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Research Summary – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Summary

Definition:

A research summary is a brief and concise overview of a research project or study that highlights its key findings, main points, and conclusions. It typically includes a description of the research problem, the research methods used, the results obtained, and the implications or significance of the findings. It is often used as a tool to quickly communicate the main findings of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or decision-makers.

Structure of Research Summary

The Structure of a Research Summary typically include:

Introduction : This section provides a brief background of the research problem or question, explains the purpose of the study, and outlines the research objectives.
Methodology : This section explains the research design, methods, and procedures used to conduct the study. It describes the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
Results : This section presents the main findings of the study, including statistical analysis if applicable. It may include tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent the data.
Discussion : This section interprets the results and explains their implications. It discusses the significance of the findings, compares them to previous research, and identifies any limitations or future directions for research.
Conclusion : This section summarizes the main points of the research and provides a conclusion based on the findings. It may also suggest implications for future research or practical applications of the results.
References : This section lists the sources cited in the research summary, following the appropriate citation style.

How to Write Research Summary

Here are the steps you can follow to write a research summary:

Read the research article or study thoroughly: To write a summary, you must understand the research article or study you are summarizing. Therefore, read the article or study carefully to understand its purpose, research design, methodology, results, and conclusions.
Identify the main points : Once you have read the research article or study, identify the main points, key findings, and research question. You can highlight or take notes of the essential points and findings to use as a reference when writing your summary.
Write the introduction: Start your summary by introducing the research problem, research question, and purpose of the study. Briefly explain why the research is important and its significance.
Summarize the methodology : In this section, summarize the research design, methods, and procedures used to conduct the study. Explain the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
Present the results: Summarize the main findings of the study. Use tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent the data if necessary.
Interpret the results: In this section, interpret the results and explain their implications. Discuss the significance of the findings, compare them to previous research, and identify any limitations or future directions for research.
Conclude the summary : Summarize the main points of the research and provide a conclusion based on the findings. Suggest implications for future research or practical applications of the results.
Revise and edit : Once you have written the summary, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free of errors. Make sure that your summary accurately represents the research article or study.
Add references: Include a list of references cited in the research summary, following the appropriate citation style.

Example of Research Summary

Here is an example of a research summary:

Title: The Effects of Yoga on Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis

Introduction: This meta-analysis examines the effects of yoga on mental health. The study aimed to investigate whether yoga practice can improve mental health outcomes such as anxiety, depression, stress, and quality of life.

Methodology : The study analyzed data from 14 randomized controlled trials that investigated the effects of yoga on mental health outcomes. The sample included a total of 862 participants. The yoga interventions varied in length and frequency, ranging from four to twelve weeks, with sessions lasting from 45 to 90 minutes.

Results : The meta-analysis found that yoga practice significantly improved mental health outcomes. Participants who practiced yoga showed a significant reduction in anxiety and depression symptoms, as well as stress levels. Quality of life also improved in those who practiced yoga.

Discussion : The findings of this study suggest that yoga can be an effective intervention for improving mental health outcomes. The study supports the growing body of evidence that suggests that yoga can have a positive impact on mental health. Limitations of the study include the variability of the yoga interventions, which may affect the generalizability of the findings.

Conclusion : Overall, the findings of this meta-analysis support the use of yoga as an effective intervention for improving mental health outcomes. Further research is needed to determine the optimal length and frequency of yoga interventions for different populations.

References :

Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., Dobos, G., & Berger, B. (2013). Yoga for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Depression and anxiety, 30(11), 1068-1083.
Khalsa, S. B. (2004). Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: a bibliometric analysis of published research studies. Indian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 48(3), 269-285.
Ross, A., & Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: a review of comparison studies. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(1), 3-12.

Purpose of Research Summary

The purpose of a research summary is to provide a brief overview of a research project or study, including its main points, findings, and conclusions. The summary allows readers to quickly understand the essential aspects of the research without having to read the entire article or study.

Research summaries serve several purposes, including:

Facilitating comprehension: A research summary allows readers to quickly understand the main points and findings of a research project or study without having to read the entire article or study. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend the research and its significance.
Communicating research findings: Research summaries are often used to communicate research findings to a wider audience, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the general public. The summary presents the essential aspects of the research in a clear and concise manner, making it easier for non-experts to understand.
Supporting decision-making: Research summaries can be used to support decision-making processes by providing a summary of the research evidence on a particular topic. This information can be used by policymakers or practitioners to make informed decisions about interventions, programs, or policies.
Saving time: Research summaries save time for researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and other stakeholders who need to review multiple research studies. Rather than having to read the entire article or study, they can quickly review the summary to determine whether the research is relevant to their needs.

Characteristics of Research Summary

The following are some of the key characteristics of a research summary:

Concise : A research summary should be brief and to the point, providing a clear and concise overview of the main points of the research.
Objective : A research summary should be written in an objective tone, presenting the research findings without bias or personal opinion.
Comprehensive : A research summary should cover all the essential aspects of the research, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions.
Accurate : A research summary should accurately reflect the key findings and conclusions of the research.
Clear and well-organized: A research summary should be easy to read and understand, with a clear structure and logical flow.
Relevant : A research summary should focus on the most important and relevant aspects of the research, highlighting the key findings and their implications.
Audience-specific: A research summary should be tailored to the intended audience, using language and terminology that is appropriate and accessible to the reader.
Citations : A research summary should include citations to the original research articles or studies, allowing readers to access the full text of the research if desired.

When to write Research Summary

Here are some situations when it may be appropriate to write a research summary:

Proposal stage: A research summary can be included in a research proposal to provide a brief overview of the research aims, objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes.
Conference presentation: A research summary can be prepared for a conference presentation to summarize the main findings of a study or research project.
Journal submission: Many academic journals require authors to submit a research summary along with their research article or study. The summary provides a brief overview of the study’s main points, findings, and conclusions and helps readers quickly understand the research.
Funding application: A research summary can be included in a funding application to provide a brief summary of the research aims, objectives, and expected outcomes.
Policy brief: A research summary can be prepared as a policy brief to communicate research findings to policymakers or stakeholders in a concise and accessible manner.

Advantages of Research Summary

Research summaries offer several advantages, including:

Time-saving: A research summary saves time for readers who need to understand the key findings and conclusions of a research project quickly. Rather than reading the entire research article or study, readers can quickly review the summary to determine whether the research is relevant to their needs.
Clarity and accessibility: A research summary provides a clear and accessible overview of the research project’s main points, making it easier for readers to understand the research without having to be experts in the field.
Improved comprehension: A research summary helps readers comprehend the research by providing a brief and focused overview of the key findings and conclusions, making it easier to understand the research and its significance.
Enhanced communication: Research summaries can be used to communicate research findings to a wider audience, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the general public, in a concise and accessible manner.
Facilitated decision-making: Research summaries can support decision-making processes by providing a summary of the research evidence on a particular topic. Policymakers or practitioners can use this information to make informed decisions about interventions, programs, or policies.
Increased dissemination: Research summaries can be easily shared and disseminated, allowing research findings to reach a wider audience.

Limitations of Research Summary

Limitations of the Research Summary are as follows:

Limited scope: Research summaries provide a brief overview of the research project’s main points, findings, and conclusions, which can be limiting. They may not include all the details, nuances, and complexities of the research that readers may need to fully understand the study’s implications.
Risk of oversimplification: Research summaries can be oversimplified, reducing the complexity of the research and potentially distorting the findings or conclusions.
Lack of context: Research summaries may not provide sufficient context to fully understand the research findings, such as the research background, methodology, or limitations. This may lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of the research.
Possible bias: Research summaries may be biased if they selectively emphasize certain findings or conclusions over others, potentially distorting the overall picture of the research.
Format limitations: Research summaries may be constrained by the format or length requirements, making it challenging to fully convey the research’s main points, findings, and conclusions.
Accessibility: Research summaries may not be accessible to all readers, particularly those with limited literacy skills, visual impairments, or language barriers.

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Muhammad Hassan

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Research Summary: What Is It & How To Write One

Introduction

A research summary is a requirement during academic research and sometimes you might need to prepare a research summary during a research project for an organization.

Most people find a research summary a daunting task as you are required to condense complex research material into an informative, easy-to-understand article most times with a minimum of 300-500 words.

In this post, we will guide you through all the steps required to make writing your research summary an easier task.

What is a Research Summary?

A research summary is a piece of writing that summarizes the research of a specific topic into bite-size easy-to-read and comprehend articles. The primary goal is to give the reader a detailed outline of the key findings of a research.

It is an unavoidable requirement in colleges and universities. To write a good research summary, you must understand the goal of your research, as this would help make the process easier.

A research summary preserves the structure and sections of the article it is derived from.

Research Summary or Abstract: What’s The Difference?

The Research Summary and Abstract are similar, especially as they are both brief, straight to the point, and provide an overview of the entire research paper. However, there are very clear differences.

To begin with, a Research summary is written at the end of a research activity, while the Abstract is written at the beginning of a research paper.

A Research Summary captures the main points of a study, with an emphasis on the topic, method , and discoveries, an Abstract is a description of what your research paper would talk about and the reason for your research or the hypothesis you are trying to validate.

Let us take a deeper look at the difference between both terms.

What is an Abstract?

An abstract is a short version of a research paper. It is written to convey the findings of the research to the reader. It provides the reader with information that would help them understand the research, by giving them a clear idea about the subject matter of a research paper. It is usually submitted before the presentation of a research paper.

What is a Summary?

A summary is a short form of an essay, a research paper, or a chapter in a book. A research summary is a narration of a research study, condensing the focal points of research to a shorter form, usually aligned with the same structure of the research study, from which the summary is derived.

What Is The Difference Between an Abstract and a Summary?

An abstract communicates the main points of a research paper, it includes the questions, major findings, the importance of the findings, etc.

An abstract reflects the perceptions of the author about a topic, while a research summary reflects the ideology of the research study that is being summarized.

Getting Started with a Research Summary

Before commencing a research summary, there is a need to understand the style and organization of the content you plan to summarize. There are three fundamental areas of the research that should be the focal point:

When deciding on the content include a section that speaks to the importance of the research, and the techniques and tools used to arrive at your conclusion.
Keep the summary well organized, and use paragraphs to discuss the various sections of the research.
Restrict your research to 300-400 words which is the standard practice for research summaries globally. However, if the research paper you want to summarize is a lengthy one, do not exceed 10% of the entire research material.

Once you have satisfied the requirements of the fundamentals for starting your research summary, you can now begin to write using the following format:

Why was this research done? – A clear description of the reason the research was embarked on and the hypothesis being tested.
Who was surveyed? – Your research study should have details of the source of your information. If it was via a survey, you should document who the participants of the survey were and the reason that they were selected.
What was the methodology? – Discuss the methodology, in terms of what kind of survey method did you adopt. Was it a face-to-face interview, a phone interview, or a focus group setting?
What were the key findings? – This is perhaps the most vital part of the process. What discoveries did you make after the testing? This part should be based on raw facts free from any personal bias.
Conclusion – What conclusions did you draw from the findings?
Takeaways and action points – This is where your views and perception can be reflected. Here, you can now share your recommendations or action points.
Identify the focal point of the article – In other to get a grasp of the content covered in the research paper, you can skim the article first, in a bid to understand the most essential part of the research paper.
Analyze and understand the topic and article – Writing a summary of a research paper involves being familiar with the topic – the current state of knowledge, key definitions, concepts, and models. This is often gleaned while reading the literature review. Please note that only a deep understanding ensures efficient and accurate summarization of the content.
Make notes as you read – Highlight and summarize each paragraph as you read. Your notes are what you would further condense to create a draft that would form your research summary.

How to Structure Your Research Summary

Title – This highlights the area of analysis, and can be formulated to briefly highlight key findings.
Abstract – this is a very brief and comprehensive description of the study, required in every academic article, with a length of 100-500 words at most.
Introduction – this is a vital part of any research summary, it provides the context and the literature review that gently introduces readers to the subject matter. The introduction usually covers definitions, questions, and hypotheses of the research study.
Methodology –This section emphasizes the process and or data analysis methods used, in terms of experiments, surveys, sampling, or statistical analysis.
Results section – this section lists in detail the results derived from the research with evidence obtained from all the experiments conducted.
Discussion – these parts discuss the results within the context of current knowledge among subject matter experts. Interpretation of results and theoretical models explaining the observed results, the strengths of the study, and the limitations experienced are going to be a part of the discussion.
Conclusion – In a conclusion, hypotheses are discussed and revalidated or denied, based on how convincing the evidence is.
References – this section is for giving credit to those who work you studied to create your summary. You do this by providing appropriate citations as you write.

Research Summary Example 1

Below are some defining elements of a sample research summary.

Title – “The probability of an unexpected volcanic eruption in Greenwich”

Introduction – this section would list the catastrophic consequences that occurred in the country and the importance of analyzing this event.

Hypothesis – An eruption of the Greenwich supervolcano would be preceded by intense preliminary activity manifesting in advance, before the eruption.

Results – these could contain a report of statistical data from various volcanic eruptions happening globally while looking critically at the activity that occurred before these events.

Discussion and conclusion – Given that Greenwich is now consistently monitored by scientists and that signs of an eruption are usually detected before the volcanic eruption, this confirms the hypothesis. Hence creating an emergency plan outlining other intervention measures and ultimately evacuation is essential.

Research Summary Example 2

Below is another sample sketch.

Title – “The frequency of extreme weather events in the UK in 2000-2008 as compared to the ‘60s”

Introduction – Weather events bring intense material damage and cause pain to the victims affected.

Hypothesis – Extreme weather events are more frequent in recent times compared to the ‘50s

Results – The frequency of several categories of extreme events now and then are listed here, such as droughts, fires, massive rainfall/snowfalls, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc.

Discussion and conclusion – Several types of extreme events have become more commonplace in recent times, confirming the hypothesis. This rise in extreme weather events can be traced to rising CO2 levels and increasing temperatures and global warming explain the rising frequency of these disasters. Addressing the rising CO2 levels and paying attention to climate change is the only to combat this phenomenon.

A research summary is the short form of a research paper, analyzing the important aspect of the study. Everyone who reads a research summary has a full grasp of the main idea being discussed in the original research paper. Conducting any research means you will write a summary, which is an important part of your project and would be the most read part of your project.

Having a guideline before you start helps, this would form your checklist which would guide your actions as you write your research summary. It is important to note that a Research Summary is different from an Abstract paper written at the beginning of a research paper, describing the idea behind a research paper.

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When writing a summary, the goal is to compose a concise and objective overview of the original article. The summary should focus only on the article's main ideas and important details that support those ideas.

Guidelines for summarizing an article:

State the main ideas.
Identify the most important details that support the main ideas.
Summarize in your own words.
Do not copy phrases or sentences unless they are being used as direct quotations.
Express the underlying meaning of the article, but do not critique or analyze.
The summary should be about one third the length of the original article.

Your summary should include:

Give an overview of the article, including the title and the name of the author.
Provide a thesis statement that states the main idea of the article.
Use the body paragraphs to explain the supporting ideas of your thesis statement.
One-paragraph summary - one sentence per supporting detail, providing 1-2 examples for each.
Multi-paragraph summary - one paragraph per supporting detail, providing 2-3 examples for each.
Start each paragraph with a topic sentence.
Use transitional words and phrases to connect ideas.
Summarize your thesis statement and the underlying meaning of the article.

Adapted from "Guidelines for Using In-Text Citations in a Summary (or Research Paper)" by Christine Bauer-Ramazani, 2020

Additional Resources

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How to Write a Summary - Guide & Examples (from Scribbr.com)

Writing a Summary (from The University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center)

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Last Updated: Mar 15, 2024 9:32 AM
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Research Summary: What is it & how to write one

The Research Summary is used to report facts about a study clearly. You will almost certainly be required to prepare a research summary during your academic research or while on a research project for your organization.

If it is the first time you have to write one, the writing requirements may confuse you. The instructors generally assign someone to write a summary of the research work. Research summaries require the writer to have a thorough understanding of the issue.

This article will discuss the definition of a research summary and how to write one.

What is a research summary?

A research summary is a piece of writing that summarizes your research on a specific topic. Its primary goal is to offer the reader a detailed overview of the study with the key findings. A research summary generally contains the article’s structure in which it is written.

You must know the goal of your analysis before you launch a project. A research overview summarizes the detailed response and highlights particular issues raised in it. Writing it might be somewhat troublesome. To write a good overview, you want to start with a structure in mind. Read on for our guide.

Why is an analysis recap so important?

Your summary or analysis is going to tell readers everything about your research project. This is the critical piece that your stakeholders will read to identify your findings and valuable insights. Having a good and concise research summary that presents facts and comes with no research biases is the critical deliverable of any research project.

We’ve put together a cheat sheet to help you write a good research summary below.

Research Summary Guide

Why was this research done? – You want to give a clear description of why this research study was done. What hypothesis was being tested?
Who was surveyed? – The what and why or your research decides who you’re going to interview/survey. Your research summary has a detailed note on who participated in the study and why they were selected.
What was the methodology? – Talk about the methodology. Did you do face-to-face interviews? Was it a short or long survey or a focus group setting? Your research methodology is key to the results you’re going to get.
What were the key findings? – This can be the most critical part of the process. What did we find out after testing the hypothesis? This section, like all others, should be just facts, facts facts. You’re not sharing how you feel about the findings. Keep it bias-free.
Conclusion – What are the conclusions that were drawn from the findings. A good example of a conclusion. Surprisingly, most people interviewed did not watch the lunar eclipse in 2022, which is unexpected given that 100% of those interviewed knew about it before it happened.
Takeaways and action points – This is where you bring in your suggestion. Given the data you now have from the research, what are the takeaways and action points? If you’re a researcher running this research project for your company, you’ll use this part to shed light on your recommended action plans for the business.

LEARN ABOUT: Action Research

If you’re doing any research, you will write a summary, which will be the most viewed and more important part of the project. So keep a guideline in mind before you start. Focus on the content first and then worry about the length. Use the cheat sheet/checklist in this article to organize your summary, and that’s all you need to write a great research summary!

But once your summary is ready, where is it stored? Most teams have multiple documents in their google drives, and it’s a nightmare to find projects that were done in the past. Your research data should be democratized and easy to use.

We at QuestionPro launched a research repository for research teams, and our clients love it. All your data is in one place, and everything is searchable, including your research summaries!

Authors: Prachi, Anas

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Research Summary

A research paper analyzes a perspective or argues a point. It is an expanded essay based on your interpretation, evaluation or argument about a certain topic.

According to Sunny Empire State College , “When you write a research paper you build upon what you know about the subject and make a deliberate attempt to find out what experts know. A research paper involves surveying a field of knowledge in order to find the best possible information in that field.” Whatever type of research paper you choose to write, it should present your own ideas backed with others’ (especially experts on the field) information and data.

Every research paper has a research summary. A research summary is a brief overview of what the whole research is about. It is a professional piece of writing that describes your research to the readers. It concisely yet perfectly captures the essence of the research as a whole. You may also see What Should Be in an Executive Summary of a Report?

Fundamentals of a Research Summary

Having a good template for a research summary is nothing if you don’t know its importance and basic function. Before you start writing your research summary, you should first know its fundamentals on the areas you need to pay attention to such as its content, style and organization.

The content of your research summary must briefly discuss the techniques and tools used in the research and the importance of the research as a whole. Explain how the research can be of benefit for the people.
To organize your research summary, each topic must be discussed in separate paragraphs. How you came up with a factual research must be briefly explained in a separate paragraph.
If you have a lengthy research paper, try not to write not more than 10% of the entire paper. If it’s not as lengthy, you should not write more than 300 words in your summary.

However, rules may vary according to your research professor’s standards. This is just the basic fundamentals on how to write your research summary. Also see Thesis Outline Examples

How to Write a Research Summary

It is apparent that a research summary is a condensed version of the main idea of your research paper. Because of this, it is advised that the summary of your paper is written after you are done with your entire research. This is to ensure that all the added information in your research can be written in your summary as well and all of those that removed can be edited out. Here are a few steps on how to write a research summary:

Read your paper

It should be a fact you should know beforehand; the importance of reading your entire research paper thoroughly to write an effective research summary. Along the way, take notes of the important details and key findings that you want to highlight in your paper. This will help you organize your summary better. Remember that your research summary is a mini-paper of your study and it should contain the main ideas of your entire research.

Write a draft

For your first draft, focus on the content rather than the length of your summary. Your draft is your first outline on what to include in the final summary. Writing a draft ensures you write a clear, thorough and coherent summary of your research paper. Also see How to Write a Rough Outline

Identify main points

Within your research paper, you must identify the major points that will encourage prospective readers to go through your research paper. These major points must thoroughly and completely explain what the paper is trying to convey.

Separate sections

Identify the differences of the main section in your paper. Write a few sentences describing the main ideas of each section. In short, you should be able to present and thoroughly describe what each main section is focused on. It should have these basic sections:

Introduction, brief opening statement
Purpose of the study
Data gathering method
Summary of findings
Description of recommendations with actual justification.

Combine Information

All the information you have gathered must be then used to make your summary. Remember that your summary is just an overview of your research paper as a whole. It should be not be more than 10% of your whole paper. Also see 5 Summary Writing Examples and Samples

Making The First Draft

After establishing the basic way of writing a research summary, it is a must to write a first draft. It should follow the flow of the original paper. Here’s a few steps on how to make a first draft:

First, state the research question in the introduction of your summary. This holds the ground as to the summary’s direction. Provide an explanation why your research is interesting and how it can help your target recipients.

Second, state the hypothesis you wish to prove. This will help you and your readers stay grounded on the topic at hand.

Third, briefly discuss the methodology used in your research. Discuss and describe the procedure, materials, participants, design, etc. The analysis of your data must also be included. You may also see How to Write a Successful Thesis Proposal

Fourth, describe the results and significance of your research. And lastly, briefly discuss the key implications of your research. The results and its interpretation should directly coincide with your hypothesis.

Editing your Research Summary

A research paper is a formal piece of writing. Your summary should be tailored to your expected readers. Say for example the prospective readers are your classmates, so the style of your paper should be clearly understood by them.

Eliminate wordiness. Avoid using unnecessary adjectives and adverbs. Write in a way it would be easier for your readers to understand. It is common for research papers to establish a word count. Avoid elongating your sentences when it has shorter versions.

Being vague in describing and explaining the points of your paper might lead to confusion in your readers part. Use specific, concrete language when presenting results. Use reliable and specific examples and references as well. You should also use scientifically accurate language to help support your claims. Avoid informal words and adjectives to describe the results of your research.

Paraphrase the information you want to include in your research paper. Direct quoting the information you have read from a different source is not oftenly used in formal writings. To give the exact credit for the information you paraphrased, follow the citation format required by your professor.

Reread your paper and let others read it as well. This way minor errors you were not able to notice can be quickly pointed out and corrected.

Research Summary Writing Tips

Your research summary should not be more than 10 pages long or not more than 10% of your original document. This keeps your research summary concise and compact. It should be short enough for your readers to read through but long enough for you to clearly explain your study.

Copy and paste

Avoid simply copy and pasting different parts of your paper into your summary. You should paraphrase parts that you want to include. As most research advisers read through all of your paper, it can easily be identified if you have copy-pasted parts from your research and might give you a bad grade.

Consider the readers

Although not a requirement from your professor, catering your summary to what the readers need is sometimes required. As some studies are given out to different influential people in the field, writing a summary that caters to the readers’ necessities might be required.

Research Article Summary Template

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Research Report Executive Summary Template

Size: 120 KB

Research Summary Example

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Research Summary Sample

Size: 486 KB

Research Writing Summary Tips (continuation)

Clarity and organization.

One of the common mistakes in writing a research is publishing an unclear and unpolished summary. Bear in mind that your readers are likely reading about the topic of your research for the first time, avoid unclear and uncertain explanations and a disorganized summary.

Use strong and positive language

Use precise and strong words to help strengthen the foundation of your summary. Your summary should be able to stand alone despite it being a part of the research paper. Once you have convinced your readers with the recommendations regarding the topic of your paper, the readers should be able to find concrete evidence and explanations within your summary. Avoid pleas and biased statements in your summary, but make sure you are able to relay the sense of urgency for the recommendations you have given.

Divide into parts

To make things easier for you, divide your paper into different sections and headings, much like creating an outline. With this in mind, every point should be explained limited to its essence. In this way, you avoid writing too much information about your paper in your summary.

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Writing a Summary – Explanation & Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at October 17th, 2023 , Revised On October 17, 2023

In a world bombarded with vast amounts of information, condensing and presenting data in a digestible format becomes invaluable. Enter summaries.

A summary is a brief and concise account of the main points of a larger body of work. It distils complex ideas, narratives, or data into a version that is quicker to read and easier to understand yet still retains the essence of the original content.

Importance of Summaries

The importance of summarising extends far beyond just making reading more manageable. In academic settings, summaries aid students in understanding and retaining complex materials, from textbook chapters to research articles. They also serve as tools to showcase one’s grasp of the subject in essays and reports.

In professional arenas, summaries are pivotal in business reports, executive briefings, and even emails where key points need to be conveyed quickly to decision-makers. Meanwhile, summarising skills come into play in our personal lives when we relay news stories to friends, recap a movie plot, or even scroll through condensed news or app notifications on our smartphones.

Why Do We Write Summaries?

In our modern information age, the sheer volume of content available can be overwhelming. From detailed research papers to comprehensive news articles, the quest for knowledge is often met with lengthy and complex resources. This is where the power of a well-crafted summary comes into play. But what drives us to create or seek out summaries? Let’s discuss.

Makes Important Things Easy to Remember

At the heart of summarisation is the goal to understand. A well-written summary aids in digesting complex material. By distilling larger works into their core points, we reinforce the primary messages, making them easier to remember. This is especially crucial for students who need to retain knowledge for exams or professionals prepping for a meeting based on a lengthy report.

Simplification of Complex Topics

Not everyone is an expert in every field. Often, topics come laden with jargon, intricate details, and nuanced arguments. Summaries act as a bridge, translating this complexity into accessible and straightforward content. This is especially beneficial for individuals new to a topic or those who need just the highlights without the intricacies.

Aid in Researching and Understanding Diverse Sources

Researchers, writers, and academics often wade through many sources when working on a project. This involves finding sources of different types, such as primary or secondary sources , and then understanding their content. Sifting through each source in its entirety can be time-consuming. Summaries offer a streamlined way to understand each source’s main arguments or findings, making synthesising information from diverse materials more efficient.

Condensing Information for Presentation or Sharing

In professional settings, there is often a need to present findings, updates, or recommendations to stakeholders. An executive might not have the time to go through a 50-page report, but they would certainly appreciate a concise summary highlighting the key points. Similarly, in our personal lives, we often summarise movie plots, book stories, or news events when sharing with friends or family.

Characteristics of a Good Summary

Crafting an effective summary is an art. It’s more than just shortening a piece of content; it is about capturing the essence of the original work in a manner that is both accessible and true to its intent. Let’s explore the primary characteristics that distinguish a good summary from a mediocre one:

Conciseness

At the core of a summary is the concept of brevity. But being concise doesn’t mean leaving out vital information. A good summary will:

Eliminate superfluous details or repetitive points.
Focus on the primary arguments, events, or findings.
Use succinct language without compromising the message.

Objectivity

Summarising is not about infusing personal opinions or interpretations. A quality summary will:

Stick to the facts as presented in the original content.
Avoid introducing personal biases or perspectives.
Represent the original author’s intent faithfully.

A summary is meant to simplify and make content accessible. This is only possible if the summary itself is easy to understand. Ensuring clarity involves:

Avoiding jargon or technical terms unless they are essential to the content. If they are used, they should be clearly defined.
Structuring sentences in a straightforward manner.
Making sure ideas are presented in a way that even someone unfamiliar with the topic can grasp the primary points.

A jumble of ideas, no matter how concise, will not make for a good summary. Coherence ensures that there’s a logical flow to the summarised content. A coherent summary will:

Maintain a logical sequence, often following the structure of the original content.
Use transition words or phrases to connect ideas and ensure smooth progression.
Group related ideas together to provide structure and avoid confusion.

Steps of Writing a Summary

The process of creating a compelling summary is not merely about cutting down content. It involves understanding, discerning, and crafting. Here is a step-by-step guide to writing a summary that encapsulates the essence of the original work:

Reading Actively

Engage deeply with the content to ensure a thorough understanding.

Read the entire document or work first to grasp its overall intent and structure.
On the second read, underline or highlight the standout points or pivotal moments.
Make brief notes in the margins or on a separate sheet, capturing the core ideas in your own words.

Identifying the Main Idea

Determine the backbone of the content, around which all other details revolve.

Ask yourself: “What is the primary message or theme the author wants to convey?”
This can often be found in the title, introduction, or conclusion of a piece.
Frame the main idea in a clear and concise statement to guide your summary.

List Key Supporting Points

Understand the pillars that uphold the main idea, providing evidence or depth to the primary message.

Refer back to the points you underlined or highlighted during your active reading.
Note major arguments, evidence, or examples that the author uses to back up the main idea.
Prioritise these points based on their significance to the main idea.

Draft the Summary

Convert your understanding into a condensed, coherent version of the original.

Start with a statement of the main idea.
Follow with the key supporting points, maintaining logical order.
Avoid including trivial details or examples unless they’re crucial to the primary message.
Use your own words, ensuring you are not plagiarising the original content.

Fine-tune your draft to ensure clarity, accuracy, and brevity.

Read your draft aloud to check for flow and coherence.
Ensure that your summary remains objective, avoiding any personal interpretations or biases.
Check the length. See if any non-essential details can be removed without sacrificing understanding if it is too lengthy.
Ensure clarity by ensuring the language is straightforward, and the main ideas are easily grasped.

The research done by our experts have:

Precision and Clarity
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Dos and Don’ts of Summarising Key Points

Summarising, while seemingly straightforward, comes with its nuances. Properly condensing content demands a balance between brevity and fidelity to the original work. To aid in crafting exemplary summaries, here is a guide on the essential dos and don’ts:

Use your Own Words

This ensures that you have truly understood the content and are not merely parroting it. It also prevents issues of plagiarism.

Tip: After reading the original content, take a moment to reflect on it. Then, without looking at the source, write down the main points in your own words.

Attribute Sources Properly

Giving credit is both ethical and provides context to readers, helping them trace back to the original work if needed. How to cite sources correctly is a skill every writer should master.

Tip: Use signal phrases like “According to [Author/Source]…” or “As [Author/Source] points out…” to seamlessly incorporate attributions.

Ensure Accuracy of the Summarised Content

A summary should be a reliable reflection of the original content. Distorting or misrepresenting the original ideas compromises the integrity of the summary.

Tip: After drafting your summary, cross-check with the original content to ensure all key points are represented accurately and ensure you are referencing credible sources .

Avoid Copy-Pasting Chunks of Original Content

This not only raises plagiarism concerns but also shows a lack of genuine engagement with the material.

Tip: If a particular phrase or sentence from the original is pivotal and cannot be reworded without losing its essence, use block quotes , quotation marks, and attribute the source.

Do not Inject your Personal Opinion

A summary should be an objective reflection of the source material. Introducing personal biases or interpretations can mislead readers.

Tip: Stick to the facts and arguments presented in the original content. If you find yourself writing “I think” or “In my opinion,” reevaluate the sentence.

Do not Omit Crucial Information

While a summary is meant to be concise, it shouldn’t be at the expense of vital details that are essential to understanding the original content’s core message.

Tip: Prioritise information. Always include the main idea and its primary supports. If you are unsure whether a detail is crucial, consider its impact on the overall message.

Examples of Summaries

Here are a few examples that will help you get a clearer view of how to write a summary.

Example 1: Summary of a News Article

Original Article: The article reports on the recent discovery of a rare species of frog in the Amazon rainforest. The frog, named the “Emerald Whisperer” due to its unique green hue and the soft chirping sounds it makes, was found by a team of researchers from the University of Texas. The discovery is significant as it offers insights into the biodiversity of the region, and the Emerald Whisperer might also play a pivotal role in understanding the ecosystem balance.

Summary: Researchers from the University of Texas have discovered a unique frog, termed the “Emerald Whisperer,” in the Amazon rainforest. This finding sheds light on the region’s biodiversity and underscores the importance of the frog in ecological studies.

Example 2: Summary of a Research Paper

Original Paper: In a study titled “The Impact of Urbanisation on Bee Populations,” researchers conducted a year-long observation on bee colonies in three urban areas and three rural areas. Using specific metrics like colony health, bee productivity, and population size, the study found that urban environments saw a 30% decline in bee populations compared to rural settings. The research attributes this decline to factors like pollution, reduced green spaces, and increased temperatures in urban areas.

Summary: A study analysing the effects of urbanisation on bee colonies found a significant 30% decrease in bee populations in urban settings compared to rural areas. The decline is linked to urban factors such as pollution, diminished greenery, and elevated temperatures.

Example 3: Summary of a Novel

Original Story: In the novel “Winds of Fate,” protagonist Clara is trapped in a timeless city where memories dictate reality. Throughout her journey, she encounters characters from her past, present, and imagined future. Battling her own perceptions and a menacing shadow figure, Clara seeks an elusive gateway to return to her real world. In the climax, she confronts the shadow, which turns out to be her own fear, and upon overcoming it, she finds her way back, realising that reality is subjective.

Summary: “Winds of Fate” follows Clara’s adventures in a surreal city shaped by memories. Confronting figures from various phases of her life and battling a symbolic shadow of her own fear, Clara eventually discovers that reality’s perception is malleable and subjective.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long is a summary.

A summary condenses a larger piece of content, capturing its main points and essence. It is usually one-fourth of the original content.

What is a summary?

A summary is a concise representation of a larger text or content, highlighting its main ideas and points. It distils complex information into a shorter form, allowing readers to quickly grasp the essence of the original material without delving into extensive details. Summaries prioritise clarity, brevity, and accuracy.

When should I write a summary?

Write a summary when you need to condense lengthy content for easier comprehension and recall. It’s useful in academic settings, professional reports, presentations, and research to highlight key points. Summaries aid in comparing multiple sources, preparing for discussions, and sharing essential details of extensive materials efficiently with others.

How can I summarise a source without plagiarising?

To summarise without plagiarising: Read the source thoroughly, understand its main ideas, and then write the summary in your own words. Avoid copying phrases verbatim. Attribute the source properly. Use paraphrasing techniques and cross-check your summary against the original to ensure distinctiveness while retaining accuracy. Always prioritise understanding over direct replication.

What is the difference between a summary and an abstract?

A summary condenses a text, capturing its main points from various content types like books, articles, or movies. An abstract, typically found in research papers and scientific articles, provides a brief overview of the study’s purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions. Both offer concise versions, but abstracts are more structured and specific.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Executive Summary
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

An executive summary is a thorough overview of a research report or other type of document that synthesizes key points for its readers, saving them time and preparing them to understand the study's overall content. It is a separate, stand-alone document of sufficient detail and clarity to ensure that the reader can completely understand the contents of the main research study. An executive summary can be anywhere from 1-10 pages long depending on the length of the report, or it can be the summary of more than one document [e.g., papers submitted for a group project].

Bailey, Edward, P. The Plain English Approach to Business Writing . (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 73-80 Todorovic, Zelimir William and Marietta Wolczacka Frye. “Writing Effective Executive Summaries: An Interdisciplinary Examination.” In United States Association for Small Business and Entrepreneurship. Conference Proceedings . (Decatur, IL: United States Association for Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 2009): pp. 662-691.

Importance of a Good Executive Summary

Although an executive summary is similar to an abstract in that they both summarize the contents of a research study, there are several key differences. With research abstracts, the author's recommendations are rarely included, or if they are, they are implicit rather than explicit. Recommendations are generally not stated in academic abstracts because scholars operate in a discursive environment, where debates, discussions, and dialogs are meant to precede the implementation of any new research findings. The conceptual nature of much academic writing also means that recommendations arising from the findings are distributed widely and not easily or usefully encapsulated. Executive summaries are used mainly when a research study has been developed for an organizational partner, funding entity, or other external group that participated in the research . In such cases, the research report and executive summary are often written for policy makers outside of academe, while abstracts are written for the academic community. Professors, therefore, assign the writing of executive summaries so students can practice synthesizing and writing about the contents of comprehensive research studies for external stakeholder groups.

When preparing to write, keep in mind that:

An executive summary is not an abstract.
An executive summary is not an introduction.
An executive summary is not a preface.
An executive summary is not a random collection of highlights.

Christensen, Jay. Executive Summaries Complete The Report. California State University Northridge; Clayton, John. "Writing an Executive Summary that Means Business." Harvard Management Communication Letter (July 2003): 2-4; Keller, Chuck. "Stay Healthy with a Winning Executive Summary." Technical Communication 41 (1994): 511-517; Murphy, Herta A., Herbert W. Hildebrandt, and Jane P. Thomas. Effective Business Communications . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997; Vassallo, Philip. "Executive Summaries: Where Less Really is More." ETC.: A Review of General Semantics 60 (Spring 2003): 83-90 .

Structure and Writing Style

Writing an Executive Summary

Read the Entire Document This may go without saying, but it is critically important that you read the entire research study thoroughly from start to finish before you begin to write the executive summary. Take notes as you go along, highlighting important statements of fact, key findings, and recommended courses of action. This will better prepare you for how to organize and summarize the study. Remember this is not a brief abstract of 300 words or less but, essentially, a mini-paper of your paper, with a focus on recommendations.

Isolate the Major Points Within the Original Document Choose which parts of the document are the most important to those who will read it. These points must be included within the executive summary in order to provide a thorough and complete explanation of what the document is trying to convey.

Separate the Main Sections Closely examine each section of the original document and discern the main differences in each. After you have a firm understanding about what each section offers in respect to the other sections, write a few sentences for each section describing the main ideas. Although the format may vary, the main sections of an executive summary likely will include the following:

An opening statement, with brief background information,
The purpose of research study,
Method of data gathering and analysis,
Overview of findings, and,
A description of each recommendation, accompanied by a justification. Note that the recommendations are sometimes quoted verbatim from the research study.

Combine the Information Use the information gathered to combine them into an executive summary that is no longer than 10% of the original document. Be concise! The purpose is to provide a brief explanation of the entire document with a focus on the recommendations that have emerged from your research. How you word this will likely differ depending on your audience and what they care about most. If necessary, selectively incorporate bullet points for emphasis and brevity. Re-read your Executive Summary After you've completed your executive summary, let it sit for a while before coming back to re-read it. Check to make sure that the summary will make sense as a separate document from the full research study. By taking some time before re-reading it, you allow yourself to see the summary with fresh, unbiased eyes.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Length of the Executive Summary As a general rule, the correct length of an executive summary is that it meets the criteria of no more pages than 10% of the number of pages in the original document, with an upper limit of no more than ten pages [i.e., ten pages for a 100 page document]. This requirement keeps the document short enough to be read by your audience, but long enough to allow it to be a complete, stand-alone synopsis. Cutting and Pasting With the exception of specific recommendations made in the study, do not simply cut and paste whole sections of the original document into the executive summary. You should paraphrase information from the longer document. Avoid taking up space with excessive subtitles and lists, unless they are absolutely necessary for the reader to have a complete understanding of the original document. Consider the Audience Although unlikely to be required by your professor, there is the possibility that more than one executive summary will have to be written for a given document [e.g., one for policy-makers, one for private industry, one for philanthropists]. This may only necessitate the rewriting of the introduction and conclusion, but it could require rewriting the entire summary in order to fit the needs of the reader. If necessary, be sure to consider the types of audiences who may benefit from your study and make adjustments accordingly. Clarity in Writing One of the biggest mistakes you can make is related to the clarity of your executive summary. Always note that your audience [or audiences] are likely seeing your research study for the first time. The best way to avoid a disorganized or cluttered executive summary is to write it after the study is completed. Always follow the same strategies for proofreading that you would for any research paper. Use Strong and Positive Language Don’t weaken your executive summary with passive, imprecise language. The executive summary is a stand-alone document intended to convince the reader to make a decision concerning whether to implement the recommendations you make. Once convinced, it is assumed that the full document will provide the details needed to implement the recommendations. Although you should resist the temptation to pad your summary with pleas or biased statements, do pay particular attention to ensuring that a sense of urgency is created in the implications, recommendations, and conclusions presented in the executive summary. Be sure to target readers who are likely to implement the recommendations.

Bailey, Edward, P. The Plain English Approach to Business Writing . (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 73-80; Christensen, Jay. Executive Summaries Complete The Report. California State University Northridge; Executive Summaries. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Clayton, John. "Writing an Executive Summary That Means Business." Harvard Management Communication Letter , 2003; Executive Summary. University Writing Center. Texas A&M University; Green, Duncan. Writing an Executive Summary. Oxfam’s Research Guidelines series ; Guidelines for Writing an Executive Summary. Astia.org; Markowitz, Eric. How to Write an Executive Summary. Inc. Magazine, September, 15, 2010; Kawaski, Guy. The Art of the Executive Summary. "How to Change the World" blog; Keller, Chuck. "Stay Healthy with a Winning Executive Summary." Technical Communication 41 (1994): 511-517; The Report Abstract and Executive Summary. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Executive Summaries. Effective Writing Center. University of Maryland; Kolin, Philip. Successful Writing at Work . 10th edition. (Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2013), p. 435-437; Moral, Mary. "Writing Recommendations and Executive Summaries." Keeping Good Companies 64 (June 2012): 274-278; Todorovic, Zelimir William and Marietta Wolczacka Frye. “Writing Effective Executive Summaries: An Interdisciplinary Examination.” In United States Association for Small Business and Entrepreneurship. Conference Proceedings . (Decatur, IL: United States Association for Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 2009): pp. 662-691.

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Published: 08 May 2024

Development and evaluation of time-resolved rapid immunofluorescence test for detection of TSOL18 specific antibody in porcine cysticercosis infections

Dejia Zhang 2 na1 ,
Rui Duan 2 na1 ,
Jing Liu 3 na1 ,
Mengqi Wang 2 ,
Yi Yang 1 ,
Yongjun Zhao 2 ,
Mingyuan Liu 4 , 5 &
Shumin Sun 1

BMC Veterinary Research volume 20 , Article number: 182 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Porcine cysticercosis, a serious zoonotic parasitic disease, is caused by the larvae of Taenia solium and has been acknowledged by the World Organization for Animal Health. The current detection methods of Cysticercus cellulosae cannot meet the needs of large-scale and rapid detection in the field. We hypothesized that the immunofluorescence chromatography test strip (ICS) for detecting Cysticercus cellulosae , according to optimization of a series of reaction systems was conducted, and sensitivity, specificity, and stability testing, and was finally compared with ELISA. This method utilizes Eu 3+ -labeled time-resolved fluorescent microspheres (TRFM) coupled with TSOL18 antigen to detect TSOL18 antibodies in infected pig sera.

ICS and autopsy have highly consistent diagnostic results ( n = 133), as determined by Cohen’s κ analysis (κ = 0.925). And the results showed that the proposed ICS are high sensitivity (0.9459) with specificity (0.9792). The ICS was unable to detect positive samples of other parasites. It can be stored for at least six months at 4℃.

Conclusions

In summary, we established a TRFM-ICS method with higher sensitivity and specificity than indirect ELISA. Results obtained from serum samples can be read within 10 min, indicating a rapid, user-friendly test suitable for large-scale field detection.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Cysticercus cellulosae , the metacestode stage of Taenia solium , causes cysticercosis, which is a serious zoonotic parasitic disease and has been listed by the World Health Organization as one of the neglected tropical diseases [ 1 ]. The Chinese List of Zoonotic Infectious Diseases still includes cysticercosis as of June 2022. Taenia solium exists throughout America [ 2 ] and sub-Saharan Africa [ 3 ], Bali and Papua in Indonesia [ 4 ] and Asia [ 5 ]. The prevalence rates of porcine cysticercosis in Africa, Latin America, and Asia were 17.37%, 13.03%, and 15.68% respectively between 1989 and 2014 [ 5 ]. However, Uganda [ 6 ], Ghana [ 7 ], Cameroon [ 8 ] in Africa, and Cambodia [ 9 ], have been plagued by the porcine cysticercosis in the past decade, with prevalence rates reaching 4.8%, 24.9%, 24.8%, and 4.7% respectively.

The symptoms caused by cysticercosis are related to its parasitic location and quantity, but the most concerned is neurocysticercosis [ 5 ]. 1/3 of epilepsy was caused by neurocysticercosis in low-and middle-income countries [ 10 ]. Secondly, ocular cysticercosis is also a serious clinical problem. Most of the parasitic cysticercosis are located in the deep part of the eyeball, and vitreous cysts may hinder vision or even blindness [ 11 ]. Cysticercosis is also a serious threat to the health of pigs. It can lead to disability or death in severe cases.

A rapid detection method with high accuracy, specificity, and sensitivity can reduce the global burden of cysticercosis, especially in remote areas of many developing countries that lack good medical facilities. If the inspection during slaughtering and quarantine mainly relies on identifying Trichinella spiralis and Cysticercus cellulosae by the naked eye, it can easily cause missed detection, seriously affecting the meat quality and posing a potential often needs to be assessed in cysticercosis-endemic areas [ 12 ]. The current common detection methods are indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Indirect ELISA) and dot avidin-biotin complex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Dot-ABC-ELISA) [ 13 , 14 ]. The basic principle of ELISA technology can be traced back to 1941, and it is still one of the most commonly used methods in the laboratory [ 15 ]. However, the method is not suitable forrapid detection in the field.

At present, there are a variety of immunochromatographic methods on the market. The test strips based on gold nanoparticles are very common in the market, but different batches of products vary greatly [ 16 ]. Moreover, the chromaticity and colloidal stability of gold nanoparticles are suboptimal, resulting in diminished sensitivity of the colloidal gold test strip [ 16 ]. One of the main drawbacks of traditional fluorescence quantitative analysis is background interference [ 17 ]. Time-resolved fluorescence microsphere immunochromatography strip test (TRFM-ICST) is a relatively novel detection technique. The time-resolved lanthanide chelated microspheres have a longer fluorescence signal lifetime, with a long decay time of 10-2000 µs, about 10 3 times that of traditional fluorescent compared with traditional fluorescent microspheres [ 18 , 19 ]. The fluorescence signal of TRFM can still be measured after a certain excitation time interval, which avoids the influence of background fluorescence signal [ 18 , 19 ]. However, TRFM-ICST can be read under a 365 nm wavelength UV light and analyzed through an immunoassay analyzer. The TRFM can wrap thousands of fluorescent molecules greatly increasing the labeling efficiency [ 20 ]. TRFM contains carboxyl groups with appropriate density, which can be used for covalently coupling of proteins or antibodies to improve the stability of the labeling [ 20 ]. Moreover, TRFM-ICST offers a series of advantages, including high specificity, sensitivity and stability, wide linear range, multi-marker detection, etc [ 18 , 19 , 20 ].

In the life cycle of Taenia solium , the oncosphere stage is considered to be the key period for invading the host, which generates specific antigen called TSOL18 with strong immunogenicity and antigenicity [ 11 ]. The TSOL18 gene has been widely used as a potential candidate gene in oncospheres vaccines, owing to the good immunogenicity of the TSOL18 protein [ 11 ]. Pigs attained a nearly complete immune protection rate of 99.5% when they were immunized solely with the recombinant TSOL18 antigen [ 21 ]. A research used TSOL18 to develop a method for detecting porcine cysticercosis based on a lateral-flow assay (LFA) that uses up-converting phosphor technology [ 22 ]. The sensitivity of this method was 93.59% and the specificity was 100% [ 22 ]. In this study, we aimed to assess a simple, rapid, and stable TRFM-ICS using TSOL18 antigen to achieve large-scale and rapid field detection of Cysticercus cellulose .

Materials and methods

Sartorius (USA) provided the nitrocellulose (NC) membrane (CN140). Mouse anti-pig IgG antibodies and rabbit anti-goat IgG antibodies were obtained from Beijing Biolab Technology (China). Carboxyl group-modified europium nanoparticles (EuNPs) were purchased from Thermo Fisher (USA). 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethyl carbodiimide (EDC) was purchased from Tokyo Chemical Industry (China). Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and Tween-20 were obtained from Solarbio (China). N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) was purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Japan). 2-morpholine ethanesulfonic acid (MES) was purchased from Genview (China). Proclin300 was obtained from Yuanye Biology (China). Jinbiao Biotech (China) provided the samples, conjugates, absorbents, and plastic backing. Goat anti-rabbit IgG antibodies were obtained from Cell Signal Technology (USA).The TSOL18 Recombinant protein was synthesized by Sangon Biotech (China) [ 23 ].

The UV lamp was purchased from Shenzhen Feike Technology (China). The fluorescence quantitative analyzer was from Weice Biotech (China). The XYZ3060 dispenser was obtained from BioDot (USA) and XYZ three-dimensional gold spraying instrument HM3230 was from Jinbiao Biotech (China). The XM-P15H ultrasonic cleaner was purchased from Xiaomei ultrasonic instrument (China).

Ethical approval

This study was approved by the ethics committee of Inner Mongolia MinZu University (approval no.IMUN20190301). We certify that the study was performed in accordance with the 1964 declaration of HELSINKI and later amendments.

Study animals and serum samples

A total of 105 suspected pigs were purchased from farmers suspected of being infected with cysticercosis in several areas of Inner Mongolia between 2014 and 2018 (Clinical symptoms include stunted growth and development of pigs, stiffness of the forelimbs, and granular solids in the subcutaneous muscles of the medial thigh. A few pigs have symptoms of epilepsy). Our sample selection principle is: natural infection, no major diseases, and the possibility of cross infection with other parasites should be excluded as much as possible. None of the sampled pigs had been vaccinated against cysticercosis. Positive and negative samples should be ensured to live in the same environment, and the sample size should not be too small and sufficient for convincing analysis.

Blood samples were obtained by jugular vein puncture, and stool samples were obtained from rectum. The serum samples of these pigs were preserved at Inner Mongolia Minzu University’s Clinical Laboratory of Animal Science and Technology, China.

A total of 69 porcine sera infected with Taenia hydatigena (5), Toxoplasma gondii (3), Trichinella spiralis (20), Taenia asiatica (4), Ascaris suum (9) and negative pig serum samples without any infection (28 samples) were provided by the State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Jilin University (China).

Pig necropsies

We euthanized pigs by intravenous injection of excessive pentobarbital sodium (100 mg/kg). Pigs were carefully examined for the presence of cysts in the entrails and muscle tissues during the necropsy. The suspicious area was dissected into 1 cm thick slices using a surgical scalpel, and a thorough examination was conducted to identify the presence of Cysticercus cellulosae . The mature Cysticercus cellulosae exhibits an elongated oval shape, measuring approximately 6–10 mm in length and 5 mm in width. It is translucent in appearance, with a liquid-filled capsule. Additionally, it contains a white scolex, comparable in size to a millet seed. The parasite found within the brain exhibits a spherical shape, measuring 8–10 mm in diameter. Cysticercosis burden was classified as follows: negative (no cysts), mild if one to 20 cysts were found in the whole carcass, including the brain; moderate for 20 to 200 cysts; and severe for those with more than 200 cysts in the whole pig [ 24 ]. Overall a pig was considered positive if at least one cyst was found in the whole carcass.

In addition, we paid extra attention to the infection of other parasites (such as Taenia hydatigena and Taenia asiatica ) in pigs’ entrails and muscle tissues during the necropsy.

Gastrointestinal parasite identification and counts

Put 5–10 g of feces in a beaker, add 10–20 times the volume of saturated saline solution, and stir the feces until they are dissolved. Use 3–4 layers of gauze or copper mesh to filter the mixture. Observe and count the sample under the microscope after standing for 15 min [ 6 ].

Method establishment based on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

The TSOL18 protein was diluted to 1 µg/mL using a carbonate buffer solution coating solution. Then, 100 µl antigen was added to each well of a 96-well ELISA plate and incubated at 37 °C for 2 h. Then 150 µl PBST buffer (PBS containing 0.05% Tween-20) was added to each well for washing and the plate was put on a shaker for 5 min × 5 times. Each hole were filled with 150 µl blocking solution (PBST containing 1% BSA) at 25 °C for 1.5 h. Each well was added with 100 µl blocking solution containing the primary antibody at 25℃ for 1.5 h after washed the plate. The not-infected or blank control pig serum was used to set the negative control group (verified using the gold standard method with a sample size of at least 5). Each well was added with 100 µl blocking solution containing the goat anti-porcine IgG secondary antibody (1:4000) at 37℃ for 0.5 h after washed the plate. In the darkness, 100 µl TMB was added to each well at 37℃ for 15 min after washed the plate. Then, 50 µl 2 mol/L H 2 SO 4 was added to each well to stop the reaction. Finally, the plate was read for sample absorption at 450 nm by the enzyme labeling instrument and the results were examined. The sample was deemed positive if the OD value exceeded 2.1 times over the negative control sample.

Coupling of time-resolved fluorescent microspheres with the antigen and antibodies

First, 10 µl of microspheres were centrifuged at 14,000×g for 20 min, and the supernatant was discarded. Then microspheres were resuspended in 100 µl (50 mM/L, pH 6.0) of MES, and the supernatant was again removed by centrifugation at 14,000×g for 20 min at 4℃. The recovered microspheres were incubated with 0.5 µl of EDC (10 mg/mL), 1.5 µl of NHS (15 mg/mL), and 100 µl of MES for 0.5 h. Afterward, the mixture was centrifuged for 20 min at 14,000×g to remove the supernatant. Next, the processed microspheres were resuspended in 200 µL of PB buffer (0.025 mol/L, pH 7.2) and subjected to ultrasonication for 6 min (300 W). Next, 6.7 µg of TSOL18 antigen was added and the mixture was incubated at room temperature (25 ± 5℃) for 3 h, followed by centrifugation at 14,000×g for 20 min to remove the supernatant. Next, the recovered pellet was added with 200 µl of 1% BSA and 0.1 M Glycine and blocking was performed for 2 h at room temperature (RT). The mixture was again centrifuged to remove the supernatant and the pellet was added with fluorescent probes dissolved in a preserved buffer (25 mM/L Tris containing 0.05% Tween-20, 0.15 mM/L NaCl, 0.05% Pro Clin 300, 1% BSA, and 5% Trehalose). Similar procedures were followed for the microspheres conjugation with goat anti-rabbit IgG [ 25 ].

Composition of the immunofluorescence chromatography test strip (ICS)

The ICS is composed of a sample pad, conjugated pad, NC film, absorbent pad, and bottom plate. The fluorescent probes of TRFM-TSOL18 (capture probe) and TRFM- Goat anti-rabbit IgG (indicator probe) were mixed in a 4:1 ratio and sprayed on the conjugated pad with XYZ3060 dispensing machine. Similarly, mouse anti-pig IgG antibodies (2 mg/mL) were coated on NC membrane to make T-line for sample detection. Rabbit anti-goat IgG antibodies (1 mg/mL) were coated on the NC membrane to make a C-line for quality control. After drying at RT for 3 h, the five parts were assembled in the direction of chromatography, cut into the width of 4 mm, and stored at 4 ℃ [ 26 ].

ICS detection principle

The ICS principle of cysticercosis detection is illustrated in Fig. 1 . The anti- Cysticercus cellulosae antibodies in serum samples are bind to the fluorescent microsphere-TSOL18 probe on the binding pad if detecting a positive sample. The fluorescent conjugate is subsequently captured by the mouse anti-porcine IgG at the T-line as it undergoes chromatographic movement. Similarly, the fluorescent microsphere-goat anti-rabbit IgG probe binds to rabbit anti-goat IgG on the C-line [ 26 ]. Finally, there are fluorescence signals at both the C and T lines.Only rabbit anti-goat IgG will bind with the fluorescent microsphere goat anti-rabbit IgG probe at the C-line when detecting negative serum (Fig. 2 ).

Schematic diagram of immunofluorescence chromatographic test strip for cysticercosis detection. (A) Assembly design of immunochromatographic strips. (B) Schematic diagram showing the chromatographic movement of constituents in the immunofluorescence chromatography test strip

Positive and negative serum samples were detected under a UV lamp using ICS. 1: sample hole; 2: detection line; 3: quality control line. (a) is a schematic diagram of positive results; (b) is a schematic diagram of negative results; (c) is a schematic diagram of invalid results

The cut off value for the ICS

The fluorescence signal values of the T line were read after detecting the serum samples from 80 parasite-free pigs using the ICS. The cut off value was determined through the analysis. Samples with T line values lower than the cut off value were considered negative, whereas those equal to or higher than the cut off value were considered positive.

Optimization of ICS

The sample pad, generally made of cellulose or glass fiber, can transport the sample to other parts of the test strip. Its functions include separating sample components, removing interference, and adjusting the pH. Firstly, the sample gasket materials (SB08, 8964, XQY8, ST17, SB06, RB45, 6613, and RB65) and made of glass fiber and polyester fiber were evaluated for their applicability in ICS. Secondly, TSOL18 and fluorescent microspheres coupled at 1:5, 1:10, 1:15, and 1:20 were evaluated [ 25 ].

Analytical sensitivity, and specificity, and stability of ICS

The serum samples from pigs infected with Cysticercus cellulosae were tested for dilution at 1:25, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:400, 1:800, 1:1600, and 1:3200 by ICS. Thereafter, the results of the serologically positive samples were compared with results obtained from ELISA and assessment of autopsies.The serum samples infected with Toxoplasma gondii , Trichinella spiralis , Taenia asiatica , Taenia hydatigena , and Ascaris suum were detected by TRFM-ICST to evaluate analytical specificity of the ICS.

The same batch of negative (10) and positive serums (10) was tested at different time points and two temperatures (4 and 25 ℃) and each test had three replicates. The results at different time points were compared with the initial results to calculate the relative deviation: a relative deviation of less than 15% was accepted [ 22 ].

Data analysis

The ICS data from the fluorescence reader and that of T-line fluorescence were imported into GraphPad Prism8 software, and the results are expressed as means ± SD. SPSS 24 statistical software was used for statistical analysis.

Necropsy results

A total of 105 suspicious positive pigs were purchased, from which 64 were > 9 months old, and 41 were ≤ 9 months. The 37 pigs (35.2%) had porcine cysticercosis, whereas 68 pigs (64.8%) were free from it. Among these 37 infected pigs, 7, 26 and 4 had mild, moderate and severe infection burdens (Fig. 3 ).

No infections of Taenia hydatigena , Taenia asiatica , and Trichinella spiralis were found during the autopsy of all pigs.

Autopsy pictures (partial). (A) Caseous (inactive) cysticerci. (B) Cysticercus cellulosae . (C) Cysts (active)

Porcine rectal stool examination results

No parasite eggs were found. This observation indicates the absence of cross-infection of parasites of coccidia, Ascaris spp. and Trichuris spp. in pigs.

ICS cut‑off value

Negative serum samples from 80 pigs without parasite infection were detected by ICS. We used Probability-probability Plot and Quantile-quantile Plot to test all the T-line fluorescence values of ICS after inputting them into the SPSS analysis software. It was found that the data conformed to the normal distribution. We set the confidence level at 95% and use x̅±2SD to establish the confidence intervals. The cut-off value of TRFM-TSOL18-ICS based on x̅±2SD is 43.63 (Fig. 4 ).

Distribution of negative results to determine the cut-off value of ICS

ICS optimization

The sample pad materials and the ratio of time immunofluorescence resolved microsphere antigen in ICS were optimized for a bright fluorescence signal at the T-line. SB08 sample pads produced a stronger fluorescence signal at the T line. Also, the immunofluorescent microsphere- TSOL18 antigen ratio of 1:15 was found the best for a stronger fluorescence signal (Fig. 5 ).

Optimization of ICS. (A) Rate of fluorescent particle conjugation with TSOL18 antigens: lanes 1 to 4 denote immunofluorescent microsphere-TSOL18 antigen ratio of 1:5, 1:10, 1:15, and 1:20, respectively. (B) Optimization of sample pad materials: lanes 1 to 8 are SB08, 8964, XQY8, SB06, ST17, RB45, RB65, and 6613, respectively. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001,**** P < 0.0001

Analytical sensitivity test

The serum samples from cysticercosis animals were detected by fluorescence ICS: the fluorescence signal decreased with the increase of serum dilution (Fig. 6 ). The signal was at its best at 100× dilution, however, even 800× dilution produced a weak signal visible to the naked eye. At 1600 times dilution, the fluorescence intensity of the T line was still higher than the cut off value. Additionally, Western blot analysis was used to validate the analytical sensitivity of TSOL18 (Fig. 6 C). The results indicate that specific bands begin to appear when the serum dilution of 1:200, and the bands disappear after 1:800.

Analytical sensitivity test of ICS. (A) A TRF reader was used to analyze ICS signals for different diluted samples. (B) Visual results of ICS under ultraviolet light. Lanes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 represent the serum samples diluted at 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, and 3200 times, respectively. *** P < 0.001,**** P < 0.0001. (C) TSOL18 was analyzed using Western blot with different positive serum dilutions. M: marker. Lanes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 represent the serum samples diluted at 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, and 3200 times, respectively

Analytical specificity test

The positive serum samples of Toxoplasma gondii , Trichinella spiralis , Taenia asiatica , Taenia hydatigena , and Ascaris suum confirmed by ‘gold standard’ were tested by ICS. None of the samples produced a false positive band in ICS, meanwhile, the T-ray fluorescence signal remained below the cut-off value (Fig. 7 ). This shows that ICS has good specificity and does not detect other similar infections. The analytical specificity test results of ICS were verified by west blot. The results indicate that the two test results were consistent (Fig. 7 C).

Analytical specificity test of ICS. (A) A TRF reader was used to read the ICS signals from different samples. (B) Visual results of ICS under ultraviolet light. Lanes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 represent positive control and the positive serum samples from Toxoplasma gondii , Trichinella spiralis , Taenia asiatica , Taenia hydatigena , and Ascaris suum , respectively. (C) TSOL18 was analyzed using Western blot with positive serum of different samples. Lanes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 represent positive control and the positive serum samples from Toxoplasma gondii , Trichinella spiralis , Taenia asiatica , Taenia hydatigena , and Ascaris suum , respectively. M: marker

Stability test

Test strips good analytical sensitivity and specificity stored at 4 °C for 24 weeks, indicating that they can be stored for at least 6 months at 4 °C. The test strips stored at RT for 16 weeks have good analytical sensitivity and specificity, indicating that they can be stored for up to 4 months at RT. There were no significant differences in color between the detection and control lines. From the 18th week onwards, the color of the T and C lines became lighter, indicating that test strips are potentially good enough for only up to 16 weeks at RT.

Comparison between ICS and ELISA

We used autopsy, ELISA, and ICS methods to test the previously mentioned 133 (105 + 28) samples, and assessed the consistency between the three tests through Cohen’s κ analysis. The 105 samples’ detection results of the three methods were shown (Table 1 ; Fig. 8 ). The agreement between autopsy and ICS ( n = 133) was assessed by Cohen’s κ analysis (Table 2 ). A highly agreement (κ = 0.925) was observed between the two methods according to κ values reported previously [ 27 ]. And the results showed that the proposed ICS are high sensitivity (se: 0.9459) with specificity of 0.9792. The consistency of ICS detection was higher than ELISA, because the diagnostic agreement between ELISA and autopsy was analyzed as 0.870 through Cohen’s κ analysis (Table 3 ). The Youden descriptor of ICS was 0.9251, so it diagnoses well.

The test results of 105 samples. (A) ELISA. (B) TRFM-ICS

At the present time, there are a number of serological tests for porcine cysticercosis that have been published and were originally claimed to offer sensitive and specific diagnosis of porcine cysticercosis, in particular the apDia circulating antigen test developed at the Institute of Tropical Medicine in Antwerp, and an EITB using lentil lectin purified cysticercus glycoproteins developed at the CDC in the US. Despite the original claims for these tests being near perfect in both specificity and sensitivity, both have subsequently been shown to be virtually useless for diagnosis of porcine cysticercosis because of poor specificity - most serologically positive animals have no T. solium infection at all [ 24 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. The most important failure of all serological tests evaluated to date for porcine cysticercosis is poor specificity and one of the most important causes of cross-reactivity is exposure to, or infection with Taenia hydatigena , a ubiquitous taeniid cestode parasite of sheep and goats that also infects pigs [ 32 ]. The necropsy is to detect Cysticercus cellulosae ’s ‘gold standard’. The only drawback of the overall autopsy is that it is extremely time-consuming and labor-intensive. But it is very time-consuming and labor-intensive, if daily meat inspection relies on autopsies.

There were countless detection methods have been established using ELISA. We can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the benefits of TRFM-ICS by conducting a comparative analysis with ELISA. We used three methods to detect the research samples, using Cohen’s Kappa statistic to determine the consistency of the three methods. The consistency of the diagnosis results between ICS and the gold standard was very high. The se and sq of ICS were 0.9459 and 0.9792 (base on reaserch samples), respectively. This indicates that this ICS has the potential to be further developed. ICS outperforms ELISA in terms of detection speed and the reliability of results (base on the Cohen’s kappa coefficient). ICS also demonstrates significant advantages compared to ELISA in detecting Trichinella spiralis [ 26 ]. The results indicated that seroconversion of infection pigs was detected by ICS earlier than Qiagen ELISA [ 26 ]. Our results showed that the ICS failed to detect two positive samples, one with a moderate infection and one with a severe infection. We have the following explanation for this: the two pigs have already entered the late stage of infection and have not ingested any new eggs, resulting in a very low level of TSOL18 antibodies, which caused the ICS to miss the detection. Because the optimal serum dilution for ELISA is much lower than ICS. We speculate that the antibodies can be detected under this dilution, so the ELISA method did not miss these two samples. The original intention of designing this detection method was to achieve early diagnosis of swine cysticercosis, so that we can treat infected pigs early upon detection. So, it met our expectations when ICS detected all 7 mild pigs.

To minimize the occurrence of multiple infections in the samples, we employed the fecal flotation technique to identify the presence of parasites (such as coccidia, Ascaris spp. and Trichuris spp. ). During the process of dissection, it is essential to confirm the presence of Taenia hydatigena , Taenia asiatica , or Trichinella spiralis infection in the sample. These measures were still unable to completely eliminate the risk of cross-infection with other parasitic diseases (such as Sarcoptes scabiei and Toxoplasma gondii ), because there was a wide range of parasitic diseases in pigs. However, all pathogens that could potentially impact the detection of pig cysticercosis have been eliminated [ 33 ]. It is essential to optimize every detail in order to establish an excellent inspection method. The storage buffer utilized for TRFM comprises surfactants and preservatives, which have the potential to influence the coupling efficacy between the microspheres and TSOL18. Therefore, these substances need to be removed by centrifugation before coupling. EDC and NHS are commonly employed as activating reagents in the synthesis of amides to enhance coupling efficiency of carboxylic acids. The determination of the optimal ratio of microspheres to activator and the ratio of EDC to NHS is crucial for the activation of carboxyl groups [ 34 ]. Insufficient activation may lead to low coupling efficiency, and decreased sensitivity. Microspheres may aggregate following coupling, primarily due to the disparate isoelectric points of the coupled substances. Therefore, maintaining an appropriate pH value of the coupled system is crucial to ensure the successful outcome of the experiment [ 34 ]. The improper pH level can give rise to an uneven distribution of charges, leading to the occurrence of charge settling. The microspheres surface of the unbound target protein still retains the ability to adsorb proteins. Selecting appropriate blocking agents (such as BSA, gelatin, skim milk powder) can effectively reduce subsequent nonspecific binding. The controlled release of microspheres in chromatography plays a critical role, as both excessively rapid or slow release can significantly impact the results [ 34 ]. Therefore, the sample material should select the appropriate aperture size and flow rate. There are significant differences between different samples (for example pH and ion strength). Therefore, it is imperative for the sample pad, which serves as the designated area for the droplet-added sample, to possess robust preprocessing and filtering capabilities.

A study found that the gene of TSOL18 runs through the whole life of Taenia solium , but the protein expression was limited to the oncosphere lifecycle stage [ 35 ]. However, after eating Taenia solium eggs, it takes 2–3 months for oncosphere to develop into Cysticercus cellulosae , and the method we have established was diagnosed by detecting antibodies in serology [ 11 ]. Even if all the oncospheres in pigs developed into cysticercosis, the antibodies in the blood will last for a long time. A prior study used TSOL18 vaccine to immunize young pigs (the maximum interval for immunization were 6 months) determined that the final immune protection rate was as high as 100%. Hence, anti cysticercaus-antibody appeared to remain in the body for at least six months [ 21 ]. Moreover, these pigs may often come into contact with parasite eggs again in countries with severe cysticercosis. This further improves the applicable time range of this method.

The sensitivity of the ICS method exhibits 1% increase when compared to the LFA method [ 22 ]. Not only does ICS demonstrate exceptional detection results, but it also offers a more cost-effective alternative to LFA. The LFA method requires a small biological sensor to conduct semi-quantitative analysis, and its market price is 290,000 CNY. It is not realistic to equip each testing area with such a device in low- and middle-income countries. Similarly, the market price for the fluorescent quantitative analyzer used for ICS is approximately 5000 CNY. The approximate cost required to produce one ICS (the main materials do not exceed 1 CNY). The cost of ICS was not high, and could be lower with mass production. Excessively humid environments and excessively strong light may be detrimental to the storage of ICS, considering different application scenarios in the real world. However, purchasing aluminum foil vacuum bags and a household vacuum sealer can help store ICS effectively. The detection process of ICS is very easy. 1 µl of serum was added to a pre-prepared buffer, mixed, and then dropped into the sample loading area. The results can be determined by using a portable UV lamp for illumination after waiting. Ordinary individuals can also readily accomplish the testing. So, this ICS fully caters to market demands and is equally practical in various real-world environments.

There was no cross-reaction to Taenia hydatigena in our ICS method. However, no literature on Taenia hydatigena and TSOL18 has been published, and the theoretical reason is not yet clear. We speculate that the oncosphere larval stage of the Taenia hydatigena lacks antigens similar to TSOL18. One of our objectives is to collect the eggs and comprehensively examine the factors contributing to this phenomenon through experimental analysis in the future. The ICS method is currently limited to laboratory testing with sample size of 105 samples. We plan to collect pig meat and serum samples (at least 1000 samples) in the high-prevalence areas of porcine cysticercosis (at least three locations). The pork samples are subjected to necropsy, and the serum samples are analyzed using the ICS method in order to further investigate its practicality. The development of ICS using whole blood as a sample would be a new breakthrough, because the preparation of serum from whole blood still requires pre-processing. The method has not been tested on human cysticercosis patients. It would be a significant breakthrough if this product can be applied to humans. If these two problems can be resolved, it may be possible to achieve quantitative analysis of Cysticercus cellulosae . Firstly, the minimum detectable level of TSOL18 antibodies in the body. Secondly, the level of TSOL18 antibodies changes caused by the parasitic infection of one or more Cysticercus cellulosae . Can we predict the number of cysts in this pig by measuring the T-line fluorescence intensity? The improvement of detection techniques for cysticercosis remains a significant challenge that requires further advancements.

The preliminary evaluation of the TRFM-ICS method for detecting Cysticercus cellulosae by detecting anti-TSOL18 serological antibody indicates that the test results are good in analytical sensitivity and specificity.Further testing is required on a large number of experimental samples ultimately in equal number of true positive and negative samples for precise validation to evaluate diagnostic sensitivity, specificity and accuracy.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Abbreviations

immunofluorescence chromatography test strip

time-resolved fluorescent microspheres

indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

dot avidin-biotin complex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Time-resolved fluorescence microsphere immunochromatography strip test

room temperature

enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot

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Jiang J, Luo P, Liang J, Shen X, Lei H, Li X. A highly sensitive and quantitative time resolved fluorescent microspheres lateral flow immunoassay for streptomycin and dihydrostreptomycin in milk, honey, muscle, liver, and kidney. Anal Chim Acta. 2022;1192:339360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2021.339360 .

Gauci CG, Verástegui MR, Gilman RH, Lightowlers MW. Taenia solium and Taenia Ovis : stage-specific expression of the vaccine antigen genes, TSOL18, TSOL16, and homologues, in oncospheres. Exp Parasitol. 2006;113(4):272–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2006.01.006 .

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Acknowledgements

We thank the State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Jilin University, for providing a variety of parasite-positive sera and experimental platforms. We would also like to thank all those who contributed to this work.

This study was supported by The National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFE0114400, 2022YFE0114600), the Inner Mongolia autonomous region science and technology plan project (2022YFDZ0049), the National Nature Science Foundation of China (NSFC 32160842, 31960707, 31460658), the Natural Science Foundation of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (2021MS03037, 2019LH03021), and the Basic scientific research operating expenses of colleges and universities directly under Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region project (GXKY22042), Zoonotic parasitic diseases Research and innovation Team of Inner Mongolia Minzu University.

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Dejia Zhang, Rui Duan and Jing Liu contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, 650201, China

Yi Yang & Shumin Sun

College of Animal Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia MinZu University, Tongliao, 028000, China

Dejia Zhang, Rui Duan, Mengqi Wang & Yongjun Zhao

Qingdao Special Servicemen Recuperation Center of PLA Navy, Qingdao, 266071, China

State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China

Mingyuan Liu

Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225000, China

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DZ: investigation, writing – original draft. RD and JL: validation, formal analysis, visualization, data curation. MW and YY: validation. YZ: funding. ML and SS: conceptualization, methodology, resources, funding, writing – review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

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Correspondence to Mingyuan Liu or Shumin Sun .

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Statement approved by the institutional animal care and use committee

This study carried out the principles of laboratory animal affairs management in China. The experiment was approved by the Animal Protection and Use Committee of Jilin University (20170318). All experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Zhang, D., Duan, R., Liu, J. et al. Development and evaluation of time-resolved rapid immunofluorescence test for detection of TSOL18 specific antibody in porcine cysticercosis infections. BMC Vet Res 20 , 182 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04034-7

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A systematic analysis of the contribution of genetics to multimorbidity and comparisons with primary care data

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Background Multimorbidity, the presence of two or more conditions in one person, is increasingly prevalent. Yet shared biological mechanisms of specific pairs of conditions often remain poorly understood. We address this gap by integrating large-scale primary care and genetic data to elucidate potential causes of multimorbidity.

Methods We defined chronic, common, and heritable conditions in individuals aged ≥65 years, using two large representative healthcare databases [CPRD (UK) N=2,425,014 and SIDIAP (Spain) N=1,053,640], and estimated heritability using the same definitions in UK Biobank (N=451,197). We used logistic regression models to estimate the co-occurrence of pairs of conditions in the primary care data.

Linkage disequilibrium score regression was used to estimate genetic similarity between pairs of conditions. Meta-analyses were conducted across healthcare databases, and up to three sources of genetic data, for each condition pair. We classified pairs of conditions as across or within-domain based on the international classification of disease.

Findings We identified N=72 chronic conditions, with 43·6% of 2546 pairs showing higher co-occurrence than expected and evidence of shared genetics. Notably, across-domain pairs like iron deficiency anaemia and peripheral arterial disease exhibited substantial shared genetics (genetic correlation R g =0·45[95% Confidence Intervals 0·27:0·64]). N=33 pairs displayed negative genetic correlations, such as skin cancer and rheumatoid arthritis ( R g =-0·14[-0·21:-0·06]), indicating potential protective mechanisms. Discordance between genetic and primary care data was also observed, e.g., abdominal aortic aneurysm and bladder cancer co-occurred but were not genetically correlated (Odds-Ratio=2·23[2·09:2·37], R g =0·04[-0·20:0·28]) and schizophrenia and fibromyalgia were less likely to co-occur but were positively genetically correlated (OR=0·84[0·75:0·94], R g =0·20[0·11:0·29]).

Interpretation Most pairs of chronic conditions show evidence of shared genetics and co-occurrence in primary care, suggesting shared mechanisms. The identified shared mechanisms, negative correlations and discordance between genetic and observational data provide a foundation for future research on prevention and treatment of multimorbidity.

Funding UK Medical Research Council [MR/W014548/1].

Competing Interest Statement

ARL is now an employee of AstraZeneca and has interests in the company. The work undertaken here was prior to his appointment. SK's group has received funding support from Amgen BioPharma outside of this work. JB is a part time employee of Novo Nordisk Research Centre Oxford, limited, unrelated to this work. TF has consulted for several pharmaceutical companies. All other authors have no disclosures to declare.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by the UK Medical Research Council [grant number MR/W014548/1]. This study was supported by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Exeter Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), the NIHR Leicester BRC, the NIHR Oxford BRC, the NIHR Peninsula Applied Research Collaboration, and the NIHR HealthTech Research Centre. KB is partly funded by the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration South-West Peninsula. JM is funded by an NIHR Advanced Fellowship (NIHR302270). The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. CV acknowledges research funding by a "Contratos para la intensificacion de la actividad investigadora en el Sistema Nacional de Salud" contract (INT23/00040) from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

This study was approved by the relevant ethics committees: SIDIAP Scientific and Ethical Committees (19/518-P) on 18/12/2019. The SIDIAP database is based on opt-out presumed consent. If a patient decides to opt out, their routine data would be excluded of the database. CPRD ISAC committee protocol number 23_003109. The Northwest Multi-Centre Research Ethics Committee approved the collection and use of UK Biobank data for health-related research (Research Ethics Committee reference 11/NW/0382). UKB was granted under Application Number 9072.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

↵ * = joint first authors

↵ # = joint senior authors

Data Availability

We cannot make individual-level data available. Researchers can apply to UK Biobank ( https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/enable-your-research/ ), CPRD ( https://www.cprd.com/research-applications ), and SIDIAP ( https://www.sidiap.org/index.php/en/solicituds-en ). We have made our diagnostic code lists, code and results available on our GitHub ( https://github.com/GEMINI-multimorbidity/ ) site and Shiny website ( https://gemini-multimorbidity.shinyapps.io/atlas/ ). GWAS summary statistics will be available following acceptance at the GWAS Catalog ( https://www.ebi.ac.uk/gwas/home ).

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