salt water battery research paper

Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Saltwater as the energy source for low-cost, safe rechargeable batteries †.

* Corresponding authors

a School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan 689-798, Republic of Korea E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected]

The effective use of electricity from renewable sources requires large-scale stationary electrical energy storage (EES) systems with rechargeable high-energy-density, low-cost batteries. We report a rechargeable saltwater battery using NaCl (aq.) as the energy source (catholyte). The battery is operated by evolution/reduction reactions of gases (mostly O 2 , with possible Cl 2 ) in saltwater at the cathode, along with reduction/oxidation reactions of Na/Na + at the anode. The use of saltwater and the Na-metal-free anode enables high safety and low cost, as well as control of cell voltage and energy density by changing the salt concentration. The battery with a hard carbon anode and 5 M saltwater demonstrated excellent cycling stability with a high discharge capacity of 296 mA h g hard carbon −1 and a coulombic efficiency of 98% over 50 cycles. Compared with other battery types, it offers greatly reduced energy cost and relatively low power cost when used in EES systems.

• This article is part of the themed collection: 2016 Journal of Materials Chemistry A HOT Papers

Supplementary files

• Supplementary information PDF (1141K)

Article information

Download citation, permissions.

Saltwater as the energy source for low-cost, safe rechargeable batteries

S. Park, B. SenthilKumar, K. Kim, S. M. Hwang and Y. Kim, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2016,  4 , 7207 DOI: 10.1039/C6TA01274D

To request permission to reproduce material from this article, please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

If you are an author contributing to an RSC publication, you do not need to request permission provided correct acknowledgement is given.

If you are the author of this article, you do not need to request permission to reproduce figures and diagrams provided correct acknowledgement is given. If you want to reproduce the whole article in a third-party publication (excluding your thesis/dissertation for which permission is not required) please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

Read more about how to correctly acknowledge RSC content .

Social activity

Search articles by author, advertisements.

• DOI: 10.1039/C6TA01274D
• Corpus ID: 100724573

Saltwater as the energy source for low-cost, safe rechargeable batteries

• Sangmin Park , Baskar Senthilkumar , +2 authors Youngsik Kim
• Published 11 May 2016
• Environmental Science, Engineering
• Journal of Materials Chemistry

27 Citations

High energy density rechargeable metal-free seawater batteries: a phosphorus/carbon composite as a promising anode material, design of large‐scale rectangular cells for rechargeable seawater batteries, redox chemistry of advanced functional material for low-cost and environment-friendly seawater energy storage, advanced perspective on the synchronized bifunctional activities of p2-type materials to implement an interconnected voltage profile for seawater batteries, rechargeable seawater batteries—from concept to applications, energy projection of the seawater battery desalination system using the reverse osmosis system analysis model, feasibility study of a low cost saltwater lamp for rural area, harvesting sustainable energy from saltwater, part ii: effect of electrode geometry., understanding structural degradation of nasicon solid electrolyte for stable seawater batteries, analysis on renewable energy generation of from salinity gradient by reverse electro dialysis, 36 references, a rechargeable room-temperature sodium superoxide (nao2) battery., rechargeable seawater battery and its electrochemical mechanism, exploration of cobalt phosphate as a potential catalyst for rechargeable aqueous sodium-air battery, sodium and sodium-ion energy storage batteries, rechargeable aqueous na–air batteries: highly improved voltage efficiency by use of catalysts, energy-storage technologies and electricity generation, rechargeable-hybrid-seawater fuel cell, room-temperature stationary sodium-ion batteries for large-scale electric energy storage, sodium‐ion batteries, sodium-metal halide and sodium-air batteries., related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Saltwater as the energy source for low-cost, safe rechargeable batteries

Chat with Paper: Save time, read 10X faster with AI

Citation Count

Carambola-shaped VO2 nanostructures: a binder-free air electrode for an aqueous Na–air battery

Rechargeable seawater batteries-from concept to applications., binary n,s-doped carbon nanospheres from bio-inspired artificial melanosomes: a route to efficient air electrodes for seawater batteries, high energy density rechargeable metal-free seawater batteries: a phosphorus/carbon composite as a promising anode material, reliable seawater battery anode: controlled sodium nucleation via deactivation of the current collector surface, electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of choices, electrochemical energy storage for green grid, sodium‐ion batteries, room-temperature stationary sodium-ion batteries for large-scale electric energy storage, electrochemical na insertion and solid electrolyte interphase for hard-carbon electrodes and application to na-ion batteries, related papers (5), trending questions (3).

Saltwater can be used as an energy source in rechargeable batteries by enabling evolution/reduction reactions at the cathode and Na/Na+ reactions at the anode, offering low cost and high safety.

The saltwater battery in the study demonstrated excellent cycling stability with a high discharge capacity of 296 mA h ghard carbon−1 over 50 cycles, indicating long-lasting electricity.

The paper states that the rechargeable saltwater battery uses NaCl (aq.) as the energy source (catholyte), indicating that sodium chloride is the chemical substance commonly found in saltwater that can generate electricity.

Advertisement

Sodium-ion battery from sea salt: a review

• Review Paper
• Open access
• Published: 18 April 2022
• Volume 11 , pages 71–89, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Anisa Raditya Nurohmah 1 ,
• Shofirul Sholikhatun Nisa 1 ,
• Khikmah Nur Rikhy Stulasti 3 ,
• Cornelius Satria Yudha 1 , 3 ,
• Windhu Griyasti Suci 1 , 3 ,
• Kiwi Aliwarga 4 ,
• Hendri Widiyandari 2 , 3 &
• Agus Purwanto   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8044-7835 1 , 3  

17k Accesses

15 Citations

19 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

The electrical energy storage is important right now, because it is influenced by increasing human energy needs, and the battery is a storage energy that is being developed simultaneously. Furthermore, it is planned to switch the lithium-ion batteries with the sodium-ion batteries and the abundance of the sodium element and its economical price compared to lithium is the main point. The main components anode and cathode have significant effect on the sodium battery performance. This review briefly describes the components of the sodium battery, including the anode, cathode, electrolyte, binder, and separator, and the sources of sodium raw material is the most important in material synthesis or installation. Sea salt or NaCl has potential ability as a raw material for sodium battery cathodes, and the usage of sea salt in the cathode synthesis process reduces production costs, because the salt is very abundant and environmentally friendly as well. When a cathode using a source of Na 2 CO 3 , which was synthesized independently from NaCl can save about 16.66% after being calculated and anode with sodium metal when synthesized independently with NaCl can save about 98% after being calculated, because sodium metal is classified as expensive matter.

Similar content being viewed by others

High-Energy Room-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur and Sodium–Selenium Batteries for Sustainable Energy Storage

Recent Progress in Sodium-Ion Batteries: Advanced Materials, Reaction Mechanisms and Energy Applications

Recent Advances in Sodium-Ion Battery Materials

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Researchers have established renewable resources usage as part of the Paris Agreement [ 1 , 2 ]. The agreement aims to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to restrict the increment in global temperatures in 2 °C above per-industrial levels while pursuing ways to limit the increment in 1.5 °C [ 3 ]. To achieve this goal, the obligation for transition from fossil energy to clean energy is conducted to get a better life. As a result, energy research and development has become a well-known topic and a major goal in world achievements.

The development of renewable power generation is inseparable from the importance of reliable and efficient energy storage technology [ 4 ]. Energy storage devices convert electrical energy into several forms that can be stored and released when they are used [ 5 ]. The energy storage system increases the reliability of the electricity supply by storing electricity during off-peak hours and releasing during on-peak hours [ 6 ]. Several types of these devices include secondary batteries, compressed air energy storage (CAES), electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLC), flywheels, superconductive magnetic energy storage (SMES), fuel cells, and thermometric energy storage (TEES) [ 5 ]. Secondary batteries have a long-life cycle, flexible power, high round-trip efficiency, and easy maintenance among these energy storage devices. Secondary batteries will be good energy storage technology when integrated with renewable resources. Furthermore, the compact size of the battery is suitable to be used in distribution network locations [ 7 ]. The challenge is that some portable devices, i.e. mobile phones, laptops, digital cameras, and drones, turn out more expensive because of the batteries [ 8 ]. To get the desired specifications, selecting the type of battery is the main point. The type of battery chosen is undoubtedly related to the production cost, which is dominated by the material, about 70% of the total cost [ 9 ].

The Lithium-ion battery (LIB) contains the most expensive material but has many advantages [ 10 ]. High power density, high energy efficiency, and being environmentally friendly are the main advantages of this battery [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. The research on LIB was conducted in 1970–1980s and Sony became a successful pioneer in the commercialization in 1991 [ 14 ]. The most important component of the LIB is the electrode (cathode and anode), the separator and the electrolyte. Commercial anodes in commercial LIB are generally made of graphite, which can easily diffuse Li ions over thousands of cycles. Since this battery is used widely, especially for electric vehicles and consumer use, its production increases every year [ 15 ]. As shown in Fig.  1 , the application of batteries has grown rapidly and is expected to increase simultaneously. The applications, which include portable devices such as video cameras, PCs, mobile phones, and a variety of other electronic gadgets, are designated as “consumer use” and contain features and functionalities that were previously inaccessible.

Global battery demand from 2020 to 2030 [ 1 ]

Electric vehicles will progressively use lithium-ion batteries as an environmentally acceptable form of transportation, which is predicted to grow dramatically [ 16 ]. However, the main source of batteries, namely lithium, is a challenge for the future because it is a finite metal source. According to US geological surveys, it is estimated that worldwide lithium resources can meet market demand by 2100 [ 17 ]. Sodium is found in the form of brine and seawater, counted for 61.8% of the world's total (26.9 Mt), especially in the USA, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and China. The remainder is in mineral form about 16.7 Mt [ 18 ]. However, actual demand may exceed this forecast demand coupled with hard-to-find lithium sources [ 17 ]. New sources of lithium are being explored, both primary sources from mining and secondary sources from recycled active materials. It is possible that the LIB will not be able to cross the growing demand [ 19 ].

The new battery source that is more readily available in nature and less expensive is the sodium-ion battery (SIB). Several studies have been carried out, therefore SIB can be an alternative to LIB for large-scale production [ 20 ]. From an economic point of view, SIB can compete with LIB in terms of price, as explained by Peters et al. [ 21 ]. In the same cell, such as the 18,650-round cell, the SIB is cheaper than the LIB with an LFP/NMC cathode.

As the main source of SIB, sodium is the lightest metal and the second smallest after lithium [ 22 ]. Geographically, compared to the limited lithium, the availability of sodium is more abundant. Sodium can be resourced from both seawater and the earth’s crust. In seawater, the sodium concentration is 10,800 ppm compared to the lithium concentration of only 0.1–0.2 ppm [ 23 ]. Similarly in the earth’s crust, 2.8% sodium is provided [ 24 ], whereas lithium is only 0.002–0.006% [ 25 ]. The high gap in availability further strengthens sodium as a raw material for new battery materials. Sodium sources can be reached from various compounds such as Na 2 CO 3 , NaCH 3 COO, NaCl and NaNO 3 . Most of the sodium salt can be produced using NaCl or saline salt. As the main SIB source, sea salt (NaCl) from seawater can be the main candidate [ 26 , 27 ] due to its abundant compounds and not geographically limited. NaCl can be activated into an electrode by inducing it electrochemically in a crystalline structure [ 26 ]. NaCl has been used in several components of sodium-ion batteries, including electrolyte [ 28 , 29 ], as a raw material for electrodes and electrode doping [ 30 ]. Nowadays, the challenge in developing SIB is selecting the suitable electrode type.

This review examines SIB as an alternative to LIB for the future secondary battery using NaCl potential as a raw material especially from seawater. Seawater is processed in such a way into sea salt (NaCl) which is ready to use for production. NaCl can be used directly as raw material for SIB or processed into intermediate raw materials for SIB, such as Na 2 CO 3 or NaNO 3 . Details on the seawater potential for the SIB component, its challenges, and future projections are discussed in the next section.

Sodium-ion battery

A sodium-ion battery (SIB) is one of the options for LIB. Because of the comparatively high amount of sodium sources in the earth's encrustation and seawater, as well as its relatively inexpensive manufacturing costs, SIB has recently gained a lot of interest as a promising commercial choice for large-scale energy storage systems [ 20 ]. Furthermore, because sodium belongs to the same periodic table group as lithium and has similar physicochemical qualities, SIB's operating mechanism is extremely similar to LIB's [ 7 ].

Lithium and sodium are parts of the periodic table's elements in group 1. They are known as alkali metals, because their valence shell has one loosely held electron. As a result, alkali metals are extremely reactive, hardness, conductivity, melting point, and initial ionization energy fall as their progress through the group [ 31 ]. Table 1 summarizes some of the characteristics of sodium and lithium that interest in their development. The redox potential of the two alkali elements is one of the most important things to compare. The standard Na + /Na reduction potential vs. SHE is − 2.71 V, which is roughly 330 mV higher than Li + /Li, which is − 3.04 V. SIB's anodic electrode potential will always be greater than LIB's since this potentially specifies a thermodynamics minimum for the anode. However, because the ionic radius of Na (1.02) is much larger than that of Li (0.76), finding suitable crystalline host materials for Na + with sufficient capacity and cycling stability may be more difficult [ 19 ].

Similar as LIB, an SIB cell consists of a cathode, anode, and electrolyte. The cathode in SIB is made of a substance that can absorb Na cations reversibly at voltages significantly higher than 2 V positive for Na metal. The best anodes are those with low voltages (less than 2 V vs. Na). The active cathode material commonly used is NaFeO 2 and the negative electrode or anode is hard carbon. Throughout charging, the cathode (NaFeO 2 ) will donate electrons to the external circuit, which can cause oxidation for the transition metal. Some of the added sodium atoms dissolve as ions in the electrolyte to maintain charge neutrality. They travel to the anode (hard carbon) and are incorporated into the structure to restore charge neutrality to the site, which was disrupted by electrons transmitted and absorbed from the cathode side. During discharge, the procedure is iterated in the opposite direction. This complete cycle of reactions happens in a closed system. Each electron produced during oxidation is consumed in the reduction reaction at the opposite electrode [ 32 ]. Figure  2 shows the entire procedure diagrammatically.

Working Mechanism of Sodium-Ion Batteries [ 2 ]

The specific capacity, cyclic stability, and rate performance of the SIB need to be improved for commercialization. The electrochemical effect is influenced by the electrode material used in cell manufacturing. The primary challenge is discovering an electrode material with a high and stable specific capacitance, minimal volume change during charge/discharge cycles, and adequate current performance [ 33 ]. Increasing the energy density of SIB can be achieved by enhancing the cathode’s working voltage or decreasing the anode’s working potential, increasing the capacity of specific electrodes, and generating solid-particle materials [ 19 ]. Another major challenge related to plated cathode materials is their hygroscopic properties after exposure to air, leading to poor cell performance and ultimately increasing transportation costs [ 34 ]. Due to some of these challenges, it is necessary to have a stable material towards the air exposure to produce good cell performance.

Na-containing anode materials

Many types of anodes have been developed by researchers, including sodium metal, oxide-based, carbon-based, alloys, and convention anodes. They have a relatively low irreversible capacity, and most of their capacities are potentially close to that of sodium metal. The metal insertion mechanism of sodium is nearly identical to that of lithium [ 35 ].

Sodium metal has been studied by many researchers as the negative electrode in sodium-ion batteries [ 36 , 37 ]. Due to its high density, it has a good anode for energy storage applications in the post lithium-ion battery era because of its large capacity (1166 mAhg −1 ), availability on earth, and inexpensive cost. However, sodium metal anodes suffer from inconsistent plating, stripping and, therefore, it cause a low Coulombic efficiency [ 37 ]. The large reactivity of sodium metal with organic electrolyte solvents and the production of dendrites during Na metal deposition are even more troublesome, and the low melting point of Na (98 °C) poses a considerable safety hazard in devices intended for operation at room temperatures [ 19 ]. Tang et al. devised a method of "sodiophilic" coating an Au-Na alloy onto a Cu substrate that works as a current collector to drastically minimize the propensity for nucleation over abundant to address this challenge. This coating significantly increases the coulombic efficiency of Na coating and stripping. NaCl allows to be used as a source of Na in this layer [ 37 ]. NaCl has been used in several components of sodium-ion batteries, including anode component and sodium metal. Sodium metal is usually produced by electrolysis of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the liquid state at the cell, by sticking up a steel gauze diaphragm between the anode and cathode. The function of the diaphragm is for reducing the mixing of the anode and cathode products when traverse the electrolyte [ 38 ].

David S. Peterson in 1966, got sodium metal by electrolysis in a mixture of molten salt which consist of 28–36% sodium chloride (NaCl), 23–35% calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ), 10–25% strontium chloride (SrCl), and 13–30% barium chloride (BaCl 2 ) [ 26 ] takes pure NaCl as the SIB electrode. NaCl is a non-metallic compound, so when it is used as an electrode, it must be metalized, i.e. it must be electromagnetically active for a reversible cycle. The metallization process can be led at high temperatures, as described above, or by induction. During the induction process, an electrochemical before filling up to 4.2 V was brought out as an activation cycle. This process generates a partial transition from phase B1 to B2-NaCl. Furthermore, the release process of about 0.1 V was done, therefore, Na + was intercalated into the active compound. During the release process, the B2-NaCl phase can accommodate Na + and form Na x Cl compounds, x  > 1. The reactions that occur are as follows

The phase change from B1 to B2 is the key to the reversible process, therefore it can intensify the ionic and electrochemical conductivity. Na metal in NaCl can reversibly intercalate/deintercalate up to a discharge capacity of 267 mAhg −1 [ 26 ]. The success of NaCl as an electrode is shown in Fig.  3 .

Galvanostatic profile of NaCl electrodes a intercalation and deintercalation of sodium through the NaCl structure with and without an activation cycle at 0.03 C. b Charge–discharge profile of activated NaCl electrodes at 0.05 C. c Performance of the NaCl cycle. d Voltammetry curve of the NaCl electrode at 0.1 mV / s in a sodium half cell [ 5 ]

Oxide-based materials have also been developed as well, as anodes in sodium-ion batteries, such as (NTP), NaTi 2 (PO 4 ) 3 , Na 2 Ti 3 O 7 and its composites with carbon, which have been studied by several researchers [ 29 , 39 ]. The three-dimensional structure of NTP, which creates an open framework of large interstitial spaces modified with NMNCO, with rate capability and cycle stability is increasing, because a better structure can ensure stability between the phases [ 40 ]. A similar study was conducted by Hou using NTP / C composites with water-based electrolytes to achieve an energy density of 0.03 Wh / g and a colombic efficiency close to 100%, due to the three-dimensional structure of NTP with an open framework and uniform nanoparticle shape [ 41 ]. NTP / C composites were also studied by Nakamoto using several types of electrolytes and Na 2 FeP 2 O 7 cathodes [ 42 ]. Chen et al. (2018) succeeded in manufacturing a desalination battery consisting of a NaTi 2 (PO 4 ) 3 anode and a silver cathode in an aqueous NaCl electrolyte for the deionization of seawater as an aqueous energy storage system. During the charging process, the sodium ions in the electrolyte are electrochemically caught into the NaTi 2 (PO 4 ) 3 electrode while the chloride ions are captured and interacted with the silver electrode to generate AgCl. The discharge causes the release of sodium and chloride ions from the corresponding electrode. This will greatly contribute to more energy-efficient seawater desalination technology in the future [ 29 ].

SIB anodes have been reported to feature three different types of energy storage mechanisms such as intercalation reactions, conversion reactions, and alloying reactions. This mechanism occurs during sodiation and desodiation [ 31 ]. In SIB, carbon compounds are similarly subjected to the intercalation mechanism. Graphitic, hard carbon, and graphene are three types of carbon materials that are one of the most potential anodes for SIBs due to their excellent charge/discharge voltage plateaus and low price [ 43 ]. Graphite is the most widely used anode material in LIB, with a capacity of 372 mAhg −1 . Graphite is not suitable for sodium-based systems, because Na almost does not form gradual graphite intercalation compounds and the radius size of Na is larger than Li, which means Na ions cannot enter the graphite [ 44 ]. To overcome this limitation, Yang et al. created expanded graphite (EG) with a 4.3 interlayer lattice spacing by oxidizing and reducing some of the graphite. The long-range layer structure of EG is similar to that of graphite. They showed that Na + may be absorbed into and removed from EG in a reversible manner [ 45 ].

Hard carbon has a lot of potential as SIB anodes because of its substantial intercalation capacity, low charge/discharge voltage plateaus, and low-cost methods of preparation [ 44 ].The application of hard carbon as a sodium battery anode was investigated by Alcantara. Sodium can be inserted reversibly in amorphous and non-porous hard carbon, resulting in a high irreversible capacity in the first cycle due to the carbon surface area [ 46 ] . Furthermore, due to its wide middle layer, adequate operating voltage, and inexpensive cost, hard carbon can be utilized as anode material for sodium-ion batteries. However, poor efficiency and initial colombic performance remain a problem [ 47 ]. NaCl can also be combined as an additive on hard carbon to become the anode. The electrochemical properties of hard carbon can be improved by intercalating NaCl. Na + and Cl − can intercalate into the coating at high temperature and pressure, therefore the load transfer resistance can decrease sharply. With the addition of this NaCl, the capacity of the SIB can be increased to 100% [ 48 ].

The capacity of graphene-based carbon materials is higher than that of hard carbon. However, the density of tap graphene is often less than 1.0 g cm −3 , far lower than that of hard carbon, lowering graphene’s volumetric capacity. Due to the substantially higher outer surface area compared to hard carbon, these low ICEs are almost unsolvable. SIB anodes have been developed that combine graphene with conversion/alloy anodes to generate bi-functional electrodes. Due to the synergistic effect, graphene can be combined with other electroactive materials, such as metals (or metal oxides), to supply much greater storage capacities and better cycle stability than metal samples (or metal oxides) [ 49 ].

Sodium can form alloys with elements such as Si, Ge, Pb, Sn, Sb, P, and Bi so that it can be used as a SIB anode. Single atoms of these elements can form an alloy with more than one Na + at an average working potential with less than 1 Volt for Na/Na + . Alloying anodes have large specific capacities, and advanced composite nanostructure alloying anodes offer good capacity and cycle stability [ 50 ]. During the sodiation phase, however, there is a significant volume growth. Furthermore, during long-term cycling, they are constantly pulverized, which creates a considerable obstacle to commercialization [ 44 ]. Their stability must also be increased by the development of advanced structures or interfacial electrode/electrolyte adjustment. Alloying anodes with advanced composite and nanostructures have been shown to have high capacity and cycling stability [ 51 ].

Conversion anodes are a typical way to make a high-capacity SIB anode. P, S, O, N, F, Se, and other conversion elements are examples. The components must be paired with metal or non-metal materials as a partial SIB anode, where the alloy metal's discharge product can give high conductivity while also shielding the alloying discharge product from agglomeration [ 40 ]. Conversion anodes has obstacles in its implementation such as volume expansion, poor cycle stability, and crushing during the charge–discharge process, all of which are significant impediments to practical implementation [ 44 ]. Fortunately, nano-engineering of the alloying anode material can solve this volume change. Nano-engineering approaches can help to increase the cycling performance of alloying anodes. Combining alloying and conversion elements is another key method for improving the capacity and stability of these materials. These anodes have good cycling performance thanks to the synergism of conversion and alloying products. Combining alloying or conversion anodes with carbonaceous materials has been proven to be an excellent strategy for producing an extremely stable alloying or conversion anode [ 52 ].

Na-containing cathode materials

One of the needful components in a sodium battery is the cathode. However, its development is relatively slow. Therefore, developing suitable cathode materials with high capacities and voltages is essential to develop the energy density of the SIB. Several cathode materials have been developed by many researchers such as layered transition metal oxide, sodium poly anion compound, prussian blue, sulfur and air, and other organic compounds. Nowdays, layered metal oxides (Na x MO 2 , 0 <  x  < 1, M = Fe, Mn, Co, Cu, Ni, etc.) and poly anion-type materials have been the most important thing for studying cathodes in SIB [ 31 ]. In the 1970s, Delmas et al. found the electrochemical characteristics and structural of Na insertion in NaCoO 2 as a viable cathode material for SIB, which prompted more research [ 53 ]. Other layered oxides of 3d transition metals such as Na x CrO 2 [ 54 ], Na x FeO 2 [ 55 ], and Na x MnO 2 [ 56 ], were studied further in the early 1980s. These investigations were limited to 3.5 V versus Na +/ Na during that period and due to the electrolyte's instability in the beginning cycles [ 57 ]. Based on the nomenclature suggested by Delmas et al. in 1980., the layered TMOs prototype can be described in terms of Na 1- x MO 2 (0 <  x  < 1, M is a transition metal), and has two distinct types of structures which are presented in Table 2 about types of cathode structures. The structural form of the layered TMO consists of P2-type or O3-type which is depicted in Fig.  4 . The letters “P” and “O” stand for prismatic and octahedral, respectively, denoting the lattice site inhabited by alkali ion, while the numbers “2” and “3” denote the number of layers or stacks in a repetition unit of the TMO crystal structure [ 58 ].

Structure of a O3- b P2 TMO cathode is sodium coated (sodium atom is yellow, the oxygen atom is red, the transition metal is blue) [ 3 ]

NaCoO 2 is the oldest form of TMO cathode insertion material for SIB, having been investigated in the 1980s [ 53 ]. Research on NaCoO 2 was conducted by Ding et al. showed a poor cycle life of around 100 cycles [ 59 ]. In their investigation of P2-Na 0.7 CoO 2 , Fang et al. increased the electrochemical performance from 300 cycles and 86% initial capacity retention. [ 60 ]. In general, NaCoO 2 has a excellent voltage stability,high rate capability, and a large range of reversible sodium contents in its many polymorphs [ 60 ]. Despite this, it has a oblique voltage profile and has a inclination for reacting with electrolytes containing NaPF 6  [ 61 ]. The high cost of Co, on the other hand, is a major impediment to the widespread use of all Co-based electrode materials.

In the 1980s, Tekeda et al. were prepared NaFeO 2 through solid-state method at 700 °C. In their examination of the effect of cutoff voltage on electrode performance, Yabuuchi et al. discovered that NaFeO 2 has capacity of 80–100 mAhg −1 . For a cutoff voltage of 3.4 V, the electrode barely manages excellent capacity. When the cutoff voltage exceeds 3.5 V, the material undergoes irreversible structural changes [ 58 ].

NaMnO 2 for cathode application was examined by Mendiboure et al. on NaMnO 2 premise an impractical low reversible capacity of 54 mAhg −1 [ 56 ]. Caballero et al. synthesize P2-Na 0.6 MnO 2 and gain a reversible capacity of 140 mAhg −1 and incredible thermal stability [ 62 ]. NaNiO 2 and NaCrO 2 are also appointed as postulant electrode materials for SIB. The electrode NaCrO 2 was synthesized by Komaba et al. by capacity of 120 mAhg −1 in the first cycle. Vassilaras et al. defined the electrochemical characteristics of O′3-NaNiO 2 as a capacity of 120 mAhg −1 . Substitution part of Fe with either Mn [ 58 ], Co [ 63 ], or Ni [ 63 , 64 ] has attested to be a successful technique for dealing with structural changes and increasing storage capacity while keeping material costs down.

Other important type of cathode material is poly-anionic compounds. The most popular learning of poly-anionic groups contain phosphate (PO4) 3− , sulfate (SO4) 2− ,and pyrophosphate (P2O7) 4− ions [ 65 ]. The most productive structures in the poly-anionic compounds family are the maricite, olivine, and NASICON [ 65 ]. In the case of SIB, maricite type NaFePO 4 is the thermodynamic stable. However, at temperatures above 450 °C, olivine-type NaFePO 4 change into maricite type NaFePO 4 . Analogous to carbonophosphates and Na 4 Fe 3 (PO 4 ) 2 (P 2 O 7 ), Na 3 MePO 4 CO 3 (where Me = Fe or Mn), has also been observed [ 66 ]. A promising poly-anionic carbonophosphate cathode material has been identified as the Mn compound. However, electrode tuning to reduce capacity loss by 50% in the initial cycles (from 200 to 100 mAhg −1 ) is required to attain its full potential. Besides, the rate performance is unimpressive [ 67 ]. However, the observed reasonable capacity storage is adequate to generate optimization in this material [ 31 ].

NaCl can be utilized as an additional raw material in another compound cathode. In its pure form, NaCl is not considered to work properly. Yang et al. [ 68 ] synthesizes Na 4 Fe(CN) 6 /NaCl as SIB cathode. NaCl has a part in increasing the Na + diffusion, therefore it improves the electrochemical performance of pure Na 4 Fe(CN) 6 [ 68 ]. Moreover, it [ 69 ] also synthesized the Na 2 MnFe(CN) 6 cathode with Na 4 Fe(CN), NaCl and MnCl 2 raw materials using the co-precipitation method using deionized water as a solvent. Using water-based electrolyte, such as 32K 8 Na (Acetate), electrochemical stability is gained and can use Al foil as a flux collector for the first time. Besides, the contact with NMHCF shows a clear dark yellow color shift from the production of iron hydroxide as a result of NMHCF decomposition, therefore, it is necessary to develop a transition metal based on cathode to make it more stable.

Besides being an additional raw material, NaCl can be formed in other compounds, as shown in Table 3 , and therefore, it can be used for SIB cathodes. The source of the raw material generally used is Na 2 CO 3 , which requires a process to alter NaCl into Na 2 CO 3 . Synthesis of Na 2 CO 3 according to the solvay process with table salt, therefore it is more environmentally friendly in the equation below [ 70 ]:

The recovered sodium bicarbonate can be altered to carbonate (soda-ash) by the arts skill method, through calcification (heating) at 170–190 °C.

Na 2 CO 3 is gained. After that, it ready to use as raw material for sodium-ion battery cathode.

The sources of sodium can turn into NaNO 3 as well and some compounds can be reacted with NaCl to form NaNO 3 with heterogeneous reactions at atmospheric pressure such as [ 71 ]:

The formation of NaNO 3 from NaCl and HNO 3 begins with the recrystallization of NaCl using an ethanol–water mixture. The solid formed is filtered and dried to remove surface-bound H 2 O. NaCl is formed from the precipitation process is not from porous. Dry HNO 3 steam was prepared by mixing HNO 3 and H 2 SO 4 . Furthermore, NaNO 3 − capping NaCl is produced by dry exposure and recrystallization of NaCl to dry HNO 3 in a closed container [ 72 ].

Na-containing electrolytes

As explained in the previous point, the presence of electrolytes is very important in sodium batteries. The usage of electrolytes is also build upon the resistance of the electrode material used. Regarding of performance, electrolytes specify the properties of ion transport and the solid electrolyte interface (SEI). The usage of electrolytes is also build upon the resistance of the electrode material used. Not only is ionic conductivity, electrochemical stability window, thermal and mechanical (for solid electrolytes) strength, safety, economics, and ecology important when choosing an electrolyte, as well as the mechanism of its interaction with electrode materials and the characteristics of the SEI produced [ 74 ]. For safety reasons, when it comes to thermal runaway or cell breakdown, the correct electrolyte can help reduce the chances of an explosion [ 73 ]. Highly modified intercalation compounds used as anodes likely need a customized SEI to allow stable for cycling in the cell, equal to the litigated graphite electrodes in Li-ion systems [ 19 ]. Organic electrolytes, ionic electrolytes, aqueous based electrolytes, inorganic solid electrolytes, and solid polymer electrolytes are among the electrolytes utilized in sodium batteries. Each of the electrolytes that are currently available is described below.

Organic electrolytes

Diluted sodium salt in organic solvent (ester based and ether based). First, linear carbonates (DMC, EMC, and DEC) and cyclic carbonates (EC and PC); second, ether-based organic solvents (diglyme and triglyme), which suppress dendritic formation, improve thermal stability, and lengthen the ESW [ 74 ]. Both sodium salt and solvent is important, the additive choice is important to improve the SIB performance (ester based). Organic solvents have several advantages, including a high dielectric constant (> 15) that promotes sodium salt dissociation, a low viscosity that promotes Na + migration, chemical and electrochemical stability to charged and discharged electrode materials within a particular voltage range, the formation of stable passivation films on electrode surfaces, and it is also cost effective for commercial production [ 75 ]. However, organic electrolytes' flammability and instability at high temperatures are major challenges to practical usage [ 76 ]

Nowadays, the electrolytes used widely for sodium batteries are NaClO 4 , NaPF 6 , dissoluble in carbonate-based organic solvents, either made from a single solvent, such as polypropylene carbonate (PC), or a mixture of solvents.

Ionic liquid electrolytes

Because some worse point of organic solvent, ionic liquid being used to solve. Cations and anions are the sole constituents of ionic liquids, often identified as room-temperature molten salts or ambient-temperature melts. Many studies on ionic liquid electrolytes have been led by their great thermal stability, no volatility, and broad Electrochemical Stability Windows (ESWs) (up to 6 V), which offer high-quality interfaces and good wetting qualities for separators. Furthermore, their uses have been limited to some extent because to their poor ionic conductivity and relatively high viscosity [ 65 ]. That is also because to the high costs of ingredients, manufacture, and purification, ionic liquid-based battery are sometimes too expensive for large-scale energy storage system [ 76 ].

Inorganic solid electrolytes

Solid electrolyte may be divided into two main categories that is inorganic and organic solid electrolyte. Inorganic solid electrolytes shown a diverse group of crystalline ceramics and amorphous glasses. The primary goal of inorganic solid electrolyte development is to solve safety concerns, while also increasing energy density and also the flammability case of previous electrolyte. This electrolyte began to be developed due to its non-flammability, strong thermal stability, mechanical qualities, and broad ESW. Sulfides, β-Alumina, NASICON, and Complex hydrides are examples of inorganic solid electrolytes that have been discovered. Sulfides are known for their strong ionic conductivities, as well as their good mechanical characteristics and low grain-boundary resistances [ 74 ]. Because of its layered structure with open galleries separated by pillars through which Na + ions may easily move, β-Alumina has been employed as a rapid Na + ion conductor. NASICON for their compositional variety and exceptional performance. Complex hydrides have a wide ESW and excellent thermal stability, although they have a poor ionic conductivity.

Besides of their good thermal stability and mechanical strength, there are some point that being major concern on developing inorganic solid electrolyte. Which include poor interface contact, unfavourable chemical/electrochemical reaction with alkali metal, and solid-state electrolytes with low thermodynamic and mechanical stability [ 77 ].

Solid polymer electrolyte

Organic solid electrolytes, which are mainly carbon-based polymers containing heteroatoms like oxygen or nitrogen capable of solvating embedded sodium ions, are another type of solid electrolyte. Solid polymer electrolytes are the subject of a lot of research because their mechanical strength and process ability efficiently increase ionic conductivity and expand ESW. Differ from liquid electrolyte that dissociated ions are easily move within the liquid, polymer electrolyte that contain no liquid, ions in polymer electrolytes migrate via the polymer network itself.

Some polymer that already developed is PEO, P(VDF-HFP), PMMA, PAN-based gel electrolytes. Liquid plasticizers, organic solvents, and salt solutions immobilized inside polymer host matrices make up solid polymer electrolytes [ 78 ]. Because the loss of quick Na + ion transfer medium and interfacial compatibility during cycling has a detrimental impact on SPE performance, high-viscosity solvents must be used to solve the problem. SPEs have low mechanical strength, which puts them at danger of dendritic penetration [ 76 ].

Aqueous-based electrolyte

The development of aqueous electrolytes for SIBs is essential from the standpoints of sodium storage and interfacial stability. Diluted sodium salt in aqueous solution. The electrolyte concentration is regarded as an important index for improving aqueous electrolytes because of its direct effects on ionic conductivity and rate performance. The oxygen solubility decreases and becomes more stable as the electrolyte concentration rises. Because self-discharging is generated by oxygen that is not soluble in the electrolyte, the higher the electrolyte concentration, the less self-discharging occurs.

Because of their low cost and great safety, aqueous electrolytes are widely studied. Because of the kinetic impact, the practical stability window of the aqueous electrolyte is greater than the thermodynamic limit, allowing for the use of a wider range of electrode materials in these systems. However, excessive salt concentrations cause corrosion. There is following aspect that can be considered to improve aqueous electrolytes: such as combination of adequate sodium salts with an appropriate anion to build a stable and low-resistance protective layer on the electrode surface; and inclusion of functional additives to increase interface stability and reduce side reactions in high-concentration electrolytes [ 76 ].

Aqueous-based electrolyte or water used as a salt solvent has been studied deeply. The salt used are NaCl [ 29 , 79 ], Na 2 SO 4 [ 80 , 81 , 82 ], and CH 3 COONa [ 69 , 83 , 84 ]. Water electrolytes are promising candidates for an environmentally friendly SIB system due to long life and good performance, safe and low-cost SIB system for grid-scale applications [ 73 ]. Because of its high dielectric constant, low viscosity, strong ionic conductivity, and low vapor pressure, water is an appealing choice as an ideal solvent for aqueous electrolytes, especially because of its inherent safety [ 79 ]. The majority of inorganic salts in aqueous electrolytes (such as Na 2 SO 4 , NaCl) have no influence on the electrochemical stability window [ 85 ]. Further development of NaCl as sodium salt electrolyte is really compromising, because the abundance of NaCl in the form of sea salt in the world.

NaCl from sea salt has been one of promising point for sodium-ion battery development. In fact, NaCl can be used separately as an electrolyte. As an electrolyte, NaCl is used as an additive in the NaPF 6 electrolyte. The concentration used is about 0.19% and was reported to improve cycling ability [ 86 ]. It can also be used as a raw material for the production of electrolytes by reacting with AlCl 3 at 300°C, and the electrolyte formed is NaAlCl 4 [ 87 ]. Furthermore, NaCl can be electrolyzed to become NaClO 4 and the electrolysis process occurs on the solid surface, in the case an electrode, and therefore, the solid acts as a catalyst. The reaction mechanism in the formation of chlorides in perchlorates is through the formation of hypochlorite, chlorite, and chlorate compounds first. More specifically, the reaction mechanism is shown below [ 88 ]:

On the anode surface:

On the cathode surface:

In an electrolyte solution:

NaClO 4 have been widely used as sodium battery salt electrolyte. NaClO 4 can be used in organic solvent or aqueous solvent. The impact of extending the aqueous electrolyte's limited working potential window has also been examined using aqueous Na-ion batteries with highly concentrated electrolytes [ 89 ].

For Na + in aqueous solutions below 5M, which the water molecules surpass the salt level, the solvation shell consists of at least two layers a closely related primary and a relatively loose secondary solvation shell, with the first Na + solvation layer usually contains 6 oxygen. However, when the salt concentration is above 9M, there are hardly enough water molecules available to form the "classic" primary solvation sheath, and bring out "water-in-salt" solution then it can be visualized as molten salt [ 90 ].

Application of aqueous sodium-ion batteries suffer from its poor cycling stability, lower voltage window and corrosion due to high salt concentration. One of the solution to widen the voltage window is focused on current collector. As a result, corrosion-resistant current collectors on the cathode and current collectors with a high hydrogen over potential on the anode should be used to build high-voltage and long-life sodium-ion batteries [ 79 ].

Na-containing other components

Separators, current collector, and binders are also important components for SIB. Fiber glass is used as a separator in cells with electrolyte dissolved in PC solvent. The usage of fiber glass can reduce the energy density lower build upon the weight or volume of SIB whole components [ 91 ]. Fiber glass that composed of nonmetallic fibers have a melting point more than 500 °C and excellent fire-resistance performance. But it also has disadvantages such as bad flexibility, mechanical strength and high cost. It makes the difficulty in the assembly process and also bring great safety hidden danger in large-scale application [ 92 ]. Here is the requirement of separator for SIBs [ 93 ] (1) minimal cost to fulfill the requirements of large-scale energy storage; (2) due to the high viscosity of SIB electrolyte, better chemical stability and wettability of separators are required; (3) Na dendrites have a higher reaction rate and risk than Li dendrites, and SIB separators should be more resistant to dendrites; (4) other safety indexes of SIB separators, such as thermal stability and mechanical strength, are also strongly. Several separator modifications have also been unfolded, including the Electrospun Hybrid PVDF-HFP/SiO 2 fiber-based separator, which is applied to sodium-ion batteries and the electrolyte absorption shows no swelling, and stable interface [ 93 ]. The present research on SIB separators is mostly focused on the modification of polyolefin separators and the manufacture of nonwoven separators to ensure that the separator can retain chemical stability in the electrolyte while also having a high affinity for the electrolyte.

Another major component for the development of practical SIB is the binder used for powdered electrode materials. A binder’s key functions may be described as follows: functioning as a dispersant or thickening agent to bind the active material together and provide consistent mixing of electrode components; maintaining the electrode structure's integrity by functioning as a conductive agent and fluid collector; allowing the electrode to conduct the requisite amount of electrons; increasing the electrolyte's wettability and encouraging ion transport between the electrode and the electrolyte contact [ 94 ]. The most used binders are PVDF and CMC. Furthermore, PVDF is used with NMP (N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone) solvent which is pestilent and volatile, while CMC is water-soluble, consequently, it is become easier and safer. Due to its great mechanical properties, high electrochemical stability, thermal stability, good interaction with electrolyte solutions, and the proven ability to make this feasible, PVDF has been the dominant binder in the battery industry for the transport of Li + . The main damage of using PVDF are the usage of toxic solvents during its processing and the poor adhesion/consistency of power collectors [ 95 ].

Another important external component in the operation of a battery is the binder that holds the electrode material to the current collector. The electrochemically active mass must be fastened to the current collector unless the electrode material is naturally self-standing and may be used as a monolith anode. As briefly mentioned in the previous point, corrosion-resistant current collectors on the cathode and current collectors with a high hydrogen over potential on the anode should be used to develop sodium-ion batteries with high voltage and longer life [ 79 ]. As a result, strong electronic conductivity and long-term viability in a certain electrochemical environment are key parameters for the current collector. It also does not have to be overly thick or heavy to avoid lowering the system's gravimetric and volumetric energy densities [ 96 ]. There have been proposed for sodium batteries current collector such as prepatterned current collectors, porous Al and Cu current collectors, carbon felt, and conducting polymer paper-derived mesoporous 3D N-doped carbon [ 97 ].

Sodium source

Sodium can be found from sea salt and the earth’s crust. There is 2.8% sodium available in the earth’s crust [ 24 ]. Figure  5 demonstrated the relative abundance of the eight most abundant elements.

Relative abundance of the eight most abundant elements in the continental encrustation [ 4 ]

According to the 2013 Geospatial Information Agency, Indonesia has a coastline of 99.093 km, which is the second longest in the world after Canada. It shows that the country has a great potential for salt development.

The quality of saltwater, the procedure, and the technology which are have an impact on the salt production. The production of salt in Indonesia is in the middle class. Based on Ministry of Industry, Indonesia 2018, the average national salt production is 1,281,522 tons and the average national salt consumption is 3,185,194 tons that means the national salt production cannot meet national salt consumption [ 98 ]. It contains 85–90 percents sodium chloride. The sodium chloride level of those salts is still beneath the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) for human salt consumption (dry base) [ 99 ] and for salt industry is 98.5% [ 100 ].

A method is needed for the salt production to fulfill the needs based on the quality of the generated salt and the salt requirements for human salt consumption and salt industry. There are plenty methods for increasing salt quality, including physical and chemical approaches. A physical method is one method that improves salt quality without using chemicals, such as hydro-extraction and evaporation (re-crystallization) [ 101 ] and chemicals such as sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), barium chloride (BaCl 2 ), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 ), calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ), and others are used in the chemical procedure [ 102 ]. The hydro-extraction procedure is an extraction or separation of a solid-phase component using a liquid phase as a solvent. The salt is the solid phase, while the salt solution is the solvent in this context. The size of salt, the concentration of the salt solution as a solvent, and the extraction period all work on the performance of the hydro-extraction process.

The high abundance and an urge to develop Indonesian salt industries made sodium-ion batteries from sea salt is an interesting research field to develop. Sodium can be extracted from sea salt to be used for sodium-ion batteries. As explained before, desalination batteries also have been developed and use seawater in the case of NaCl. Besides of using seawater directly to the battery system, a lot of sodium salt have been used. Some of the sodium salts used by researchers to gain sodium batteries are Na 2 CO 3 [ 81 , 84 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 ], NaCH 3 COO [ 29 , 69 , 108 , 109 , 110 ], NaCl [ 30 , 69 , 87 , 111 , 112 , 113 ], NaNO 3 [ 57 , 59 , 114 , 115 ], Na 2 O [ 64 , 116 ], NaOH [ 83 ], NaI [ 82 ] as shown in Table 3 below. Na 2 CO 3 is the dominant salt in the manufacturing of sodium-ion battery cathodes.

For example, of the using of Na 2 CO 3 , Sauvage, 2007, synthesized single-phase Na 0.44 MnO 2 powder via a classic solid-state reaction using MnCO 3 and Na 2 CO 3 (with excess stoichiometry of 10 wt %). Billaud also performed a solid-state method with combining Na 2 CO 3 and Mn 2 O 3 ; then 15% excess sodium weight was used to obtain β-NaMnO 2 [ 117 ]. Another study conducted by Jo, 2014, synthesized a-NaMnO 2 by a conventional solid-state method using a mixture of Mn 2 O 3 and Na 2 CO 3 at a molar ratio of 2:1. This selection is due to the fact that nano-sized Na 2 CO 3 as a source of Na has a good size distribution, and Mn 2 O 3 as a source of Mn has polygon pieces with micro sizes. The synthesized A-NaMnO 2 shows an agglomerate stick shape with an average particle size of more than 10–50 mm, but due to the high surface activity, the small powder stick form having a 4–5 mm size can be agglomerated easily [ 105 ]. The β-NaMnO 2 sample was synthesized by the solid-state method. The solid-state route implicate mixing Na 2 CO 3 and Mn 2 O 3 ; then 15% excess sodium weight was used. The significant proportion of Na atoms at this intermediate site indicates that -NaMnO2 has a strong probability to produce planar breakdown. The compound shows a high discharge capacity of 190 mAhg −1 at a low C/20 level when it examined as a cathode in a sodium-ion battery [ 107 ].

The source of the raw material generally used is Na 2 CO 3 , which requires a process to alter NaCl into Na 2 CO 3 . Synthesis of Na 2 CO 3 according to the solvay process with table salt, therefore, it is more environmentally friendly in the equation below [ 70 ]:

Potential of NaCl for sodium-ion batteries

The various sources of sodium, sodium chloride (NaCl) or commonly considered as salt, mentioning above that they have been known for a long time and used widely in various industrial fields. Salt is easy to obtain from evaporation of seawater. This dominates mineral deposits as well, especially in the form of halite [ 118 ]. The physical and chemical properties of NaCl can be seen in Table 4 below.

NaCl is predicted to be thermodynamically stable by preserving its electronic properties and bond structure. The chemical properties of NaCl under ambient conditions can be understandable, but under a very high-pressure conditions, they can turn the NaCl bond properties. The turning can make differences in mechanical and electronic properties. NaCl runs into a phase transformation from F-centered B1 to primitive B2 phase in the NaCl to CsCl structure at pressures between 20 and 30 GPa, depending on the temperature [ 119 ].

NaCl has been used in several components of sodium-ion batteries, including electrolyte [ 28 , 29 ], as a raw material for electrodes and electrode doping [ 30 ]. NaCl as an electrolyte was examined by Liu and compared to NaNO 3 , it has a lower ionic strength with the same conductivity [ 28 ]. Chen utilizes NaCl as a template for the carbon airgel, with NaCl and flux, a carbon air-gel having a wave-like morphology with overflow micro-pores, large accessible surface area and strong structural stability. Furthermore, it can provide an increasing specific capacity and a better capability for sodium storage [ 66 ].

Future projection of SIBs obtained from cheap Na sources

There is something more interesting about the use of sea salt in batteries, namely the desalination batteries. Desalination batteries recover sodium and chloride ions from seawater and create fresh water using an electrical energy input, firstly developed by Pasta, 2012 [ 120 ]. They used Na 2-x Mn 5 O 10 as cathode for capture Na + ions and Ag electrode was used to capture Cl − ions with this following reaction.

The desalination battery is simple to build, employs commonly accessible materials, has a promising energy efficiency, runs at room temperature with less corrosion issues than conventional desalination technologies, and it has the potential to be Na + and Cl − selective, obviating the need for resalination [ 120 ].

Other desalination method also developed by Lee [ 121 ]. They created a novel way of desalting water by merging CDI and battery systems to improve the desalination performance of capacitive approaches, dubbed "hybrid capacitive deionization (HCDI)". A sodium manganese oxide (NMO) electrode, an anion exchange membrane, and a porous carbon electrode make up the HCDI asymmetric system [ 121 ]. The result is the HCDI system has successfully desalted high-capacity sodium chloride solution, faster ion removal rate, excellent stability and gotten higher specific capacity of the batteries.

Lately, Cao (2019) also developed HCDI system for desalination using Na3V2(PO4)3@C as sodium ions trapper while chloride ions are physically trapped or released by the AC electrode. From the result, conclude that the removal ion rates increased as the water concentrations increased [ 122 ].

NaCl as an electrolyte also examined by Liu and compared to NaNO 3 , it has a lower ionic strength with the same conductivity [ 28 ]. Another by Chen, Na + during charging is captured by the NaTi 2 (PO 4 ) 3 cathode, while Cl − is captured by the silver electrode to form AgCl, and vice versa [ 29 ]. The function of the NaCl is to provide better ion conduction. This research use 0.6 M NaCl that is equivalent to seawater and increase into 1 M NaCl to make sure that ion conduction is enough during charge process.

The charge process is described in the following reaction:

In contrast, the discharge process occurs as follows:

Therefore, the overall reaction occurs as follows:

The charge–discharge process shows good stability [ 29 ]. Besides conducted new battery system. This alternative also contributed to renewable energy storage from desalination process, because it is used natural seawater and collect the salt.

From an economic point of view, SIB can compete with LIB in terms of price, as explained by [ 21 ] in Fig.  6 . In the same cell, such as the 18,650-round cell, the SIB is cheaper than LIB with an LFP/NMC cathode. The changing of lithium salt into sodium salt, changing copper foil to aluminium foil for anodes and some additive can help decrease the material cost production [ 123 ]. Furthermore, the usege of NaCl as an electrode, additive and electrolyte is also a factor that give contribution in reducting production costs, especially in raw materials. When a cathode using a source of Na 2 CO 3 , which was synthesized independently from NaCl can save about 16.66% after being calculated and anode with sodium metal when synthesized independently with NaCl can save about 98% after being calculated because sodium metal is classified as expensive matter. Because of the congested areas of Na, developing aqueous Na-ion batteries is both valuable and possible (NaCl, Na 2 SO 4 , NaNO 3 , etc.).

Comparison of the 18,650 cells price [ 6 ]

As an alternative to LIB, SIB looks forward to have a low environmental impact. Peters [ 124 ] quantify the impact of SIB on the environment and compare it with LIB. Consequently, SIB has less impact due to the following reasons:

It is possible to use aluminium for both cathode and anode

When the anode uses hard-carbon, it may be possible to use hard-carbon from organic waste.

It can reduce the use of nickel, which is commonly used for LIB cathodes, therefore the impact of nickel mining on the environment can also be reduced. However, more in-depth research is needed.

The binder commonly used in LIB, such as PVDF, in its production, causes a high greenhouse gas effect, therefore, an alternative water-based binder is needed.

Bossche et al. [ 125 ] classify battery types with adverse environmental impacts, including lithium-ion, nickel–cadmium, lead-acid, sodium-nickel chloride, and nickel-metal hydride. The sodium-based battery type has the lowest environmental impact than others.

Some of researchers also have been conducted life cycle assessment (LCA) for sodium-ion batteries. LCA is a defined approach for calculating the environmental effects of commodities, products, and activities. It considers the entire life cycle, from resource extraction to production, usage, and end-of-life management, as well as waste recycling and disposal [ 124 ]. Except for LFP–LTO type LIBs, the examined SIB would already beat existing LIBs in terms of environmental performance with lifetimes of roughly 3000 cycles.

Sodium-ion batteries are still one of the most promising alternatives for next-generation stationary batteries, where the lack of volumetric limits and a focus on economy, safety, and extended life are well linked with SIB features.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) have long dominant energy storage technology in electric vehicles and hand-held electronics. The cost and limited quantities of lithium in the earth's encrustation may prevent LIBs from being used in future large-scale renewable energy storage. Lithium metal, if used simultaneously, is depleted easily. The searching for new sources of lithium batteries and recycling is not expected to meet the high demand. The increasing demand for LIB has led researchers to look for alternative batteries.

Because of their abundant sodium supplies and similar electrochemical principles, sodium-ion batteries (SIB) are being explored as a viable alternative to lithium-ion batteries in large-scale renewable energy storage applications. Na raw material base is much greater. The sources are more abundant in nature and cheaper than lithium Na thought that it has similar characteristics in batteries to Li. Many potential raw materials for Na. The sources of sodium in the form of NaCl (table salt) can be the primary source of SIB both as electrodes, doping, and electrolytes. NaCl can also be used in the form of other compounds such as Na 2 CO 3 which is the most commonly applied to SIB right now.

The use of NaCl as an electrode, additive, and electrolyte contributes to make production costs lower, particularly in terms of raw materials. Because sodium metal is classified as expensive matter, a cathode using a source of Na 2 CO 3 that was synthesized independently from NaCl can save about 16.66 percent after being calculated, and an anode with sodium metal that was synthesized independently from NaCl can save about 98 percent after being calculated.

The generation of solid-particle material cannot be separated from the selection of raw materials. Sodium sources from seawater can be chosen as raw materials because they can be processed into other forms of sodium salt or used directly. The source of this materials can meet the possible high demand for SIB in the future. As will be explained in the next section, NaCl from seawater can contribute to all SIB components, both cathode, anode, and electrolyte.

Carley, S., Konisky, D.M.: The justice and equity implications of the clean energy transition. Nat. Energy 5 , 569–577 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-020-0641-6

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Kittner, N., Lill, F., Kammen, D.M.: Energy storage deployment and innovation for the clean energy transition. Nat. Energy 2 , 1–6 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.125

Article   Google Scholar  

Byrnes, R., Surminski, S.: Addressing the impacts of climate change through an effective warsaw international mechanism on loss and damage: submission to the second review of the Warsaw International Mechanism on Loss and Damage under the UNFCCC. (2019)

Tabor, D.P., Roch, L.M., Saikin, S.K., et al.: Accelerating the discovery of materials for clean energy in the era of smart automation. Nat. Rev. Mater. 3 , 5–20 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-018-0005-z

Vazquez, S., Lukic, S.M., Galvan, E., et al.: Energy storage systems for transport and grid applications. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 57 , 3881–3895 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2010.2076414

Liu, C., Li, F., Lai-Peng, M., Cheng, H.M.: Advanced materials for energy storage. Adv. Mater. 22 , 28–62 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200903328

Dunn, B., Kamath, H., Tarascon, J.M.: Electrical energy storage for the grid: A battery of choices. Science (80–) 334 , 928–935 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1212741

Liang, Y., Zhao, C.Z., Yuan, H., et al.: A review of rechargeable batteries for portable electronic devices. InfoMat 1 , 6–32 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/inf2.12000

Kwade, A., Haselrieder, W., Leithoff, R., et al.: Current status and challenges for automotive battery production technologies. Nat. Energy 3 , 290–300 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0130-3

Nitta, N., Wu, F., Lee, J.T., Yushin, G.: Li-ion battery materials: Present and future. Mater. Today 18 , 252–264 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2014.10.040

Du, Z., Wood, D.L., Daniel, C., et al.: Understanding limiting factors in thick electrode performance as applied to high energy density Li-ion batteries. J. Appl. Electrochem. 47 , 405–415 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-017-1047-4

Li, J., Du, Z., Ruther, R.E., et al.: Toward low-cost, high-energy density, and high-power density lithium-ion batteries. Jom 69 , 1484–1496 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-017-2404-9

Lu, L., Han, X., Li, J., et al.: A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles. J. Power Sources 226 , 272–288 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060

Lin, D., Liu, Y., Cui, Y.: Reviving the lithium metal anode for high-energy batteries. Nat. Nanotechnol. 12 , 194–206 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2017.16

Scrosati, B., Garche, J.: Lithium batteries: Status, prospects and future. J. Power Sources 195 , 2419–2430 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.11.048

Yoshino, A.: The birth of the lithium-ion battery. Angew Chem. Int. Ed. 51 , 5798–5800 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201105006

Brooks, K.: Lithium minerals. Geol. Today 36 , 192–197 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1111/gto.12326

Xu, X., Chen, Y., Wan, P., et al.: Extraction of lithium with functionalized lithium ion-sieves. Prog. Mater. Sci. 84 , 276–313 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2016.09.004

Slater, M.D., Kim, D., Lee, E., Johnson, C.S.: Sodium-ion batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 23 , 947–958 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201200691

Hwang, J.Y., Myung, S.T., Sun, Y.K.: Sodium-ion batteries: Present and future. Chem. Soc. Rev. 46 , 3529–3614 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1039/c6cs00776g

Peters, J.F., Cruz, A.P., Weil, M.: Exploring the economic potential of sodium-ion batteries. Batteries (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010010

Yabuuchi, N., Kubota, K., Dahbi, M., Komaba, S.: Research development on sodium-ion batteries. Chem. Rev. 114 , 11636–11682 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/cr500192f

He, X., Kaur, S., Kostecki, R.: Mining lithium from seawater. Joule 4 , 1357–1358 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.06.015

Lutgens, F.K., Tarbuck, E.J.: Essentials of geology, 11th edn. Pearson Education Inc, New Jersey (2012)

Google Scholar  

Aral, H., Vecchio-Sadus, A.: Lithium: Environmental pollution and health effects, 2nd edn. Elsevier, New Jeresy (2019)

Moeez, I., Lim, H.D., Park, J.H., et al.: Electrochemically induced metallization of NaCl: Use of the main component of salt as a cost-effective electrode material for sodium-ion batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 4 , 2060–2068 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.9b01118

Vaalma, C., Buchholz, D., Weil, M., Passerini, S.: The demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has been increasing since their commer- cialization in 1991 and their widespread use in portable electronics. Nat. Rev. Mater. 3 , 18013 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/natrevmats.2018.13

Liu, Z., Yue, Z., Li, H.: Separation and Puri fi cation Technology Na 0.71 CoO 2 promoted sodium uptake via faradaic reaction for highly efficient capacitive deionization. Sep. Purif. Technol. 234 , 116090 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.116090

Chen, F., Huang, Y., Kong, D., et al.: NaTi2(PO4)3-Ag electrodes based desalination battery and energy recovery. FlatChem 8 , 9–16 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flatc.2018.02.001

Song, J., Wang, L., Lu, Y., et al.: Removal of interstitial H 2 O in hexacyanometallates for a superior cathode of a sodium-ion battery. J. Am. Chem. Soc. (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/ja512383b

Chayambuka, K., Mulder, G., Danilov, D.L., Notten, P.H.L.: Sodium-ion battery materials and electrochemical properties reviewed. Adv. Energy Mater. 8 , 1–49 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201800079

Noel Buckley, D., O’Dwyer, C., Quill, N., Lynch, R.P.: Electrochemical Energy Storage. Issues Environ. Sci. Technol. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/9781788015530-00115

Damodar, D., Ghosh, S., Usha Rani, M., et al.: Hard carbon derived from sepals of Palmyra palm fruit calyx as an anode for sodium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 438 , 227008 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.227008

Wang, P.F., You, Y., Yin, Y.X., Guo, Y.G.: Layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries: phase transition, air stability, and performance. Adv. Energy Mater. 8 , 1–23 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201701912

Li, B., Yu, W., Huang, H.M., et al.: Struvite image analysis and its application for product purity prediction. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 7 , 103349 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103349

Kumar, P.R., Kheireddine, A., Nisar, U., et al.: Na 4 MnV ( PO 4) 3 -rGO as Advanced cathode for aqueous and non-aqueous sodium ion batteries. J. Power Sources 429 , 149–155 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.04.080

Tang, S., Qiu, Z., Wang, X.Y., et al.: A room-temperature sodium metal anode enabled by a sodiophilic layer. Nano Energy 48 , 101–106 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.03.039

Paterson, D.S., Chance, M.: PRODUCTION OF SODUM. United States Pat. Off. (1966)

Wu, W., Shabhag, S., Chang, J., et al.: Relating electrolyte concentration to performance and stability for NaTi 2 (PO 4 ) 3 /Na 0.44 MnO 2 aqueous sodium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 162 , A803–A808 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0121506jes

Zhu, X., Jiang, X., Liu, X., et al.: A green route to synthesize low-cost and high-performance hard carbon as promising sodium-ion battery anodes from sorghum stalk waste. Green Energy Environ. 2 , 310–315 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gee.2017.05.004

Shi, W., Yan, Y., Chi, C., et al.: Fluorine anion doped Na 0. 44 MnO 2 with layer-tunnel hybrid structure as advanced cathode for sodium ion batteries. J. Power Sources 427 , 129–137 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.04.038

Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., Su, Z., et al.: Synthesis and electrochemical characterization of α - NaMnO 2 as a Cathode Material For Hybrid Na / Li - ion batteries. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 14 , 2422–2429 (2019). https://doi.org/10.20964/2019.03.82

Doeff, M.M., Yanping, M., Steven, J., et al.: Electrochemical insertion of sodium into hard carbons. Electrochim. Acta 47 , 3303–3307 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4686(02)00250-5

Zhang, W., Zhang, F., Ming, F., Alshareef, H.N.: Sodium-ion battery anodes: Status and future trends. EnergyChem 1 , 100012 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enchem.2019.100012

Wen, Y., He, K., Zhu, Y., et al.: Expanded graphite as superior anode for sodium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 5 , 1–10 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms5033

Alcántara, R., Jiménez-Mateos, J.M., Lavela, P., Tirado, J.L.: Carbon black: A promising electrode material for sodium-ion batteries. Electrochem commun 3 , 639–642 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-2481(01)00244-2

El Moctar, I., Ni, Q., Bai, Y., et al.: Hard carbon anode materials for sodium-ion batteries. Funct. Mater. Lett. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1142/S1793604718300037

Hu, M., Yang, L., Zhou, K., et al.: Enhanced sodium-ion storage of nitrogen-rich hard carbon by NaCl intercalation. Carbon N Y 122 , 680–686 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2017.05.003

Sun, D., Ye, D., Liu, P., et al.: MoS2/graphene nanosheets from commercial bulky MoS2 and graphite as anode materials for high rate sodium-ion batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 8 , 1–11 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201702383

Kim, S.W., Seo, D.H., Ma, X., et al.: Electrode materials for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries: Potential alternatives to current lithium-ion batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2 , 710–721 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201200026

Ying, H., Han, W.Q.: Metallic Sn-based anode materials: application in high-performance lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries. Adv. Sci. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201700298

Liang, H., Xia, C., Jiang, Q., et al.: Low temperature synthesis of ternary metal phosphides using plasma for asymmetric supercapacitors. Nano Energy 35 , 331–340 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.04.007

Ge, P., Fouletier, M.: Electrochemical intercalation of sodium in graphite. Solid State Ionics 28–30 , 1172–1175 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-2738(88)90351-7

Braconnier, J.J., Delmas, C., Hagenmuller, P.: Etude par desintercalation electrochimique des systemes NaxCrO 2 et NaxNiO 2 . Mater. Res. Bull. 17 , 993–1000 (1982). https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-5408(82)90124-6

Takeda, Y., Nakahara, K., Nishijima, M., et al.: Sodium deintercalation from sodium iron oxide. Mater. Res. Bull. 29 , 659–666 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-5408(94)90122-8

Mendiboure, A., Delmas, C., Hagenmuller, P.: Electrochemical intercalation and deintercalation of NaxMnO 2 bronzes. J. Solid State Chem. 57 , 323–331 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-4596(85)90194-X

Xu, M., Niu, Y., Chen, C., et al.: Synthesis and application of ultra-long Na0.44MnO2 submicron slabs as a cathode material for Na-ion batteries. RSC Adv. 4 , 38140–38143 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra07355j

Yabuuchi, N., Kajiyama, M., Iwatate, J., et al.: P2-type Nax [Fe1/2 Mn1/2[O2 made from earth-abundant elements for rechargeable Na batteries. Nat. Mater. 11 , 512–517 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat3309

Yuan, D., He, W., Pei, F., et al.: Synthesis and electrochemical behaviors of layered Na0.67[Mn0.65Co0.2Ni0.15]O2 microflakes as a stable cathode material for sodium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 1 , 3895–3899 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ta01430d

Fang, Y., Yu, X.Y., Lou, X.W.D.: A practical high-energy cathode for sodium-ion batteries based on uniform P2-Na0.7CoO 2 microspheres. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 56 , 5801–5805 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201702024

Yoshida, H., Yabuuchi, N., Komaba, S.: NaFe0.5Co0.5O2 as high energy and power positive electrode for Na-ion batteries. Electrochem. Commun. 34 , 60–63 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2013.05.012

Caballero, A., Hernán, L., Morales, J., et al.: Synthesis and characterization of high-temperature hexagonal P2-Na0.6 Mno 2 and its electrochemical behaviour as cathode in sodium cells. J. Mater. Chem. 12 , 1142–1147 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1039/b108830k

Yabuuchi, N., Yano, M., Yoshida, H., et al.: Synthesis and electrode performance of O3-Type NaFeO 2 -NaNi 1/2 Mn 1/2 O 2 solid solution for rechargeable sodium batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 160 , A3131–A3137 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.018305jes

Vassilaras, P., Toumar, A.J., Ceder, G.: Electrochemistry communications for Na-ion batteries. Electrochem. Commun. 38 , 79–81 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2013.11.015

Hasa, I., Buchholz, D., Passerini, S., Hassoun, J.: A comparative study of layered transition metal oxide cathodes for application in sodium-ion battery. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7 , 5206–5212 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/am5080437

Chen, Y., Zhang, Z., Lai, Y., et al.: Self-assembly of 3D neat porous carbon aerogels with NaCl as template and fl ux for sodium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 359 , 529–538 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.05.066

Chen, L., Fiore, M., Wang, J.E., et al.: Readiness level of sodium-ion battery technology: A materials review. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 2 , 1700153 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.201700153

Yang, D., Liao, X.Z., Huang, B., et al.: A Na4Fe(CN)6/NaCl solid solution cathode material with an enhanced electrochemical performance for sodium ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 1 , 13417–13421 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ta12994b

Han, J., Zhang, H., Varzi, A., Passerini, S.: Fluorine-free water-in-salt electrolyte for green and low-cost aqueous sodium-ion batteries. Chemsuschem (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201801930

Raymundo, R. L.: Process for producing sodium bicarbonate from natural soda salts. United States Pat. (1994)

Leu, M.T., Timonen, R.S., Keyser, L.F., Yung, Y.L.: Heterogeneous reactions of HNO3(g) + NaCl(s) → HCl(g) + NaNO3(s) and N2O5(g) + NaCl(s) → ClNO2(g) + NaNO3(s). J. Phys. Chem. 99 , 13203–13212 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1021/j100035a026

Zangmeister, C.D., Pemberton, J.E.: Raman spectroscopy of the reaction of sodium chloride with nitric acid: Sodium nitrate growth and effect of water exposure. J. Phys. Chem. A 105 , 3788–3795 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp003374n

Huang, Y., Zhao, L., Li, L., et al.: Electrolytes and electrolyte/electrode interfaces in sodium-ion batteries: from scientific research to practical application. Adv. Mater. 31 , 1–41 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201808393

Li, M., Du, Z., Khaleel, M.A., Belharouak, I.: Materials and engineering endeavors towards practical sodium-ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2019.09.030

Xu, K.: Electrolytes and interphases in Li-ion batteries and beyond. Chem. Rev. 114 , 11503–11618 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/cr500003w

Zhu, X., Wang, L.: Advances in materials for all-climate sodium-ion batteries. EcoMat 2 , 1–23 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/eom2.12043

Tang, B., Jaschin, P.W., Li, X., et al.: Critical interface between inorganic solid-state electrolyte and sodium metal. Mater. Today 41 , 200–218 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2020.08.016

Gebert, F., Knott, J., Gorkin, R., et al.: Polymer electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 36 , 10–30 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2020.11.030

Liu, M., Ao, H., Jin, Y., et al.: Aqueous rechargeable sodium ion batteries: developments and prospects. Mater. Today Energy (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2020.100432

Guo, Z., Zhao, Y., Ding, Y., et al.: Multi-functional flexible aqueous sodium-ion batteries with high safety. Chem 3 , 348–362 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chempr.2017.05.004

Nakamoto, K., Kano, Y., Kitajou, A., Okada, S.: Electrolyte dependence of the performance of a Na2FeP2O7//NaTi2(PO4)3 rechargeable aqueous sodium-ion battery. J. Power Sources 327 , 327–332 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.052

Fernández-Ropero, A.J., Saurel, D., Acebedo, B., et al.: Electrochemical characterization of NaFePO4 as positive electrode in aqueous sodium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 291 , 40–45 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.05.006

Yuan, G., Xiang, J., Jin, H., et al.: Flexible free-standing Na4Mn9O18/reduced graphene oxide composite film as a cathode for sodium rechargeable hybrid aqueous battery. Electrochim. Acta 259 , 647–654 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.11.015

Hou, Z., Li, X., Liang, J., et al.: An aqueous rechargeable sodium ion battery based on a NaMnO2–NaTi2(PO4)3 hybrid system for stationary energy storage. J. Mater. Chem. A 00 , 1–5 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TA06018K

Zhang, H., Jeong, S., Qin, B., et al.: Towards high-performance aqueous sodium-ion batteries: stabilizing the solid/liquid interface for NASICON-type Na2VTi(PO4)3 using concentrated electrolytes. Chemsuschem 11 , 1382–1389 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201800194

Wu, B., Ren, Y., Mu, D., et al.: Effect of sodium chloride as electrolyte additive on the performance of mesocarbon microbeads electrode. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 8 , 670–677 (2013)

CAS   Google Scholar  

Ahn, B., Ahn, C., Hahn, B., et al.: Easy approach to realize low cost and high cell capacity in sodium nickel- iron chloride battery. Compos. Part B 168 , 442–447 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.03.064

Prianto, B.: Kajian awal mekanisme reaksi elektrolisis NaCI menjadi NaCI0 4 untuk menentukan tahapan reaksi yang efektif dari proses elektrolisis NaCI. J. Teknol. Dirgant. 5 , 95–102 (2007)

Sakamoto, R., Yamashita, M., Nakamoto, K., et al.: Local structure of a highly concentrated NaClO4aqueous solution-type electrolyte for sodium ion batteries. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 22 , 26452–26458 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0cp04376a

Suo, L., Borodin, O., Wang, Y., et al.: “Water-in-salt” electrolyte makes aqueous sodium-ion battery safe, green, and long-lasting. Adv. Energy. Mater. 7 , 1–10 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201701189

Deng, J., Bin, L.W., Chou, S.L., et al.: Sodium-ion batteries: from academic research to practical commercialization. Adv. Energy Mater. 8 , 1–17 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201701428

Zhang, L., Li, X., Yang, M., Chen, W.: High-safety separators for lithium-ion batteries and sodium-ion batteries: advances and perspective. Energy Storage Mater. 41 , 522–545 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2021.06.033

Coustan, L., Tarascon, J.M., Laberty-Robert, C.: Thin fiber-based separators for high-rate sodium ion batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2 , 8369–8375 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b01821

Chen, H., Ling, M., Hencz, L., et al.: Exploring chemical, mechanical, and electrical functionalities of binders for advanced energy-storage devices. Chem. Rev. 118 , 8936–8982 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00241

Costa, C.M., Lizundia, E., Lanceros-Méndez, S.: Polymers for advanced lithium-ion batteries: State of the art and future needs on polymers for the different battery components. Prog Energy Combust. Sci. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2020.100846

Issatayev, N., Nuspeissova, A., Kalimuldina, G., Bakenov, Z.: Three-dimensional foam-type current collectors for rechargeable batteries: A short review. J. Power Sources Adv. 10 , 100065 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powera.2021.100065

Yamada, M., Watanabe, T., Gunji, T., et al.: Review of the design of current collectors for improving the battery performance in lithium-ion and post-lithium-ion batteries. Electrochem 1 , 124–159 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/electrochem1020011

Mardoni, Z.: Analysis of Salt Production, Consumption And Import In Indonesia. Int. J. Sci. Soc. 4 , 36–49 (2022)

Wibowo, A.: Potensi Pengembangan Standar Nasional Indonesia ( Sni ) Produk Garam Konsumsi Beryodium Dalam Rangka Meningkatkan Daya Saing Potential of Developing Indonesian National Standards ( Sni ) for Yodium Salt Products To Increase Competitiveness. PPIS (2020). https://doi.org/10.31153/ppis.2020.95

Sumada, K., Dewati, R., Suprihatin,: Improvement of seawater salt quality by hydro-extraction and re-crystallization methods. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/953/1/012214

Geertman, R.M.: Sodium chloride: Crystallization. In: Wilson, I.D. (ed.) Encyclopedia of separation science, pp. 4127–4134. Academic Press, London (2000)

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Rehman, A., Islam, A., Farrukh, M.A.: Preparation of analytical grade NaCl from Khewra rock salt. World Appl. Sci. J. 11 , 1223–1227 (2010)

Liu, Z., Yue, Z., Li, H.: Na071CoO2 promoted sodium uptake via faradaic reaction for highly efficient capacitive deionization. Sep. Purif. Technol. 234 , 116090 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.116090

Sauvage, F., Laffont, L., Tarascon, J.M., Baudrin, E.: Study of the insertion/deinsertion mechanism of sodium into Na 0.44MnO2. Inorg. Chem. 46 , 3289–3294 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1021/ic0700250

In-Ho, J., Ryu, H.-S., Gu, D.-G., et al.: The effect of electrolyte on the electrochemical properties of Na/a-NaMnO2 batteries. Mater. Res. Bull. 3 , 2–5 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2014.02.024

Wu, X., Guo, J., Wang, D., et al.: P2-type Na0.66Ni0.33-xZnxMn0.67O2 as new high-voltage cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 281 , 18–26 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.12.083

Billaud, J., Clément, R.J., Armstrong, A.R., et al.: # -NaMnO : A high performance cathode for sodium-ion batteries β -NaMnO 2. J. Am. Chem. Soc. (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/ja509704t

Wang, H., Yang, B., Liao, X., et al.: Electrochimica acta material for sodium ion batteries when cycled in different voltage ranges. Electrochim. Acta 113 , 200–204 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2013.09.098

Kim, H., Kim, D.J., Seo, D., et al.: Ab initio study of the sodium intercalation and intermediate phases in Na 0.44 MnO 2 for sodium-ion battery. Chem. Mater. (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/cm300065y

Song, J., Yang, J., Alfaruqi, M.H., et al.: Communication pyro-synthesis of Na 2 FeP 2 O 7 nano-plates as cathode for sodium-ion batteries with long cycle stability. J. Korean Ceram. Soc. 53 , 406–410 (2016)

Akimoto, J., Hayakawa, H., Kijima, N., et al.: Single-crystal synthesis and structure refinement of Na 0.44 MnO 2. Solid State Phenom. 170 , 198–202 (2011). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.170.198

Chu, Q., Wang, X., Li, B., et al.: Flux synthesis and growth mechanism of Na0.5MnO2 whiskers. J. Cryst. Growth 322 , 103–108 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.03.005

Zhao, L., Ni, J., Wang, H., Gao, L.: Flux Synthesis of Na0.44MnO2 nanoribbons and their electrochemical properties for Na-ion batteries. Funct. Mater. Lett. 6 , 1–6 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1142/S1793604713500124

Liu, Q., Hu, Z., Chen, M., et al.: Multiangular rod-shaped Na0.44MnO2 as cathode materials with high rate and long life for sodium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 , 3644–3652 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b13830

Ding, Z., Liu, Y., Tang, Q., et al.: Electrochimica acta enhanced electrochemical performance of iron-manganese based cathode by Li doping for sodium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 292 , 871–878 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2018.09.192

Bitner-Michalska, A., Krztoń-Maziopa, A., Żukowska, G., et al.: Liquid electrolytes containing new tailored salts for sodium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 222 , 108–115 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.10.146

Sauvage, F., Laffont, L., Baudrin, E., et al.: Study of the Insertion / Deinsertion Mechanism of Sodium into. Inorg. Chem. 46 , 3289–3294 (2007)

Baker B.P., Grant J.A. Sodium Chloride Profile. (2018)

Chall, M., Winkler, B., Blaha, P., Schwarz, K.: Structure and properties of NaCl and the Suzuki phase Na6CdCl8. J. Phys. Chem. B 104 , 1191–1197 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp9924528

Pasta, M., Wessells, C.D., Cui, Y., La Mantia, F.: A desalination battery. Nano Lett. 12 , 839–843 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl203889e

Lee, J., Kim, S., Kim, C., Yoon, J.: Hybrid capacitive deionization to enhance the desalination performance of capacitive techniques. Energy Environ. Sci. 7 , 3683–3689 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ee02378a

Cao, J., Wang, Y., Wang, L., et al.: Na 3 V 2 (PO 4) 3 @C as Faradaic electrodes in capacitive deionization for high-performance desalination. Nano Lett. 19 , 823–828 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04006

Vaalma, C., Buchholz, D., Weil, M., Passerini, S.: A cost and resource analysis of sodium-ion batteries. Nat. Rev. Mater. 3 (4), 1–1 (2018)

Peters, J.F.P., Buchholz, D., Passerini, S., Weil, M.: Life cycle assessment of sodium-ion batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 9 , 1744–1751 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1039/x0xx00000x

Van den Bossche, P., Vergels, F., Van Mierlo, J., et al.: SUBAT: An assessment of sustainable battery technology. J. Power Sources 162 , 913–919 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.07.039

Download references

Acknowledgements

This paper was funded by the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education (KemenRistekdikti) through the “Penelitian Dasar” scheme with Grant Number 221.1/UN27.22/HK.07.00/2021.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia

Anisa Raditya Nurohmah, Shofirul Sholikhatun Nisa, Cornelius Satria Yudha, Windhu Griyasti Suci & Agus Purwanto

Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Science, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia

Hendri Widiyandari

Center of Excellence for Electrical Energy Storage, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia

Khikmah Nur Rikhy Stulasti, Cornelius Satria Yudha, Windhu Griyasti Suci, Hendri Widiyandari & Agus Purwanto

UMG Idealab, Jakarta, Indonesia

Kiwi Aliwarga

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Agus Purwanto .

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (PDF 5095 kb)

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Nurohmah, A.R., Nisa, S.S., Stulasti, K.N.R. et al. Sodium-ion battery from sea salt: a review. Mater Renew Sustain Energy 11 , 71–89 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-022-00208-1

Download citation

Received : 18 November 2021

Accepted : 28 March 2022

Published : 18 April 2022

Issue Date : April 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-022-00208-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Energy storage
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

May 6, 2022

Rechargeable Molten Salt Battery Freezes Energy in Place for Long-Term Storage

The technology could bring more renewable energy to the power grid

By Anna Blaustein

Close-up of the freeze-thaw battery developed by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory team.

Andrea Starr/Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

During spring in the Pacific Northwest, meltwater from thawing snow rushes down rivers and the wind often blows hard. These forces spin the region’s many power turbines and generate a bounty of electricity at a time of mild temperatures and relatively low energy demand. But much of this seasonal surplus electricity—which could power air conditioners come summer—is lost because batteries cannot store it long enough.

Researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), a Department of Energy national laboratory in Richland, Wash., are developing a battery that might solve this problem. In a recent paper published in Cell Reports Physical Science , they demonstrated how freezing and thawing a molten salt solution creates a rechargeable battery that can store energy cheaply and efficiently for weeks or months at a time. Such a capability is crucial to shifting the U.S. grid away from fossil fuels that release greenhouse gases and toward renewable energy. President Joe Biden has made it a goal to cut U.S. carbon emissions in half by 2030 , which will necessitate a major ramp-up of wind, solar and other clean energy sources, as well as ways to store the energy they produce.

Most conventional batteries store energy as chemical reactions waiting to happen. When the battery is connected to an external circuit, electrons travel from one side of the battery to the other through that circuit, generating electricity. To compensate for the change, charged particles called ions move through the fluid, paste or solid material that separates the two sides of the battery. But even when the battery is not in use, the ions gradually diffuse across this material, which is called the electrolyte. As that happens over weeks or months, the battery loses energy. Some rechargeable batteries can lose almost a third of their stored charge in a single month.

On supporting science journalism

If you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing . By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.

“In our battery, we really tried to stop this condition of self-discharge,” says PNNL researcher Guosheng Li, who led the project. The electrolyte is made of a salt solution that is solid at ambient temperatures but becomes liquid when heated to 180 degrees Celsius—about the temperature at which cookies are baked. When the electrolyte is solid, the ions are locked in place, preventing self-discharge. Only when the electrolyte liquifies can the ions flow through the battery, allowing it to charge or discharge.

Creating a battery that can withstand repeated cycles of heating and cooling is no small feat. Temperature fluctuations cause the battery to expand and contract, and the researchers had to identify resilient materials that could tolerate these changes. “What we’ve seen before is a lot of active research to make sure you do not have to go through that thermal cycle,” says Vince Sprenkle, a strategic advisor in energy storage at PNNL and a co-author of the new paper. “We’re saying, ‘We want to go through it, and we want to be able to survive and use that as a key feature.’”

The result is a rechargeable battery made from relatively inexpensive materials that can store energy for extended periods. “It’s a great example of a promising long-duration energy-storage technology,” says Aurora Edington, policy director of the electricity industry association GridWise Alliance, who was not involved with this research. “I think we need to support those efforts and see how far we can take them to commercialization.”

The technology could be particularly useful in a place such as Alaska, where near-constant summer sunlight coincides with relatively low rates of energy use. A battery that can store energy for months could allow abundant summer solar power to fulfill winter electricity needs. “What is so attractive about the freeze-thaw battery is that seasonal shifting capability,” says Rob Roys, chief innovation officer at Launch Alaska, a nonprofit organization that works to accelerate the deployment of climate technologies in the state. Roys hopes to pilot the PNNL battery in a remote part of his state.

Heating the battery may be a challenge, especially in cold places. Even under mild conditions, the heating process requires energy equivalent to about 10 to 15 percent of the battery’s capacity, Li says. Later phases of the project will explore ways to lower the temperature requirements and incorporate a heating system into the battery itself. Such a feature would simplify the battery for the user and could potentially make it suitable for home or small-scale use.

Right now the experimental technology is aimed at utility-scale and industrial uses. Sprenkle envisions something like tractor-trailer truck containers with massive batteries inside, parked next to wind farms or solar arrays. The batteries would be charged on-site, allowed to cool and driven to facilities called substations, where the energy could be distributed through power lines as needed.

The PNNL team plans to continue developing the technology, but ultimately it will be up to industry to develop a commercial product. “Our job at the DOE is really to derisk new technologies,” Sprenkle says. “Industry will make the decision whether they think that it’s been derisked enough, and they will take that on and run with it.”

The DOE is working to shrink the lag that usually occurs between initial research demonstrations and commercialization of energy technologies. Although scientists began developing lithium-ion batteries in the 1970s, for example, the batteries did not end up in consumer products until around 1991 and were not incorporated into electrical grids until the late 2000s. Artificial intelligence and machine learning may help expedite the validation and testing process for new technologies, Sprenkle says, allowing researchers to model and predict a decade of battery performance without needing 10 years to collect the data.

Whether adoption will happen quickly enough to meet decarbonization targets is unclear. “If we are truly trying to hit 2030, 2035 decarbonization goals, all these technologies need to be accelerated by about a factor of five,” Sprenkle says. “You’re looking at developments that need to come online, be validated and ready to hand off in the next four to five years to really, truly have an impact.”

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Progress and applications of seawater-activated batteries, 1. introduction, 2. metal semi-fuel seawater-activated batteries, 2.1. dissolved oxygen (do) seawater batteries (do-type seawater batteries), 2.2. metal hydrogen peroxide seawater batteries, 3. high-power seawater-activated batteries, 4. rechargeable seawater-activated batteries, 5. directions for future development, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• Alafnan, S.; Aljawad, M.; Alismail, F.; Almajed, A. Enhanced Recovery from Gas Condensate Reservoirs through Renewable Energy Sources. Energy Fuels 2019 , 33 , 10115–10122. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Arif, S.; Rabbi, A.E.; Ahmed, S.U.; Hossain, L.; Molla, S.; Jamal, T.; Aziz, T.q.; Sarker, M.R. Enhancement of Solar PV Hosting Capacity in a Remote Industrial Microgrid: A Methodical Techno-Economic Approach. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 8921. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Megía, P.J.; Vizcaíno, A.J.; Calles, J.A.; Carrero, A. Hydrogen Production Technologies: From Fossil Fuels toward Renewable Sources. A Mini Review. Energy Fuels 2021 , 35 , 16403–16415. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• König, A.; Ulonska, K.; Mitsos, A.; Viell, J. Optimal Applications and Combinations of Renewable Fuel Production from Biomass and Electricity. Energy Fuels 2019 , 33 , 1659–1672. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, C.; Wang, J.; Yang, P.; He, Y.; Wang, S.; Zhao, P.; Wang, H. Recovery of Valuable Metals from Spent LiNi 0.8 Co 0.1 Mn 0.1 O 2 Cathode Materials Using Compound Leaching Agents of Sulfuric Acid and Oxalic Acid. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 14169. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Krüner, S.; Hackl, C.M. Nonlinear Modelling and Control of a Power Smoothing System for a Novel Wave Energy Converter Prototype. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 13708. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bharadwaj, D.; Struchtrup, H. Large scale energy storage using multistage osmotic processes: Approaching high efficiency and energy density. Sustain. Energy Fuels 2022 , 10 , 935–945. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Leng, P.S.; Wang, H.B.; Wu, B.F.; Zhao, L.; Deng, Y.J.; Cui, J.T. Ag Decorated Co 3 O 4 -Nitrogen Doped Porous Carbon as the Bifunctional Cathodic Catalysts for Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 13417. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tu, N.D.K.; Park, S.O.; Park, J.; Kim, Y.; Kwak, S.K.; Kang, S.J. Pyridinic-Nitrogen-Containing Carbon Cathode: Efficient Electrocatalysis for Seawater Batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2020 , 3 , 1602–1608. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Abd El-Halim, A.M.; Fawzy, M.H.; Saty, A. Performance characteristics of a pilot sea-water activated battery with Pb/PbC1 2 cathodes, prepared by cyclic voltammetry. J. Power Sources. 1993 , 41 , 55–64. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, J.; Yu, K.; Hu, Y.N.; Li, S.J.; Tan, X.; Chen, F.W.; Yu, Z.M. Discharge behavior of Mg–4 wt%Ga–2 wt%Hg alloy as anode for seawater activated battery. Electrochim. Acta 2011 , 56 , 8224–8231. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shi, Y.C.; Peng, C.Q.; Feng, Y.; Wang, R.C.; Wang, N.G. Microstructure and electrochemical corrosion behavior of extruded Mg–Al–Pb–La alloy as anode for seawater-activated battery. Mater. Des. 2017 , 124 , 24–33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Wang, N.G.; Mu, Y.C.; Li, Q.; Shi, Z.C. Discharge and corrosion behavior of AP65 magnesium anode plates with different rolling reductions. RSC Adv. 2017 , 7 , 53226–53235. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Srimuk, P.; Husmann, S.; Presser, V. Low voltage operation of a silver/silver chloride battery with high desalination capacity in seawater. RSC Adv. 2019 , 9 , 14849. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Mori, R. Recent Developments for Aluminum–Air Batteries. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2020 , 3 , 344–369. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Deng, S.H.; Yuan, L.J.; Chen, Y.B.; Wang, B. Electrochemical synthesis and performance of polyaniline/MnO2/graphene oxide composites cathode for seawater battery. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2022 , 581 , 152261. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lv, Y.Z.; Xu, Y.; Cao, D.X. The electrochemical behaviors of Mg, Mg–Li–Al–Ce and Mg–Li–Al–Ce–Y in sodium chloride solution. J. Power Sources 2011 , 196 , 8809–8814. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lee, B.; Paek, E.; Mitlin, D.; Lee, S. Sodium Metal Anodes: Emerging Solutions to Dendrite Growth. Chem. Rev. 2018 , 19 , 5416–5460. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lin, D.C.; Liu, Y.Y.; Cui, Y. Reviving the lithium metal anode for high-energy batteries. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2017 , 12 , 194–206. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Qin, R.; Wang, Y.; Yao, L.; Yang, L.; Zhao, Q.; Ding, S.; Liu, L.; Pan, F. Progress in interface structure and modification of zinc anode for aqueous batteries. Nano Energy 2022 , 98 , 107333. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sun, H.; Su, G.; Zhang, Y.; Ren, J.-C.; Chen, X.; Hou, H.; Ding, Z.; Zhang, T.; Liu, W. First-principles modeling of the anodic and cathodic polarization to predict the corrosion behavior of Mg and its alloys. Acta Mater. 2023 , 244 , 118562. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Li, J.R.; Chen, Z.Y.; Jing, J.P.; Hou, J. Electrochemical behavior of Mg-Al-Zn-Ga-In alloy as the anode for seawater-activated battery. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2019 , 41 , 33–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wu, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Li, X.; Zhang, D.; Gao, L. Enhanced performance of Al-0.02Mg-0.01Sn-0.004Bi-0.003In alloy as novel anode for Al-air batteries in alkaline electrolyte. J. Alloy. Compd. 2022 , 924 , 166530. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Le, Z.; Li, W.; Dang, Q.; Jing, C.; Zhang, W.; Chu, J.; Tang, L. A high-power seawater battery working in a wide temperature range enabled by an ultra-stable Prussian blue analogue cathode. J. Mater. Chem. A. 2021 , 9 , 8685–8691. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vignesh, K.; Abdel-Wahab, A. A short review on hydrogen, bio-fuel and electricity production using seawater as a medium. Energy Fuels 2018 , 32 , 6423–6437. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zuo, Y.Y.; Kang, L.L.; Wang, K.L. An ultra-high special energy Mg-Ni seawater battery. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2022 , 803 , 139852. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, Y.; Zhou, C.G.; Yang, J.; Xue, S.C.; Gao, H.L.; Yan, X.H.; Yan, X.H.; Huo, Q.Y.; Wang, S.W.; Cao, Y.; et al. Advances and challenges in improvement of the electrochemical performance for lead-acid batteries: A comprehensive review. J. Power Sources 2022 , 520 , 230800. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jeong, J.; Lee, J.W.; Shin, H.C. Unique electrochemical behavior of a silver–zinc secondary battery at high rates and low temperatures. Electrochim. Acta 2021 , 396 , 139256. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shang, W.; Yu, W.; Liu, Y.; Li, R.; Dai, Y.; Cheng, C.; Tan, P.; Ni, M. Rechargeable alkaline zinc batteries: Progress and challenges. Energy Storage Mater. 2020 , 31 , 44–57. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, R.; Yu, J.; Islam, F.; Tahmasebi, A.; Lee, S.; Chen, Y. State-of-the-Art Research and Applications of Carbon Foam Composite Materials as Electrodes for High-Capacity Lithium Batteries. Energy Fuels 2020 , 34 , 7935–7954. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Neaţu, Ş.; Neaţu, F.; Chirica, I.M.; Borbáth, I.; Tálas, E.; Tompos, A.; Somacescu, S.; Osiceanu, P.; Folgado, M.A.; Chaparro, A.M.; et al. Recent progress in electrocatalysts and electrodes for portable fuel cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 2021 , 9 , 17065–17128. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Masrufaiyah, D.; Ridho, H.; Gunawan, N.; Totok, R.B.; Nur, L.H. Performance of Seawater Activated Battery as Alternative Energy Resources. J. Eng. 2017 , 3 , 11–16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Shen, P.K.; Tseung, A.C.C. Development of an aluminium sea water battery for sub-sea applications. J. Power Sources 1994 , 47 , 119–127. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• William, S.D.; Peter, C.K. Development of a seawater battery for deep-water applications. J. Power Sources 1997 , 66 , 71–75. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhang, J.X.; Liu, H.; Huang, J.F.; Liu, Y.; Fang, H.J.; Zhang, Q.; Xuehua, H.; Song, J.; Li, Z.; Xu, X.; et al. In Situ Synthesis of AgCl@Ag Plates as Binder-Free Cathodes in a Magnesium Seawater-Activated Battery. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2022 , 169 , 050502. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, Q.; Yan, Z.; Wang, E. A High-specific Energy Magnesium/water Battery for Full-depth Ocean Application. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2017 , 42 , 23045–23053. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jiao, W.; Fan, Y.; Huang, C. Effect of Modified Polyacrylonitrile-based Carbon Fiber on the Oxygen Reduction in Seaw ater Batteries. Ionics 2018 , 24 , 285–296. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xu, H.; Xia, G.; Liu, H.; Xia, S.; Lu, Y. Electrochemical Activation of Commercial Polyacrylonitrile-based Carbon Fiber for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction. Phys. Chem. 2015 , 17 , 7707–7713. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hahn, R.; Mainert, J.; Glaw, F.; Lang, K.D. Sea water magnesium fuel cell power supply. J. Power Sources 2015 , 288 , 26–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, W.; Yang, S.; Sun, W. Nanostructured Silver Catalyzed Nickel Foam Cathode for an Aluminum-hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cell. J. Power Sources 2006 , 160 , 1420–1424. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bessette, R.R.; Cichon, J.M.; Dischert, D.W.; Dow, E.G. A study of cathode catalysis for the aluminiumrhydrogen peroxide semi-fuel cell. J. Power Sources 1999 , 80 , 248–253. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, H.Y.; Bian, P.; Ju, D.Y. Electrochemical performance of magnesium alloy and its application on the sea water battery. J. Environ. Sci. Suppl. 2009 , 21 , 88–91. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Meng, R.W.; Zhang, C.; Lu, Z.Y.; Xie, X.Y.; Liu, Y.X.; Tang, Q.; Li, H.; Kong, D.; Geng, C.N.; Jiao, Y.; et al. An Oxygenophilic Atomic Dispersed Fe-N-C Catalyst for Lean-Oxygen Seawater Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2021 , 11 , 2100683. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hasvold, Ø.; Henriksen, H.; Melvaer, E. Sea-water Battery for Subsea Control Systems. J. Power Sources 1997 , 65 , 253–261. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Medeiros, M.G.; Bessette, R.R.; Deschenes, C.M.; Patrissi, C.J.; Carreiro, L.G.; Tucker, S.P.; Atwater, D.W. Magnesium-solution Phase Catholyte semi-fuel Cell for Undersea Vehicles. J. Power Sources 2004 , 136 , 226–231. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, J.L.; Chang, Z.Y.; Zhang, Z.H.; Du, A.B.; Dong, S.M.; Li, Z.C.; Li, G.; Cui, G. Current Design Strategies for Rechargeable Magnesium-Based Batteries. ACS Nano 2021 , 15 , 15594–15624. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, X.R.; Liu, X.; Le, Q.C.; Zhang, M.X.; Liu, M.; Atrens, A. A comprehensive review of the development of magnesium anodes for primary batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2021 , 9 , 12367–12399. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xi, B.H.; Xia, T. Survey of Power Battery for Torpedo Propulsion. Torpedo Technol. 2005 , 13 , 7–12. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sun, L.M.; Wen, F.C.; Shi, L.L.; Li, S. Pd and CoOx decorated reduced graphene oxide self-assembled on Ni foam as Al-H 2 O 2 semi-fuel cells cathodes. J. Alloy Compd. 2020 , 185 , 152361. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sun, L.; Shi, L.; Zhang, S.; He, W.; Zhang, Y. Cu- and Co-Modified Pd/C Nanoparticles as the High Performance Cathodic Catalysts for Mg-H2O2 Semi-Fuel Cell. Fuel Cells 2017 , 17 , 898–907. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dow, E.G.; Yan, S.G.; Medeiros, M.G.; Bessette, R.R. Separated Flow Liquid Catholyte Aluminum Hydrogen Peroxide Seawater Semi Fuel Cell. U.S. Patent 0,124,418, 3 June 2003. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gonzalez-Guerrero, M.J.; Gomez, F.A. Miniaturized Al/AgO coin shape and self-powered battery featuring painted paper electrodes for portable applications. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2018 , 273 , 101–107. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Balasubramanian, R.; Veluchamy, R.; Venkatakrishnan, N.; Gangadharan, R. Electrochemical characterization of magnesium/silver chloride battery. J. Power Sources 1995 , 56 , 197–199. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Han, J.; Lee, S.; Youn, C.; Lee, J.; Kim, Y.; Choi, T. Hybrid photoelectrochemical-rechargeable seawater battery for efficient solar energy storage systems. Electrochim. Acta 2020 , 332 , 135443. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Senthilkumar, S.T.; Park, S.O.; Kim, J.; Hwang, S.M.; Kwak, S.K.; Kim, Y. Seawater battery performance enhancement enabled by a defect/edge-rich, oxygen self-doped porous carbon electrocatalyst. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017 , 5 , 14174–14181. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, Y.; Kim, G.-T.; Jeong, S.; Dou, X.; Geng, C.; Kim, Y.; Passerini, S. Large-scale stationary energy storage: Seawater batteries with high rate and reversible performance. Energy Storage Mater. 2019 , 16 , 56–64. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• He, X.; Li, Z.; Wang, Y.; Xu, W.; Zhang, Q.; Wang, X.; Liu, H.; Yang, G.; Zhang, H.; Song, J.; et al. A high-purity AgO cathode active material for high-performance aqueous AgO–Al batteries. J. Power Sources 2022 , 551 , 232151. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kong, M.; Bu, L.; Wang, W. Investigations on the discharge/charge process of a novel AgCl/Ag/carbon felt composite electrode used for seawater batteries. J. Power Sources. 2021 , 506 , 230210. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moghanni-Bavil-Olyaei, H.; Arjomamdi, J. Performance of Al–1Mg–1Zn–0.1Bi–0.02In as anode for the Al–AgO battery. RSC Adv. 2015 , 5 , 91273–91279. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Li, Q.F.; Bjerrum, N.J. Aluminum as anode for energy storage and conversion: A review. J. Power Sources. 2002 , 110 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Karpinski, A.P.; Russell, S.J.; Serenyi, J.R.; Murphy, J.P. Silver based batteries for high power applications. J. Power Sources. 2000 , 91 , 77–82. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Asfia, M.P.; Pourfarzad, H.; Kashani, H.; Olia, M.H.; Badrnezhad, R. Study of Uniform and Localized Corrosion Behaviour of Aluminum Alloy 1050 as Al/AgO Battery Anode in Aerated NaCl in the Presence of an Organosulfur Inhibitor. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2020 , 167 , 140527. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Son, M.; Park, S.; Kim, N.; Angeles, A.T.; Kim, Y.; Cho, K.H. Simultaneous Energy Storage and Seawater Desalination using Rechargeable Seawater Battery: Feasibility and Future Directions. Adv. Sci. 2021 , 8 , 2101289. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kim, Y.; Künzel, M.; Steinle, D.; Dong, X.; Kim, G.; Kim, A.; Passerini, S. Anode-less seawater batteries with a Na-ion conducting solid-polymer electrolyte for power to metal and metal to power energy storage. Energy Environ. Sci. 2022 , 15 , 2610–2618. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jung, J.; Hwang, D.; Kristanto, I.; Kwak, S.K.; Kang, S.J. Deterministic growth of a sodium metal anode on a pre-patterned current collector for highly rechargeable seawater batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2019 , 7 , 9773–9781. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, Y.; Hwanga, S.M.; Yua, H.; Kim, Y. High Energy Density for Rechargeable Metal-Free Seawater Batteries: Phosphorus/Carbon Composite as a Promising Anode Material. J. Mater. Chem. A 2018 , 6 , 3046–3054. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Verma, J.; Kumar, D. Recent developments in energy storage systems for marine environment. Mater. Adv. 2021 , 2 , 6800–6815. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, Y.; Kim, H.; Park, S.; Seo, I.; Kim, Y. Na-ion Conducting Ceramic as Solid Electrolyte for Rechargeable Seawater Batteries. Electrochim. Acta 2016 , 191 , 1–7. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hwang, S.M.; Park, J.S.; Kim, Y.; Go, W.; Han, J.; Kim, Y.; Kim, Y. Rechargeable Seawater Batteries—From Concept to Applications. Adv. Mater. 2019 , 31 , 1804936. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Senthilkumar, S.T.; Go, W.; Han, J.; Thuy LP, T.; Kishor, K.; Kim, Y.; Kim, Y. Emergence of rechargeable seawater batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2019 , 7 , 22803–22825. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Manikandan, P.; Kishor, K.; Han, J.; Han, Y. Advanced Perspective on Synchronized Bifunctional Activities of P2-Type Material to Implement Interconnected Voltage Profile for Seawater Battery. J. Mater. Chem. A 2018 , 6 , 11012–11021. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mozaffari, S.; Nateghi, M.R. Recent Advances in Solar Rechargeable Seawater Batteries Based on Semiconductor Photoelectrodes. Top. Curr. Chem. 2022 , 380 , 28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Chen, J.; Xu, W.; Wang, X.; Yang, S.; Xiong, C. Progress and Applications of Seawater-Activated Batteries. Sustainability 2023 , 15 , 1635. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021635

Chen J, Xu W, Wang X, Yang S, Xiong C. Progress and Applications of Seawater-Activated Batteries. Sustainability . 2023; 15(2):1635. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021635

Chen, Jinmao, Wanli Xu, Xudong Wang, Shasha Yang, and Chunhua Xiong. 2023. "Progress and Applications of Seawater-Activated Batteries" Sustainability 15, no. 2: 1635. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021635

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

share this!

January 9, 2018

Inexpensive and stable—The salt water battery

by Rainer Klose, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology

Water could form the basis for future particularly inexpensive rechargeable batteries. Empa researchers have succeeded in doubling the electrochemical stability of water with a special saline solution. This takes us one step closer to using the technology commercially.

In the quest to find safe, low-cost batteries for the future, eventually we have to ask ourselves a question: Why not simply use water as an electrolyte? Water is inexpensive, available everywhere, non-flammable and can conduct ions. However, water has one major drawback: It is chemically stable only up to a voltage of 1.23 volts. In other words, a water cell supplies three times less voltage than a customary lithium ion cell with 3.7 volts, which makes it poorly suited for applications in an electric car. A cost-effective, water-based battery, however, could be extremely interesting for stationary electricity storage applications.

Saline solution without free water

Ruben-Simon Kühnel and David Reber, researchers in Empa's Materials for Energy Conversion department, have now discovered a way to solve the problem: The salt containing electrolyte has to be liquid, but at the same time it has to be so highly concentrated that it does not contain any "excess" water.

For their experiments, the two researchers used the special salt sodium FSI (precise name: sodium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide). This salt is extremely soluble in water: seven grams of sodium FSI and one gram of water produce a clear saline solution (see video clip). In this liquid, all water molecules are grouped around the positively charged sodium cations in a hydrate shell. Hardly any unbound water molecules are present.

Cost-effective production

The researchers discovered that this saline solution displays an electrochemical stability of up to 2.6 volts –nearly twice as much as other aqueous electrolytes. The discovery could be the key to inexpensive, safe battery cells ; inexpensive because, apart from anything else, the sodium FSI cells can be constructed more safely and thus more easily than the well-known lithium ion batteries.

The system has already withstood a series of charging and discharging cycles in the lab. Until now, however, the researchers have been testing the anodes and cathodes of their test battery separately – against a standard electrode as a partner. In the next step, the two half cells are to be combined into a single battery. Then additional charging and discharging cycles are scheduled.

Empa's research activities on novel batteries for stationary electricity storage systems are embedded in the Swiss Competence Center for Heat and Electricity Storage (SCCER HaE), which coordinates research for new heat and electricity storage concepts on a national level and is led by the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI).  If the experiment succeeds, inexpensive water batteries will be within reach.

Provided by Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Saturday Citations: Bulking tips for black holes; microbes influence drinking; new dinosaur just dropped

8 hours ago

China, France launch satellite to better understand the universe

14 hours ago

Key mechanism in nuclear reaction dynamics promises advances in nuclear physics

Jun 21, 2024

Study challenges popular idea that Easter islanders committed 'ecocide'

New AI-driven tool improves root image segmentation

Many more bacteria produce greenhouse gases than previously thought, study finds

Stacking three layers of graphene with a twist speeds up electrochemical reactions

A black hole of inexplicable mass: JWST observations reveal a mature quasar at cosmic dawn

Beyond CRISPR: seekRNA delivers a new pathway for accurate gene editing

Transforming drug discovery with AI: New program transforms 3D information into data that typical models can use

Relevant physicsforums posts, the nuclear power thread, computation for nuclear reactor systems.

Jun 17, 2024

Fission Rate in MCNP6

Jun 16, 2024

PIG (Penning Ionization Gauge) Ion source

Jun 13, 2024

Magnetic mirror end plug

Jun 8, 2024

Understanding Radiation and Radiological Health: A Comprehensive Guide

May 25, 2024

More from Nuclear Engineering

Related Stories

Researchers developed an initial prototype of a solid sodium battery with the potential to store extra energy

Nov 23, 2017

A new low-cost battery offers a hefty voltage and sustained energy capacity

Jul 26, 2017

Water-based lithium-ion batteries without explosive risks now a reality

Sep 6, 2017

Could a seawater battery help end our dependence on lithium?

Dec 7, 2016

Super environmentally friendly: the 'fool's gold battery'

Nov 13, 2015

Start-up aims at producing sodium-ion batteries

Nov 27, 2017

Recommended for you

China's quest for clean, limitless energy heats up

Apr 28, 2019

Dutchman ends 'world's longest electric car trip' in Australia

Apr 7, 2019

Global energy demand to soar one third by 2040: BP

Feb 14, 2019

Scientists find way to help fuel cells work better, stay clean in the cold

Jan 30, 2019

Pushing lithium ion batteries to the next performance level

Dec 13, 2018

Researchers achieve highest certified efficiency of organic solar cells to date

Nov 27, 2018

Let us know if there is a problem with our content

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Suggestions or feedback?

MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology

• Machine learning
• Social justice
• Black holes
• Classes and programs

Departments

• Aeronautics and Astronautics
• Brain and Cognitive Sciences
• Architecture
• Political Science
• Mechanical Engineering

Centers, Labs, & Programs

• Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL)
• Picower Institute for Learning and Memory
• Lincoln Laboratory
• School of Architecture + Planning
• School of Engineering
• School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences
• Sloan School of Management
• School of Science
• MIT Schwarzman College of Computing

A new concept for low-cost batteries

Press contact :, media download.

*Terms of Use:

Images for download on the MIT News office website are made available to non-commercial entities, press and the general public under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives license . You may not alter the images provided, other than to crop them to size. A credit line must be used when reproducing images; if one is not provided below, credit the images to "MIT."

Previous image Next image

As the world builds out ever larger installations of wind and solar power systems, the need is growing fast for economical, large-scale backup systems to provide power when the sun is down and the air is calm. Today’s lithium-ion batteries are still too expensive for most such applications, and other options such as pumped hydro require specific topography that’s not always available.

Now, researchers at MIT and elsewhere have developed a new kind of battery, made entirely from abundant and inexpensive materials, that could help to fill that gap.

The new battery architecture, which uses aluminum and sulfur as its two electrode materials, with a molten salt electrolyte in between, is described today in the journal Nature , in a paper by MIT Professor Donald Sadoway, along with 15 others at MIT and in China, Canada, Kentucky, and Tennessee.

“I wanted to invent something that was better, much better, than lithium-ion batteries for small-scale stationary storage, and ultimately for automotive [uses],” explains Sadoway, who is the John F. Elliott Professor Emeritus of Materials Chemistry.

In addition to being expensive, lithium-ion batteries contain a flammable electrolyte, making them less than ideal for transportation. So, Sadoway started studying the periodic table, looking for cheap, Earth-abundant metals that might be able to substitute for lithium. The commercially dominant metal, iron, doesn’t have the right electrochemical properties for an efficient battery, he says. But the second-most-abundant metal in the marketplace — and actually the most abundant metal on Earth — is aluminum. “So, I said, well, let’s just make that a bookend. It’s gonna be aluminum,” he says.

Then came deciding what to pair the aluminum with for the other electrode, and what kind of electrolyte to put in between to carry ions back and forth during charging and discharging. The cheapest of all the non-metals is sulfur, so that became the second electrode material. As for the electrolyte, “we were not going to use the volatile, flammable organic liquids” that have sometimes led to dangerous fires in cars and other applications of lithium-ion batteries, Sadoway says. They tried some polymers but ended up looking at a variety of molten salts that have relatively low melting points — close to the boiling point of water, as opposed to nearly 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit for many salts. “Once you get down to near body temperature, it becomes practical” to make batteries that don’t require special insulation and anticorrosion measures, he says.

The three ingredients they ended up with are cheap and readily available — aluminum, no different from the foil at the supermarket; sulfur, which is often a waste product from processes such as petroleum refining; and widely available salts. “The ingredients are cheap, and the thing is safe — it cannot burn,” Sadoway says.

In their experiments, the team showed that the battery cells could endure hundreds of cycles at exceptionally high charging rates, with a projected cost per cell of about one-sixth that of comparable lithium-ion cells. They showed that the charging rate was highly dependent on the working temperature, with 110 degrees Celsius (230 degrees Fahrenheit) showing 25 times faster rates than 25 C (77 F).

Surprisingly, the molten salt the team chose as an electrolyte simply because of its low melting point turned out to have a fortuitous advantage. One of the biggest problems in battery reliability is the formation of dendrites, which are narrow spikes of metal that build up on one electrode and eventually grow across to contact the other electrode, causing a short-circuit and hampering efficiency. But this particular salt, it happens, is very good at preventing that malfunction.

The chloro-aluminate salt they chose “essentially retired these runaway dendrites, while also allowing for very rapid charging,” Sadoway says. “We did experiments at very high charging rates, charging in less than a minute, and we never lost cells due to dendrite shorting.”

“It’s funny,” he says, because the whole focus was on finding a salt with the lowest melting point, but the catenated chloro-aluminates they ended up with turned out to be resistant to the shorting problem. “If we had started off with trying to prevent dendritic shorting, I’m not sure I would’ve known how to pursue that,” Sadoway says. “I guess it was serendipity for us.”

What’s more, the battery requires no external heat source to maintain its operating temperature. The heat is naturally produced electrochemically by the charging and discharging of the battery. “As you charge, you generate heat, and that keeps the salt from freezing. And then, when you discharge, it also generates heat,” Sadoway says. In a typical installation used for load-leveling at a solar generation facility, for example, “you’d store electricity when the sun is shining, and then you’d draw electricity after dark, and you’d do this every day. And that charge-idle-discharge-idle is enough to generate enough heat to keep the thing at temperature.”

This new battery formulation, he says, would be ideal for installations of about the size needed to power a single home or small to medium business, producing on the order of a few tens of kilowatt-hours of storage capacity.

For larger installations, up to utility scale of tens to hundreds of megawatt hours, other technologies might be more effective, including the liquid metal batteries Sadoway and his students developed several years ago and which formed the basis for a spinoff company called Ambri, which hopes to deliver its first products within the next year. For that invention, Sadoway was recently awarded this year’s European Inventor Award.

The smaller scale of the aluminum-sulfur batteries would also make them practical for uses such as electric vehicle charging stations, Sadoway says. He points out that when electric vehicles become common enough on the roads that several cars want to charge up at once, as happens today with gasoline fuel pumps, “if you try to do that with batteries and you want rapid charging, the amperages are just so high that we don’t have that amount of amperage in the line that feeds the facility.” So having a battery system such as this to store power and then release it quickly when needed could eliminate the need for installing expensive new power lines to serve these chargers.

The new technology is already the basis for a new spinoff company called Avanti, which has licensed the patents to the system, co-founded by Sadoway and Luis Ortiz ’96 ScD ’00, who was also a co-founder of Ambri. “The first order of business for the company is to demonstrate that it works at scale,” Sadoway says, and then subject it to a series of stress tests, including running through hundreds of charging cycles.

Would a battery based on sulfur run the risk of producing the foul odors associated with some forms of sulfur? Not a chance, Sadoway says. “The rotten-egg smell is in the gas, hydrogen sulfide. This is elemental sulfur, and it’s going to be enclosed inside the cells.” If you were to try to open up a lithium-ion cell in your kitchen, he says (and please don’t try this at home!), “the moisture in the air would react and you’d start generating all sorts of foul gases as well. These are legitimate questions, but the battery is sealed, it’s not an open vessel. So I wouldn’t be concerned about that.”

The research team included members from Peking University, Yunnan University and the Wuhan University of Technology, in China; the University of Louisville, in Kentucky; the University of Waterloo, in Canada; Argonne National Laboratory, in Illinois; and MIT. The work was supported by the MIT Energy Initiative, the MIT Deshpande Center for Technological Innovation, and ENN Group.

Share this news article on:

Press mentions, the boston globe.

Prof. Emeritus Donald Sadoway and his colleagues have developed a safer and more cost-effective battery to store renewable energy, reports David Abel for The Boston Globe . The battery is “ethically sourced, cheap, effective and can’t catch fire,” says Sadoway.

Researchers from MIT and elsewhere have developed a new cost-effective battery design that relies on aluminum ion, reports Robert F. Service for Science . “The battery could be a blockbuster,” writes Service, “because aluminum is cheap; compared with lithium batteries, the cost of materials for these batteries would be 85% lower.”

Researchers at MIT have developed a battery that uses  aluminum and sulfur, two inexpensive and abundant materials, reports Alex Knapp and Alan Ohnsman for Forbes . “The batteries could be used for a variety of applications,” write Knapp and Ohnsman.

The Daily Beast

MIT researchers have created a new battery using inexpensive and plentiful materials to store and provide power, reports Tony Ho Tran for The Daily Beast . “The study’s authors believe that the battery can be used to support existing green energy systems such as solar or wind power for times when the sun isn’t shining or the air is still,” writes Tran. 

New Scientist

Prof. Donald Sadoway and his colleagues have developed a battery that can charge to full capacity in less than one minute, store energy at similar densities to lithium-ion batteries and isn’t prone to catching on fire, reports Alex Wilkins for New Scientist . “Although the battery operates at the comparatively high temperature of 110°C (230°F),” writes Wilkins, “it is resistant to fire because it uses an inorganic salt that can’t burn as its electrolyte, the material that allows charge to flow inside a battery.” Sadoway explains that “this is a totally new battery chemistry."

Previous item Next item

Related Links

• Video: Beyond the New Frontier: Climate Change Innovation
• Donald Sadoway
• Sadoway Group
• Department of Materials Science and Engineering

Related Topics

• Materials science and engineering
• Energy storage
• Renewable energy
• MIT Energy Initiative
• Sustainability
• Deshpande Center
• MIT intellectual property

Related Articles

Donald Sadoway wins European Inventor Award for liquid metal batteries

Energy storage important to creating affordable, reliable, deeply decarbonized electricity systems

A new approach to rechargeable batteries

New chemistries found for liquid batteries

A battery made of molten metals

More mit news.

Professor Emerita Mary-Lou Pardue, pioneering cellular and molecular biologist, dies at 90

Read full story →

Helping nonexperts build advanced generative AI models

New Ragon Institute building opens in the heart of Kendall Square

Toward socially and environmentally responsible real estate

Eric Evans receives Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service

Study: Titan’s lakes may be shaped by waves

• More news on MIT News homepage →

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, USA

• Map (opens in new window)
• Events (opens in new window)
• People (opens in new window)
• Careers (opens in new window)
• Accessibility
• Social Media Hub
• MIT on Facebook
• MIT on YouTube
• MIT on Instagram

• Electronics
• Engineering
• Electronic Engineering

PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS ON POTENTIAL USE OF SALT-WATER BATTERY FOR CHEAP ELECTRIC STORAGE: WORK IN PROGRESS

• February 2021
• Jurnal Ilmu dan Inovasi Fisika 5(1):74-81

• Swiss German University
• This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.

• University of New Mexico

Abstract and Figures

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations

• Siti Zura Abd Jalil
• Allan Widom

• Anna A. Szumska

• G W Pollack
• Kevin Indra Wijaya
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

Sample details

• Social Issues

Electricity

• Research Paper
• Views: 2,123

Related Topics

• Sustainable Energy
• Renewable Energy
• Nuclear Power
• Nuclear Energy
• Green energy
• Energy Conservation
• Solar Energy

Salt Water as Alternative to Electricity Research paper

The study aims to explore alternatives to electricity and its impact on the environment and rising bills. The group has chosen saltwater or saline solution as a potential source of energy due to its safety, accessibility, and affordability. The study focuses on the positive and negative charges in conducting energy and how saltwater can produce positive and negative ions that can carry energy and conduct electricity. The objectives of the research include finding an effective alternative source of energy, verifying if other objects can transmit electricity, and testing if the energy produced through saltwater can be stored in batteries and used portably.

Rationale of the study Almost everything these days is powered by electricity, and while this has certainly improved the quality of life, it has its downfalls as well. Some examples are: its effects on our Earth such as global warming, the rising bills caused by using too much electricity, and so much more. This is the reason why our group has decided to do a research on alternatives for energy source, specifically by means of saltwater or saline solution. We believe that this will help us decrease our use in electricity and therefore lessen our bills and help save our planet. Although humans can live without electricity, having it can make our lives easier, so as much as possible, we strive to find plenty of different ways to acquire electricity especially when we are in rural areas wherein acquisition of such is sometimes difficult. Though oil lamps, gas lamps and the like are widely available, these kinds of equipments pose a threat of fire especially when it is left by itself or forgotten. On the other hand, saltwater or saline solution is very safe and is very easy to get a hold of, particularly to the people who reside in coastal areas or in remote islands.

Also, this cheap alternative can benefit needy families who cannot afford to pay for their electric bills. We picked saltwater as our entity of testing because aside from the reasons stated above, we have had a further study on the very main topic of this research which is electricity, and we have found out about the role of positive and negative charges that are useful in order to conduct energy. Simultaneously, we have also found out that saltwater conducts energy because of the solid salt it contains and when it is dissolved into water, the elements sodium and chloride from the salt separate or break up because of the very reactive traits of water (H2O), thus, causing the production of positive and negative ions that are able to carry energy and consequently conducting electricity. The particular objectives of our research are:

ready to help you now

Without paying upfront

To find an effective alternative source of energy or electricity which is safe, easily accessible and affordable To verify if other objects that carry negative and positive charges transmit electricity just like batteries do To test if the energy produced through the use of saltwater can be used portably and stored in batteries

Cite this page

https://graduateway.com/salt-water-as-alternative-to-electricity-research-paper/

You can get a custom paper by one of our expert writers

Check more samples on your topics

How the amount of salt present within the salt-bridge of a galvanic cell alters the amount of electrical energy outputted.

The purpose of this experiment was to find out how the amount of Salt present within the Salt-Bridge of a Galvanic Cell alters the amount of electrical energy outputted, whether it be positively or negatively. The hypothesized outcome was that the more Salt used within the Salt-Bridge would result in more electrical energy being created

Does Salt-Water or Sugar-Water Have an Effect on the Growth of Radishes?

One of the easiest plants to grow year-round are radishes. Although they are, like all plants, meant to be grown outside, it is possible to grow radishes inside with similar results. Radishes tend to grow quickly, granted that they are planted and cared for correctly. The number one step in growing any plant is watering.

How Does Salt Affect the Boiling Point of Water?

The intent of this experiment was to find whether or non salt would impact the boiling point of H2O. Much of the research I conducted rejected my hypothesis which stated: if I add salt to H2O. so the boiling point of the H2O will diminish. Factors such as colligative belongingss determine how a dissolver will

Banana Fiber as Art Paper Alternative Research Paper

ABSTRACT The current environmental situation of the Philippines calls for an initiative to cut down on wastes, and repurpose renewable resources such as the banana plant. One way to do it is to make fiber paper from the banana plant. Also, use of chemicals was eliminated in the process to protect the environment from further deterioration

Potato Cores In Salt Solution Research

Potato Cores In Salt Solution Essay, Research Paper Scenario Plants in the dirt have their roots in a dilute solution of mineral ions. When they are all of a sudden flooded with saltwater, concentration of which is 0.3 molar Sodium Chloride, they are observed to wilt and go flaccid. Aim The purpose of this experiment is

Garlic Oil as an alternative mosquito killer spray Research Paper

Dengue fever

Introduction “Scientists aren't sure why, but mosquitoes don't seem to like garlic. One study in India found that people who rubbed a garlicky concoction on their arms and legs weren't bothered by the pesky buggers. (Alyssa Jung)” Dengue virus caused by mosquitoes are examples of why vigilant and active research continues to be important worldwide. Background of

Oil Extracted From Moringa Oliefera Lam as an Alternative Cooking Research Paper

Malunggay ( Moringa Ofliera Lam works is one of the most utile tropical trees found here in the Philippines. They are exceptionally good beginnings of pro-vitamin A. vitamins B. vitamin C. minerals ( in peculiar Fe ) . and the sulphur-containing amino acids methionine and cystine. In this research. we will cognize that malunggay is

Peels as Alternative Raw Materials in Making Fire Extinguisher Research Paper

Firefighter

BY YIN Chapter I The Problem and Its Background During this year's (2014) Fire Prevention Month, the Bureau of Fire Protection recorded a number of 618 structural fire incidents. Fire incidents occur mostly due to carelessness. For the past years, numerous cases of houses and establishments were burned that led to high cases of death

Alternative Air Freshener Research Paper

Currently, individuals depend on ready-made or pre-made goods, regardless of their price. The justification for this is that purchasing these items is more convenient than creating them oneself. A specific example of such a product is air fresheners, which are necessary in every home to eliminate unpleasant smells stemming from sources like trash and pungent

Hi, my name is Amy 👋

In case you can't find a relevant example, our professional writers are ready to help you write a unique paper. Just talk to our smart assistant Amy and she'll connect you with the best match.