essay on islamophobia

The Devastating Mental Health Effects of Islamophobia

“Mom, I’m fine” were the last words of 6-year-old Palestinian-American, Wadea al-Fayoume, who was stabbed 26 times and murdered on October 14. The man charged with his murder is his landlord Joseph Czuba, who is also charged for attacking Wadea’s mother, Hanaan Shahin. Shahin sustained over a dozen stab wounds from fighting off Czuba as he reportedly yelled, “You Muslims must die!” How is a landlord who was previously described as being “friendly” with the family and in the weeks prior had built Wadea a tree house , now facing trial for such heinous hate crimes?

Context is important in this story. This was not a sudden occurrence. Shahin, an immigrant from the West Bank, told investigators that Czuba had insisted earlier that week that she and her son move out of the home they were renting from him in a Chicago suburb. The timing of these requests directly corresponded to the latest escalation of violence in Israel and Palestine, and its accompanying news cycles. According to the prosecutor , Czuba’s wife told investigators that her husband had been listening to conservative talk radio in the days leading up to the murder and had become “obsessed” with the unfolding war to the point that he believed that “they were in danger and that [Shahin] was going to call over her Palestinian friends or family to harm them.”

Unfortunately, the horrific hate crimes Czuba was charged with were not the only ones against Palestinians, Muslims, or other minority groups often mistaken for Muslims in recent days. On October 17, a Sikh teen was punched on a New York City bus in a reported hate crime assault by a man who attempted to remove the teen’s turban exclaiming, “We don’t wear that in this country.” In the same week, Carl Mintz was charged with terrorism for posting on Facebook that he wanted to go into Dearborn, Mich., a predominantly Muslim and Arab city, and “hunt down Palestinians.” Two men were arrested in connection to assaulting an 18-year-old Muslim in Brooklyn, N.Y. while yelling explicit anti-Muslim slurs. The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) has reported 1,283 bias incidents against Muslims since the violence in the Middle East escalated and has tracked hundreds of inflammatory posts and hate speech that have been shared recently across social media platforms—just a few examples include Muslims and Palestinians being called “savages,” “terrorists,” and “barbarians.”

Islamophobia, an irrational fear and hostility towards Islam or Muslims, has deep roots that can be traced back to Western colonialist archetypes of the “ uncivilized other .” By diminishing the complexity of individuals and essentializing Islam, these colonial powers created a seedbed for the dehumanization and generalization of people today perceived to be Muslim or Muslim-adjacent. And perhaps most importantly, these kinds of hate crimes and the rise of Islamophobia have extensive, negative mental health impacts on Muslim communities in the U.S. and around the world.

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Read More: Is What’s Happening in Gaza a Genocide? Experts Weigh In

On my own campus at Stanford University, an Arab Muslim student was the victim of a hit and run on November 3 that landed him in the hospital. According to a statement by Stanford’s Department of Public Safety, the Islamophobic assailant made eye contact with the student, accelerated his car to strike him, and then yelled, “F*** you people” as he hit the student before driving off. Other forms of aggression over the past few weeks included Muslims receiving death threats , hijabs being torn off , and protesters being shot at , run over , spat at, and harassed. Another egregious form of intimidation resulted in Muslim student leaders at colleges across the country who signed their names on public statements, later found their pictures and names plastered on the side of smear trucks parked on their campus, a practice known as doxxing. Doxxing is not a new phenomenon and research has shown that such practices have a significant impact on the emotional and mental health of the victims including causing anxiety, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and Complex PTSD. In fact, 44% of doxxing victims have reported experiencing significant mental health consequences as a result of such targeted attacks.

Some scholars who study hate crimes have found that spikes in Islamophobic hate crimes strongly correlate with media reporting. This, too, is not a new phenomenon. What began as diaries and travelogs of Europeans claiming license and authority to represent the Muslim and Arab world to the West—all while justifying colonialism and fueling imperial expansion—has been replaced by a new medium: the modern media machine. The power of the written word, accompanied by caricatural images portraying Muslims and Arabs as subhuman or in need of saving, shaped centuries of enduring bias.

Sensationalized stories that sow seeds of paranoia and cement the “other” as someone that must be feared and even eliminated, are not innocently relaying information. Rather they are perpetuating biased narratives about minority communities. When the average person is inundated with news cycles about the instability in the Middle East without proper context or knowledge of the lived experiences of Muslims, they are being conditioned to distrust the Muslim family living next door. This unexamined implicit bias is undeniably shaped by the media . Inconsistencies in terminology used in reporting and the disproportionate reporting of negative incidents involving Muslims contribute to distorted perceptions of this community. According to the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU), every year since 2016, over 60% of American Muslims have reported experiencing at least one instance of religious discrimination—higher than all other religious groups in the U.S.

The unpredictability of the time, place, and circumstances of Islamophobic incidents puts many Muslims in a nearly continuous state of hypervigilance. This insecurity can directly translate into deleterious mental health implications for Muslim Americans. We can better understand the influence of these Islamophobic interactions on the emergence of psychological problems. This socioecological model is often depicted over four levels: individual, interpersonal, community, and policy.

On an individual level, studies show that experiencing Islamophobia is associated with poorer mental health outcomes in both Muslims and those perceived to be Muslim. Discrimination due to Muslim identity is associated with a greater number of depressive symptoms , fear and anxiety , lower self-esteem , and overall psychological distress . Daily repetitive harassment that Muslims face may be the biggest factor contributing to long-term mental health issues, while violent, hate-motivated crimes can increase fear, hypervigilance, and identity disturbances. Furthermore, early exposure to harassment affects the developmental well-being of Muslim youth; twice as many Muslim children report being bullied compared to the general U.S. population. In a 2021 California-based study, 56% of Muslim school-age respondents reported feeling unsafe at school due to their identity, and 20% of them reported missing school due to these feelings.

On an interpersonal level, individuals who have previously experienced discriminatory interactions are more likely to suffer from continuous anticipation of harassment that puts them at a higher risk of developing psychosocial problems. This anticipatory fear in the public arena often results in social marginalization that deprives Muslims of the health-promoting effects of social engagement. For many Muslims, there are heightened fears around relatively routine undertakings such as going for a walk with one’s family or attending worship services. These fears stem from tragic Islamophobic attacks such as the 2021 murder of the Afzal family in London, ON—a Muslim family who was run over while taking a walk together. The 2019 live-streamed Christchurch Mosque shooting in New Zealand that killed 49 people and the 2017 Quebec Mosque shooting that killed six and severely injured eight peaceful worshipers are still very fresh in many Muslims’ minds. Even simply engaging with one’s neighbors runs the risk of ending in tragedy, as was seen in the 2015 murder of three visibly Muslim youth from Chapel Hill, who were gunned down by their Islamophobic neighbor.

Watch More: The Killer Was Driven by Rage, but Was the Murder of 3 College Students a Hate Crime?

On a communal level, Islamophobic incidents that target Muslims in any part of the U.S. perpetuate a sense of insecurity and could result in trauma by proxy for other American Muslims. In speaking with many families of school-aged children, I found that they each repeated the same thing: All they could see was Wadea when they hugged their own child this past week—myself included. Many American Muslims also reported that the bias and misinformation in the current news cycle is causing them to experience flashbacks to the hateful, xenophobic rhetoric spewed in the aftermath of the 2001 tragedy of 9/11 and during the lead-up to the 2016 presidential elections. Though belonging to a community is often a protective factor, if this community is a stigmatized group, its members may internalize hateful stereotypes that could eventually lead to identity concealment and in turn negative health outcomes . Two common examples include removal of religiously identifying clothing, such as the hijab, due to feeling unsafe or anglicizing non-English “Muslim” names in an effort to be white-passing or undetected as a Muslim.

On a policy level, legislation passed over the last three decades have contributed to growing Islamophobia. The passing of the Patriot Act in 2001 led to increased detention, unjustified arrests, and interrogations of Muslim Americans. The 2017 Executive Order 13769, dubbed the “Muslim Ban,” coincided with an estimated 67% increase in hate crimes toward Muslims, and was an immensely anxiety-laden time for Muslims. Indeed, the American Psychological Association opposed this ban, citing concerns around serious mental health implications and increased discrimination towards those impacted by the travel ban. Research has also shown that the rhetoric and legislative decisions by the Trump administrations impacted the daily living and mental well-being of American Muslims.

These interconnected levels each pose risk to the psychological wellness of Muslims. It is imperative that we recognize and address the common thread across all of them, which includes the perpetuation of Islamophobic and anti-Palestinian tropes, as well as biased media coverage of what the former director of the office of the United Nations high commissioner for human rights, Craig Mokhiber, has called an unfolding genocide of the Palestinian people and cited as the cause of his resignation. Wadea’s parting words were meant to comfort his mom—and us. Though he is at peace now, we are far from it.

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• Introduction

Origins, manifestations, and misconceptions

Islamophobia in the united states and europe, islamophobia in asia.

Islamophobia

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Islamophobia , fear, hatred, and discrimination against practitioners of Islam or the Islamic religion as a whole. The term appeared as “Islamophobie” in French literature in the early 20th century as a designation for anti-Muslim sentiments and policies and was popularized in English in the late 1990s. Islamophobia is a type of xenophobia , or fear of foreigners or foreign things. Some scholars have argued that it should be considered synonymous with anti-Muslim racism, since the effects of Islamophobia on the lives of individual Muslims and the attitudes of those holding Islamophobic views are closely comparable to those that result from racism .

Negative attitudes toward Islam and its adherents predate the existence of the term Islamophobia. Aversive portrayals emerged nearly as early as Islam itself, particularly from writers in the Middle East whose religious (e.g., Christian ) or political (e.g., Byzantine ) institutions were threatened by the expansion of Islamic society throughout the region. Many historians trace the structural distortions of Islam represented by modern Islamophobia to medieval Europe . They point to evidence of anti-Muslim attitudes underpinning both the Crusades of the Middle Ages, when Christian rulers sought to conquer Muslim-ruled lands, and the Reconquista of Spain , a series of campaigns by Christian states that culminated in the capture of the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the 15th century. Many scholars believe a key catalyst to the development of Islamophobia was the limpieza de sangre (Spanish: “purity of blood”) statutes during the Spanish Inquisition that discriminated against anyone with Jewish or Muslim ancestry, regardless of whether they had converted to Christianity. Finally, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe (particularly its Siege of Vienna in 1683) is believed to have entrenched anxiety regarding the potential power of Islamic nations into the collective European consciousness .

Islamophobia has had many manifestations in the centuries following the rise of the Ottoman Empire, particularly among European and American intellectuals . The Palestinian American scholar Edward Said wrote extensive criticism about Orientalism , a Western discipline devoted to the study of societies outside the Western world. Orientalist scholars, according to Said, minimized the complex intellectual heritage of the Islamic world and propagated a conception of Islamic society that was primitive and exotic.

Often underlying Islamophobia is the worldview that Islam represents a homogeneous civilization that is necessarily hostile to and actively seeking to conquer other discrete so-called civilizations, such as Western civilization or Hindu civilization. This is an ahistorical characterization of cultural areas of influence or strength as being entirely separate from one another and lacking internal diversity , in contrast to the reality of constant intercultural contact and exchange that characterizes European , Asian , and African history, particularly around the Mediterranean Sea . Islamophobic conceptions of Islam also generally conflate “Middle Eastern” with “Muslim” when the reality is that many inhabitants of the Middle East are not Muslim and the majority of Muslims worldwide live outside the Middle East.

Islamophobia in the 21st century

After the September 11, 2001, attacks , Islamophobia increased rapidly throughout the world. Thousands of individual Muslims living in the United States and in Europe were targeted by verbal and physical attacks. Many scholars have persuasively argued that Islamophobic attitudes were an integral element of the war on terrorism , the American-led counterterrorism effort launched in response to the attacks.

The rise of Islamophobia after the September 11 attacks is considered a key factor in the growth of an organized anti-Muslim movement in the United States and Europe. Dozens of organizations with the explicit mission of preventing an alleged cultural or legal Islamic takeover were founded in the early 21st century. Many found success by championing laws passed in some U.S. states that prohibited courts from referencing Islamic law ( sharia ). These laws are predicated on the idea that Islam is incompatible with Western civilization and have been passed to combat the nonexistent threat of hostile Muslims attempting to subvert Western institutions from within American society.

Other legislative and governmental efforts have had more concrete discriminatory aims than preventing illusory threats. For example, in 2009 Swiss voters enacted a law to prevent the construction of minarets , a key part of Islamic houses of worship ( mosques ). In 2010 France made it illegal to wear a face covering in public, a law whose clear target was preventing Muslim women from wearing traditional coverings like the niqab ( see hijab ). In 2021 the Austrian government released an online map of Islamic mosques, community centers, and more, which activists insist is a clear security risk for such institutions.

These legislative victories for Islamophobia are generally linked to the rise of populism and far-right political parties in democratic countries in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Many far-right politicians are openly Islamophobic in their beliefs and efforts and have stoked popular resentment for their own political gain. The endurance of these attitudes appears to have a direct impact on many events. For example, many activists claim that Islamophobic attitudes are to blame for the contrast between the hostility toward hosting refugees from Afghanistan and Syria and the welcome granted to Ukrainian refugees.

Islamophobia has also been at the root of many influential conspiracy theories, both in Western democracies and in the rest of the world. Many of those in the “birther” movement, which claimed that U.S. Pres. Barack Obama was not born in the United States and therefore should have never been eligible for the office of president , also advanced the belief that Obama received a radical Islamic education as a boy in Indonesia . The “Eurabia” conspiracy in Europe includes a version of conspiratorial replacement theory that argues that high birth rates among some Muslim immigrants to Europe are a danger to Europe’s Christian heritage and may eventually lead to an Islamic conquest of Europe. In 2020, conspiracy theories circulated in India claiming that Muslims were responsible for the spread of COVID-19 , leading some overwhelmed hospitals to refuse admission to Muslim patients.

The rise of Islamophobia in Western democracies is well documented, but Islamophobia also has a virulent presence in other parts of the world. In Myanmar , discrimination against the Muslim Rohingya minority led to a major refugee crisis in the 2010s. In China the Communist Party has frequently considered organized religions to be a potential threat to its authority. While members of many religious groups face discrimination in China, the state in the 21st century imposed a systematic program of reeducation and social control on Muslims in the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to promote involuntary assimilation.

In India there have historically been tensions between Indian Muslims and Indians of other religions. These tensions were exploited and exacerbated by colonial British rulers and in the modern day became manifest as growing Islamophobia on the subcontinent. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which advocates defining Indian society in terms of Hindu values ( Hindutva ), has often been accused of stoking Islamophobia. The party’s rhetoric contributed to the demolition of the Babri Masjid by a mob in 1992. While in power, the party sponsored discriminatory legislation, such as the controversial citizenship law of 2019 that excluded Muslim refugees from a path to citizenship. Anti-Muslim violence in India rose after the BJP formed a government in 2014, and the party’s continued success paired with its use of Islamophobic rhetoric demonstrates how Islamophobia can be consciously stoked and promoted for political gain.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Islamophobia

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• Islamophobia and the War on Terror
• Islamophobia and the Media
• Global Islamophobia

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Islamophobia by Todd Green LAST REVIEWED: 27 October 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 27 October 2021 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0285

Islamophobia refers to the fear of and hostility toward Muslims and Islam that is driven by racism and that leads to exclusionary, discriminatory, and violent actions targeting Muslims and those perceived as Muslim. Although the word “Islamophobia” entered widespread public and political discourse only in the late 1990s, hostility toward Islam and Muslims in the West dates back to the Middle Ages. With the 9/11 attacks, “Islamophobia” became the primary designation for the prejudice experienced by Muslim minority populations in Western nations. The post-9/11 era witnessed the significant rise and expansion of the academic study of Islamophobia. Islamophobia studies is often conflated with Islamic studies, even though the former is focused not so much on the analysis of Islamic texts, traditions, histories, or rituals as it is on the religious, social, cultural, historical, and political factors that give rise to anti-Muslim racism and discrimination. This entry focuses primarily on academic studies of Islamophobia in North American and European contexts, though the last section bears witness to the growing attention scholars are paying to the global dimensions of Islamophobia.

Elahi and Khan 2017 explores the origins and main contours of modern Islamophobia in Britain, expanding on the original Runnymede Report from 1997 that introduced the term “Islamophobia” into widespread public and political discourse. Allen 2010 , Bazian 2019 , and Said 1978 address theories, concepts, and/or methodologies undergirding the academic study of Islamophobia. Cesari 2011 , The Bridge Initiative , Green 2019 , and Zempi and Awan 2019 offer broad introductions to and comparisons of Islamophobia in Europe and the United States. Beydoun 2018 introduces the legal and political dimensions of Islamophobia in America, while Bayrakli and Hafez 2015 – and Taras 2012 focus on Islamophobia in diverse European contexts.

Allen, Chris. Islamophobia . London: Routledge, 2010.

A theoretical introduction to the concept of Islamophobia, accompanied by a critique of the essentialized definition employed by the Runnymede Trust’s original 1997 report on Islamophobia.

Bayrakli, Enes, and Farid Hafez, eds. European Islamophobia Report . 2015–.

An annual report published by the Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research (SETA) that tracks the state of anti-Muslim sentiment and discrimination in over thirty European countries.

Bazian, Hatem. “Islamophobia: An Introduction to the Academic Field, Methods, and Approaches.” In Islamophobia and Psychiatry . Edited by H. Steven Moffic, John Peteet, Ahmed Zakaria, and Rania Awaad, 19–31. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2019.

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-00512-2_2

Introduces the broader themes and methodologies found in the emerging academic field of Islamophobia studies.

Beydoun, Khaled A. American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear . Oakland: University of California Press, 2018.

DOI: 10.1525/9780520970007

While the book struggles to acknowledge and engage with many of the seminal studies on the structural and systemic manifestations of Islamophobia, it nonetheless offers important perspectives on and analyses of the legal and political forces driving Islamophobia in the United States.

The Bridge Initiative .

An online research project based at Georgetown University that offers educational resources, original research, and scholarly commentary on anti-Muslim bias and discrimination. Includes concise and accessible fact sheets on prominent anti-Muslim individuals and organizations in Europe and North America.

Cesari, Jocelyn. “Islamophobia in the West: A Comparison between Europe and the United States.” In Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century . Edited by John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 21–43. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

A concise essay that broadly compares the ways that Islamophobia manifests itself in Europe versus the United States, with a particular emphasis on the political, cultural, and religious challenges facing European Muslims.

Elahi, Farah, and Omar Khan, eds. Islamophobia: Still a Challenge for Us All . London: Runnymede, 2017.

Updated study of Islamophobia in Britain by the Runnymede Trust, covering a wide range of topics including the impact of Islamophobia on British Muslims in relation to employment, hate crimes, counterterrorism, and health. The original 1997 study signaled the introduction of the term “Islamophobia” into the larger public and political discourse in Britain and eventually in other Western nations.

Green, Todd H. The Fear of Islam: An Introduction to Islamophobia in the West . 2d ed. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2019.

DOI: 10.2307/j.ctvcb5c4r

Comprehensive survey of the historical roots and contemporary manifestations of Islamophobia in Europe and the United States. Offers introductions to many of the most common themes addressed in the study of Islamophobia. Helpful starting point for scholars and students new to the subject.

Said, Edward W. Orientalism . New York: Vintage, 1978.

Groundbreaking study that deconstructs Western assumptions and stereotypes about the “Orient” (the Middle East and North Africa). Maintains that Western discourse about Muslims and Arabs in the 19th and 20th centuries reflects colonial interests and power. Said’s book provides the theoretical and analytical framework for a large number of academic studies of Islamophobia.

Taras, Raymond. Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012.

A broad survey of anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant attitudes in Western Europe, with in-depth case studies of France and Germany.

Zempi, Irene, and Imran Awan, eds. The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia . London: Routledge, 2019.

A multidisciplinary collection of essays introducing various facets of Islamophobia. Focuses mostly on Europe and North America.

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What is Islamophobia? The Politics of Anti-Muslim Racism

Published: March 20, 2019 • Updated: July 22, 2024

بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ

In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.

For more on this topic, see Unpacking the Effects of Islamophobia

Introduction.

Culture Talk: Good Muslim, bad Muslim

Like many immigrants, we came to this country empty-handed. We believed in American democracy—that with hard work and the goodness of this country, we could share in and contribute to its blessings. We were blessed to raise our three sons in a nation where they were free to be themselves and follow their dreams . 9

We looked around and we thought, we have been here for a while and we are very comfortable now. Our mosque is established, we are raising our children as Muslims and sending them to Muslim schools. We are a part of the mainstream. But we haven’t really done anything for the larger society. We are using the generosity of this country to make a good life for ourselves, but we need to do something to give back. I wanted us to be excellent citizens, not just good citizens.  

Subjectification of the Muslim

...ideology ‘acts’ or ‘functions’ in such a way that it ‘recruits’ subjects among the individuals, or ‘transforms’ the individuals into subjects by that very precise operation which I have called interpellation or hailing, and which can be imagined along the lines of the most commonplace everyday police hailing: ‘Hey, you there!’... the hailed individual will turn round. By this mere one-hundred-and-eighty-degree physical conversion, he becomes a subject. Why? Because he has recognized that the hail was ‘really’ addressed to him, and that ‘it was really him who was hailed’ (and not someone else). Experience shows that the practical telecommunication of hailings is such that they hardly ever miss their man: verbal call or whistle, the one hailed always recognizes that it is really him who is being hailed. And yet it is a strange phenomenon, and one which cannot be explained solely by ‘guilt feelings,’ despite the large numbers who ‘have something on their consciences.’ 24

Look, a Negro! I came into the world imbued with the will to find meaning in things, my spirit filled with the desire to attain to the source of the world and then I found that I was an object in the midst of objects. Sealed into that crushing objecthood, I turned beseechingly to others. Their attention was a liberation, running over my body suddenly abraded with nonbeing...But just as I reached the other side, I stumbled and the movements, the attitudes, the glances from others fixed me there, in the sense in which a chemical solution is fixed by dye. 25  

Islamophobia and race

The Jews were the early ‘‘outsiders’’ of premodern Europe. In the Crusades Jews were as fiercely assaulted as Muslims and a series of expulsions drove the survivors from most of the later imperial powers as they were consolidated as nation-states (in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries) and as imperial ambition dawned. The Inquisition founded in 1229, came by the sixteenth century to embody fairly racial anti-semitism with its renewal of persecutions against conversos or novos cristoes. Now it was no longer the Jew’s beliefs, but his or her essence, as depicted in the doctrine of limpieza de sangre, that was seen as unredeemable; thus even conversion was not acceptable: only expulsion or extirpation would generally suffice. 34

1 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2017/05/20/i-think-islam-hates-us-a-timeline-of-trumps-comments-about-islam-and-muslims/?utm_term=.5b671cda5052

2  Gunter, Booth and Ryan Lenz. “100 Days in Trump’s America.” Southern Poverty Law Center.  https://www.splcenter.org/20170427/100-days-trumps-america . April 27, 2017.

3  Zurcher, Anthony. “What the Trump Team Has Said About Islam.”  https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38886496 . February 7, 2017.

4  Bush’s speech immediately following the attacks on September 11, 2001.

5  Obama’s speech in Cairo, 2009.

6  Mamdani, Mahmood.  Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror . New York: Three Leaves Press, 2004.

7  Alsultany, Evelyn. Arabs and Muslims in the Media After 9/11: Representational Strategies for a ‘Post-Race’ Era.  American Quarterly , Volume 65, Number 1, March 2013, pp. 161-169.

8  One example is that of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a Somali woman who left Islam after 9/11. Hirsi Ali wrote many books including  Infidel: My Life , in which she argues that Islam is inherently incompatible with freedom and democracy. Hirsi Ali has been invited to speak on many mainstream media outlets, and her “insider status” as a Muslim woman lends credibility to her narrative that Islam is violent toward women. Hirsi Ali’s success points to the ways that corporate media has specifically used Muslim women to advance the image of the “good Muslim.”

9  https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/full-text-khizr-khans-speech-2016-democratic-national/story?id=41043609

10  https://www.aclu.org/news/terrorism-finance-laws-undermine-american-muslims-religious-freedom-says-aclu

11  Howell, Sally. “(Re) Bounding Islamic Charitable Giving in the Terror Decade.”  UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law . Volume 10, No. 1. 2010-2011.

12  Mamdani, Mahmood.  Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror . New York: Three Leaves Press, 2004.

13  Lewis, Bernard. “The Roots of Muslim Rage.”  The Atlantic .  September 1990.

14  Ibid.

15  Huntington, Samuel. “The Clash of Civilizations?”  Foreign Affairs .  August 1993.

16  Lewis, Bernard. “The Roots of Muslim Rage.”   The Atlantic .  September 1990.

17 https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/criminalizing-the-muslim-brotherhood-helps-dictators-and-hurts-americans_us_58dbfe84e4b0cb23e65dc488

18 https://mic.com/articles/168012/trumps-plan-to-declare-the-muslim-brotherhood-a-terror-group-is-about-going-after-american-muslims#.YEkdSwljP

19  Volpp, Leti. “The Citizen and the Terrorist,”  UCLA Law Review ,  Volume 49, 2002.

20  Ibid.

21  Huq, Aziz. “Concerns with Mitchell D. Silber & Arvin Bhatt, N.Y. Police Department, Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat (2007).” Brennan Center for Justice. https://www.brennancenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/Justice/Aziz%20Memo%20NYPD.pdf

22  Said refers to Orientalism as a discourse. He writes, “ I have found it useful here to employ Foucault’s notion of a discourse, as described by him in  The Archaeology of Knowledge and in Discipline and Punish , to identify Orientalism. My contention is that without examining Orientalism as a discourse one cannot possibly understand the enormously systematic discipline by which European culture was able to manage—and even produce—the Orient politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically, and imaginatively during the post-Enlightenment period.” (Said, Edward W. Orientalism . New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.)

23  Volpp, Leti. “The Citizen and the Terrorist.”  UCLA Law Review ,  Volume 49, 2002.

24  https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm

25  Fanon, Frantz.  Black Skin, White Masks . London: Pluto, 2008. Print.

26  Volpp, Letti. “The Citizen and the Terrorist.”  UCLA Law Review . Volume 49. 2002.

27  Patel, Faiza and Meghan Koushik. Countering Violent Extremism. Brennan Center for Justice. March 16, 2017.  https://www.brennancenter.org/publication/countering-violent-extremism .

28  Naber, Nadine. “Look, Muhammad, the Terrorist is Coming!” Race and Arab Americans Before and After 9/11: from invisible citizens to visible subjects.” 2007.

29  Ibid.

30  Rana, Junaid. (2007). 'The Story of Islamophobia,'  Souls , 9:2,148-161.

31   Asad, Talal.  Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam.   (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.) p. 53.

32  Rana, Junaid. (2007). 'The Story of Islamophobia,'  Souls , 9:2,148-161.

33  Ibid.

34  Howard Winant.  The World is a Ghetto ,  41.

35 Rana, Junaid (2007). 'The Story of Islamophobia,' Souls , 9:2,148-161.

36  Jackson, Sherman. “Islam, Muslims, and the wages of racial agnosia in America.”  Journal of Islamic Law and Culture , Vol. 13, No. 1. April 2011, 1-17.

37  Rosa, Margarita.  Du’as of the Enslaved: The Malê Slave Rebellion in Bahía, Brazil. Yaqeen Institute. April 5, 2018. https://yaqeeninstitute.org/margarita-rosa/duas-of-the-enslaved-the-male-slave-rebellion-in-bahia-brazil/

38 Rana, Junaid. (2007). 'The Story of Islamophobia,' Souls , 9:2,148-161.

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Home Essay Samples Social Issues

Islamophobia College Essays

Islamophobia, characterized by prejudice, discrimination, and fear towards Islam and its followers, is a topic deserving of thoughtful exploration.

How to Write an Essay on Islamophobia

In your islamophobia college essay, it is crucial to approach the subject with sensitivity and scholarly rigor.

• Begin by defining the term and providing a concise historical overview of its emergence.
• Delve into the factors that contribute to the perpetuation of Islamophobic sentiments, such as media portrayals, political discourse, and cultural biases.
• Analyze the detrimental impacts of Islamophobia on individuals, communities, and society as a whole, encompassing both psychological and socio-political dimensions.
• Consider integrating personal narratives, case studies, and academic research to provide a well-rounded perspective. Engage with diverse viewpoints and counterarguments to demonstrate critical thinking and intellectual depth.
• Explore strategies for combating Islamophobia, including education, interfaith dialogue, and policy changes.

To create a compelling essay on Islamophobia, remember to substantiate your arguments with credible sources and maintain a respectful tone throughout your islamophobia essay. By elucidating the complexities of Islamophobia and proposing potential solutions, your essay will contribute to a more informed and inclusive society.

Embrace this opportunity to explore Islamophobia in a comprehensive and nuanced manner. Browse our collection of essays and embark on a journey of understanding and enlightenment. Together, let us strive to foster empathy, dismantle stereotypes, and promote harmony in an increasingly diverse world.

Islamophobia In The Modern World

Introduction Islamophobia is the fear, hatred, and prejudice which other people have against the Muslims and Islamic religion. Muslims across the world are facing issues because of their religion and often they are considered terrorists in western countries. With the passage of time the hate...

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Types Of Cultural Racism: Islamophobia

These developments establish a framework for which political discourses, media outlets, and institutional design are addressed in terms of religion and cultural differences. In the coverage of 9/11, news media outlets and officials never once deviated from the response that this terror attack was attributed...

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The Power Of Memes On Global Perception: Muslim Meme Example

In the twenty-first century, Memes are a very powerful and influential source of communication. A Meme is usually an edited picture or media that references an overexaggerated trend or joke in a culture. Most people use memes to illustrate an opinion or joke. Most memes...

The Definition of Islamophobia and How It Changed Throughout History

Although Islamophobia means Islam / Muslim fear as its literal meaning; when we go deeper, we see that it includes discrimination and racism against Muslims. In this context, Muslims are perceived as a ‘religious – ethnic group and generalized hatred is felt against all its...

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The Impacts and Consequences of Islamophobia in US

Defining Islamophobia Islamophobia is the fear, hatred or hostility directed against Islam and Muslims. Islamophobia influences all factors of Muslim life and can be expressed in several methods, which includes: - attacks, abuse and violence against Muslim attacks on mosques, Islamic centres and Muslim cemeteries...

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The Reason for Increase of Islamaphobia in the Western Society

Throughout this essay, I will be looking at the idea of Islamophobia which is the ‘Dislike of or prejudice against Islam or Muslims, especially as a political force.’ (Oxford Dictionaries | English, 2018) as well as the effect it has had on the western society...

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Islamophobia and Its Portrayal in Media and Politics

López studied a study on the elucidation of Islamophobia and its approximations of the early twentieth century in 2011. Lopez took references from Dinet and Ibrahim’s approach to come up with a conclusion that Islamophobia was recognised as early as the end of the 19th...

Influence of Media on the Promotion of Islamophobia

Introduction Islamophobia is a new word coined in 1997. Due to advancement in technology and bridging the gape between east and west particularly between the Muslims and non Muslims states of Europe, the termed Islamphobia emerged. The migration of Muslims from their under developed countries...

Best topics on Islamophobia

1. Islamophobia In The Modern World

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4. The Definition of Islamophobia and How It Changed Throughout History

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Essays on Islamophobia

Islamophobia, the fear or hatred of Muslims, has been a prevalent issue in society. As a result, many students find themselves needing to write essays on this topic. Choosing the right topic is crucial for a successful essay. In this article, we will discuss the importance of the topic, offer advice on choosing a topic, and provide a detailed list of recommended essay topics divided by category.

Islamophobia is a pressing issue that affects individuals and communities worldwide. Understanding its root causes, impact, and ways to address it is crucial for promoting tolerance and fostering a more inclusive society. Writing about Islamophobia helps raise awareness and encourages critical thinking about this important social issue.

When selecting an essay topic on Islamophobia, it is essential to consider your interests, the scope of the assignment, and the audience. Choose a topic that resonates with you and allows for in-depth research. Additionally, consider the relevance and current societal impact of the chosen topic. Lastly, ensure there are enough credible sources available to support your research.

Recommended Islamophobia Essay Topics

Root causes of islamophobia.

• The role of media in perpetuating Islamophobia
• Historical factors contributing to Islamophobia
• Economic and political influences on Islamophobia

Impact of Islamophobia

• Mental health effects on Muslim individuals
• Islamophobia's impact on community cohesion
• Economic implications of Islamophobia

Addressing Islamophobia

• Strategies for combating Islamophobia in educational settings
• The role of government policies in addressing Islamophobia
• Community-based initiatives to combat Islamophobia

Comparative Studies

• Comparing Islamophobia with other forms of discrimination
• Islamophobia in the context of global religious intolerance
• Comparative analysis of Islamophobia in different countries

Contemporary Issues

• Islamophobia and its connection to terrorism discourse
• The impact of social media on the spread of Islamophobia
• Islamophobia and the refugee crisis

Legal and Human Rights Perspective

• Examining legal frameworks for combating Islamophobia
• The intersection of Islamophobia and human rights violations
• Challenges in prosecuting Islamophobic crimes

Islamophobia in Popular Culture

• Portrayal of Islam and Muslims in Hollywood films
• The representation of Islamophobia in literature and art
• Islamophobia in the gaming industry

Psychological and Sociological Perspectives

• Understanding the psychology of Islamophobia
• Societal factors contributing to the spread of Islamophobia
• The role of social identity in perpetuating Islamophobia

These essay topics provide a diverse range of options for exploring the complex issue of Islamophobia. By choosing a topic that aligns with your interests and allows for thorough research, you can produce an impactful and thought-provoking essay on this important social issue.

The Role of Media in The Spread of Islamophobia

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The Issue of Islamophobia Through The Views of The Islamic Republic of Pakistan

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Research of Islamophobia in Russia and Europe

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Americans' Perceptions of Islam: Rampant Islamophobia

Islamophobia - a new term with old roots of outcomes, what makes you different from others: life as a pakistani-american muslim, islamophobia: historical roots and strategies for combating discrimination, relevant topics.

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Islamophobia Essay | Essay on Islamophobia for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Islamophobia Essay:  Islamophobia, the word is a neology and thus consists of two words’ Islam’ and ‘phobia,’ a Greek suffix word usually used to indicate fear or aversion.

The word means an intense dislike or fear of Islam especially triggered as a political force or rather hostility or prejudice towards Muslims.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Islamophobia for Students and Kids in English

We provide the students with essay samples on a long Islamophobia essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the same topic for reference.

Long Essay on Islamophobia 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Islamophobia is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

The 9/11 attack emerged to be publicly appealing because of the terrorist attack and how it was broadly broadcasted on the news. Ever since that day, Americans changed their ideologies and counted on Muslims as their number one enemy. They also linked every terrorist to be a Muslim, and because of their beliefs are called “Islamophobic.”

On September 11, 2001, two airplanes were flown into the World Trade Centre towers in New York City. An airplane was hijacked by four terrorists who planned suicide attacks against targets in the United States. The subsequent other two flew at the Pentagon and Pennsylvania and caused many casualties and destruction of buildings. The USA made it propaganda to defeat terrorism.

Islamophobia also indicates Americans resort to religious differences in times of political crisis. It is broadcasted and propagated on a wider basis. It is instilled in the minds of youth at a very tender age. It is also politically influenced.

The greater impact is on the Americans and the European Muslims, who are generally known to be peaceful human beings. Following the Paris attacks, Islamophobia has increased in the count, and many young Muslims have experienced bullying and discrimination. Though there have been debates on how to end Islamophobia, truly, the real strength lies within us. We have the power to spread love and change ignorant hearts and minds.

In the 21st century, social media greatly influenced people’s lives to change the thought of hundreds of people in a few minutes. It’s all about promoting them in general, just as they can offer support and help to prove that terrorism is not an act of Islam but barbarism. Politics and western democracy have learned that hatred towards Muslims can get them elected. We must build relationships with the local Muslim community, interrupt Islamophobia, and strongly advocate against anti-Islamic and xenophobic state and federal policies.

Islam, particularly on the Western lands, is often considered to be problematic and syncretism expression of the process of hatred and its execution. It is also regarded as an infamous reputation amongst the leaders of the World for their imperialistic approach to the World issue through the heavy use of brute military power to enforce Western ideals of democracy.

It is showcased where there is a report of a shooter identified as a Muslim, whereas a non-muslim shooter would be identified as mentally ill. A Muslim is like any other citizen, pays taxes, and works with diligence through their community’s malpractices. It is identified as any other religion bigotry and runs in parallel with antisemitism in the 1930s.

Islamophobia also serves as a threat to the religious practices and cultures, skepticism of integration, threats to secularism, fears of sexual crimes, and an unattracted racist current. It has gradually become an important sector in the sociological and political background of Western democracy. It has resulted in numerous attacks on mosques killing innocent Muslims and racial laws demeaning their fundamental rights.

Islamophobia is also identified as discrimination between higher class identification and lower national identification. Anti-discrimination laws have been adopted to fully protect the minorities from the hostile environment towards their religious group.

Short Essay on Islamophobia 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Islamophobia is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Every coin has two faces; similarly, every community has two sectors of people, the ratio being quite the same. A handful of radical people spreading hate, but people label it on every Muslim. Islamophobia has been greatly influenced by the Western part of the World perpetuated by a poorly managed media and supported by agenda-driven think- tanks and to act on it.

Muslims have been segregated for the ills of society and have been unjustly cast away, banishing them from their mere existence. However, they don’t ever get a mention.

The basic fundamental right of the people should be prioritized above all. The women being affected at a higher rate because of the cloth they wear. Political leaders have been instrumental in abetting anti– Islamic hatred like no other form of racism.

We must empathize with those suffering a global hatred; a sense of togetherness has to be greatly influenced. It requires universal and collaborative efforts of all.

10 Lines on Islamophobia in English

• A fear, hatred, and prejudice towards a particular religion or community of people are termed as Islamophobia.
• Islamophobia has been greatly influenced by the terrorist attacks in the Western part of the World, especially after the 9/11 attack, and got escalated further after the Paris Attack.
• The global phenomenon on the crisis of the identities, citizen rights, and governance
• Unwanted religious line and global segregation influencing the life of a particular community.
• The basic fundamental rights are abandoned and made to live as a refugee or as a minority.
• Constitutes a racist discourse and illustrates the global relevance of Islamophobia.
• It also draws in differences and commonalities between different forms of Islam in western countries.
• A population’s rejection for their religion and belief – an unjustified framework of hatred and prejudice is relevant to the Western frontiers.
• It is a form of religious intolerance and has been highly misinterpreted and misunderstood.
• A clear and distinct definition of religious segregation and as a result of which failed to acknowledge the peaking achievements of Muslims in various sectors of excellence.

FAQ’s on Islamophobia Essay

Question 1.  What is Islamophobia?

Answer:  It is a fear, hatred, and prejudice towards a particular religion or community of people. Islamophobia is the rejection of a population for their religion and belief, making it an unjustified framework of hatred and prejudice.

Question 2.  How does Islamophobia affect the life of the people in the community?

Answer: It is a form of religious intolerance and has been highly misunderstood and misinterpreted – a clear and distinct definition of religious segregation and the failure to acknowledge Muslims’ peaking achievements.

Question 3.  How can we eradicate Islamophobia from the face of the World?

Answer:  Though there has been much debate on how to end Islamophobia, truly, the real strength lies within us. It can only be eradicated by spreading love and changing ignorant hearts and minds.

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90 Islamophobia Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best islamophobia topic ideas & essay examples, 🎓 good research topics about islamophobia, ⭐ simple & easy islamophobia essay titles, ❓ questions about islamophobia.

• Islamophobia and Its Effects There has been an increase of the perceived trend of Islamophobia in the 2000s, that been linked to the 9/11 attacks in the USA, while on the other hand some relate it to the rapidly […]
• Islamophobia and Its Impacts on British Muslims After 7/7 Another objective is to understand what Islamophobia comprises and how it functions in the societal context and theoretical propositions about approaches to preclude and eradicate Islamophobia.
• Islamophobia in Germany: Related-to-Immigrants Issues The success of the Alternative for Germany party, whose demands include streamlining the influx of foreigners into the country and adopting the Canadian model of immigration, only confirms the results of the survey.
• Islamophobia: Bias to Muslims and War After the 9-11 Incident In view of the 9/11 incident it became a scope of the authorities and the media to defend the position of government in the context of security as it was formulated that a constant threat […]
• Muslim Response to Islamophobia and Negative Stereotypes Associated With the Religion The case study along with other sources examined the attempt to provide a perspective, both academic and personal on the reality of the Islamic faith, how it is an inherently peaceful religion, and the internal […]
• Islamophobia: Racialization and the Case of Poland Muslims have become a race in the eye of the Western public, despite not technically being one, and that racialization has led to the emergence of unfair treatment.
• Islamophobia Effects on the Arab Nation Soldiers with Islamophobic beliefs are the most dangerous, as they hold the power of life and death, and in a war zone, it is often impossible to track and punish numerous crimes committed against Arab […]
• Has Islamophobia Affected the Arab Nation? However, to understand the nature of the phenomenon and locate the ways of eradicating it, one has to consider the identified events.
• Islamophobia Is on the Rise in Germany “Islamophobia” is one of the varieties of xenophobia, which is expressed in fear of Islam as a phenomenon incomprehensible and alien, as well as everything that is connected, including Muslims.
• Factors Most Lead To Islamophobia
• Islamophobia and Misconceptions About Muslims in the United States
• Islamophobia and the Muslim Faith Leaders: Role in Countering Stigma and Bias
• Islamophobia: Ignorance and Bigotry at the Social Level
• Fighting Islamophobia: Debunking the Most Widespread Muslim Stereotypes
• Forgotten Women: The Impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Women
• The Islamophobic Experiences of Muslim Converts
• Islamophobia and the Muslim Youth Activism: Empowerment and Resistance
• Hate Crimes: Focusing On Islamophobia
• The Causes and Consequences of Islamophobia
• The Strategic Logic of Islamophobic Populism
• The Rise of Anti-muslim Prejudice: Media and Islamophobia
• Islamophobia in Western Media Is Based on False Premises
• A Long History of Islamophobia in the U.S.
• Islamophobia and Public Health in the United States
• Roots and Evolution of the History of Islamophobia
• Islamophobia and Its Effect on America
• The Growth of Islamophobia in the United States of America After the 9/11 Attack
• Islamophobia in the West: Comparative Analysis of the USA and Europe
• A Comparative Analysis of European Islamophobia: France, UK, Germany, Netherlands, and Sweden
• Islamophobia and the Muslim Faith
• Antisemitism and Islamophobia: What Does a Bibliometric Study Reveal?
• Islamophobia as Racist Undercurrents in Many Western Societies
• Understanding Islamophobia: Definition, Causes, and Consequences
• Islamophobia and the Muslim Political Participation: Challenges and Opportunities
• The Personal and Social Impact of Islamophobia
• The Correlation Between Islamophobia and Muslim Inmates
• Islamophobia and Islamophobic Violence
• American Islamophobia and the Syrian Refugees
• Islamophobia and Its Consequences on Young People
• Islamophobia and Normative Sociology
• The Origins and the Machination Behind Islamophobia
• Effects of Multiculturalism on Islamophobia
• Islamophobia: Causes, Risks, and Solutions
• The Impact of Islamophobia on the Muslim American Community
• Link Between Islamophobia and Racism
• Islamophobia and Terrorism: Debunking the Link
• Between Critical and Uncritical Understandings of Islamophobia
• Promoting Islamophobic Narratives in the U.S.
• Politics, Gender, and Discrimination in Islamophobia Context
• The Role of Media in Islamophobia: Misrepresentation and Bias
• Anti-migrant Islamophobia in Europe: Social Roots
• Islamophobia and Immigration: Policies and Practices
• America and the Claims of Islamophobia
• Islamophobia and the Muslim Food Industry: Navigating Stereotypes and Stigma
• The Most Prevalent Forms of Prejudice in the World: Islamophobia
• Islamophobia: Understanding Anti-muslim Sentiment in the West
• Similarities and Differences Between Islamophobia and Anti-Semitism
• Islamophobia and Muslim Representation in Media and Politics
• The United States War on Terror and the Prevalence of Islamophobia Among Americans
• How Did Islamophobia Become a Global Scourge?
• Was Islamophobia Ingrained in America’s Legal System Long Before the War on Terror?
• How Does the Urban, or Rural Context of Young People’s Everyday Lives Shape Their Understandings, and Responses to Islamophobia?
• What Is the Relationship Between Antisemitism and Islamophobia?
• How Does Islamophobia Impact Muslim Women in France?
• What Are the Ways to Fight Islamophobia?
• How Does Islamophobia Affect Our Communities?
• Is Islamophobia a Specific Form of Racism?
• Why Are Schools Key to Preventing Islamophobia?
• How Does Islamophobia Negatively Affect People?
• Can Islamophobia Be the Result of Structural Discrimination?
• How Does the Kamala Khan Artwork Fight Islamophobia?
• What Are the Particularities of Islamophobia for Young People Within the Context of Scottish Nationalism and Multiculturalism?
• How Can We Tighten Legislation to Prevent Islamophobia?
• Is There a Rise of Islamophobia in the UK?
• Can We Fight Against Islamophobia Without Movements That Refer to Islam?
• What Are the Effects of Islamophobia on Society?
• Are Anti-Islamic Hate Crimes in the European Countries the Result of Raising Islamophobia?
• How Do Different Religious, Ethnic, and Minoritized Youth Experience Islamophobia?
• What Are the Roots and Causes of Islamophobia?
• How Can We Combat Islamophobia and Create a More Inclusive Community?
• Do Stereotypes and Fears Targeted at Muslims Cause Islamophobia?
• What Are the Similarities and Differences of Islamophobia and Antisemitism?
• Is Islamophobia Closely Related to Identity Politics?
• Can an Ad Campaign Help Counter the Islamophobia?
• What Role Does the Media Play in Raising Islamophobia?
• Are There Growing Instances of Islamophobia in Hindi Cinema?
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Introduction: Understanding Islamophobia

• First Online: 27 May 2016

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• Douglas Pratt 6 &
• Rachel Woodlock 7  

Part of the book series: Boundaries of Religious Freedom: Regulating Religion in Diverse Societies ((BOREFRRERE))

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This book deals with a controversial phenomenon that has become known as ‘Islamophobia’. Antipathy towards Islam, long-standing from many quarters (Bravo López 2014, 2011; Gottschalk and Greenberg 2013; Curtis 2013; Kumar 2012; Mastnak 2010; Tolan 2002; Daniel 1960), not only seems to be increasing but evolving into a phantasmagorical spectre (Werbner 2013), particularly since the 11 September 2001 attacks, which not only took thousands of innocent lives, but destroyed the few existing barriers preventing hate-speech against Muslims from proliferating (Sheehi 2011). Perceptions of Islam, and concerns about Islamic ideology and Islamist activities, constitute topics of on-going contemporary concern globally for Muslims and non-Muslims alike. With the emergence in parts of the Muslim-majority world of DAISH (ISIS/ISIL) claiming to resurrect an Islamic caliphate, and its undisputed horrific atrocities and extermination of various Muslims and non-Muslims as targeted enemies, the peaceable interpretations of Islam followed by many millions across the globe are in danger of being so overshadowed that Muslims everywhere are perceived as harbingers of hate toward any not like them. Furthermore, in what Pratt (2015) describes as ‘reactive co-radicalisation’, extreme anti-Islam and anti-Muslim hatred also manifests in acts of violence and murder such as the 2011 Norwegian massacre committed by Anders Behring Breivik.

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Pratt, D., Woodlock, R. (2016). Introduction: Understanding Islamophobia. In: Pratt, D., Woodlock, R. (eds) Fear of Muslims?. Boundaries of Religious Freedom: Regulating Religion in Diverse Societies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29698-2_1

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Islamophobia: Causes and Consequences | Essay for CSS, PMS

• April 8, 2022
• CSS , CSS Essays , CSS Solved Essays , PMS , PMS Essays
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CSS Solved Essays | Islamophobia: Causes and Consequences

The essay is attempted by Dr Aimeen Mehmood on the given pattern, which Sir Syed Kazim Ali  teaches to his students, who have consistently been qualifying their CSS, and PMS essays. Sir Syed Kazim Ali has been Pakistan’s top English writing and CSS, PMS essay and precis coach with the highest success rate of his students. The essay is uploaded to help other competitive aspirants learn and practice essay writing techniques and patterns.

Introduction

• Islamophobia has emerged as the most threatened phenomenon in recent years.
• Anti-Islamic laws and Muslim massacres and discriminations are the norms, threatening international peace.
• The shattered Muslim community and insensitive media are the most significant factors causing Islamophobia.
• The collective efforts of the Muslim world and regulated media are the need of the hour to tackle the bulwark.

Understanding the term “Islamophobia.”

• Negative behaviour, including hostility, violence, rejection, exclusion, and discrimination toward Islam and Muslims
• Fear against Islam, Muslims, and their sacred customs

Current Situation of Islamophobia

• Ongoing hijab controversy
• Ever rising Anti-Muslim campaigns for Political gains
• Persecuting and Alleging Muslims for hate crimes
• Profaning and vandalizing mosques regularly

Consequences of Islamophobia

Social Consequences

• Intensifying attacks on Muslims and their Holy places
• Deteriorating international Peace and Harmony

Political Consequences

• Validating anti-Muslim laws and policies
• Threatening the global democracy

Economic Consequences

• Exploiting Muslim World in the international market
• Discriminating immigrated Muslims in career opportunities

Causes of Islamophobia

• Lack of unity among the Muslim countries
• Lack of direct interaction between the Muslim world and the Western World
• Misinterpretation of the Core of Islam
• The misconception of Jihad and its limitations
• The vested interest of Political Parties
• Biased role of International media-Information Warfare

Suggestions to tackle Islamophobia

• To unite Muslim Ummah to tackle anti-Islamic Ideology
• To Increase direct contact of the Western World with Muslim countries
• To clarify the proper understanding of Islam
• To organize awareness campaigns to elucidate the role and limitations of Jihad
• To call out Islamophobic political moves for vested interests via International laws
• To ensure the positive and unbiased participation of media and social networks
• To secure the effective role of international organizations mainly OIC, in fighting stereotypes

Critical Analysis Conclusion

One of the most contentious phenomena impacting the Muslim world in recent years is none other than Islamophobia. From rhetoric violence to brutal murders, Muslims worldwide are facing the challenges of social, political, religious, and cultural discrimination at different levels of society due to unfounded hostility toward Islam. Recent insights from several European countries affirm the inevitable consequences of Islamophobia on Muslims. For instance, laws and policies have been introduced in France, Belgium, and India, banning Hijab and religious minarets’ construction. However, although Europe is considered a bastion of Islamophobic racism, the sight of racism amongst Muslims and racist policies pedalled by Muslim governments are equally responsible for exaggerating the anti-Muslim hysteria. Moreover, the Muslim civil society has always been reluctant to engage adequately with wider society in fighting extremism and injustices across the board and to address the reprehensible actions and rhetoric of extremists within the community. The other reasons behind the pervasive anti-Muslim ideology that notably surged after the events of 9th September 2011- are the clash of civilizations, poor understanding of Islam, information warfare, the vested interest of the political groups, and the outsized influence of the extremist media. Nonetheless, the bulwark of Islamophobia can be shattered with collective foresighted efforts through media, international peace organizations- mainly the Organization of Islamic Community- and awareness campaigns. The following essay deals with the causes, consequences, and possible remedial measures to tackle the issue of Islamophobia.

Essays by Sir Kazim’s studentss who scored the highest marks Click on any to start reading the essay.

Commonly referred to as Islamophobia, the term is not without debate, as clearly discussion abounds concerning its origins and definition. The term was first coined in the late 90s to draw attention to harmful rhetoric and actions directed at Islam and Muslims in Western liberal democracies. In literal meaning, Islamophobia is the hatred for Islam. However, the twelfth observatory report of the Organization of Islamic Council explains Islamophobia as  “A fear, or more precisely, an excessive fear, against Islam, against Muslims, as well as against anything associated with the religion, such as Mosques, Islamic Centers, Holy Qur’an, Hijabs, etc.”  Thus, Islamophobia, in general, is a phenomenon that deals with negative behaviour, including hostility, violence, rejection, exclusion, and discrimination towards Islam and Muslims.

Currently, Muslims worldwide are witnessing massacres, killings, discrimination, hate speech, and the destruction of mosques and Islamic centres. Recent reports are heaped with such incidences. In India, for instance, a girl is harassed for wearing a hijab to the education institution. In France, a mosque is profaned or vandalized every three weeks. In Britain, a Muslim is punched and called a terrorist in front of her petrified daughter. In the Netherlands, the fascist Geert Wilder’s party wins many seats to sign an alliance with the anti-Islamic liberals. Sweden Democrats party chairman Jimmie Akesson warns Islam is  “Our biggest foreign threat since World War Two.”  In Poland, the mainstream media and some politicians aggressively attack the small community of Muslims, depicting them as the new folk devil. The list goes on, but, to put it briefly, extremist activities toward Muslims are rising continuously, and they continue to haunt Muslims throughout the world.

Socially, the increasing Islamophobia has threatened Muslims’ lives and the religious places-mosques-. The extremists use soft targets to manifest their hatred for Islam. From the legitimized destruction of the Babri Masjid in India to the terrorist mass shootings at Christchurch mosque in New Zealand, Muslims are being oppressed, targeted, and subjugated worldwide. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the number of anti-Muslim hate crime incidents has increased to 257 yearly. Further, more than one-fourth of American Muslims surveyed by several public opinion polls reveal personal experiences of Islamophobia or know someone who has experienced it. The killing of Muslims on such a huge level without any apprehension of being punished has destroyed the peaceful living of immigrants and Muslim students in the West. Moreover, they are also facing restrictions in practising religion. And all those who condemn the anti-Islamic moves are declared radicals and are frequently challenged and criticized, and their status as victims is denied. Therefore, the anti-Islamic prejudice has not only instilled a sense of fear and Xenophobia toward Muslims and the Muslims towards the West but also deteriorated international peace and harmony.

Furthermore, many countries like France, Belgium, and India have declared Islam legally a false religion and legalized anti-Muslim activities in their states. For personal political gains, world leaders like Donald Trump- the former US president, Netanyahu- The former Israel Prime Minister, and Emmanuel Macron- the French President, have initiated political campaigns to portray Muslims as a threat to society and ban the religious symbols of Islam. According to the Organization of Islamic Council (OIC) report, more than Ten European States have banned the freedom of exercising Islam as a religion, practising Hijab in public places, and constructing minarets in mosques. Additionally, the ever-rising legal policies against Muslims by the world democratic powers are a question of their own promulgated norms of their governments. To cut it short, Islamophobia is causing existential threats to the Muslims living under Anti-Muslim leaders and hindering the evolution of democracy across the world.

Besides social and political discrimination, Islamophobia is also posing the challenges of economic discrimination against Muslims around the world. The Muslims living in European countries are forced to emigrate from their long remained hometowns as Islamophobia rises. They are not provided opportunities for jobs and business. They have no place in the governmental departments. Above all, they are not allowed to run street ventures on local grounds. Olivier Esteves, a professor of British Studies at the University of Lille and a researcher, says,  “People who wear visible signs of religious belonging, such as a beard or hijab (headscarf), often find it impossible to access the job market in France.”  Thus, more than eighty per cent of the Muslims in the western states- most of them are well-educated- cannot find jobs and resultantly suffer from a high level of unemployment rate because they have Muslim-sounding names. The discrimination is not limited at Intra states markets. Still, it expands to the international Markets where the Muslim countries are looked down upon and kept from trade opportunities and even the free market business. Thus, Islamophobia is disturbing the economic status of the Muslim World despite being rich in natural and young human resources.

Since the phenomenon of Islamophobia comes with dreadful impacts at the global level, it has originated overnight. There are multiple factors responsible for the widespread anti-Islamic attitude of the world. Predominantly, the lack of unity among the Muslim states is the most significant cause responsible for the exaggerated Islamophobia in the world. After the 9/11 attacks, when the Western world initially targeted Muslims, no Muslim country has come forward to clear the status of Islam and Muslims before international forums. Instead, they have been busy fueling or settling internal disputes. For instance, both Iran and Saudi Arabia always have aggressive policies against each other, and one has always been busy suppressing the other and vice versa. Additionally, as many Muslim countries believe in having been supported by the west in one way or another, they hesitate to interact with the western world, particularly on the issue of Islamophobia. Consequently, the issue is not addressed on serious grounds at any international peace conference or platform, and the opinion of the Islamic world remains sidelined. Although the UNGA has passed the resolution to counter Muslim hatred, how far is it going to implement is still a question mark as no previous resolution of the United Nations against Muslim massacres is known to have been implemented in any region of the world.

Another critical factor responsible for aggravating Islamophobia is the misinterpretation of Islam as a way of life. Since most British nationals and the general public are unaware of the true nature of Islam, they are brainwashed by Islam’s enemy mindsets. For instance, Shahram Hadian- an Iranian-born pastor who converted from Islam to Christianity- tried to inculcate his point in the youth against Islam with statistics and scripture. Further, the world is unaware of the Islamic teachings of Jihad, its need, and its limitations. As a result, the ignorant non-Muslims are made to believe Islam is an extremist religion that exhorts its followers to kill humanity. Additionally, some terrorist attacks by the So-called Islamists have added fuel to the fire. Hence, Islam is the religion of peace and kindness, and it does not allow harming a single person on the land, which has been buried under widespread misconceptions.  

Together with Muslims’ disunity and misinterpreted concepts of Islam, the vested interests of the politicians both in the Islamic and Western world have aggravated the prevalence of Islamophobia in the world. The anti-Muslim campaigns are run for political gains. Recent studies show that Islamophobic attacks and hatred in Western countries are relatively higher near the elections. For instance, Muslims have increasingly been portrayed as a threat to French society under Emmanuel Macron’s presidency. Likewise, the Muslim world- Particularly Turkey- following the footsteps of the West is, known to be involved in anti-Muslim politics to prove itself a secular state. World leaders have been exploiting Islam to strengthen their position in liberal Politics. According to Esteves- a British researcher,  “It is dog-whistle politics to talk about Muslims without sounding Islamophobic.”  Thus, if the world politics on Islam remains to be continued, it would be the biggest hurdle in alleviating the threat of Islamophobia from the minds of the general public too.

Above all, the biased role of international media has contributed the most to instilling Islamophobic perception. The world is living in the age of information warfare, where particular events are aggravated. Recent history is full of events when the media highlighted Islamophobic incidents to spread hate for the Muslim Community. Any bearded man responsible for any suspicious activity is regarded as a terrorist attack. Contrarily, the violent acts performed by non-Muslims are justified as a mishap. To put it briefly, if the media had been unbiased in publishing news regarding all attacks post 9/11, the idea of Islamophobia would have been diminished by now.

Nonetheless, Islamophobia can be tackled by foresighted steps to alleviate anti-Semitism- hatred towards Jews- and Hispanophobia- hatred toward Spanish. First and foremost, the Muslim ummah needs to be united on the cause of Islamophobia. Since unity is the prerequisite for developing relations and enhancing cooperation among nations, the Muslim world should gather at a common point to address the world against Anti-Islamic Ideology so that Islam enemies should apprehend before initiating any hatred move toward Muslims. Within the community, the Muslim countries are also to foster a balanced neutral environment, eliminating Westernphobia. Second, there needs to be more direct interaction between the Muslim World and the Western world to remove misconceptions.

Third, the world is to know the true meaning of Islam as the religion of peace, happiness, and kindness. For this purpose, more awareness campaigns and peace talks are to be conducted at the international level, particularly in the Western countries where Islamophobia is the most prevalent. Moreover, Muslims living in the Western world is to manifest true kindness based on the teachings of Islam in their everyday activities. It can not only change the attitude of the world towards Muslims but also transform the perception of Islam in the minds of the general public. Fourth, seminars need to be held to clarify the concept of Jihad in Islam. Finally, the world needs to be explained that Islam does not exhort its followers to initiate any kind of war. As it is clearly depicted in the Holy Quran [2:190],  “You may fight in the cause of GOD against those who attack you but do not aggress. GOD does not love the aggressors.” 

Fifth, international peace organizations like United Nations are to call out insensitive hyper-nationalist groups that are using Islamophobia to win their vested interests. Although the UN has passed a resolution against Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim hatred urging tolerance and neutrality, the organization has not made any strict laws against anti-Islamic politics. Thus, Laws against Islamophobic moves are the need of the hour if the bulwark of Islamophobia needs to be dealt with. Sixth, the positive and unbiased participation of the media can do wonders in building the positive approach of Islam in the minds of the international public. Through the constructive discussions and social activities in the screen era, Islam hatred could be alleviated from the world in no time.

Last but not least, the Organization of Islamic Council (OIC) – the collective voice of the Muslim world to ensure and safeguard their interest in economic socio and political areas- with its power of fifty-two countries, need to play its role efficiently. It should develop an international Islamic channel where all Muslim countries- keeping their grudges behind- should cooperate to stand firm against Islamophobia. That is the only way to eliminate the Islamopbhobic ideology and protect the rights of Muslims across the world.

Critically, despite the centuries’ worth of glorious Muslim contribution to Europe’s culture, art, innovation, science, and philosophy, Islam in the west is portrayed as an evil, extremist, and violent religion whose disciples tend to spread harm to the followers of other’s religions. And the trend is continuously increasing even in the highly democratic world of the twentieth century. It has demolished the status of the Muslim community and deteriorated the peace of the world. Therefore, it is high time the threat needs to be taken seriously or it would- if allowed to spread unabated- leave none unaffected.

In a nutshell, the rising tide of Islamophobia has led the world towards social, cultural, and religious turmoil, posing an existential threat to global peace and harmony. It is an indisputable fact that far from it being an abstract intellectual exercise, Islamophobia is a reality today. Its manifestation is in the rampant attacks on Muslims in the West at different levels of society. However, along with the Western discriminative framework, the Muslim community is equally responsible for the prevailing Islamophobia worldwide. As it is clearly stated in the Holy Quran [13:11], “God does not change the condition of a people until they change their inner selves” Therefore, the Muslim community, through international organizations- like OIC, need to play its role in tackling the anti-Muslim threats so that the real picture of Islam could be manifested, the global peace could be restored.

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