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Essay on Environmental Sanitation

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Essay Contents:

• Essay on Environmental Sanitation of Urban Area

Essay # 1. Introduction to Environmental Sanitation:

“Once we can secure access to clean water and to adequate sanitation facilities for all people, irrespective of the difference in their living conditions, a huge battle against all kinds of diseases will be won.” — WHO

Environmental sanitation envisages promotion of health of the community by providing clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. It depends on various factors that include hygiene status of the people, types of resources available, innovative and appropriate technologies according to the requirement of the community, socioeconomic development of the country, cultural factors related to environmental sanitation, political commitment, capacity building of the concerned sectors, social factors including behavioural pattern of the community, legislative measures adopted, and others.

India is still lagging far behind many countries in the field of environmental sanitation. The unsanitary conditions are appalling in India and need a great sanitary awakening similar to what took place in London in the mid-19th century. Improvement in sanitation requires newer strategies and targeted interventions with follow- up evaluation.

The need of the hour is to identify the existing system of environmental sanitation with respect to its structure and functioning and to prioritize the control strategies according to the need of the country. These priorities are particularly important because of issue of water constraints, environment-related health problems, rapid population growth, inequitable distribution of water resources, issues related to administrative problems, urbanization and industrialization, migration of population, and rapid economic growth.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle=window.adsbygoogle||[]).push({}); Essay # 2. Current Scenario of Environmental Sanitation :

As per estimates, inadequate sanitation cost India almost $54 billion or 6.4% of the country’s GDP in 2006. Over 70% of this economic impact or about $38.5 billion was health-related, with diarrhea followed by acute lower respiratory infections accounting for 12% of the health- related impacts.

Evidence suggests that all water and sanitation improvements are cost-beneficial in all developing world sub-regions sectoral demands for water are growing rapidly in India owing mainly to urbanization and it is estimated that by 2025, more than 50% of the country’s population will live in cities and towns.

Population increase, rising incomes, and industrial growth are also responsible for this dramatic shift. National Urban Sanitation Policy 2008 was the recent development in order to rapidly promote sanitation in urban areas of the country. India’s Ministry of Urban Development commissioned the survey as part of its National Urban Sanitation Policy in November 2008.

In rural areas, local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining the infrastructure are seen as weak and lack the financial resources to carry out their functions. In addition, no major city in India is known to have a continuous water supply and an estimated 72% of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities.

Essay # 3. Strategies of Environmental Sanitation :

A number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested in India, in particular in the early 2000s. These include demand-driven approaches in rural water supply since 1999, community-led total sanitation, public-private partnerships to improve the continuity of urban water supply in Karnataka, and the use of microcredit to women in order to improve access to water.

Total sanitation campaign gives strong emphasis on Information, Education, and Communication (IEC), capacity building and hygiene education for effective behaviour change with involvement of panchayati raj institutions (PRIs), community-based organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), etc.

The key intervention areas are individual household latrines (IHHL), school sanitation and hygiene education (SSHE), community sanitary complex, Anganwadi toilets supported by Rural Sanitary Marts (RSMs), and production centers (PCs). The main goal of the government of India (GOI) is to eradicate the practice of open defecation by 2010.

To give fillip to this endeavor, GOI has launched Nirmal Gram Puraskar to recognize the efforts in terms of cash awards for fully covered PRIs and those individuals and institutions who have contributed significantly in ensuring full sanitation coverage in their area of operation. The project is being implemented in rural areas taking district as a unit of implementation.

A recent study highlighted that policy shift to include better household water quality management to complement the continuing expansion of coverage and upgrading of services would appear to be a cost-effective health intervention in many developing countries.

Most of the interventions (including multiple interventions, hygiene, and water quality) were found to significantly reduce the levels of diarrheal illness, with the greatest impact being seen for hygiene and household treatment interventions. Interventions to improve water quality at the household level are more effective than those at the source.

Unfortunately, in developing countries, public health concerns are usually raised on the institutional setting, such as municipal services, hospitals, and environmental sanitation. There is a reluctance to acknowledge the home as a setting of equal importance along with the public institutions in the chain of disease transmission in the community.

Managers of home hygiene and community hygiene must act in unison to optimize return from efforts to promote public health. A survey through in-depth interviews with more than 800 households in the city of Hyderabad in India concluded that, even if provided with market (not concessional) rates of financing, a substantial proportion of poor households would invest in water and sewer network connections.

The role of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality emphasizes an integrated approach to water quality assessment and management from source to consumer. It emphasizes on quality protection and prevention of contamination and advises to be proactive and participatory, and address the needs of those in developing countries who have no access to piped community water supplies.

The guidelines emphasize the maintenance of microbial quality to prevent waterborne infectious disease as an essential goal. In addition, they address protection from chemical toxicants and other contaminants of public health concern.

When sanitation conditions are poor, water quality improvements may have minimal impact regardless of amount of water contamination. If each transmission pathway alone is sufficient to maintain diarrheal disease, single-pathway interventions will have minimal benefit, and ultimately an intervention will be successful only if all sufficient pathways are eliminated.

However, when one pathway is critical to maintaining the disease, public health efforts should focus on this critical pathway. The positive impact of improved water quality is greatest for families living under good sanitary conditions, with the effect statistically significant when sanitation is measured at the community level but not significant when sanitation is measured at the household level.

Improving drinking water quality would have no effect in neighbourhoods with very poor environmental sanitation; however, in areas with better community sanitation, reducing the concentration of fecal coliforms by two orders of magnitude would lead to a 40% reduction in diarrhoea.

Providing private excreta disposal would be expected to reduce diarrhoea by 42%, while eliminating excreta around the house would lead to a 30% reduction in diarrhoea. The findings suggest that improvements in both water supply and sanitation are necessary if infant health in developing countries is to be improved.

They also imply that it is not epidemiologic but behavioural, institutional, and economic factors that should correctly determine the priority of interventions. Another study highlighted that water quality interventions to the point-of-use water treatment were found to be more effective than previously thought, and multiple interventions (consisting of combined water, sanitation, and hygiene measures) were not more effective than interventions with a single focus.

Studies have shown that hand washing can reduce diarrhoea episodes by about 30%. This significant reduction is comparable to the effect of providing clean water in low-income areas.

Lack of safe water supply, poor environmental sanitation, improper disposal of human excreta, and poor personal hygiene help to perpetuate and spread diarrheal diseases in India. Since diarrheal diseases are caused by 20-25 pathogens, vaccination, though an attractive disease prevention strategy, is not feasible.

However, as the majority of childhood diarrhoeas are caused by Vibrio cholerae, Shigella edysenteriae type 1, rotavirus, and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli which have a high morbidity and mortality, vaccines against these organisms are essential for the control of epidemics. A strong political will with appropriate budgetary allocation is essential for the control of childhood diarrheal diseases in India.

Management Approach based on Community:

National water policies are shifting to community-based management approach because local authorities are in daily contact with users, of whom about 50% are women. Historically, national policy shifted from attention to distribution of investments in the water sector to reorganization of water agencies and to building up the capacity of private or voluntary agencies.

The local context allows for more efficient and effective responses to local conditions. Local institutions and groups are better equipped to solicit local participation. Local water resource planning is very important in strengthening the economic and individual capacity of poor people in under-developed areas.

Experience in Mahesana, Banaskantha, and Sabarkantha in Gujarat state supports this lesson learned. One of the obstacles in Gujarat to water resource development is identified as increased demand for public water services and inadequate provision of services due to remoteness of the area and financial limitations of central agencies. Infrastructure is also poorly maintained.

Providing private excreta disposal would be expected to reduce diarrhoea by 42%, while eliminating excreta around the house would lead to a 30% reduction in diarrhea. The findings suggest that improvements in both water supply and sanitation are necessary if infant health in developing countries is to be improved. They also imply that it is not epidemiologic but behavioural, institutional, and economic factors that should correctly determine the priority of interventions.

Morbidity and mortality due to waterborne diseases have not declined commensurate with increase in availability of potable water supply. More importantly, young children bear a huge part of the burden of disease resulting from the lack of hygiene. India still loses between 0.4 and 0.5 million children under 5 years due to diarrhoea.

While infant mortality and under 5 mortality rates have declined over the years for the country as a whole, in many states, these have stagnated in recent years, one of the reasons is the failure to make significant headway in improving personal and home hygiene, especially in the care of young children and the conditions surrounding birth.

Few More Developments:

The agriculture sector accounts for between 90 and 95% of surface and groundwater in India, while industry and the domestic sector account for the remaining. At the same time, several important measures are being taken to deal with the above issues, on the water resources management front, the National Water Policy, 2002 recognizes the need for well-developed information systems at the national and state levels, places strong emphasis on non-conventional methods for utilization such as inter-basin transfers, artificial recharge, desalination of brackish or sea water, as well as traditional water conservation practices such as rainwater harvesting, etc., to increase utilizable water resources.

It also advocates watershed management through extensive soil conservation, catchment area treatment, preservation of forests, and increasing forest cover and the construction of check dams. The policy also recognizes the potential need to reorganize and reorient institutional arrangements for the sector and emphasizes the need to maintain existing infrastructure.

While no comprehensive study on equity issues relating to water supply, sanitation, and health has been conducted for the country as a whole, common equity issues that plague the sector in most developing countries also hold true for India. In addition, comprehensive studies on the economic value of the water and sanitation sector in India also do not exist.

It is important to reiterate the need for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation [RWSS] and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation [UWSS] agencies to operate hand-in-hand with their health and education counterparts to jointly monitor indicators of RWSS, UWSS, health, education, poverty, and equity in order to make significant headway in the respective sectors. Existing health promotion and education programmes should be made more effective and geared toward achieving behavior changes needed to improve hygiene.

Essay # 4. Environmental Sanitation of Urban Area:

Percent of urban population without proper sanitation in India is 63%. The 11th Five Year Plan envisages 100% coverage of urban water, urban sewerage, and rural sanitation by 2012. Although investment in water supply and sanitation is likely to see a jump of 221% in the 11th plan over the 10th plan, the targets do not take into account both the quality of water being provided, or the sustainability of systems being put in place.

Increasing emphasis on use of information technology applications in urban governance and management to ensure quick access to information, planning, and decision support systems are the primary concern areas related to environmental sanitation. Solid waste management is also increasingly seen as an important area in UWSS.

Legislation on municipal waste handling and management has been passed in October 2000. Some strategies on solid waste management include preparation of town-wise master plans, training of municipal staff, IEC and awareness generation, involvement of community-based and non-governmental organizations, setting up and operation of compost plants via NGOs and the private sector, enhancement of the capacities of some state structures such as State Compost Development Corporations with emphasis on commercial operations and private sector involvement.

Variations in housing type, density and settlement layout, poverty status, and access to networked services will lead to different solutions for sanitation in different parts of the city or within the same neighbourhood.

Challenges Ahead:

1. Prevention of contamination of water in distribution systems,

2. Growing water scarcity and the potential for water reuse and conservation,

3. Implementing innovative low-cost sanitation system,

4. Providing sustainable water supplies and sanitation for urban and semi-urban areas,

5. Reducing disparities within the regions in the country,

6. Sustainability of water and sanitation services.

The public health challenge inherent in meeting the MDG targets is ensuring that improvements result in access to water and sanitation for the critical at-risk populations. Innovative approaches are required to ensure the availability of low-cost, simple, and locally acceptable water and sanitation interventions and integrating these approaches into existing social institutions such as schools, markets, and health facilities.

Finally, it is concluded that implementation of low-cost sanitation system with lower subsidies, greater household involvement, range of technology choices, options for sanitary complexes for women, rural drainage systems, IEC and awareness building, involvement of NGOs and local groups, availability of finance, human resource development, and emphasis on school sanitation are the important areas to be considered.

Also appropriate forms of private participation and public private partnerships, evolution of a sound sector policy in Indian context, and emphasis on sustainability with political commitment are prerequisites to bring the change.

Related Articles:

• Poor Sanitation: 11 Reasons for Poor Sanitation in India
• Environmental Resource Management in Indi

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• Fact sheets /
• In 2022, 57% of the global population (4.6 billion people) used a safely managed sanitation service.
• Over 1.5 billion people still do not have basic sanitation services, such as private toilets or latrines.
• Of these, 419 million still defecate in the open, for example in street gutters, behind bushes or into open bodies of water.
• In 2020, 44% of the household wastewater generated globally was discharged without safe treatment (1) .
• At least 10% of the world’s population is thought to consume food irrigated by wastewater.
• Poor sanitation reduces human well-being, social and economic development due to impacts such as anxiety, risk of sexual assault, and lost opportunities for education and work.
• Poor sanitation is linked to transmission of diarrhoeal diseases such as cholera and dysentery, as well as typhoid, intestinal worm infections and polio. It exacerbates stunting and contributes to the spread of antimicrobial resistance.

According to the latest WASH-related burden of disease estimates , 1.4 million people die each year as a result of inadequate drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene. The vast majority of these deaths are in low- and middle-income countries. Unsafe sanitation accounts for 564 000 of these deaths, largely from diarrhoeal disease, and it is a major factor in several neglected tropical diseases, including intestinal worms, schistosomiasis and trachoma. Poor sanitation also contributes to malnutrition.

Diarrhoea remains a major killer but is largely preventable. Better water, sanitation, and hygiene could prevent the deaths among children aged under 5 years, 395 000 in the year 2019.

Open defecation perpetuates a vicious cycle of disease and poverty. The countries where open defection is most widespread have the highest number of deaths of children aged under 5 years as well as the highest levels of malnutrition and poverty, and big disparities of wealth. 

Benefits of improving sanitation

Benefits of improved sanitation extend well beyond reducing the risk of diarrhoea. These include:

• reducing the spread of intestinal worms, schistosomiasis and trachoma, which are neglected tropical diseases that cause suffering for millions;
• reducing the severity and impact of malnutrition;
• promoting dignity and boosting safety, particularly among women and girls;
• promoting school attendance: girls’ school attendance is particularly boosted by the provision of separate sanitary facilities;
• reducing the spread of antimicrobial resistance;
• potential safe recovery of water, nutrients and renewable energy from wastewater and sludge; and
• potential to increase overall community resilience to climate shocks, for example  through safe use of wastewater for irrigation to mitigate water scarcity.

A WHO study in 2012 calculated that for every US$ 1.00 invested in sanitation, there was a return of US$ 5.50 in lower health costs, more productivity and fewer premature deaths.

In 2013, the UN Deputy Secretary-General issued a call to action on sanitation that included the elimination of open defecation by 2025. The world is on track to eliminate open defecation by 2030, if not by 2025, but historical rates of progress would need to double for the world to achieve universal coverage with basic sanitation services by 2030. To achieve universal safely managed services, rates would need to increase five-fold.

The situation in urban areas, particularly in dense, low income and informal areas, is a growing challenge as sewerage is precarious or non-existent, space for toilets is at a premium, poorly designed and managed pits and septic tanks contaminate open drains and groundwater and services for faecal sludge removal are unavailable or unaffordable. Inequalities are compounded when sewage discharged into storm drains and waterways pollutes poorer low-lowing areas of cities. The effects of climate change – floods, water scarcity and droughts, and sea level rise – is setting back progress for the billions of people without safely managed services and threatens to undermine existing services if they are not made more resilient.

Wastewater and sludge are increasingly seen as a valuable resource in the circular economy that can provide reliable water and nutrients for food production and recovered energy in various forms. In fact, use of wastewater and sludge is already commonplace, but much is used unsafely without adequate treatment, controls on use or regulatory oversight. Safe use that prevents transmission of excreta-related disease is vital to reduce harms and maximize beneficial use of wastewater and sludge.

In 2019 UN-Water launched the SDG6 global acceleration framework (GAF). On World Toilet Day 2020, WHO and UNICEF launched the  State of the world’s sanitation  report laying out the scale of the challenge in terms of health impact, sanitation coverage, progress, policy and investment and also laying out an acceleration agenda for sanitation under the GAF.

WHO response

In 2010, the UN General Assembly recognized access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right and called for international efforts to help countries to provide safe, clean, accessible and affordable drinking-water and sanitation. Sustainable Development Goal target 6.2 calls for adequate and equitable sanitation for all and target 6.3 calls for halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse.

As the international authority on public health, WHO leads global efforts to prevent transmission of diseases, advising governments on health-based regulation and service delivery. On sanitation, WHO monitors global burden of disease (SDG 3.9) and the level of sanitation access and wastewater treatment (SDG 6.2, 6.3) and analyses what helps and hinders progress (SDG 6a, 6b and GLAAS). Such monitoring gives Member States and donors global data to help decide how to invest in providing toilets and ensuring safe management of wastewater and excreta.

WHO works with partners on promoting effective risk assessment and management practices for sanitation in communities and health facilities based on evidence and tools including WHO guidelines on sanitation and health, safe use of wastewater, recreational water quality and promotion of sanitation safety planning and sanitary inspections, and through communities of practice such as RegNet and the sanitation workers initiative. WHO also supports   collaboration between WASH and health programmes where sanitation is critical for disease prevention and risk reduction including neglected tropical diseases, cholera, polio and antimicrobial resistance, and environmental surveillance of pathogens.   Aspects of climate resilience are incorporated in all WHO sanitation guidance documents.

• UN Habitat and WHO, 2021. Progress on wastewater treatment – Global status and acceleration needs for SDG indicator 6.3.1. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) and World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva.
• Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2022: special focus on gender. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO), 2023. https://washdata.org/reports/jmp-2023-wash-households
• State of the world's sanitation: An urgent call to transform sanitation for better health, environments, economies and societies
• Guidelines on sanitation and health
• Sanitation safety planning
• Sanitary inspection packages
• Technical brief on water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH) and wastewater management to prevent infections and reduce
• Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater
• Guidelines for safe recreational water environments
• WASH and health working together: a how-to guide for Neglected Tropical Disease programmes  
• WASH and waste in health facilities
• Sanitation and health: Where to from here?
• Implications of recent WASH and nutrition studies for WASH policy and practice

Open WHO self-paced course on safely managed sanitation

Progress on household drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2022: Special focus on gender

Strong systems and sound investments: Evidence on and key insights into accelerating progress on sanitation, drinking-water and hygiene

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Sanitation is essential to children’s survival and development..

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Sanitation is about more than just toilets. Behaviours, facilities and services together provide the hygienic environment children need to fight diseases and grow up healthy.

3.5 billion people still do not have safe sanitation services, while 419 million people practice “open defecation”. 

Poor sanitation puts children at risk of childhood diseases and malnutrition that can impact their overall development, learning and, later in life, economic opportunities. While some parts of the world have improved access to sanitation, millions of children in poor and rural areas have been left behind.

Lack of sanitation can be a barrier to individual prosperity and sustainable development. When children, especially girls, cannot access private and decent sanitation facilities in their schools and learning environments, the right to education is threatened. As adults, wage earners who miss work due to illness may find themselves in financial peril. And when health systems become overwhelmed and productivity levels fall, entire economies suffer.

Without basic sanitation services, people have no choice but to use inadequate communal latrines or to practise open defecation, posing a risk to health and livelihoods.

Even in communities with toilets, waste containment may not be adequate. If they are difficult to clean or not designed or maintained to safely contain, transport and treat excreta, for example, waste might come into contact with people and the environment. These factors make sustainable development nearly impossible.

Open defecation

The practice of defecating in the open (such as in fields, bushes, or by bodies of water) can be devastating for public health.

Exposed faecal matter contaminates food, water and the environment, and can spread serious diseases, such as cholera. Coupled with poor hygiene practices, exposure to faecal matter remains a leading cause of child mortality, morbidity, undernutrition and stunting, and can negatively impact a child's cognitive development. 

Harmful to community health and well-being, open defecation can also undermine individual dignity and safety – especially for girls and women. When forced to travel greater distances from home to reach adequate hygiene facilities, girls are women are put at greater risk of violence.

UNICEF's response

UNICEF is on the ground in more than 100 countries to provide safe sanitation for the world's most vulnerable communities in rural and urban areas, and during emergencies.

We mobilize communities, build markets for sanitation goods and services, and partner with governments to plan and finance sanitation services.

In emergencies, UNICEF provides urgent relief to communities and nations threatened by disrupted services and the risk of disease outbreak.

We also support innovation in sanitation; improving sanitation technology; ensuring basic toilets are affordable, accessible and safe; and finding effective, sustainable solutions for sanitation challenges that harm children.

Ending open defecation

Ongoing investment in sanitation services by households, communities and governments is necessary to shift community behaviour so that ‘toilet use by all’ becomes the new norm.

Many countries are off track to end open defecation by 2030. UNICEF’s commitment to meet this challenge has been mapped in our ‘game plan’ to end open defecation, a strategy for reaching the 26 countries that account for over 90 per cent of global open defection.

We support governments through community- and market-based approaches in rural areas and in urban slums, where most people defecating in the open live. Communities are encouraged to carry out an analysis of existing defecation patterns and to use local resources to build low-cost household toilets and ultimately eliminate the practice.

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Unicef’s game plan to end open defecation, jmp-who sanitation data, the state of the world's sanitation (photo essay), open defecation statistics (who-jmp), world toilet day.

Environmental Policy: Water Sanitation Essay

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Introduction

Innovative solution: a critical review, critical analysis and discussion.

Water pollution has a deeply lasting impact on the global community, affecting public health and the environment. The connection between water pollution and the issues such as health rates and environmental issues might seem tenuous, yet water contamination has a direct impact on people’s health and the safety of habitats, as well as different species. Several factors that may lead to water pollution are typically mentioned as the ones of the greatest impact. These include increased production of domestic waste, active use of pesticides, detergents or any other type of chemicals that interact with the environment aggressively, and industrial waste (Liu et al., 2018). The latter includes wastewater effluents from plants and other production facilities that emit waste (Wang et al., 2018).

In addition to direct consumption of water that has been contaminated and may contain viruses of dangerous infectious diseases, there is a possibility of water trickling further into the soil and contaminating groundwater. The described process affects the environment on a very profound level by increasing the instances of waterborne illnesses among people and animal species. In addition, the quality of soil and the crops that are produced using it drop respectively, causing an ecological catastrophe. Due to the negative effects of pollution, numerous habitats disappear, which causes local endemics to become extinct (Wang et al., 2018). As a result, multiple natural processes are disrupted, which leads to more diseases and even more drastic outcomes for people and local species (Wang et al., 2018). Therefore, the issue of water pollution must be managed using both the support of local authorities and the assistance of citizens.

The application of the new sanitation principles represents a new method of reducing the levels of water pollution and curbing the extent of its negative effects on living organisms. The specified technique implies addressing the issue of water contamination by introducing it to anaerobic treatment (Díaz-Báez & Valderrama-Rincon, 2017). Specifically, the proposed technique implies introducing organic sludge to contaminated water in order to purify it from waste. During the anaerobic treatment of upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion (AT in UASB), water is processed with the help of the blanket that forms on the surface of the tank and distils clean water from waste elements (Wang et al., 2018). Along with AT in UASB, the expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) approach is often proposed as equally effective. In fact, several studies point to the fact that the EGSB-based strategy is likely to yield better results since the specified EGSB can be combined with glucose more effectively (Wang et al., 2018). The described reaction is critical to the degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), which launches the mechanism of water purification (Díaz-Báez & Valderrama-Rincon, 2017). Nonetheless, the AT in UASB framework as the most accessible one needs to be integrated into the modern system of wastewater management and the reduction of water pollution rates.

The AT in UASB tool as the method for addressing the problem of wastewater has been chosen as an appropriate one for a solid reason. According to recent studies, AT in UASB helps to purify sewage water rather effectively. A comparatively small size of a typical AT in UASB and the small amount of resources that it consumes, including financial expenses, deserve to be named as the key advantages (El Gohary & Aboulfotoh, 2017). Indeed, due to its ergonomic structure and the active use of biofilters, the specified technology can be applied to rural communities, especially the remote areas that experience difficulties with regular access to water (Qian et al., 2106). The application of ASD in UASB with the inclusion of biofilters will lead to a rise in the levels of water sanitation, with the following chances for restoring damaged ecosystems and reducing the rates of groundwater pollution (Yang, Lee, Zheng, & Zang, 2018).

The described technique cannot be seen as fully impeccable due to several constraints, including the probability of leakage in case of inconsistent quality control. However, the performance of a UASB can be controlled more effectively once IT tools for monitoring are introduced to it. With the integration of AT to the UASB and the active management of issues associated with control, one will reduce the level of threat greatly and at the same time create the platform for the further improvement in the quality of water sanitation.

Disadvantages

Unfortunately, the suggested solution is far from being flawless. While wastewater processing has a tangible impact on the degree of contamination, the AT in UASB framework also has several weaknesses. The size of the device and the scale of a project aimed at purifying water is the first problem since the volume of the tank is limited. Although the current volume restrictions still allow for a rather large amount of water to be processed, it does not provide an opportunity to perform the process of purification fast enough (Yang, Zhou, & Li, 2018). In addition, contained-based technology of new sanitation as a concept is rather broad, embracing a large number of technologies some of which are yet to be tested. The lack of tools for maintaining the security levels high and monitoring every aspect of the process of new sanitation also present a large number of concerns to address (Bovio, Cabezas, & Etchebehere, 2019). The technology issue is of particular importance to the overall efficacy of the proposed solution.

The described issue is not as much a disadvantage as it is a characteristic that makes the approach rather difficult to implement. Due to the necessity to integrate the latest and the most innovative tools into the project, it is crucial to provide staff members with updated information and training options for developing relevant skills. However, the process of learning is expected to be quite difficult since monitoring the performance of the equipment and ensuring that it works properly is going to be a challenge for staff members that are unaware of how to manage AT in UASB (Humayun et al., 2019). Thus, the introduction of the policies that encourage organisations and communities to incorporate the specified technology into the target setting in order to improve wastewater treatment and reduce the extent of water contamination requires further changes.

At present, the policy of anaerobic digestion, to which the principles of new sanitation and particularly the use of the AT in UASB belong, has been implemented with a varying degree of success. According to a recent study by Kang et al. (2018), to implement the proposed wastewater management policy, the current environment for cooperation between the bodies of city administration and organisations that produce wastewater is required. However, the current setting is far from being a perfect atmosphere for endorsing the proposed technique. For instance, a recent study establishes that the implementation of the system has been hampered in the UK:

Whilst the Department of Energy is not concerned that AT can provide a more environmentally friendly waste treatment alternative. The UK experience provides an example of a strong advocate integrating departments’ policy setting to realise AT’s full suite of benefits. (Edwards, Othman, & Burn, 2017, p. 824)

Therefore, the inconsistency in the stance taken by the local administration, environmental organisations, and local industrial entrepreneurships and businesses is worthy of noting. The observed obstacle is likely to prevent one from the successful implementation of the specified policy. The expenses associated with the AT in the UASB system and the AT framework, in general, is also of large significance to the overall feasibility of the new system integration.

Furthermore, integrating the policy of an AT in UASB-based water purification technology into the framework of operations within the settings of organisations and communities will require a deep understanding of the current legal standards. For instance, the present-day policy for managing water pollution with the help of the AT in UASB tools in the U.S. can be described as quite vague. According to Edwards et al. (2017), the efficacy of the AT in UASB system hinges on the extent to which the issue is addressed in the existing legal standards. Specifically, the author states that “The upward trend of on-farm AT use for bioenergy is expected to continue as high on-farm AT usage in particular is concentrated in a small number of states” (Edwards et al., 2017, p. 817). The necessity to establish the connection between the legal framework of a particular country with the introduction of AT in UASB tools into its communities and business sector is likely to reduce the speed of the policy integration and the implementation of the technique. Finally, the core disadvantage of the specified model of new sanitation concerns the absence of a framework for encouraging education about the specified concern.

Managing Disadvantages

Although the problems with the instalment of the new sanitation framework and particularly an AT in UASB-based technology in communities, the specified tool has a vast potential as the method of addressing water pollution. The disadvantages mentioned above, especially the one associated with the possibility of leakage, can be managed by introducing IT tools for monitoring and control, as well as the education of staff members. The proposed technique will help to reduce the threat of a leakage. In addition, it is critical to reconsider the present legal framework is supportive of the integration of innovative biotechnology into the UASB management. Finally, cooperation on the administrative level is required. To address the specified concerns, one will need to educate the residents of rural communities and the organisations that practice their business in the target setting about the opportunities that biotechnology holds for UASB and the chances that the described technique can open for water sanitation and overall improvement of the community’s ecological status.

Future Opportunities

Despite its numerous problems and the lack of legal support in a range of states, the technology that implies the use of new sanitation techniques and particularly the application of the AT in UASB method has a massively positive effect on the environment. Therefore, the selected policy that encourages organisations and communities to accept the idea of water purification as the gateway to introducing sustainability to their setting offers huge advantages. The improvement of the overall ecological situation is the primary positive outcome that the proposed strategy and the reinforcement of the current policy implies. By creating the legal and environmental standards that will make it mandatory for every community to utilise the AT in UASB system as the model of water purification, one will be able to manage the problem of water pollution at a much higher level. The resulting change in the ecology of communities will lead to possible restoration of habitats that have been affected by water pollution (Wang et al., 2018).

Moreover, the underlying issue of groundwater contamination will partially be addressed since lower rates of waste will be introduced to the water system and, thus, to groundwater. Studies show that the adoption of AT in UASB-related innovative technologies allows for the recovery of phosphorus during the procedure, as well as the removal of nitrogen from groundwater (Wang et al., 2018), the specified changes introduced to groundwater allow for its further sanitation and, therefore, affect the overall quality of water that people consume. The management of groundwater by using AT in UASB in communities and businesses is also connected closely to the improvement of groundwater status in the long term.

By applying the elements such as granular activated carbon to the AT in UASB environment, one can launch the process of Anammox granulation through uncultured bacterium (Liu et al., 2018). Therefore, the process of groundwater sanitation improves exponentially with the inclusion of UASNB-related technologies and particularly the integration of components that enhance the formation of granules (Edwards et al., 2017). It is worth keeping in mind that the suggested techniques may require additional efforts to be integrated into the selected environment due to legal constraints. For example, the described technique is prohibited in China because of the side ostensible effects that it may have (Wenjie, Huaqin, Joseph, & Yue, 2015). Nonetheless, the current studies indicate that the side effects can be minimised, whereas the positive outcomes for the health rates within a target community and the restoration of its ecosystem are bound to be massive (Edwards et al., 2017). Therefore, the opportunities that the incorporation of the AT in UASB technologies powered by IT tools for monitoring are quite immense.

In addition, the introduction of IT and ICT tools into the management of UASB should be regarded as a crucial opportunity. Although some of the current disadvantages that the proposed method includes can be seen as intrinsic to the designated method of addressing water pollution, it could be improved by reinforcing the control over the sludge management and the introduction of the associated sanitation measures to the target setting. Therefore, one should consider restructuring the current framework for managing UASB and incorporating IT and ICT tools into it to improve its performance. The specified changes are particularly relevant for rural areas, where wastewater management is hampered due to poor infrastructure and the inability to address ecological concerns for economic reasons. The integration of the selected approach into the designated setting will help to reduce not only water pollution but also the contamination of groundwater. As a result, a vast change in the management of the specified environmental issue is expected to occur.

The alterations mentioned above are bound to lead to a gradual improvement in the ecological status of specific areas. For instance, a slow restoration of habitats that have been affected by wastewater and contaminated groundwater is expected to take place. With an improvement in the management of water pollution, one will be able to handle some of the current issues linked to wastewater management. Thus, a certain number of the challenges associated with the promotion of green waste management within organisations and communities will be handled effectively., However, the process of monitoring the performance of AT in UASB should remain consistent to ensure that the described change will not affect target communities and the environment negatively.

The problem of water purification has been affecting the global community for a significant time period, with numerous solutions having been provided over time. However, the principle of new sanitation, which involves the adoption of an AT in UASB, seems to be the most effective for using in small communities and especially rural areas, where access to clean water is restricted. The incorporation of IT tools for monitoring the process of water animation in UASB should be seen as critical due to the necessity to control the possible leakage and prevent the associated issues promptly. As a result, a gradual recovery of not only wastewater but also groundwater affected by the rates of pollution within a target community can be expected. Further changes have to be made to the current framework for UASB technique and the introduction of IT and ICT tools for controlling it. Thus, the process of water pollution can be reversed, with a greater amount of water being sanitised.

Bovio, P., Cabezas, A., & Etchebehere, C. (2019). Preliminary analysis of Chloroflexi populations in full‐scale UASB methanogenic reactors. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 126 (2), 667-683. Web.

Díaz-Báez, M. C., & Valderrama-Rincon, J. D. (2017). Rapid restoration of methanogenesis in an acidified UASB reactor treating 2, 4, 6-trichlorophenol (TCP). Journal of Hazardous Materials, 324 , 599-604. Web.

Edwards, J., Othman, M., & Burn, S. (2015). A review of policy drivers and barriers for the use of anaerobic digestion in Europe, the United States and Australia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 52 , 815-828. Web.

El Gohary, E. H., & Aboulfotoh, A. M. (2017). Enhancement of upflow anaerobic sludge blanket using submerged biofilters as a pre-treatment. International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology, 7 (5), 1797-1801.

Humayun, M., Hu, Z., Khan, A., Cheng, W., Yuan, Y., Zheng, Z.,… Luo, W. (2019). Highly efficient degradation of 2, 4-dichlorophenol over CeO2/g-C3N4 composites under visible-light irradiation: Detailed reaction pathway and mechanism. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 364 , 635-644. Web.

Kang, D., Hu, Q., Zhang, M., Ding, A., Wang, R., Lu, H.,… Zheng, P. (2018). Deep purification of low-strength ammonium-containing wastewater with ANRE process. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 129 , 57-63. Web.

Liu, F., Zhang, S., Luo, P., Zhuang, X., Chen, X., & Wu, J. (2018). Purification and reuse of non-point source wastewater via Myriophyllum-based integrative biotechnology: A review. Bioresource Technology, 248 , 3-11. Web.

Qian, J., Wei, L., Liu, R., Jiang, F., Hao, X., & Chen, G. H. (2016). An exploratory study on the pathways of Cr (VI) reduction in sulfate-reducing up-flow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) reactor. Scientific Reports, 6 , 1-12. Web.

Wang, S., Zhang, B., Diao, M., Shi, J., Jiang, Y., Cheng, Y., & Liu, H. (2018). Enhancement of synchronous bio-reductions of vanadium (V) and chromium (VI) by mixed anaerobic culture. Environmental Pollution, 242 , 249-256. Web.

Wenjie, Z. H. A. N. G., Huaqin, W., Joseph, D. R., & Yue, J. (2015). Granular activated carbon as nucleus for formation of Anammox granules in an expanded granular-sludge-bed reactor. Global NEST Journal, 17 (3), 508-514. Web.

Yang, H., Li, D., Zeng, H., & Zhang, J. (2018). Autotrophic nitrogen conversion process and microbial population distribution in biofilter that simultaneously removes Fe, Mn and ammonia from groundwater. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 135 , 53-61. Web.

Yang, J., Zhou, L. Y., & Li, H. (2018). Synergistic effects of acclimated bacterial community and zero valent iron for removing 1, 1, 1‐trichloroethane and 1, 4‐dioxane co‐contaminants in groundwater. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 93 (8), 2244-2251. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2021, July 7). Environmental Policy: Water Sanitation. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-policy-water-sanitation/

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1. IvyPanda . "Environmental Policy: Water Sanitation." July 7, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-policy-water-sanitation/.

Bibliography

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Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all:

Sustainable management of water resources and access to safe water and sanitation are essential for unlocking economic growth and productivity, and provide significant leverage for existing investments in health and education. The natural environment e.g. forests, soils and wetlands contributes to management and regulation of water availability and water quality, strengthening the resilience of watersheds and complementing investments in physical infrastructure and institutional and regulatory arrangements for water access, use and disaster preparedness. Water shortages undercut food security and the incomes of rural farmers while improving water management makes national economies, the agriculture and food sectors more resilient to rainfall variability and able to fulfil the needs of growing population. Protecting and restoring water-related ecosystems and their biodiversity can ensure water purification and water quality standards.

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Sustainable Development Goal 6 goes beyond drinking water, sanitation and hygiene to also address the quality and sustainability of water resources, which are critical to the survival of people and the planet. The 2030 Agenda recognizes the centrality of water resources to sustainable development and the vital role that improved drinking water, sanitation and hygiene play in progress in other areas, including health, education and poverty reduction.

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The problem: 783 million people do not have access to clean water, their water sources are far away, unclean and unaffordable. Not having access to clean water means a lifetime of walking for water, means not being able to go to school, means constant weakness and pain through recurrent diarrhoea, means choosing between paying for water or medicines, means less chance to grow food, means HIV/AIDS medicines and vaccines are less effective, means large healthcare costs compared to relatively cheap solutions, means a cycle of poverty.

In the last century the rate of water use growth is more than twice that of  population growth. 

Sanitation is an even bigger problem than lack of water - with 2.5 billion people worldwide suffering from lack of a good enough toilet or latrine. Getting hold of clean water isn’t good enough if the water is being made dirty because there are no toilets, and toilets aren’t good enough if there is no hygiene promotion to get whole communities to change the habits of generations and use the latrines.

Sanitation refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human waste.  Basically, we're talking about toilets, or versions of toilets such as latrines.  Most developed countries are well equipped with flush toilets, however in developing countries, sanitation is based around much more basic facilities that are often little more than a hole in the ground.  Design is not important, as long as the facilities in question dispose of waste in a hygienic way.  2.5 billion people - over one third of the world's population - lack access to sanitation facilities.  That's almost twice the number of people living in extreme poverty. Sanitation is also one of the world's leading cause of disease and child death.

Sanitation is crucial to global health. But sanitation suffers from political neglect at every level. There is a sense of shame and stigma attached to the issue that prevents it from being a high profile political issue.

Human waste is full of dangerous bacteria that can cause diseases like cholera, typhoid, infectious hepatitis, polio, cryptosporidiosis, and ascariasis. When waste is not properly managed, it can come into contact with skin, water, insects and other things that ultimately transfer the bacteria back into the human body where it can make people sick. 

The most common illness associated with poor sanitation is diarrhea.  In developed countries, diarrhea is little more than a nuisance, but for millions of children in the developing world, it's a death sentence. 

The primary purpose of good sanitation is health (through disease prevention).  Despite the overwhelming importance of sanitation, the world is far behind in providing universal access to safe and hygienic toilets, and the poor are the overwhelming majority of those who miss out.

Getting sanitation right can have a positive effect on economic growth. In parts of Africa, half the hospital beds at any one time can be filled with people suffering from diarrheal diseases. Because of the high financial burden of poor sanitation, on individuals, businesses and healthcare systems, adequate investments in sanitation could provide an estimated additional 3% economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa.

Improved sanitation in developing countries typically yields about USD $9 worth of economic benefit for every USD $1 spent, an impressive ratio.  The benefits include saving time, reducing direct and indirect health costs, increasing the return on investments in education, and safeguarding water resources. The first element, saving time, should not be underestimated in its contribution to economic benefits in the developing world. People without toilets at home spend a great deal of time each day queuing for public toilets or looking for secluded places to defecate. The World Health Organization estimates this time has an economic value of well over USD 100 billion each year. Moreover, girls attendance in schools accelerates when it improves its sanitation system. So addressing sanitation does not only bring about valuable health benefits, it frees up individuals' time so they can do more productive things, like earning income, than searching for a quiet spot to relieve themselves. 

This video first aired at the Global Citizen Festival in New York City on September 29, 2012

DIRECTED BY Jonathan Olinger and Michael Trainer SERIES CREATIVE DIRECTOR Michael Trainer  WRITERS Lindsay Branham, Jonathan Olinger  NARRATED BY Blair Underwood  PRODUCED BY DTJ (www.dtj.org)

PRODUCER Lindsay Branham  EXECUTIVE PRODUCER Michael Trainer  CINEMATOGRAPHY Ricky Norris, Jonathan Olinger, charity: water  ORIGINAL SCORE Ryan O'Neal  ASSOCIATE PRODUCER Adam Butterfield  LEAD EDITOR Jonathan Olinger  EDITORS Mo Scarpelli, Lindsay Branham  VISUAL EFFECTS Dan DiFelice  MOTION GRAPHICS Dan Johnson  COLOR Matt Fezz  SOUND DESIGN Ben Lukas Boysen  SOUND MIX Charles de Montebello, CDM Studios, NYC  SCRIPT CONSULTANT Taylor Bruce  ADDITIONAL FOOTAGE BY DTJ  VOICE OVER RECORDING Margarita Mix, Hollywood  VERY SPECIAL THANKS TO:  charity: water,  Jane Rosenthal,  Nancy Lefkowitz, Cody Irizarry.

Defeat Poverty

Introduction to the crisis of clean water & sanitation

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Home > Books > Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health

Sanitation and the Environment

Submitted: 03 June 2019 Reviewed: 03 June 2020 Published: 30 June 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.93106

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The environment is severything that creates natural conditions for the existence of organisms, including humans, and is a prerequisite for its further development. Proper environmental hygiene can prevent the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases. The function of disinfectants is to kill and prevent the growth of microorganisms. Disinfectants are potentially noxious substances which are used in intensive animal production and disease control programmes. In fulfilling this role, disinfectants may also have an adverse impact on the environment. These products may harm beneficial microorganisms, plant and animal life, and even humans, when used without due caution. Proper selection of disinfectant which is based on the knowledge of the resistance of microorganisms to the effect of the disinfectant and the efficacy of the disinfectants as well as the potential negative impact on the environment minimizes the risk of microbiological contamination and improves quality of the environment.

• microorganisms
• environment
• disinfection
• disinfectants

Author Information

Mária vargová *.

• Department of the Environment, Veterinary Legislation and Economy, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Slovak Republic

Katarína Veszelits Laktičová

Rudolf hromada, iveta cimboláková.

• Pavol Jozef Safarik University in Kosice, Slovak Republic

Ingrid Papajová

• Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia

Korim Peter

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

One of the most significant environmental problems of the present, affecting all environmental components, is global environmental contamination, which is closely linked to the unprecedented boom in industrial and agricultural chemistry. The environment, both natural and artificial, is one of the factors that affect human health and well-being. The relationship between the environment and health, the so-called environmental health, should be understood as a complex of interactions between the genetic characteristics of a human being and the environment in which she lives. Exposure of men to environmental pollutants can trigger the onset of diseases, most often chronic [ 1 ]. Environmental contamination plays an important role in the transmission of several key health care-associated pathogens. Effective and thorough cleaning/disinfecting of the patient environment is essential. Although microbiologically contaminated surfaces can serve as reservoirs of potential pathogens, these surfaces generally are not directly associated with transmission of infections to either staff or patients. The transferral of microorganisms from environmental surfaces to patients is largely via hand contact with the surface. Although hand hygiene is important to minimize the impact of this transfer, cleaning and disinfecting environmental surfaces as appropriate is fundamental in reducing their potential contribution to the incidence of healthcare-associated infections. The principles of cleaning and disinfecting environmental surfaces take into account the intended use of the surface or item in patient care [ 2 ]. Protecting human, animal and plant healthiness at every stage of the food production process is one of the top priorities for the public health and economy. Food safety is becoming increasingly of interest to consumers and producers, and microbiological purity of food raw materials, technological equipment, production areas and final products is inseparably linked to it. Therefore, a great emphasis is placed on the whole quality assurance complex, including production hygiene [ 3 ]. Foodborne diseases encompass a wide spectrum of illnesses and are a growing public health problem worldwide. They are the result of ingestion of foodstuffs contaminated with microorganisms or chemicals. The contamination of food may occur at any stage in the process from food production to consumption (“farm to fork”) and can result from environmental contamination, including pollution of water, soil or air [ 4 ]. Environmental sanitation is the promotion of hygiene and the prevention of disease and other consequences of ill-health, relating to environmental factors. To allow for transmission of infectious agents they have to be present in the immediate human environment, exposure has to take place, and transmission has to occur by uptake of the agents through unsafe practices. To interrupt the transmission, environmental sanitation can act on reducing exposure to infectious agents by limiting contact to wastes or polluted media, and by changing hygiene and socio-cultural practices. Sanitation is the effective use of tools and actions that keep our environment healthy. Sanitation is a complex of measures directed to the inactivation, removal, or killing of the agents of infections in the external environment. Sanitation includes disinfection, insect control, rodent control, proper disposal of wastes (cadavers, excrements, wastewater) and hygiene of the environment [ 5 ].

2. Disinfection

Disinfection is defined as a process in which germs are destroyed by either chemical action or physical intervention, or a combination of both [ 6 ].

2.1 Stages of disinfection

Disinfection has several stages. The first stage is the exploratory and preparatory work to determine the extent and type of disinfected object. The necessary amount of tools, aids, appliances, employees and effective disinfectant must be provided [ 7 ]. Cleaning, second stage, is the necessary first step of any disinfection process. Cleaning removes organic matter, salts, and visible soils, all of which interfere with microbial inactivation. The physical action of scrubbing with detergents and surfactants and rinsing with water removes substantial numbers of microorganisms. If a surface is not cleaned first, the success of the disinfection process can be compromised. Removal of all visible blood and inorganic and organic matter can be as critical as the germicidal activity of the disinfecting agent. When a surface cannot be cleaned adequately, it should be protected with barriers. It has been estimated that cleaning alone may remove over 90% of bacteria from surfaces [ 8 ]. The third stage is the actual disinfection , its objective being to destroy the decisive number of microorganisms that remained on the objects and surfaces after mechanical cleaning. The fourth stage is to check the effectiveness of disinfection . The effectiveness of surface disinfection must be controlled. The inspection informs about the quality of the work done and about the effectiveness of the disinfectants used. In the case of identified insufficiencies, it is the basis for the implementation of corrective measures. The effectiveness of disinfection is checked by chemical and microbiological swabs. Chemical methods are divided into qualitative and quantitative. The methods are very costly and time consuming, thus they are rarely done. Methods are currently available to detect undesirable residues of disinfectants on surfaces as well as in products. Microbiological swabs can be used to verify that microorganisms have been killed on disinfected areas and objects [ 9 ]. The fifth stage is ventilation and deactivation . This stage is only performed after the disinfectant exposure time necessary for action has expired. Residues of disinfectants on surfaces and objects are removed through rinsing with water; in some cases, inactivating substances are used. A protocol shall be drawn up after each disinfection carried out [ 10 ].

2.2 Environmental factors influencing the effectiveness of disinfection

number of people in the environment

amount of activity

amount of moisture

presence of material capable of supporting microbial growth

rate at which organisms suspended in the air are removed

type of surface and orientation (e.g. horizontal or vertical) [ 10 ].

the concentration of the disinfectant

the time during which the microorganism is in contact with the disinfectant

temperature

the presence of organic contaminants, e.g., blood, serum or other body fluids

the microorganism itself or the respective agent, their type (prions, viruses, gram-negative, gram-positive bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa, spores) as well as their number and location [ 11 ].

The most important factor is the concentration of the disinfectant from which the effectiveness of the disinfection depends. The mechanism of action depends on the chemical composition of the disinfectant and the way it is used. In the case of unstable disinfectants (chlorinated lime, formalin, Persteril), the concentration of active substance must be utaken into account when preparing the working solution. Inadequate (too low) concentration of the disinfectant used does not achieve a cidal effect, but only bacteriostatic, virostatic, and similar ones. Too high concentrations damage the disinfected objects and also lead to increased disinfection costs [ 9 ]. The pH values of the environment in which the disinfectant reacts with the microorganism is also an important factor affecting the final result. For example, glutaraldehyde and quaternary ammonium salts as well as chlorhexidine have higher efficacy at alkaline pH. On the other hand, phenolic preparations as well as chlorine are more effective at acidic pH. The temperature, in particular its increase, also partialy affects the end result of the disinfectant reaction with the microorganism [ 11 ]. At a low temperature of disinfectant solutions, dissociation of some disinfectants slows down, thereby reducing their diffusion into the bacterial cell. Some disinfectants (lyes) work better if they are heated to 70–80°C (in addition to chemical, they have physical effects too). Chloramine solutions are most effective at the temperature of 50–60°C [ 9 ]. The environmental pollutants of organic origin in which chemical disinfection is to be applied significantly reduce the activity of the disinfectant [ 11 ]. The presence of organic substances in the environment reduces the effect of all disinfectants; therefore, as previously mentioned before the disinfection of the object, it is necessary to clean the environment [ 9 ]. Microorganisms differ in their resistance to disinfectants. Different types of microoganisms vary in there responses to antiseptics, disinfectants, and sterilants ( Figure 1 ). This is hardly surprising, in view of there different cellular structures, compositions, and physiologies. Tradititionally, microbial susceptibilities to biocides have been classified based on these differences. Bacterial spores are generally considered the organisms most resistant to antiseptics, disinfectants, and strilants, although prions have shown market resistance to many physical and chemical processes. It is important to note that this classification is considered only a general guide to antimicrobial activity and can vary depending on the biocide, formulation, or process under consideration [ 11 ].

Decreasing order of resistance of microorganisms to disinfection and sterilization and the level of disinfection or sterilization. source: McDonnell, 2007.

2.3 Biofilm

Biofilms are composed of immobilized bacteria deposited in an organic polymeric mass of bacterial origin. Biofilm cells are irreversibly connected to each other and with the surface via extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), which account for up to 85% of the total biofilm mass. EPS include a number of proteins, glycoproteins, glycolipids, and in some cases a surprising amount of extracellular DNA [ 12 ]. Extracellular polymers are produced by bacteria that allow bacteria to adhere to the surface. The polymeric products constitute the base matrix. Biofilm further contains substances that belong to the “ quorum sensing ” (QS) system that is involved in intercellular bacterial communication.

surface attachment

the formation of a monolayer

differentiation of microcolonies

differentiation of macrocolonies and ultimately a mature form of biofilm being created [ 13 ]. Various nutrients in the wet environment absorbed on the surfaces create an acclimation coating with different physico-chemical properties. The physico-chemical properties of the surface determine how the bacteria attach. The structure of the biofilm is not homogeneous; it contains a set of numerous channels and cavities that serve to circulate water, supply nutrients and oxygen. They are intricate, mutually communicating channels of various shapes that supply substances and gases to biofilm-living bacteria. Bacteria in the biofilm form clusters of cells, which are known as microcolonies. Biofilm architecture is diverse, constantly changing in space and time due to external and internal processes. It is known that EPS production and hence the related biofilm thickness depend on the availability of nutrients and whether the biofilm is composed of one or more bacterial species. In a natural environment, the community of several species is more common. Biofilm formation is a cause of problems in many areas, e.g. in medicine, in water supply systems, in the food production industry [ 12 ]. Biofilm for microorganisms in a given environment creates both a nutritional layer that allows for their reproduction and a protective layer that limits the devitalizing effects of the disinfectants used. Thus, prevention is effective cleaning and application of combined compositions, e.g., oxidizing agents, surfactants and regular surface monitoring. The intervals needed; the intensity of cleaning and decontamination depend on the degree of contamination that occurs on different surfaces [ 14 ].

2.3.1 Methods of biofilm removal

biological [ 15 ].

Physical methods (otherwise called mechanical methods) are based on the action of a magnetic field that is highly intense. Ultrasonic devices (high-frequency electric field devices) or their connection with organic acids are used. Chemical methods consist of using detergents and disinfectants the acting of which is necessary to effectively remove biofilms. Significant is the use of ozone and a variety of chlorine-based preparations, iodine compounds, peroxyacetic acid, and quaternary ammonium compounds [ 13 ]. Biological methods degrade biofilms using enzymes produced by bacteria, but their use is limited because of their cost and affordability. In order to achieve the desired effect, it is appropriate to use a combination of methods with a synergistic effect.

2.4 Chemical disinfection

Disinfectants are classified by their chemical nature and each class has its unique characteristics, hazards, toxicities and efficacy against various microorganisms. Environmental conditions, such as the presence of organic matter, pH or water hardness can also impact the action of the disinfectant [ 10 ].

Protein denaturation

Membrane disruption

Nucleic acid damage

Inhibition of metabolism [ 16 ].

denaturation of proteins

membrane damage

damage of nucleic acids

inhibition of metabolic activity.

High-level disinfectants

Intermediate-level disinfectants

Low-level disinfectants [ 17 ].

High-level disinfectants (HLD) are active against vegetative bacteria, viruses (including the nonenveloped ones), fungi, and mycobacteria. They may also have some activity against bacterial spores with extended contact times. Aldehydes (glutaraldehyde and ortho-phthalaldehyde) and oxidisers (e.g., hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid) are HLDs. The aldehydes are non-corrosive and safe for use on most devices. However, they can fix organic materials; therefore, it is particularly important to remove any embedded microbes prior to disinfection. Unless properly formulated and carefully used, oxidisers can be corrosive. However, they can be faster-acting, non-fixative, and safer for the environment than aldehydes. HLDs typically require 10–45 min of contact time for disinfection, depending on the temperature. After disinfection, items require thorough rinsing with sterile or filtered water to remove any chemical residues; they must then be dried with an alcohol rinse or by blowing clean and filtered air through the device’s channels prior to safe storage. A disinfectant (e.g., ethanol) is active against vegetative bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi, and most viruses. It may fail to kill spores, even after prolonged exposure. Low-level disinfectants (e.g., quaternary ammonium compounds) are active against vegetative bacteria (except mycobacteria), some fungi, and only enveloped viruses. In many cases, washing with unmedicated soap and water would be sufficient in place of such disinfectants [ 18 ]. There are three levels of disinfection: high, intermediate, and low. High-level disinfectants, such as glutaraldehyde, are used as chemical sterilants and should never be used on environmental surfaces. Intermediate-level disinfectants are registered with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and have a tuberculocidal claim, and low-level disinfectants are EPA-registered without a tuberculocidal claim (i.e., hepatitis B virus and HIV label claims). The process of high-level disinfection, an appropriate standard of treatment for heat-sensitive, semicritical medical instruments (e.g., flexible, fiberoptic endoscopes), inactivates all vegetative bacteria, mycobacteria, viruses, fungi, and some bacterial spores. High-level disinfection is accomplished with powerful, sporicidal chemicals (e.g., glutaraldehyde, peracetic acid, and hydrogen peroxide) that are not appropriate for use on housekeeping surfaces. These liquid chemical sterilants/high-level disinfectants are highly toxic. Use of these chemicals for applications other than those indicated in their label instructions (i.e., as immersion chemicals for treating heat-sensitive medical instruments) is not appropriate [ 17 ]. Intermediate-level disinfection does not necessarily kill bacterial spores, but it does inactivate Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis, which is substantially more resistant to chemical germicides than ordinary vegetative bacteria, fungi, and medium to small viruses (with or without lipid envelopes). Chemical germicides with sufficient potency to achieve intermediate-level disinfection include chlorine-containing compounds (e.g., sodium hypochlorite), alcohols, some phenolics, and some iodophors [ 18 ]. Low-level disinfection inactivates vegetative bacteria, fungi, enveloped viruses, e.g., human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and influenza viruses, and some non-enveloped viruses (e.g., adenoviruses). Low-level disinfectants include quaternary ammonium compounds, some phenolics, and some iodophors [ 2 ]. The health and safety of humans and animals should always be a primary consideration when selecting a disinfectant. Most disinfectants have some level of hazard associated with their use. Some pose a serious threat to human and animal health (i.e., aldehydes, phenols, sodium hydroxide). Some cannot be used when animals are present or must be thoroughly rinsed away with potable water prior to restocking. Personnel training, personal protective measures and safety precautions should always be taken. Environmental factors, such as runoff into creeks or ponds, must also be considered when selecting a disinfectant. Many agents are known ecological hazards for plants and aquatic life (i.e., sodium carbonate, hypochlorites, phenolic compounds), therefore drainage, runoff, and biodegradability of disinfectants should be considered [ 19 ].

2.4.1 Chemical disinfectants

Chemical disinfectants are chemical agents applied to non-living objects in order to destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold or mildews living on the objects. By definition, disinfectant formulas must be registered with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The “active ingredient” in each disinfectant formula is what kills pathogens, usually by disrupting or damaging their cells [ 20 ].

2.4.1.1 Alkalis

Alkalis (or bases) are defined as substances capable of forming hydroxide (OH − ) ions when dissolved in water and are measured at pH > 7. Hydroxides are strong bases with a pH above 12 and are very reliable disinfectants. Alkalis have good microbicidal properties; inhibit the growth of microorganisms by restricting various metabolic processes. In general, pH values of ≥9 are restrictive for the growth of most vegetative microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. Low concentrations are generally inhibitory, while higher concentrations are bactericidal and fungicidal. Typical virucidal concentrations are 1–2% NaOH [ 21 ]. The mechanism of action of the hydroxide is based on changing the pH of the environment. The reaction of alkali with the various types of lipids (including phospolipids) in these membranes can be compared to their reactions with fatty acids in lipids and oils to cause salt (soap) formation. Membrane disruption leads to cell wall destabilization and loss of membrane structure and function, including disruption of the proton motive force and leakage of cytoplasmatic materials. Alkali also causes breakage of peptide bonds and the breakdown of proteins, which is presumed to be the major mechanism of action against prions [ 22 ]. Alkalis are very corrosive agents and damage to various surfaces, depending on the concentration of alkali used and the formulation pH. Personal protection precautions should be observed while working with alkalis [ 21 ]. Some limited disinfection methods use high concentrations of strong alkalis, such as NaOH (commonly known as caustic soda or soda lye) and KOH (also known as lye), while lower concentrations of these and weaker alkalis, such as sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and sodium matasilicate, are used in various cleaning applications [ 23 ].

Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used to produce greasy antiseptic soaps [ 24 ].

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a strong surface disinfectant which finds a use in many farm situations [ 21 ]. The disinfecting effect of the lye depends on the concentration of hydroxyl ions. Sodium hydroxide has a moderately wide range of action. At concentrations of 3–5%, it has bactericidal effects, especially on gram-negative rods. The effect on cocci is not sufficient. Already at a 2% concentration it has a good virucidal effect on most viruses. Sodium hydroxide does not act well on mycobacterial rods and fungi [ 24 ]. A high concentration of this substance can kill all microorganisms including bacterial spores. Such concentrations will produce a pH of 13 or higher [ 21 ]. NaOH is stored in well-closed containers because it reacts with CO 2 in the air and thus loses efficiency, so freshly prepared hydroxide solutions should be used. It is well soluble in hot water (e.g., in water 18°C warm it dissolves to 51%, but in water heated to 70–80°C up to 75%), producing heat, as a side effect. It dissociates in water into negatively charged hydroxyl ions and positively charged sodium ions. Sodium hydroxide is highly corrosive and irritating to the skin, eyes and mucous membrane s of animals and humans; contact could result in severe burns. Most problems occur after careless use of this disinfectant [ 21 ]. Sodium hydroxide is a corrosive with a good deep effect [ 24 ]. Extreme caution is required when handling NaOH. Great care must be taken regarding the environmental impact of this product, especially when dealing with water run-off, as sodium hydroxide may severely affect the pH of surface water and plant life. It is recommended that this disinfectant be used only when there is absolute certainty that the environment will not be negatively affected. However, NaOH has the advantage of being relatively cheap and lends itself to being handled in bulk [ 21 ].

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 is prepared from burnt lime by slaking with water. A 20% suspension (lime milk) is prepared from freshly slaked lime. Slaked lime absorbs air carbon dioxide and turns into calcium carbonate, which is ineffective as disinfectant. The suspension prepared from freshly slaked lime has both viral and bactericidal effect [ 9 ].

2.4.1.2 Acids

Acids are defined as substances that dissociate in water to provide hydrogen ions (H + ), which are measured on the pH scale as <7 [ 25 ]. The effect of acids and their derivatives is based on the action of hydrogen ions, anions or whole molecules, surface activity, oxidative or dehydrating capabilities. Acidic disinfectants function by destroying the bonds of nucleic acids and precipitating proteins [ 21 ]. Acids also change the pH of the environment of cell, cause oxidaze a dehydratation as well as the destruction of fermentative metabolism of bacteria [ 26 ]. The effectiveness of the acids is reduced by the presence of organic contamination. Disadvantages of organic acids are their ability to interact with organic substances, thereby reducing their disinfectant activity, etching and corrosiveness [ 27 ]. The use of inorganic acids is considerably limited due to their corrosive and irritant effects. Of inorganic acids, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid are used in the disinfection practice [ 9 ].

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used in the form of Schattenfroh solution . The solution contains 2.5% hydrochloric acid and 15% cooking salt. It is used to disinfect anthrax – contaminated skin [ 24 ].

Nitric acid (HNO 3 ) has a good sporocidal effect. It is used at a 2% concentration for bristle disinfection at 2 h exposure and a solution temperature of 40°C. After disinfection is complete, the bristles are neutralized with a 2% sodium hydroxide solution. A concentration of 0.3–0.5% at a solution temperature of 50°C is recommended today mainly for cleaning and disinfection of milking equipment in organic farming [ 28 ].

Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ) is used to disinfect soil and manure at a concentration of 1.5–3%. Of the organic acids, peracetic acid and lactic acid are used in disinfection practice.

Peracetic acid (CH 3 COOH) is the most potent of the above-mentioned substances, acting in a bactericidal, sporocidal, viricidal and fungicidal way. Peracetic acid is part of Persteril, a composition which contains 32–36% peracetic acid, 7–10% hydrogen peroxide, 1% sulfuric acid. Persteril is an unstable preparation and is prepared for the active substance content [ 29 ].

Peracetic acid is oxidizing agents, denatures proteins, disrupts cell wall permeability, and oxidizes sulfhydral and sulfur bonds in proteins, enzymes, and other metabolites [ 27 ]. Its advantage is that it works at low concentrations. At a concentration of 0.4%, it acts on the surfaces after a 30 min exposure. Persteril as a 0.1% solution is used to treat growing mold directly on the meat. For hand disinfection it is used as a 1–0.2% solution. It leaves no residue, rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and water. Peracetic acid is used to disinfect the environment, surfaces and medical devices. In the form of an aerosol or spray, Pedox-PAA50, which contains 10–40% peracetic acid, is the most commonly applied formulation. For aerosol disinfection, it is used in the concentration of 5–7 ml m −3 . The disadvantages of using peracetic acid include corrosion to metals. Even this disadvantage can be avoided by the addition of sodium pyrophosphate in the ratio 1:2 to peracetic acid. It has to be stored at a temperature below 20°C. It is best stored in a refrigerator at 4°C [ 29 ].

Lactic acid is mainly used to disinfect air in the presence of animals. It is used in the form of an aerosol, in an amount of 5 ml m −3 [ 30 ].

2.4.1.3 Halogens

Halogen-containing disinfectants include chlorine, iodine, bromine and fluorine preparations, which are the most reactive and the most toxic of the halogen compounds. Halogen-containing compounds which are toxic to the cell are created by the action of oxygen in the initial phase. The optimum pH for the disinfection effect is 5–8 and the presence of organic substances significantly reduces it. For practical disinfection, iodine, chlorine and its compounds are important [ 31 ].

2.4.1.4 Iodine and iodonal

The position and importance of iodine among the disinfectants lies in its intense and, above all, rapid action on all microorganisms at quite low toxicity. Iodine is a crystalline substance that sublimes at normal temperature and pressure. However, aqueous or alcoholic iodine solutions carry many undesirable effects and their wider use in disinfection was hindered by their significant negative properties such as low solubility in water, corrosion, staining of disinfected objects, toxicity, and the like [ 9 ]. Iodine-based disinfectants are called iodophores. Iodophores are relatively non-toxic. In iodophores, iodine is bound to polyvinylpyrrolidones (surface-active organic polymers), which have a significant effect on increasing the disinfection efficiency of these formulations.

Iodine compounds are broad spectrum and considered effective for a variety of bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi and viruses [ 23 ]. The negative properties of iodophores are considerably limited, have corrosive effects on iron, less affect copper and its compounds. They have a weak corrosive effect on zinc, aluminum and tin. They do not rust stainless steel. At long-term use, they leave stains and color PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and polyethylene. Iodophores are water-soluble, stable, non-allergenic, fast-acting, low-toxicity, and non-irritating to injured skin. When using iodophores, the basic requirement, namely a thorough mechanical cleansing, must be fulfilled. The temperature of the solutions should not exceed 35°C [ 32 ]. They are used in healthcare, veterinary care, food production industry, agriculture and municipal hygiene. Iodine preparations can be used both to disinfect surfaces and to disinfect skin as antiseptics.

Jodonal A contains 1.75% active iodine, 12.5% phosphoric acid and a stabilizer. It has viracidal, sporocidal and bactericidal effects, also against acid-resistant mycobacteria. It is used in the food production industry.

Jodonal B contains 1.65% active iodine, 3.6% phosphoric acid and a stabilizer. Jodonal B is used in health care and municipal hygiene.

Jodonal M contains 1.6% iodine, followed by citric acid and glycerin, which has a protective effect on mucous membranes. Jodonal M is used in the prevention of mastitis in cows, is designed for disinfection of teats after milking at 20% concentration. It is used for udder treatment in 2–4% concentration [ 9 ].

2.4.1.5 Chlorine and its compounds

Chlorine preparations are widely used. Chlorine is responsible for the major mechanism of action and thus the inactivation of enzymes and ribosome proteins, due to the formation of a strong oxidizing agent – HClO (hypochlorous acid), which is the result of the reaction of chlorine with water. The bacterial cell undergoes changes in the cytoplasmic membrane, the oxidation of thiol groups of enzymes and chlorination of nucleotides occurs, resulting in the blockade of DNA synthesis [ 33 ]. An important element is chlorine, occurring in the form of poisonous yellow-brown gas. Chlorination is the most widely used method for disinfecting water supplies. The disinfecting ability of chlorine in water depends on the degree of its dissociation. In an acidic environment, their disinfection effect increases. Chlorine preparations contain salts of hypochlorous acid (HClO). Their decomposition in aqueous environment produces hydrochloric acid (HCl) and oxygen in the phase of “birth,” which oxidizes organic substances. The chemical activity of the chlorine preparations is associated with the chlorine found together with the oxygen in the hypochlorite group -ClO. The amount of oxygen released by the decomposition of this group corresponds to the content of reactive chlorine in a preparation called as active chlorine. Thus, active chlorine is an indicator of disinfectant properties in chlorine preparations. The active chlorine content in the chlorine preparations is expressed as a percentage. Chlorine preparations belong to the group of oxidizing agents with very good disinfection effect [ 34 , 35 ]. Chlorine compounds are inactivated by organic soil, so a cleaning step is often required for heavily soiled surfaces. They are also prone to degradation from exposure to heat, UV light, and transition metals, such as copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron [ 36 ]. Activated solutions are recommended for disinfection especially for mycobacteria and spore-forming bacteria. In the food producing industry, it is not recommended to disinfect the surfaces with which the raw materials or food come into direct contact with chlorine preparations. The effect of all chlorine derivatives is accelerated by the addition of ammonia and ammonium salts, which is the essence of so-called activation of chlorine preparations. However, this activation is short-lived so that the activated solutions must be used immediately, especially against the highly resistant microbes. Ammonium salts, in the ratio 1:1 and ammonia, in the ratio 1:8 to 16 [ 9 ] are added to the solutions of known concentration. The most commonly used chlorine preparations include chloramines, chlorinated lime, dikonit, sodium hypochlorite.

Chloramines are organic compounds containing 25–30% active chlorine. Chloramines are stable powder substances, well soluble, with corrosive and whitening effects. They have bactericidal, fungicidal and virucidal activity. At alkaline pH, their effect decreases rapidly. In disinfection practice, Chloramine T is the most significant. In aqueous solution it hydrolyses more slowly than chlorinated lime, explaining its more gentle action on fabrics, metals, wood and other disinfected materials. Chloramine T is a relatively stable preparation. Losses of active chlorine when stored correctly are only 0.1% per year. Chloramine T solutions heated up to 50–60°C are more effective than non-heated solutions. Chloramine T has a bactericidal effect, while higher concentrations (10%) are required for mycobactericidal action in practical disinfection. Preventive disinfection uses a 2–3% solution, 4–10% for focal disinfection [ 9 ].

Fresh chlorinated lime contains 33–36% of active chlorine. It dissolves only partially in water. It is unstable in air and must be stored in impermeable, well sealed containers, dry and protected from light. The effectiveness of chlorinated lime is reduced by storage. It is used for wastewater disinfection, coarse disinfection and 2–3% for floor disinfection at 30 min. Exposure or till dry. Chlorinated lime has a good bactericidal effect, also against acid-resistant mycobacteria, further sporocidal effect, which can be enhanced by acidification with sulfuric acid, as well as a good virucidal activity. For practical disinfection, cold clarified solutions containing 1–2% of active chlorine are prepared. Chlorinated lime is used to disinfect farm buildings, cowsheds, paddocks, fences and cesspools [ 37 ].

Dikonit is a granular highly effective disinfectant preparation of chlorinated cyanuric acid containing at least 55% of active chlorine. It dissolves well in water. The solid surfaces are disinfected with 1–2% solution. Dikonit has the widest use in health care and community hygiene. In terms of its effect on microorganisms, it has bactericidal, fungicidal, virucidal, tuberculocidal effect.

Other representatives include sodium hypochlorite . Sodium hypochlorite is also called “liquid chlorine”, which has bactericidal and virucidal properties.

2.4.1.6 Aldehydes

Aldehydes are highly effective, broad spectrum disinfectants, cause against bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycobacteria and spores [ 23 ]. The mechanism of action of aldehydes is based on protein denaturation and disrupting of nucleic acids [ 38 ]. The most commonly used agents are formaldehyde and gluteraldehyde. Aldehydes are non-corrosive to metals, rubber, plastic and cement [ 39 ]. These chemicals are highly irritating, toxic to humans or animals, therefore their use is limited [ 40 ].

Formaldehyde is an irritating gas dissolving in water into a nearly 40% solution called formalin. It has excellent microbicidal effects, reliably destroys bacteria, spores, fungi and viruses. It is used for surface disinfection at 2–3% concentration. It is also used as an aerosol. In special devices, formaldehyde mixed with water vapor at 60–80°C can be used to sterilize some instruments and delicate items. The disadvantage is its irritating odor almost to toxicity [ 10 ]. Formaldehyde has been classified by the International Agency for Cancer Research as a Group 1 Carcinogen, i.e. a proven human carcinogen. In view of the carcinogenic and teratogenic effect, formaldehyde used for a long time has been restricted in use, but is still used for sterilization in chemical autoclaves; however, it must be ensured that its vapors are sucked out of the environment so that the operator of the device is protected.

Glutaraldehyde is primarily used as a disinfectant for medical equipment (e.g., endoscopes), but can provide sterilization at prolonged contact times [ 38 ]. Glutaraldehyde has a broad spectrum of activity against bacteria and their spores, fungi, and viruses. Bacterial studies demonstrated a strong binding of glutaraldehyde to outer layers of organisms such as E.coli and Staphylococcus aureus [ 21 ]. A 2% concentration is used for highlevel disinfection. Its efficacy is highly dependant on pH and temperature, working best at a pH greater than 7 and high temperatures. It is considered more efficacious in the presence of organic matter, soaps and hard water than formaldehyde [ 38 , 40 ].

2.4.1.7 Alcohol

The most feasible explanation for the antimicrobial action of alcohol is denaturation of proteins. Protein denaturation also is consistent with observations that alcohol destroys the dehydrogenases of Escherichia coli , and that ethyl alcohol increases the lag phase of Enterobacter aerogenes and that the lag phase effect could be reversed by adding certain amino acids. The bacteriostatic action was believed caused by inhibition of the production of metabolites essential for rapid cell division [ 21 ].

2.4.1.8 Surfactants

Surfactants from the Latin “ tensio ” are surface active substances that reduce the surface tension of liquids. According to the polar group, surfactants are divided into two basic groups, ionogenic and non-ionic. Ionogenic surfactants contain functional groups that dissociate in aqueous solution, thereby producing negative (anionic) or positive (cationic) charged ions. Their charge depends on the pH of the environment. Non-ionic surfactants are substances that do not dissociate in aqueous solution. Anionic surfactants include detergents and sulfonate detergents. Cationic surfactants have a bactericidal effect in addition to cleaning and wetting properties [ 41 ]. They act better in the alkaline environment, they are not corrosive and do not irritate the skin, also non-toxic, colorless, odorless and stable in the presence of organic material. Quaternary ammonium compounds are the most important class of surfactants that exhibit strong disinfectant effects. The best-known preparations are Ajatin and Septonex [ 9 ].

Ajatin is an effective disinfectant that acts on vegetative bacteria, the disadvantage of which is its low potency against spores and tuberculosis agents. It is used in 1% concentration for hand disinfection and in 5% concentration for skin disinfection. If we increase its concentration to 10%, it can only wash the hands for 3 min. The action of Ajatin consists in disrupting bacterial membranes and structures, inhibiting the metabolism of bacteria and causing denaturation of proteins and enzymes.

Septonex is a white powder, used as a 1% solution for hand, object and laundry disinfection [ 42 ].

2.5 Physical disinfection

Physical disinfection is based on the effect of physical quantities on the pathogenic microorganism. One of the variables is the exposure time, which precisely determines the time interval during which another physical quantity (temperature, wavelength, etc.) must act.

2.5.1 UV radiation

UV produces no residual

UV requires no transportation, storage or handling of toxic or corrosive chemicals – a safety benefit for plant operators and the surrounding community

UV treatment creates no carcinogenic disinfection by-products that could adversely affect quality of the water

UV is highly effective at inactivating a broad range of microorganisms – including chlorine-resistant pathogens like Cryptosporidium and Giardia

UV can be used (alone or in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide) to break down toxic chemical contaminants while simultaneously disinfecting.

Types of UV radiation. Source: McDonnell, 2007.

UV offers a key advantage over chlorine-based disinfection, due to its ability to inactivate protozoa that threaten public health – most notably Cryptosporidium and Giardia. The release of these harmful microorganisms into lakes and rivers by wastewater facilities utilizing chlorine disinfection increases the potential of contamination in communities that rely on these same bodies of water for their drinking water source and recreational use. Drinking water treatment plants can benefit by using UV since it can easily inactivate chlorine-resistant pathogens (protozoa), while reducing chlorine usage and by-product formation [ 43 ]. In addition, UV light, either alone or in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide can destroy chemical contaminants such as industrial solvents, pesticides and pharmaceuticals through a UV-oxidation [ 11 ]. Safety is a major concern since UV radiation can cause severe eye damage and skin irritation of exposed individuals. Furthermore, bacterial regrowth may occur because there is no residual antimicrobial activity. When exposed to visible light, bacterial cells that had been injured by UV light can repair themselves [ 44 ].

2.5.2 Ozone disinfection

No remaining tastes or odors after treatment.

Disinfection byproduct formation is minimal.

Ozone can remove disinfection byproduct precursors.

Ozone is not always the most suitable disinfectant. Ozone is less suitable for maintenance of a residual concentration, causing it to decompose in water relatively quickly [ 49 ]. Chlorine is more suitable for residue formation [ 10 ].

2.5.3 Ultrasound

Ultrasound refers to inaudible sound waves with frequencies in the range of 16 kHz–500 MHz, greater than the upper limit of human hearing. It can be transmitted through any elastic medium including water, gas-saturated water, and slurry. Ultrasound has been used for diverse purposesin many different areas. In water treatment technology, the application of ultrasound (ultrasonication) can be useful in various processes like organic decontamination, disinfection, electrocoagulation, and membrane filtration. Because of cavitation phenomenon, the formation of free radicals and high localized temperatures and pressures, ultrasonic irradiation (ultrasonication) appears to be an effective method for the destruction of hazardous organic compoundsin water [ 50 ]. These compounds include phenol [ 51 ] chlorophenols, nitrophenols, aniline [ 52 ], trichloroethylene [ 53 ], ethylbenzene [ 54 ], chlorobenzene [ 55 ], chloronaphthalene, polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, azobenzene, textile dyes [ 56 ], carbofuran, nitroaromatics, detergents and surfactants [ 57 ]. High power ultrasound, operatedat low frequencies is an effective means for disintegration of bacterial cells. However, disinfection by ultrasonication alone requires very high energy. Thus, generally it cannot be considered as an alternative to conventional disinfection for economical aspects. Then, ultrasonication should be used together with other techniques. For instance, the combination of a short ultrasonication and a subsequent ultraviolet treatment is even cost-efficient and meaningful [ 58 ]. Ultrasonication combined with chlorination improved significantly the biocidal action. These results suggest that ultrasound could be used in conjunction with chemical treatments to achieve a reduction in the quantity of bactericide required for water treatment [ 59 ]. Ultrasound irradiation can provide enhancement in membrane filtration of waste waters [ 60 ]. It increases the flux primarily by breaking the cake layer at the membrane surface. Liquid jets produced by cavitation served as a basis for ultrasonic membrane cleaning. Lower ultrasound frequencies have higher cleaning efficiencies than higher frequencies [ 61 ]. Intermittent ultrasound ir-radiation resulted in the same flux obtained as continuous irradiation but intermittent ultrasound consumed less energy and prolonged the lifetime of the membranes used, thus can be considered as a cost effective method of membrane cleaning [ 48 ]. Ultrasound can produce various effects on biological materials, for example, stimulating enzyme activity, cell growth, biosynthesis, etc., which enhances the bioactivity of the activated sludge. Thus, the improvement in efficiency of enhanced biological removal of phosphorus [ 62 ] and nitrogen [ 63 ]. Low frequency (25 kHz) was more effective than higher ones (80 and 150 kHz), or in other term, higher energy ultrasound was more efficient than lower energy ultrasound for the sludge treatment, indicating that mechanical effects, instead of free radicals, were responsible for the bioactivity enhancement [ 63 ]. Comparing with other pre-treatment methods, ultrasonication exhibits a great potential of not being hazardous to environment and for being economically competitive [ 64 ]. Ultrasound is used in the remediation of contaminated soil and sediment [ 47 ]. Ultrasonic leaching has been investigated for the decontamination of different types of soils from landfills, mining spills, and river sediments aswell as various types of contaminants like organic compounds. The application of ultrasound in air pollution control is based on acoustic agglomeration phenomenon that makes small particles precipitated for easy removal. Acoustic agglomeration is a process in which high intensity sound waves produce relative motion and collisions among fine particles suspended in gaseous media. Acoustic agglomeration can be conducted in two approaches, with low frequency and high frequency (ultrasound) sonication. While low frequency acoustic field is more cost and energy efficient, high frequency acoustic (ultrasonic) agglomeration might achieve better particle retention efficiency, especially for very small particles in submicron range [ 49 ].

3. Conclusion

Almost every environment on the planet contains microorganisms. Sanitation represents an applied science because of its importance to the protection of human health and its relationship with environmental factors that relate to health. This applied science relates to control of the biological, chemical, and physical hazards in a environment. Effective sanitation practices are needed to combat their proliferation and activity. Appropriate choice of disinfectant, setting clear goals and a reliable action plan are necessary steps to ensure the safety of animals, people, equipment and the environment.

Acknowledgments

The work was supported by the project VEGA 2/0125/17.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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What is Sanitation and Its Effects

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• Gardner, A. (2002). Movie Review: Legally Blonde.
• Legally Blonde. (2001). Directed by Robert Luketic [Film]. United States: MGM.
• Legally Blonde. (n.d.). In IMDb. Retrieved April 17, 2023, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0250494/
• Legally Blonde: Blonde stereotypes. (2016, June 6). Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/beauty-sick/201606/legally-blonde-blonde-stereotypes
• Legally Blonde. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved April 17, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legally_Blonde
• Loh, J. (2016, June 7). The 15 Best Quotes from Legally Blonde.
• Mahoney, C. (2015, July 13). Everything You Never Knew About ‘Legally Blonde.’
• Mukherjee, S. (2016, August 4). Why Legally Blonde is the ultimate feminist movie.
• Standpoint Theory. (n.d.). In SAGE Research Methods.
• Wood, J. T., & Fixmer-Oraiz, B. (2019). Gendered lives: Communication, gender, and culture. Cengage Learning.

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Sanitation and Cleanliness for a Healthy Environment

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The booklet addresses the different sanitation and hygiene needs of women and men. It gives communities information about how significant sanitation improvements can be made by better use of indigenous skills and local resources. It is designed to be an important part of the Community Water Initiative, stimulating communities to take charge of their sanitation development for a better life.

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• Environment

The Surprising Connection Between Gut Health and Arctic Permafrost

Could the solution to thawing permafrost come from a human diet, sachi mulkey.

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This story was originally published by   Grist   and is reproduced here as part of the  Climate Desk   collaboration.

Every time you eat a blueberry, the microbiome in your gut gets to work. Bacterial enzymes attack the organic compounds of the fruit: a burbling, gurgling digestive process that can, often to our embarrassment, cause us to pass gas. That may not be such a big deal for a human, but new research shows that the microbial action in icy Arctic soils might not be so different. On a global scale, it could mean the planet belching up more dangerous greenhouse gases.

Permafrost, the frozen earth that covers roughly a quarter of the Northern Hemisphere , traps an enormous amount of planet-heating carbon— 2.5 times the amount currently in the atmosphere. But as the ground thaws, the microbial community in the soil wakes up and begins to eat away at the trapped organic material, releasing all that buried carbon into the atmosphere as greenhouse gases, which, in turn, trap even more heat around the planet. In a self-perpetuating feedback loop , the warmer it gets, the more active soil microbes become. And new research suggests that scientists might have not realized just how much of that carbon-sinking permafrost is at risk: Twice the estimated amount of carbon could be on offer for hungry microbes to decompose, which could lead to increased emissions.

“We were surprised that some of the exact pathways that exist in the human gut were shared by totally different organisms,” said Kelly Wrighton, a microbiology professor at Colorado State University who leads the lab behind the study , which was published last month in the journal Nature Microbiology. While she said this could mean a lot more future permafrost emissions than climate models previously accounted for, more research is needed to determine exactly how much.

“We were surprised that some of the exact pathways that exist in the human gut were shared by totally different organisms.”

There’s so much left to figure out in fact, that many climate models fail to account for the thawing permafrost at all. Recent advancements in technology, like tracking methane with satellites , are helping us get a better idea of what’s already seeping out of the soil and how the thawing landscape is changing . But what about the teeny organic forces churning up all that carbon in the first place?

While half of all of Earth’s carbon is stored in permafrost, not all of it is available for microbes to chow down and burp up as carbon dioxide and methane. Based on a decades-old theory , soil scientists used to think that polyphenols—a class of more than 8,000 organic compounds found abundantly in many plants—weren’t consumable by microbes in permafrost conditions, which would prevent some carbon from escaping when the ground thaws.

This assumption has even led some researchers to propose that limiting permafrost emissions could be possible by seeding the soil with  polyphenol-rich matter . But polyphenols are also plentiful in berries, nuts, and many other types of food that humans eat, and according to  human-health research , the microbes in our stomachs handle them just fine. 

Bridget McGivern, a microbiologist at Colorado State University and lead author of the study, says it was a contradiction between different scientific fields that left researchers puzzled. “How could these two things be true in these different ecosystems? We know that most of the time, microorganisms follow the same rules across systems.”

Recent advancements  have finally allowed scientists to begin peering into the complex, diverse world of soil genetics and answer these questions. McGivern and her colleagues started by creating an  open-source gene-labeling tool , which can compare genetic sequences that microbes express when they munch on polyphenols in different environments, including human digestive systems. Then, the researchers used it to look closely at permafrost soil and found genetic evidence that microbes were decomposing the polyphenols there, too.

Before the study was published, McGivern says about 25 percent of all carbon trapped in the permafrost was thought to be available for microbes and factored into climate models. Now that polyphenols are on the microbial menu, that number has doubled—meaning twice as much carbon could be accessible for the microbes to decompose and convert into greenhouse gases.

There are still many gaps to fill, and estimating the permafrost’s future emissions requires more research from different fields. “But what we can say is that there is this huge carbon pool that we were ignoring that we really should pay attention to,” McGivern said. 

Tyler Jones, a climate researcher at the University of Colorado, Boulder, agrees. “We’re a bit behind,” he said. Decades ago, researchers thought that permafrost  may stay frozen  and not pose an immediate climate threat. Fast forward to today, he said, and a rapidly changing Arctic has been found to be warming  two to three times faster  than the rest of the planet, sparking a flood of urgent research. “There’s so many missing puzzle pieces right now. We can’t even see what the full puzzle looks like.” 

Other natural processes complicate the picture even further. In a process called  shrubification , plant life is creeping farther north, colonizing the earth that receding ice reveals. Jones says all that extra plant life would suck up carbon, helping turn the Arctic back into a carbon sink. But  research  shows shrubs may trap snow before it can begin chilling the earth. McGivern points out it may also mean more polyphenol-laden soil for the microbes to break down.

“The impacts are unfolding already,” said Jan Nitzbon, a permafrost researcher at the Alfred Wegener Institute. The ice is already reacting to  each fractional degree of warming  — thawing gradually in some areas and collapsing in bursts in others,  threatening the ecosystem and people who live within it alike .

“Mitigating carbon emissions, keeping global warming temperatures as low as possible—that’s kind of the only viable way to protect as much permafrost as possible,” Nitzbon said.

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Essay on Environmental Sustainability

Students are often asked to write an essay on Environmental Sustainability in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Environmental Sustainability

Understanding environmental sustainability.

Environmental sustainability is about making decisions that do not harm the environment. It’s about preserving nature for future generations.

Importance of Environmental Sustainability

Ways to achieve sustainability.

We can achieve sustainability by reducing waste, recycling, and using renewable energy. It’s about changing our lifestyles to protect the environment.

Environmental sustainability is crucial for our future. We all need to play our part to ensure our planet remains healthy.

250 Words Essay on Environmental Sustainability

Introduction to environmental sustainability.

Environmental sustainability is an integral aspect of our existence, intertwined with the notion of preserving the natural world for future generations. It encapsulates the concept of stewardship, wherein we are responsible for managing the Earth’s resources responsibly and efficiently.

The Imperative of Sustainable Practices

The current environmental crisis, characterized by climate change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss, underscores the urgency of sustainable practices. These practices aim to minimize the environmental footprint by reducing waste, conserving energy, and promoting recycling. They are not merely an ethical obligation, but a necessity for human survival.

Role of Innovation in Sustainability

Innovation plays a pivotal role in environmental sustainability. Technological advancements like renewable energy, green architecture, and waste management systems pave the way for a sustainable future. They provide practical solutions to environmental problems, enabling us to balance economic growth with ecological preservation.

Individual Responsibility and Collective Action

Environmental sustainability demands individual responsibility and collective action. Each of us can contribute by adopting sustainable lifestyles, such as minimizing waste, conserving water, and reducing energy consumption. Collective action, on the other hand, involves policy changes, corporate responsibility, and international cooperation.

500 Words Essay on Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is a concept that has grown in prominence as the world grapples with the effects of climate change. It refers to the practice of using resources in a way that preserves the environment for future generations. This includes reducing waste, promoting renewable energy, and maintaining biodiversity.

The Importance of Environmental Sustainability

The significance of environmental sustainability cannot be overstated. As the world’s population continues to grow, so does the demand for resources. This increased demand, coupled with unsustainable practices, has led to environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, and climate change. By practicing environmental sustainability, we can help ensure that future generations inherit a planet that is as rich and diverse as the one we enjoy today.

Principles of Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is underpinned by several key principles. First, we must recognize the finite nature of our planet’s resources and strive to use them sparingly. Second, we must work towards reducing waste and promoting recycling. Third, we must strive to reduce our carbon footprint and promote renewable energy. Lastly, we must value and protect our biodiversity, recognizing the intrinsic worth of all living things.

Challenges to Environmental Sustainability

Role of individuals and institutions in promoting environmental sustainability.

Individuals and institutions have a crucial role to play in promoting environmental sustainability. Individuals can make a difference by making sustainable choices in their daily lives, such as reducing waste, recycling, and choosing renewable energy. Institutions, on the other hand, can implement sustainable practices in their operations and advocate for environmental sustainability at the policy level.

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One dead in greek wildfires fanned by gale-force winds.

A man died on Friday as several forest fires fanned by gale-force winds battered Greece's southern tip and forced evacuations, the fire brigade said.

Essay on Environment and Human Health for Students and Children

500+ words essay on environment and human health.

The environment is all that surrounds us. It can be a living or a non-living thing. It includes many forces that are physical, chemical and other natural forces. These living things live in their environment. They consistently react with it and adapt themselves according to the conditions in their environment. In the environment, there are various interactions between the animals, plants , water, soil and other living and many non-living things present in nature. Since everything is a part of this environment of something else, we use the term environment talking about various things. People in different fields use this term differently.

Importance of Environment

The environment is very important for every living being. No one can survive without the environment. It matters a lot because planet earth is the only home for human beings. It provides food, air, water and millions of other things. Humanity’s entire life-supporting system totally depends on the well-being of all the species living the earth.

We call it the biosphere. Biosphere means one global ecological system under which all living things are depending upon each other relatively. In the ecosystem or overall biosphere, there are some smaller ecosystems like the rainforests , deserts , oceans and the tundra.

An ecosystem has both living and non-living parts. It can be terrestrial or aquatic. It explains the valuing ecosystem services: towards better environmental decision making that is available through the National Academy Press. The non-living things are like soil , water, air, nutrients, and living elements are the plants, micro-organisms , animals and human beings.

A healthy ecosystem consists of all the chemical elements and nutrients that circulate in a cycle while supporting billions of species. The species helps in the process of cycling the elements when they produce any food. It also happens during their eating, going about their lives and even though their deaths. In this process creation of a variety of goods and services takes place that is very useful for human beings.

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Human Health Issues

It is very rare for children to get seriously ill without any warning. According to the symptoms of your child, you should contact your children’s pediatrician for advice on a regular basis. Time to time treatment of symptoms or usual illness can prevent your child from getting seriously affected with any disease or making that worse or turning it into an emergency.

A true emergency occurs when you believe a severe injury or any sort of illness is threatening your child or his/her life is in danger, or it might cause any permanent harm. In this scenario, one needs emergency medical treatment immediately as soon as possible. Discuss it with the doctor about what should you do in case of a true emergency.

The use of vaccines is improving the health of the children at a huge level over a very short period. Much infectious illness one is having as a child. For example, chickenpox or polio no longer affects many children in today’s time.

FAQs on Environment and Human Health

Q.1. Name some needs that are fulfilled by the environment:

Ans. There are many needs that are fulfilled by the environment. We get food, shelter, oxygen, water, sunlight, air, and many more things. The most important thing we get from the environment is food. Because we cannot survive without food.

Q.2.What should be done in the case off health illness?

Ans. Firstly, we should diagnose the problem and then go to a doctor and do proper treatment of that particular disease or illness. And then we should cure that disease according to the guidelines of the doctor.

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Map shows a network of ancient Roman roads.

Credit: MAPS

Putting human past on the MAPS

Harvard digital atlas plots patterns from history ancient and modern

Christy DeSmith

Harvard Staff Writer

A network of ancient Roman roads converges neatly with satellite images of the Earth at night. A heat map of 15th-century bubonic plague outbreaks bears an eerie resemblance to Europe’s early COVID-19 hot spots. Mapping Past Societies , a free digital atlas hosted by the Initiative for the Science of the Human Past at Harvard , illuminates just a few of these patterns.

“It has a rich dataset of historic, economic, archaeological, environmental, and health information as well as climate data going back much further,” said Santiago Pardo Sánchez ’16, the project’s co-managing editor. “Someone who’s interested in modern transportation could look at how it worked in the past. Someone who’s looking at the plague in Central Asia could also get data from the Middle East.”

Heat map of 15th-century bubonic plague outbreaks (click to enlarge).

Mapping Past Societies, or MAPS, is powered by vast spreadsheets that geo-locate everything from historic rat populations to medieval marketplaces and Roman military structures. Its user-friendly interface, which runs on ArcGIS software, invites discovery by layering multiple phenomena across a single map — or by animating how one dataset plays out over time.

“The shipwreck data have been important to me and other economic historians,” said MAPS founder and general editor Michael McCormick , the Francis Goelet Professor of Medieval History and chair of the Science of the Human Past initiative. “They offer a rather crude but nevertheless rich indicator of economic activity for the period between about 500 B.C.E. and 1500 C.E.”

For much of his career, McCormick focused on the history and archaeology of the fall of the Roman Empire. He was once in the habit of hand-drawing maps for his classes. Then a thought occurred one evening in the 1990s while he was outlining the Roman Empire for an exam: “At this very moment, around the globe, there are probably 100 other professors drawing exactly the same map,” he recalled. “I said, ‘Wait! This is not a good use of our time. There should be one map!’”

Soon he was experimenting with geographic information systems to design his own digital maps, with several appearing in “Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, A.D. 300-900” (2002). That led to partnering with the Center for Geographic Analysis to launch the free Digital Atlas of Roman Empire and Medieval Civilizations in the mid ’00s. Over the years, DARMC was slowly expanded to incorporate new datasets. Information on the ancient and medieval worlds remains most robust, but more recent additions cover Colonial Latin America, 18th-century France, and more.

Michael McCormick (from left), Santiago Pardo Sánchez, and Alexander More.

Kris Snibbe/Harvard Staff Photographer

The pandemic inspired the team to refresh the project’s branding and interface, relaunching DARMC earlier this year as MAPS. The site’s new dashboard will be familiar to anybody who recalls tracking COVID cases on the Johns Hopkins website. At the same time, recent software updates enabled the addition of that showstopping layering feature.

“Before you could just turn on and off one layer,” Pardo Sánchez noted. “But now, you can do much more. You can change the visualizations with overlays and transparencies. You can share it more easily. You can switch the basemap, or background, to satellite imagery of the Earth at night.”

From the start, students have been key to the project’s success. Undergraduates bring a natural fascination with Roman and medieval history, McCormick said, but many struggle to make meaningful early academic contributions in the field, given the need for proficiency in multiple languages including Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Syriac — not to mention all the must-read secondary literatures in German, Italian, French, and Spanish.

To work on MAPS, however, all they need is curiosity, attention to detail, and facility with spreadsheets. “This is a real intellectual contribution to our understanding of the human past which they can, should, and do cite among their publications,” McCormick said.

“My litmus test has been: Could a nerdy 12-year-old use it? Because if a nerdy 12-year-old can use it, then anybody can.” Anika Liv Christensen, MAPS research assistant

“The undergrads working on the project now are younger than the project,” quipped Pardo Sánchez, who made his first MAPS contributions as an undergraduate, cataloguing findings from McCormick’s “Origins of the European Economy.” As an undergraduate concentrating in history, Pardo Sánchez later contributed to one of the site’s biggest datasets, nearly 60,000 records of climate events over the past 2,000 years.

Today, Anika Liv Christensen ’26, a research assistant currently working on MAPS, says, “It was the perfect job for a 19-year-old with no experience. Originally, my job was to check databases for errors. With so many entries, there are bound to be misspellings and formatting problems.”

Christensen, a joint concentrator in music and human evolutionary biology, recently worked on inventorying atypical burial sites in medieval France, currently with about 300 entries (each with up to five individuals per site).

“My litmus test has been: Could a nerdy 12-year-old use it?” Christensen said. “Because if a nerdy 12-year-old can use it, then anybody can.”

The enormous spreadsheets that populate the site’s map are freely available for download to anybody with an internet connection. The information on Roman roads has proved especially popular, McCormick shared. “There was a whole series of economic studies on 21st-century Europe showing that proximity to Roman roads helped predict economic vibrancy today.”

At a recent MAPS kickoff event, co-managing editor Alexander More , M.A ’07, Ph.D. ’14, an associate professor of environmental health at the University of Massachusetts, demonstrated what it looks like to plot the Roman roads alongside information on bubonic plague outbreaks from the 14th century.

“You can really see the data come alive,” he marveled. “For the first time, you can see the progression of this pandemic throughout Europe, with these hotspots emerging at nexuses of Roman roads.”

As bursts of yellow covered Italy and France, yet another historic intersection came into view. “These nexuses are in fact also the same places where COVID emerged in full force in 2020,” More said.

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How to Minimize Your Exposure to Microplastics

Furniture, clothing and food packaging can all shed tiny particles that can end up in our bodies.

Credit... Ryan Jenq for The New York Times. Set design by Laura Woolf.

Supported by

By Sarah Sloat

• Published June 7, 2024 Updated June 18, 2024

Matthew Campen, a toxicologist at the University of New Mexico, wasn’t surprised when his team found microplastics in human testicles during a new study . The tiny particles had already been found in human breast milk, lungs and blood. At this point, Dr. Campen said, he expects to find them in every part of the body.

The particles are so small that it’s easy to ingest or inhale them. Scientists still aren’t sure how that might affect human health, but some early research points to cause for concern: One 2021 study found that patients with inflammatory bowel disease had more microplastics in their feces than healthy subjects, while another recent paper reported that people with microplastics in their blood vessels had an increased risk of heart complications.

We can’t directly control many of the microplastics we’re exposed to — the materials used in car tires, food manufacturing, paint and many other products can all create plastic particles. But if you’re worried about microplastics, there are simple steps to take to minimize your exposure somewhat, experts say.

“You’re not going to get to zero, but you can reduce your levels,” said Tracey Woodruff, a professor at the University of California, San Francisco, who studies how chemicals affect health.

Curbing microplastics in the kitchen

Microplastics are produced when plastic items degrade or are intentionally added to certain products, like microbeads in body scrubs. When they get into water and soil , microplastics enter the food chain.

There are several ways to reduce your exposure through food, including by avoiding highly processed meals. One study of 16 protein types found that while each contained microplastics, highly-processed products like chicken nuggets contained the most per gram of meat. The researchers said that could be because highly processed foods have more contact with plastic food-production equipment.

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