To do this, the experts’ panel meets, analyses all the project documentation. Based on their personal experience with other similar projects and after consulting all the involved stakeholders, it provides a list of risks (see Table 3 ).

It identifies 11 risks, of which nine have the potential to directly impact the project duration objective (R1 to R9), while six may impact the cost objective (R10 to R15). The risks that might impact project duration and cost have two assigned codes. We identify the project phase and activity on which all the identified risks may have an impact (Table 3 ).

The next step is to estimate the likelihood and impact of the identified risks (qualitative analysis). Having analysed the project and consulted the involved stakeholders, the team determines the project’s different probability and impact levels (duration and cost). The estimation of these ranges depends on the project budget, the estimated project duration, and the team’s experience in assigning the different numerical values to each range. As a result, the project team is able to construct the probability-impact matrix shown in Fig. 5 .

Estimation of the probability and impact ranges.

Each probability range for risk occurrence in this project is defined. Thus for a very low probability (VL), the assigned probability range is between 0 and 3% probability, for a low level (L), the assigned range lies between 3% and 10% probability of risk occurrence, and so on with the other established probability ranges (medium, high, very high).

The different impact ranges are also defined by differentiating between impacts in duration and cost terms. Thus a VL duration impact is between 0 and 5 days, while the same range (VL) in cost is between 0 and 100 (x1000) monetary units. Figure 5 shows the other ranges and their quantification in duration and cost terms.

The combination of each probability level and every impact level coincides in a cell of the risk matrix (Fig. 5 ) to indicate the risk level (“high”, “medium”, and “low”) according to the qualitative analysis. Each cell is assigned a numerical value by prioritising the risks at the same risk level. This work uses the matrix to compare the risk prioritisation results provided by this matrix to those provided by the proposed quantitative method.

A probability and impact value are assigned to each previously identified risk (Table 3 ). Thus, for example, for the risk called “Interruptions in the supply chain”, coded as R3 for impacting activity 13 duration, we estimate an L probability and a strong impact on duration (H). As this same risk might impact the activity 13 cost, it is also coded as R12, and its impact on cost is estimated as L (the probability is the same as in R3; Table 3 ).

Finally, to conclude the proposed methodology and to prioritise the identified risks, we use the “MCSimulRisk” software application by incorporating MCS (in this work, we employ 20,000 iterations in each simulation). Activities are modelled using triangular distribution functions to incorporate project information into the simulation application. Costs are modelled with fixed and variable costs depending on the duration of the corresponding activity. Furthermore, risks (probability and impact) are modelled by uniform distribution functions. Figure 6 depicts the project network and includes the identified risks that impact the corresponding activities.

Network diagram of the project together with the identified risks.

Results and discussion

In order to obtain the results of prioritising the identified risks, we must specify a percentile that determines our risk aversion. This is the measure by which we quantify the risk. Figure 7 graphically justifies the choice of P95 as a risk measure, as opposed to a lower percentile, which corroborates the view in the literature and appears in Methodology . In Fig. 7 , we plot the probability distribution and cumulative distribution functions corresponding to the total project planned cost, together with the cost impact of one of the risks. The impact caused by the risk on the total cost corresponds to the set of iterations whose total cost is higher than that planned (bottom right of the histogram).

Source: MCSimulRisk.

By choosing P95 as VaR, we can consider the impact of a risk on the project in the measure. In this example, for P95 we obtain a total cost value of 3.12 × 10 7 monetary units. Choosing a lower percentile, e.g. P80, means that the value we can obtain with this choice can be considerably lower (3.03 × 10 7 monetary units), and might completely ignore the impact of the risk on the total project cost. However, project managers can choose the percentile that represents their risk aversion.

Once the percentile on which to quantify the risk is chosen, the “MCSimulRisk” application provides us with the desired results for prioritising project risks (Fig. 8 ). For the chosen percentile (P95), which represents our risk appetite for this project, the planned project duration is 323.43 days. In other words, with a 95% probability the planned project will be completed before 323.43 days. Similarly, the P95 corresponding to cost is 30,339 ×1000 monetary units. The application also provides us with the project duration in the first column of Fig. 8 after incorporating all the identified risks (corresponding to a P95 risk appetite) into the planned project. Column 2 of the same figure shows the project cost after incorporating the corresponding risk into the model.

The first column corresponds to the risks identified. Columns Duration_with_Ri and Cost_with_Ri represent the simulation values, including the corresponding risk. Columns Difference_Duration_with_Ri and Difference_Cost_with_Ri represent the difference in duration and cost of each simulation concerning the value obtained for the chosen percentile. Finally, Ranking_Dur and Ranking_Cost represent the prioritisation of risks in duration and cost, respectively.

With the results in the first two columns (total project duration and cost after incorporating the corresponding risks), and by knowing the planned total project duration and cost (without considering risks) for a given percentile (P95), we calculate the values of the following columns in Fig. 8 . Thus column 3 represents the difference between the planned total project duration value (risk-free) and project duration by incorporating the corresponding risk that we wish to quantify. Column 4 prioritises the duration risks by ranking according to the duration that each risk contributes to the project. Column 5 represents the difference between the planned total project cost (risk-free) and the total project cost by incorporating the corresponding risk. Finally, Column 6 represents the ranking or prioritisation of the project risks according to their impact on cost.

To compare the results provided by this methodology in this paper we propose quantitative risk prioritisation, based on MCS. We draw up Table 4 with the results provided by the probability-impact matrix (Fig. 5 ).

The first set of columns in Table 4 corresponds to the implementation of the risk matrix (probability-impact matrix) for the identified risks. The second group of columns represents the prioritisation of risks according to their impact on duration (data obtained from Fig. 8 ). The third group corresponds to the risk prioritisation according to their impact on cost (data obtained from Fig. 8 ).

For the project proposed as an example, we find that risk R3 is the most important one if we wish to control the total duration because it corresponds to the risk that contributes the most duration to the project if it exists. We note that risks R10 to R15 do not impact project duration. If these risks materialise, their contribution to increase (or decrease, as the case may be) project duration is nil.

On the impact on project costs, we note that risk R15 is the most important. It is noteworthy that risk R5 is the fourth most important risk in terms of impact on the total project costs, even though it is initially identified as a risk that impacts project duration. Unlike cost risks (which do not impact the total project duration), the risks that can impact project duration also impact total costs.

We can see that the order of importance of the identified risks differs depending on our chosen method (risk matrix versus quantitative prioritisation). We independently quantify each risk’s impact on the cost and duration objectives. We know not only the order of importance of risks (R3, R5, etc.) but also the magnitude of their impact on the project (which is the absolute delay caused by a risk in duration terms or what is the absolute cost overrun generated by a risk in cost terms). It seems clear that one risk is more important than another, not only because of the estimation of its probability and impact but also because the activity on which it impacts may have a high criticality index or not (probability of belonging to the project’s critical path).

As expected, the contribution to the total duration of the identified risks that impact only cost is zero. The same is not valid for the risks identified to have an impact on duration because the latter also impacts the cost objective. We also see how the risks that initially impact a duration objective are more critical for their impact on cost than others that directly impact the project’s cost (e.g. R5).

Conclusions

The probability-impact matrix is used in project management to identify the risk to which the most attention should be paid during project execution. This paper studies how the risk matrix is adopted by a large majority of standards, norms and methodologies in project management and, at the same time, practitioners and academics recognise it as a fundamental tool in the qualitative risks analysis.

However, we also study how this risk matrix presents particular problems and offers erroneous and contradictory results. Some studies suggest alternatives to its use. Notwithstanding, it continues to be a widely employed tool in the literature by practitioners and academics. Along these lines, with this work we propose an alternative to the probability-impact matrix as a tool to know the most critical risk for a project that can prevent objectives from being fulfilled.

For this purpose, we propose a quantitative method based on MCS, which provides us with numerical results of the importance of risks and their impact on total duration and cost objectives. This proposed methodology offers significant advantages over other risk prioritisation methods and tools, especially the traditional risk matrix. The proposed case study reveals that risk prioritisation yields remarkably different results depending on the selected method, as our findings confirm.

In our case, we obtain numerical values for the impact of risks on total duration and cost objectives, and independently of one another. This result is interesting for project managers because they can focus decision-making on the priority order of risks and the dominant project objective (total duration or total cost) if they do not coincide.

From the obtained results, we find that the risks with an impact on the cost of activities do not influence the total duration result. The risks that impact project duration also impact the total cost target. This impact is more significant than that of a risk that impacts only the activity’s cost. This analysis leads us to believe that this quantitative prioritisation method has incredible potential for academics to extend their research on project risks and for practitioners to use it in the day-to-day implementation of their projects.

The proposed methodology will allow project managers to discover the most relevant project risks so they can focus their control efforts on managing those risks. Usually, implementing risk response strategies might be expensive (control efforts, insurance contracts, preventive actions, or others). Therefore, it is relevant to concentrate only on the most relevant risks. The proposed methodology allows project managers to select the most critical risks by overcoming the problems exhibited by previous methodologies like the probability-impact matrix.

In addition to the above, the risk prioritisation achieved by applying the proposed methodology is based on quantifying the impacts that risks may have on the duration and cost objectives of the project. Finally, we achieve an independent risk prioritisation in duration impact and project cost impact terms. This is important because the project manager can attach more importance to one risk or other risks depending on the priority objective that predominates in the project, the schedule or the total cost.

Undoubtedly, the reliability of the proposed method depends mainly on the accuracy of estimates, which starts by identifying risks and ends with modelling the probability and impact of each risk. The methodology we propose in this paper overcomes many of the problems of previous methodologies, but still has some limitations for future research to deal with. First of all, the results of simulations depend on the estimations of variables (probability distributions and their parameters, risk aversion parameters, etc.). Methodologies for improving estimations are beyond the scope of this research; we assume project teams are sufficient experts to make rational estimationsbased on experience and previous knowledge. Secondly, as risks are assumed to be independent, the contribution or effect of a particular risk can be estimated by including it in simulation and by computing its impact on project cost and duration. This is a reasonable assumption for most projects. In some very complex projects, however, risks can be related to one another. Further research should be done to face this situation.

As an additional research line, we plan to conduct a sensitivity study by simulating many different projects to analyse the robustness of the proposed method.

Finally, it is desirable to implement this methodology in real projects and see how it responds to the reality of a project in, for example, construction, industry, or any other sector that requires a precise and differentiated risk prioritisation.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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Acknowledgements

This research has been partially funded by the Regional Government of Castile and Leon (Spain) and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF, FEDER) with grant VA180P20.

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FA developed the conceptualisation and the methodology. JMG contributed to the literature review and interpretations of the results for the manuscript. FA and JP collected the experimental data and developed all the analyses and simulations. AL supervised the project. FA and JP wrote the original draft, while AL and JMG conducted the review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Acebes, F., González-Varona, J.M., López-Paredes, A. et al. Beyond probability-impact matrices in project risk management: A quantitative methodology for risk prioritisation. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 670 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03180-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03180-5

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