make a figurative presentation of communication process

Communication Process: Definition, Steps, and Importance

At first glance, the communication process seems simple enough, right?

You say a few words to the interlocutor, they understand what you mean and give you a prompt response. 

But, that’s not always the way things go. Say that a joke you make falls flat, and you have to think of ways to redirect the conversation. Or, you use the word “ bike ” to talk of your love of cycling, but the interlocutor thought of motorbikes. 

These issues occur because the communication process is ever-changing and depends on 8 interconnected factors .

In the following sections, we’ll devote more attention to the importance of the communication process and each of its factors. 

We’ll also hear from experts who’ll share some of their tried-and-true tips on improving the communication process and eliminating miscommunication . 

Without further delay, let’s jump in. 

Table of Contents

What is the communication process?

The communication process encompasses a sequence of acts necessary for effective communication . These acts ensure the successful transmission of meaning between at least 2 participants, helping them to understand each other without issues. 

However, while the communication process is a comprehensive and reliable tool that can help achieve successful communication between two or more people, it sometimes isn’t as straightforward as it first appears. 

In reality, effective communication requires careful attention to the 8 interconnected factors that make up the process . When properly followed, the communication process can ensure the intended message is conveyed and understood without misinterpretation or confusion. 

But, this requires a deep understanding of the process and active participation. 

What are the parts of the communication process?

In the book The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory and Practice , American communication theorist David K. Berlo writes: 

“ With the concept of process established in our minds, we can profit from an analysis of the ingredients of communication, the elements that seem necessary (if not sufficient) for communication to occur. ”  – David K. Berlo

When Berlo mentions the “ concept of process ,” he references the fact that communication, like other processes, is dynamic and ever-evolving . 

Take the conversations you have with your coworkers as an example. The topic changes depending on whom you’re speaking to, as does your tone of voice and body language . 

But, some ingredients remain the same with each interaction — the 8 elements of the communication process. These are:

• Environment,
• Context, and
• Interference.

We’ll now examine these factors in greater detail. 

Element #1: Source (Sender)

In the process of communication, the source or sender is the person who speaks in order to create and impart a specific message to their audience . 

The source may convey their message using verbal language but also through their:

• Body language, 
• Clothing, and
• Tone of voice. 

According to Berlo, communication is virtually impossible without a source :

“ We can say that all human communication has some source , some person or group of persons with a purpose, a reason for engaging in communication. ” – David K. Berlo

Before speaking or writing, the source has to decide what they want to convey and how they wish to format their message. 

Then, the source encodes this information using words and putting them in specific order to achieve the desired meaning. Only after taking these steps can a source deliver the message to the audience. 

Element #2: Message

The message is the source’s purpose of communication , and during the communication process, the source converts this purpose into speech or text. 

In The Basics of Speech Communication , Scott McLean describes the message as “ the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience .” 

McLean also emphasizes that the message is more than words strung together by order and grammatical rules . How we format and transmit our message depends on the type of communication we intend to engage in.

For instance, in written communication, you can change and reshape a message through:

• The use of emojis ,
• The addition of subheadings,
• Adjustments in writing style, and 
• Formatting the message . 

And, as we’ve mentioned, your appearance and body language during in-person meetings or video conferencing calls can also affect how you communicate your message. 

But, there’s more to it. 

Our environment and the context we provide can imbue the message with additional meaning. On the other hand, noise can obscure our intended meaning during the interaction and become a communication barrier .  

Element #3: Channel

The channel is the manner by which the message travels from the source to the receiver . 

In his examination of communication models , Berlo touches on channels, stating that:

“ A channel is a medium, a carrier of messages. It is correct to say that messages can exist only in some channels; however, the choice of channels often is an important factor in the effectiveness of communication. ” – David K. Berlo

If you think of the streaming services you’re subscribed to as separate channels, they all combine visual and auditory information to communicate a specific message. When you look away from the screen, you can still hear the program and gather enough clues to understand what’s going on. 

The same goes if you lower the volume. Thanks to subtitles and visual cues, you’ll still be able to follow the plot without much trouble.

A similar scenario happens in real-time communication . Depending on our purpose and needs, we can choose from several different channels, which could include:

• Voice and video calls,
• Direct messaging in a business communication app ,
• Voice messages , and
• Emails. 

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For a deeper look into communication channels and information about which channels are suitable for different kinds of communication, see this guide:

• Channels of communication

Element #4: Receiver

As the name suggests, the receiver is the person whose task is to receive the source’s message . 

The receiver is just as important as the source in the communication process because their actions can make or break the interaction.

No matter how carefully you choose your words, the communication situation may go awry, as you have no control over how the interlocutor:

• Interprets the message , 
• Behaves after hearing the message , or
• Uses their cultural experience and knowledge to participate in communication. 

The above points determine whether the receiver will choose to provide feedback to the source and actively participate in the communication action . No further communication can occur if the receiver decides not to respond and withholds feedback. 

Keep in mind that a receiver may not always respond using verbal messages. 

For example, if you are speaking at a business summit attended by more than 200 people, you’ll feel the audience sizing you up. Although the attendees won’t voice their opinion on what you’re saying, you can modify your performance and add more information to your message by watching the reaction of audience members. 

Element #5: Feedback

Feedback is the response the receiver returns to the source. 

• Unintentional or intentional and
• Nonverbal or verbal . 

Feedback is vital in letting the source know how the receiver has interpreted the message . 

Another important function of feedback in communication is to give the receiver the chance to:

• Request additional information or clarification,
• Support or object to the source’s claims, and
• Inform the source how to modify their approach. 

The role feedback plays in the communication process cannot be overstated. 

In the research article Some effects of feedback on communication , Mueller and Leavitt detailed the result of an experiment that dealt with how different levels of feedback affected communication. Their conclusion was that: 

“ Increasing feedback resulted in increasing [communication] accuracy . ” – Mueller and Leavitt

Feedback is instrumental in professional communication, and so is feedforward. To learn more about how the two concepts are related and how to use them to your advantage, read this blog post:

• Feedback vs. feedforward: Moving from feedback to feedforward

Element #6: Environment

The environment refers to the mental and physical contexts in which we communicate , both as the sender and the receiver of messages. It encompasses the setting, atmosphere, and conditions that may influence the interpretation and reception of information .

For example, if you’re in a conference room, your environment might include:

• Windows, and
• A whiteboard. 

Psychological aspects of the environment may include whether the topic is discussed in a transparent manner and whether the communication is formal or informal. 

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Element #7: Context

While some confuse context for the environment when talking about the communication process, context refers to the:

• Setting, and
• Expectations of the conversation participants. 

For example, when you head into the office, you expect those present to be smartly dressed and speak and act in a specific way. Thus, anyone wearing a T-shirt and shorts would stick out like a sore thumb. 

That’s because context dictates how formal or informal the environment should be. 

During work meetings, someone’s position and expertise affect when and how they will speak, as well as what they will speak about. During short breaks, everyone is free to quickly catch up or talk about informal topics. But, when the meeting resumes, all off-topic conversations cease. 

As a crucial element of the communication cycle, context is also vital in cross-cultural communication. Namely, the cultural context we inherit and learn through experience affects how we convey messages. For more information on cross-cultural communication and cultural context, check out this detailed blog post:

• How to perfect cross-cultural communication at the workplace

Element #8: Interference (Noise)

The final component of the communication process, interference , is also sometimes called noise . 

Interference or noise can be anything that distorts or modifies the intended meaning of a message . 

If your desk is by the window, you likely see billboards and commuters and hear traffic sounds. This noise can halt your stream of thought or interrupt a conversation with coworkers. 

However, in the communication cycle, the noise could also be psychological .

Although you work in a quiet environment, your own thoughts could block you from fully listening to what someone is saying. For instance, if your superior hasn’t finished talking to you, but you are already coming up with what to say in return, chances are you’ve missed a few points. 

Similarly, if you forgot to drink water before joining a meeting, you may pay more attention to the water cooler than the presentations. 

Unfortunately, the modern workforce is rife with distractions that act as communication hurdles. The occasional pinging from your team messaging app may prevent you from giving your all to the task at hand. If you’ve struggled with this in the past, take a look at this helpful post:

• How to ensure business chat is not distracting your team

How does the communication process work?

The communication process consists of 5 essential steps . They are:

• Idea formation,
• Message encoding,
• Message transmission,
• Message decoding , and 

Breaking down these communication cycle phases will help you better understand your role in conversation and improve your communication skills.  

Step #1: The source or sender has an idea (Idea formation)

Communication begins with the source, the person who thinks of and sends the message. 

Several things can influence the message a source wants to convey, including their:

• Background , and
• Context of the communication situation . 

For example, how you greet a coworker depends on: 

• Your mood, 
• Their position within the company, 
• Your own culture, and 
• Your knowledge of your coworker’s culture. 

Consequently, before saying or writing anything, you have to consider the above factors to prevent misinterpretation and confusion. 

Moreover, a source should always think about how the receiver or audience will respond to the message. One of the most invaluable skills an effective communicator can hone is the ability to adapt their message so that it elicits a positive response from the interlocutor. 

Step #2: The source encodes the idea in a message (Encoding)

Encoding is the second step in the process of communication. This phase consists of transforming an idea into gestures and words that will successfully carry its meaning to the receiver . 

However, encoding can be a challenging task as different people associate different meanings with the same words. 

According to Guffey and Loewy in Business Communication: Process & Product , miscommunication that stems from mismatched meanings is called bypassing , and it is one of the most common pitfalls of professional communication. 

To avoid these complications, skilled communicators should strive to use familiar words because the goal is to have the source and receiver agree on their meanings . 

As one HBR article on language and culture states, just because you and your coworkers share a language doesn’t mean you share the same business culture , too. 

Let’s see how language and culture can clash in the example below. 

Jodie has sent a message to Anna, the new administration officer who has moved to the US from the UK. Jodie starts with casual chit chat before diving into the point of her message. 

While that is considered polite behavior in the US, it can grate on people from countries where it is customary to get to the point without veering off-topic. Furthermore, Jodie uses the terms “ trainer ” and “ cell phone .” While these don’t throw Anna off, in the UK, it’s common to hear “ coach ” or “ instructor ” and “ mobile phone. ” 

Finally, Anna’s response is brief and doesn’t venture into non-work-related territory. 

Step #3: The message is transmitted via a communication channel (Transmission)

During the communication cycle, it is necessary to find the best way to physically transmit the message to the receiver. The transmission medium is the channel , and we can share messages via:

• Business communication apps ,
• Announcements,
• Phone calls,
• Pictures, and
• Memorandums. 

Deciding on the most effective channel is imperative because it can affect how a receiver interprets both verbal and nonverbal messages . 

For instance, in the example below, Jodie is sharing the annual performance report with her colleagues. How they receive the message will depend on:

• The tone present throughout the report,
• The document’s layout, and
• The inclusion of graphics and charts. 

Of course, before picking the most effective channel, the source must consider the noise and how it could interfere with the communication process. 

As we’ve discussed, anything that obstructs the communication cycle is considered noise. 

These interferences may take many forms, from misspellings in business emails to poor connection during a virtual call . However, choosing an unsuitable time to send an email or scheduling a team meeting for a simple update can also be an interference. 

Step #4: The receiver decodes the message (Decoding)

An essential phase of the communication cycle — decoding — occurs when the receiver analyzes the message and converts its symbols to uncover the intended meaning . 

Successful communication can only happen when the receiver cracks this code — that is, when they comprehend what the source intended to say . 

But, achieving effective communication is easier said than done because no two people share the same experiences and knowledge. Moreover, numerous communication barriers can get in the way of decoding and halt the entire process. 

Some factors that undermine decoding messages can be internal , and these include:

• A lack of attention when someone is speaking and
• Pre-existing cognitive biases and prejudice towards the source. 

External factors can also impede the communication process. For example, it might be hard to decipher someone’s words in a loud environment, and misunderstandings are bound to happen. 

However, semantic hurdles can cause severe communication issues in a professional setting. For example, let’s analyze the announcement below. 

Joseph has posted what he thinks is an exciting announcement about an upcoming company event. While his intentions may have come from the right place, his words have definitely missed the mark. 

His choice to refer to new hires as “ newbies ,” the female employees as “ girls ,” and seasoned employees as “ oldtimers ” has the potential to offend part of the workforce. 

Thus, these word choices could lead to strong reactions that prevent the employees from focusing on the overall message. 

Step #5: Feedback reaches the source

Feedback is the backbone of communication and covers the interlocutor’s nonverbal and verbal responses. These signals let the source know how someone has received and understood the message .

For example, when a coworker asks, “ How’s your day going? ” you can respond with, “ Good, thanks. And yours? ”. 

Or, if you’ve had a particularly draining day, you might smile and shrug your shoulders. 

The same goes for using team communication apps . You can:

• Send a message, 
• Post a comment, or 
• Use an emoji to show how you feel. 

Of course, different people share varying degrees of feedback, which is why it’s a good idea to encourage feedback with questions like:

• “ Is everything I’ve said clear? ” 
• “ Do you need clarification on anything I’ve mentioned? ” 

Remember that overwhelming the receiver with too much information may confuse them and thus lead to a lack of feedback. 

Think of your delivery, time it appropriately, and give the interlocutor enough time to organize their thoughts. 

Additionally, it’s essential to differentiate between 2 types of feedback:

• Evaluative feedback and
• Descriptive feedback . 

Evaluative feedback doesn’t reflect whether the receiver has understood the source. Instead, it is often judgemental and can push the source into defensiveness .

On the other hand, descriptive feedback results from the receiver understanding the intended meaning of the source’s message. 

For example, saying, “ I see how the numbers suggest we should focus more on inbound marketing in the next quarter, ” is better than stating, “ These numbers don’t look too good. ” 

The first response invites others to become active in the conversation, while the second acts as more of a deterrent. 

Do you want to become better at giving and requesting constructive feedback? If that’s the case, head to the blog posts below:

• How to give constructive feedback when working remotely
• How to ask your manager for feedback

Tips for improving the communication process

Now that we’re familiar with the elements and phases of the communication process, we can focus on learning how to ensure the best possible outcomes. 

Tip #1: Beware of bypassing

Business communication is complex, and unless you’re careful, bypassing could become a common occurrence. 

Bypassing is a phenomenon that happens when the source and receiver attach 2 wholly different meanings to a single word . 

For example, if you’ve just landed your first job after graduating from university, seeing “ meeting cadence ” mentioned in a message from your manager might confuse you. 

You may immediately think of the more well-known definition of the word “ cadence, ” which is the inflection of someone’s voice. But, your manager is referring to the frequency of team meetings, and it could take a while to straighten things out.

The good news is that business communication doesn’t have to be convoluted. You can prevent bypassing if you:

• Avoid using business jargon in the workplace ,
• Use simple and clear language , and
• Proofread your messages and emails to eliminate spelling errors and vague wording .

Tip #2: Strive to be a more attentive listener

Even when the source goes to great lengths to neatly package their message, their efforts will go to waste if the interlocutor is a poor listener. 

Fortunately, active listening is a skill, and you can learn how to leverage it to your advantage in business communication. 

In Communication in Business: Strategies and Skills , Judith Dwyer cites Gamble and Gamble (1996), who have identified 6 common behaviors most poor listeners exhibit . 

These disruptive behaviors are:

• Dart thrower : Questioning the speaker and the validity of their story as soon as they make a mistake, no matter how minor it is. 
• Ear hog : Dominating the communication situation by pushing your story and preventing others from telling their side. 
• Bee : Only listening to parts of the conversation that interest you the most and ignoring everything else. 
• Earmuff : Sidetracking the conversation to avoid confronting specific information. 
• Gap filler : Coming up with additional information to prove you’ve heard the whole story, although you only zeroed in on parts of it. 
• Nodder : Feigning listening by pretending to pay attention to the speaker. In reality, you are thinking about a different topic entirely.

Sometimes, we inadvertently engage in the above behaviors, so it’s essential to join every communication act without preconceived notions. 

According to Joanna Staniszewska , a seasoned marketing, communication and HR professional, communication is a two-way street, and active listening is one of the most effective strategies:

“ Actively listening to others fosters trust and understanding. Encourage individuals to pay attention, ask questions, and confirm their comprehension during conversations. ”

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Do you want to learn more tips on becoming a present and attentive listener? If so, we have just the post for you:

• How to engage in deep listening in the workplace

Tip #3: Create an environment that encourages feedback

Establishing stable feedback loops positively impacts employee engagement , creating a safe space for people to self-advocate at work . 

A system that compels team members to speak up without reservations in manager-employee relationships is invaluable. It can act both as a channel for employee recognition and resolving conflicts before they snowball into large-scale issues. 

Staniszewska mentioned that a stable communication process should rely on sustainable feedback loops:

“ Emphasize the need for feedback mechanisms that allow individuals to assess their communication effectiveness continually. This can be formal, like surveys, or informal, like regular team check-ins .”

So, how do you create a positive feedback loop that reinforces the communication process?

You can start by:

• Leading with empathy: Emphasize to others you’re ready to hear them out without prejudice or judgment.
• Giving feedback in person: Face-to-face meetings or video calls often feel more authentic than messages and emails.
• Managing your emotions: Tap into your emotional intelligence and approach each situation with a clear mind.

Here’s how that may look.

When eliciting feedback, remember not to rush the interaction, states Dawid Wiacek , a communication and executive career coach:

“ In today’s business landscape, speed is often a competitive advantage, but when it comes to success in communication, one of the keys is actually slowing down. To ensure the other person has digested your message accurately, it’s helpful to ask them to summarize it in their own words. 

You can ask what resonated about the message and what didn’t; what they felt was the core element, and what was secondary; what was validating and perhaps surprising. The point here is you want to engage the recipient and make sure that the original message was translated appropriately and not lost in translation. ”

Tip #4: Think about where you (and others) come from 

Although it can be nerve-wracking, giving feedback to colleagues is part of virtually all jobs. 

Ideally, we deliver critiques in a constructive and empowering manner, but that’s not always how things pan out. That’s not to say we purposely try to offend our coworkers. The situation may simply be a result of cultural differences. 

Let’s take the below exchange as an example. 

Carol, who is from the US, sends her well wishes to Jamie, who has been working from Japan for the past 6 years. A minor misunderstanding arises because Carol assumed Jamie and she would interpret the meaning of an emoji in the same way. 

This type of blunder can be funny — Carol and Jamie were able to clear the air quickly and move on. 

But, what would happen in a more serious situation, such as a performance review?

For instance, moving a manager from Germany to take over a department in South Korea can become a disaster if no forethought goes into it. In Korean society and business, respect is determined through a mix of age, experience, and hierarchical position. 

Thus, if the German manager is older than part of his Korean staff, they will be less likely to push back against unwarranted criticism. Moreover, after receiving information from the manager, they could even return disingenuous feedback in an effort to save face. 

Fortunately, this doesn’t mean that all cross-cultural collaboration is doomed. 

When we spoke to Joanna Staniszewska, she highlighted the importance of cultural intelligence and sensitivity:

“ Communication takes place in diverse environments. Stress the importance of cultural awareness and sensitivity. Encourage individuals to adapt their communication styles to resonate with the audience’s cultural norms and expectations. ”

Tip #5: Read up on communication styles

Understanding your preferred communication style and tweaking it to align with your coworkers can make a difference in team collaboration and communication . 

When a colleague abruptly shuts down during the communication process, it might not be because of something you’ve intentionally said or done. Perhaps your personal communication style got in the way, and the person on the other end felt you were disregarding their ideas and opinions. Although you thought you were assertively standing up for your idea, your coworker may have felt like you were subtly attacking theirs.  

Changing how you communicate can point you toward professional success, and a good starting point is bolstering your emotional intelligence . Through a combination of social awareness and self-awareness, you’ll gradually gain more control over how you speak and act in the workplace. 

In the case that you need more guidance, another strategy would be enrolling in a professional development course that could help you become a more transparent and flexible communicator. 

When a communication break occurs, it isn’t always possible to salvage the communication process. However, with the proper education and a dash of commitment, you can learn how to facilitate productive and open conversations. 

For more extensive information on different communication styles, as well as becoming more flexible during business communication, check out this guide:

• Communication styles

Tip #6: Take into account the changing demographics of the workforce

Another unique issue in workplace communication is learning how to connect and collaborate with colleagues from different generations .

We all have specific habits and preferences, and the generational gap can sometimes put our behavior at odds with that of our older or younger coworkers. 

Navigating these differences and refraining from resorting to stereotypes is the way to go when creating a well-connected and inclusive environment. 

So, be honest about your preferred ways of communication and respect the boundaries of your team members. As soon as they notice these efforts, they’ll feel more at ease when asking for help or reaching out about a work task. 

Are you interested in learning more about enhancing communication across generations within your team or company? Then check out this exhaustive blog post:

• How to improve communication across generations at work

Why is the communication process important?

Through the way we communicate, we learn not only how to get ahead in life but also how to form stable relationships. 

If you think of life skills as a tower of cards, communication is near the bottom, laying a solid foundation. Should this card wobble slightly, it will jeopardize the stability of the entire tower. 

Moreover, by mastering the communication process, you :

• Readjust your self-perception and how you view the world around you ,
• Become a better learner , and
• Learn how to represent both your employer and yourself in the best light . 

In the following sections, we will devote more attention to exploring the above three points. 

Reason #1: The communication process affects how we view others and ourselves

The phrase “ at a loss for words ” aptly describes how it feels to come out of a communication situation unsuccessful.

Not only do you feel like you’re missing the right words, but it is as if you’re also missing a vital part of yourself. This unpleasant emotion sprouts because we share a part of our worldview with our interlocutor when communicating . We often inadvertently reveal the reasoning behind our train of thought and how we believe everything fits into this neatly organized snapshot of the world. 

And, you go through the same scenario when listening to friends or coworkers. You take in their appearance, facial expressions, and words to form an assumption about what their values and priorities may be. 

It’s not always feasible to pick the right words or rein in your facial expressions, but learning how the communication process works does help. 

For example, you’ll realize that what you say could reveal just as much about yourself as the topic you are discussing. Thus, rather than simply waiting for your turn to speak, you might make a conscious effort to actively listen and understand the other person’s perspective.

Reason #2: The communication process affects the way we learn

In Business Communication for Success , McLean reminds anyone willing to work on their communication skills that this endeavor will require:

• Persistence, and
• Self-correction.

McLean likens becoming a better communicator to sharpening other valuable life skills. There was a time when you didn’t drive a car or have a clue about digital literacy , yet, over time (and much trial and error), you’ve become a much more capable person. 

So, while results won’t come overnight, and you might get tangled up in a few difficult conversations at work , the effort is worth it. The key is to keep talking and listening. Soon enough, you may catch yourself broaching new subjects more assertively . 

Reason #3: The communication process helps us put our best foot forward

When you work in a team, how you communicate can paint a positive image of both you and your coworkers . When your communication style oozes professionalism and respectfulness, reaching agreements and negotiating deals becomes much less of a hassle. 

Not to mention that, paired with an excellent work ethic, strong communication is a huge plus when it comes to advancing to a leadership position. And, should you decide to change companies, sharp oral and written communication skills will significantly improve your employment prospects. 

If you make a misstep while joining a new team, good communication can help you iron out any lingering issues. But, to avoid these awkward situations altogether and learn how to make a good first impression, check out the below blog post:

• How to professionally introduce yourself

Be mindful of the communication process for long-term success

Whether you want to speak more candidly with family members or reach the next level in your career, knowing what the communication process is and why it matters can give you a head start. 

So, before you craft your next report or begin to lose patience with a coworker, try to:

• Remember the 8 elements of the communication process ,
• Identify your role in the communication situation , and
• Pinpoint your personal drawbacks and work on being a more thoughtful and involved conversation participant . 

Not only will you see better outcomes following your exchanges with colleagues and collaborators, but you’ll find that your interactions have become more engaging and enjoyable. 

References:

• Berlo, D. K. (1963). The process of communication: An introduction to theory and practice. Holt Rinehart and Winston. Retrieved September 2023 from https://archive.org/details/processofcommuni0000berl/mode/2up
• Christian, A. (2022, September 26). Why ‘digital literacy’ is now a workplace non-negotiable. BBC Worklife. https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20220923-why-digital-literacy-is-now-a-workplace-non-negotiable-
• Dwyer, J. (2008). Communication in business: Strategies and skills (4th ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Retrieved September 2023 from https://archive.org/details/communicationinb0000dwye
• Guffey, M. E., & Loewy, D. (2011). Business communication: Process & product (7th ed.). South-Western.
• Leavitt, H. J., & Mueller, R. A. H. (1951). Some effects of feedback on communication. Human Relations, 4, 401–410. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675100400406
• McLean, S. (2010). Business communication for success. Flat World Knowledge.
• McLean, S. A. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Allyn and Bacon. Retrieved September 2023 from https://archive.org/details/basicsofspeechco00mcle/mode/2up
• Molinsky, A. (2014, August 7). Common Language Doesn’t Equal Common Culture. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/04/common-language-doesnt-equal-c
• Panel, E. (2021, May 27). How To Encourage Candid Employee Feedback: 14 Tips For CEOs. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2021/05/27/how-to-encourage-candid-employee-feedback-14-tips-for-ceos/?sh=2805bfec2407

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What is Communication Process: Examples, Stages & Types

Table of Contents

Communication enables us to connect, share ideas, and collaborate with one another. But have you ever wondered what exactly goes into the process of effective communication? How do our thoughts and intentions transform into meaningful messages that are understood by others?

In this blog post, we will delve into the details of the communication process. We will explore its fundamental components, examine how messages are transmitted and received, and highlight the key factors that can influence successful communication.

Definition of the communication process?

“The systematic process in which individuals interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings in a particular context.” – Joseph A. DeVito “The process by which people use signs, symbols, and behaviors to exchange information and create meaning.” – Kory Floyd

What is the communication process? 

The communication process refers to the steps and elements involved in the successful transmission and understanding of a message between a sender and a receiver. It includes the exchange of information, ideas, opinions, or emotions through various channels or mediums. The communication process is cyclical, meaning it involves continuous feedback and adjustment. 

Effective communication requires clarity, relevance, active listening, and consideration of the needs and perspectives of both the sender and the receiver. By understanding and utilizing the communication process, individuals and organizations can enhance their ability to convey messages, build relationships, and achieve their communication goals.

Process of communication with diagram

What is the communication process cycle?

The communication process cycle is a continuous and dynamic sequence of stages involved in the successful exchange of messages between a sender and a receiver. The communication process cycle typically includes the following phases:

• Sender’s Input
• Message Transmission
• Message Reception
• Receiver’s Response
• Feedback Transmission
• Iteration and Adjustment

The communication process cycle is continuous, as it involves ongoing interactions and exchanges between the sender and the receiver.

Distinctive characteristics of the communication process?

The following characteristics help distinguish the communication process from other forms of human interaction and highlight its unique nature. The key characteristics of the communication process are as follows:

• Sender-Receiver Relationship : The communication process involves a relationship between the sender and the receiver. It requires both parties to participate actively and engage in the exchange of messages.
• Noise Effect : The communication process can be influenced by noise, which refers to any barriers or disruptions that affect the accurate transmission or reception of the message. Noise can be physical (e.g., background noise) or psychological (e.g., cultural differences) .

Related Reading : Psychological barriers to effective communication  

• Dynamic and Ongoing : Communication is a continuous process that involves ongoing interactions and exchanges between the sender and the receiver. It is not a one-time event but evolves.
• Subjectivity : The communication process is subject to interpretation and perception by both the sender and the receiver. Each individual may interpret and understand the message based on their own experiences, beliefs, and perspectives.

Components of the communication process

The communication process consists of several interconnected components that work together to facilitate effective communication.

1/ Sender: The sender takes the lead in initiating the communication process. They have a message or information to convey to the receiver. The sender’s role involves encoding the message, which means converting thoughts or ideas into a communicable format.

2/ Message: The message represents the ideas or informational content that the sender intends to convey. It can be expressed through different channels, including verbal, written, or non-verbal forms. Verbal elements include spoken or written words, while non-verbal elements encompass body language, facial expressions, and gestures.

3/ Channel: The channel serves as the pathway through which the message is conveyed from the sender to the receiver. Communication channels can include face-to-face conversations, phone calls, emails, text messages, video conferencing, or social media platforms.

4/ Receiver: The receiver is the person or group of people who are the intended target of the message. They play a crucial role in the communication process by decoding and interpreting the message received from the sender.

5/ Feedback: Feedback is the response or reaction given by the receiver in relation to the sender’s message. It serves as a vital component of the communication process, allowing the sender to gauge the effectiveness of their message and make necessary adjustments.

To know more check out our detailed article on: What are the components of the communication process

Types of the communication process

Communication processes can be broadly categorized into four main types:

1/ Verbal Communication Process: Verbal communication involves the usage of spoken or written language to express and convey messages. It allows for immediate feedback and clarification, promoting interactive and real-time exchanges.

Further Reading: What is verbal communication

2/ Nonverbal Communication Process: Nonverbal communication involves the transmission of messages without the use of words.  It incorporates a range of nonverbal cues such as physical movements, hand gestures,  vocal intonation, interpersonal distance, and other forms of nonverbal expression.

Further Reading: What is nonverbal communication

3/ Visual Communication Process: Visual communication relies on visual elements to convey messages. It involves the use of images, graphics, charts, diagrams, videos, presentations, and other visual aids. Visual communication is effective in simplifying complex information, enhancing understanding, and appealing to visual learners.

Further Reading: What are the advantages and disadvantages of visual communication

4/ Written Communication Process: Written communication includes the utilization of written words or text as a means to convey information. It includes letters, memos, reports, articles, emails, text messages, social media posts, and other forms of written communication.

Further Reading: What is written communication with example

How does the communication process work? 

The communication process involves 8 interconnected stages that facilitate the exchange of information, ideas, or messages between a sender and a receiver. Here’s a simplified explanation of how the communication process works:

8 stages of the communication process 

1/ Sender’s Input: The communication process begins with the sender, who initiates the communication by having a message to convey. The sender identifies the purpose of the communication and formulates the message accordingly. This involves determining what information, ideas, or emotions need to be conveyed and what outcome the sender hopes to achieve through the communication.

2/ Encoding the message: After formulating the message, the sender encodes it by selecting appropriate symbols, language, or means of expression. Encoding involves converting thoughts or ideas into a form that can be understood by the receiver. This could include: 

• Selecting specific words 
• Using nonverbal cues such as gestures or facial expressions 
• Utilizing visual or auditory elements to enhance the message’s meaning.

3/ Message Transmission: Once the message is encoded, the sender transmits it through a chosen communication medium or channel. The medium can vary depending on the nature of the communication and the available options, such as: 

• Face-to-face conversations
• Written communication
• Telephone calls or emails, 
• Social media platforms

The sender selects the most suitable medium to effectively deliver the message to the receiver.

4/ Receptioning the Message: The receiver, who is the intended recipient of the message, receives the transmitted message through the selected medium or channel. The receiver perceives the message using their senses (e.g., hearing or reading) or through technological devices (e.g., listening to an audio recording or reading a text on a screen). The receiver’s attention and focus on the message play a crucial role in this stage.

5/ Decoding the Message: Upon receiving the message, the receiver decodes it by interpreting and extracting meaning from the information received. Decoding involves understanding the encoded symbols, language, or context used by the sender to derive the intended message. The receiver applies their knowledge, experiences, cultural background, and perceptual filters to make sense of the message and derive meaning from it.

6/ Receiver’s Response: After decoding the message, the receiver formulates a response or feedback based on their understanding and interpretation. This response can take various forms, such as verbal or written communication, actions, or nonverbal cues. The response allows the receiver to provide: 

• Seek clarification, 
• Ask questions, 
• Express agreement or disagreement, 
• Contribute additional information related to the message.

7/ Feedback Transmission: The receiver’s response is transmitted back to the sender through the same or a different communication medium or channel. Feedback serves as an essential component of the communication process, as it provides valuable information to the sender. It helps the sender gauge the effectiveness, understanding, and impact of the message on the receiver. Feedback allows for adjustments, clarification, and improvement of future communications, ensuring the accuracy and clarity of the message.

Related Reading : What is feedback in the communication cycle

8/ Noise: Throughout the communication process, various factors can influence the effectiveness of communication. These factors include noise, which can be

• External Noise: (e.g., Environmental distractions or technical issues) 
• Internal Noise: (e.g., Preconceived notions or biases) 

Noise can disrupt message transmission or reception. The communication context, such as the physical environment, cultural norms, relationship dynamics, and power dynamics between the sender and receiver, can also impact the communication process.

Example of the communication process? 

Sarah, a project manager, wants to inform her team about a change in project deadlines, so she sends an email.

1/ Sender: Sarah, the project manager

• Sarah, as the project manager, is the sender of the message. She initiates communication by composing and sending emails.

2/ Message: Change in project deadlines

• The message is about the change in project deadlines. Sarah wants to inform her team members about this important update.

3/ Encoding: Composing the email

• Sarah encodes her message by composing an email. She chooses the appropriate words, tone, and structure to effectively convey the information regarding the change in project deadlines.

4/ Medium: Email

• The medium used for communication in this scenario is email. Sarah sends the message through the company’s email system.

5/ Channel: Company’s email server

• The channel refers to the means through which the message is transmitted. In this case, the email is transmitted through the company’s email server to reach the team members’ inboxes.

6/ Receivers: Sarah’s team members

• Sarah’s team members are the intended receivers of the message. They will receive and interpret the email sent by Sarah.

7/ Decoding: Reading and understanding the email

• The team members decode the email by reading it and interpreting the content. They understand that there has been a change in project deadlines based on the information provided by Sarah.

8/ Feedback: Team members’ response or clarification

• After decoding the message, the team members may provide feedback to Sarah by replying to the email. They might seek clarification, acknowledge the change, or ask questions related to the new deadlines.

9/ Noise: Distractions or communication barriers

• Noise can refer to technical issues with the email server, language barriers, or even conflicting priorities that could negatively affect the effective transmission or reception of the message.

10/ Context: Project management and deadlines

• The context of the communication is the project management and the change in deadlines. It provides the background and relevance for Sarah’s message to her team members.

The example highlights how the communication process functions within a business, specifically in the scenario of Sarah communicating changes in project deadlines to her team members via email.

Examples of communication models: 

Communication models provide frameworks for understanding the complexities of the communication process. Two well-known models are the Shannon-Weaver model and the Transactional model. The Shannon-Weaver model focuses on the transmission of information from the sender to the receiver through a linear process.

The Transactional model emphasizes the dynamic nature of communication, where both the sender and receiver actively participate in encoding, decoding, and exchanging messages.

Why communication process is important? 

The communication process serves as the foundation for effective and meaningful interactions between individuals, groups, and organizations. Here are some key reasons why the communication process is vital:

• Enhancing Decision-Making: Effective communication is essential for informed decision-making. Through the communication process, individuals can gather insights, weigh different options, and collectively arrive at well-informed decisions that consider multiple factors and stakeholder interests.
• Conflict Resolution: Communication plays a vital role in resolving conflicts and addressing differences. By encouraging open dialogue, active listening, and empathy, the communication process allows individuals to express their concerns, and find mutually acceptable solutions.
• Achieving Organizational Objectives: In the organizational context, the communication process is vital for achieving goals and objectives. It ensures that employees understand the organization’s vision, mission, and strategies.
• Influencing and Persuasion: Communication is a powerful tool for influencing and persuading others. The communication process allows for the delivery of persuasive messages that can shape opinions, change behaviors, and motivate individuals or groups to take desired actions.
• Social and Cultural Cohesion: Communication is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and societal cohesion. The communication process helps bridge gaps, promote understanding across diverse cultures, and foster inclusive and harmonious relationships within communities and societies.

Importance of the communication process in real life?

Effective communication serves as a cornerstone for building and nurturing relationships in personal, and social life. By actively engaging in the communication process, individuals establish connections and build trust, which forms the foundation of healthy and meaningful relationships.

Moreover, the communication process provides a platform for individuals to express their thoughts, emotions, and experiences. It serves as a medium for self-expression, enabling individuals to share their perspectives and joys with others. 

Additionally, engaging in the communication process contributes to personal growth and development. It enhances self-awareness and interpersonal skills. Through active participation in communication, individuals can refine their communication abilities, become more adaptable, and strengthen their relationships, both personally and professionally.

What are the common problems in the process of communication?

There are several common problems that can arise in the process of communication. These problems can hinder effective communication and lead to misunderstandings or breakdowns in the exchange of information. Here are some common communication problems:

1/ Misunderstandings : Misunderstandings can arise when the receiver does not accurately grasp the intended meaning of a message, leading to misinterpretations. This can happen due to differences in language or individual interpretations. Misunderstandings can result in misinformation and ineffective communication.

2/ Encoding and Decoding Errors: Encoding involves transforming thoughts or ideas into a communicable format, while decoding refers to the interpretation of the received message. Errors can occur during encoding or decoding, leading to misinterpretation or distortion of the intended message.

3/ Channel Selection : Choosing the appropriate communication channel is crucial for effective message transmission. Using an incorrect or inefficient channel can lead to message loss, distortion, or delayed communication. Selecting the right channel based on the nature of the message and the target audience is essential.

4/ Lack of Adaptability : Communication processes need to be adaptable to different contexts, audiences, and communication styles. Failing to adapt the communication approach can result in resistance or a lack of engagement from the intended recipients.

How does intercultural communication affect the communication process? 

Intercultural communication refers to the exchange of information and ideas between individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds. It plays a significant role in today’s globalized world where people with diverse cultural identities interact and collaborate. Intercultural communication can have a profound impact on the communication process in several ways:

• Language Barriers: Different cultures have distinct languages or variations of languages. When individuals from different cultures communicate, language barriers may arise , making it challenging to convey ideas accurately.
• Nonverbal Communication Differences: Nonverbal communication, such as eye contact and body movements can reflect cultural variations. Various cultures may attribute different interpretations to specific nonverbal cues, resulting in differences in meaning and understanding.
• Cultural Context: Cultural context significantly influences the communication process. Social norms, customs, and historical backgrounds shape how messages are constructed and interpreted. Without an understanding of the cultural context, messages may be misunderstood. 

Related Reading : Cultural Barriers To Communication: Examples & How to Overcome it

Communication process in the workplace 

In the workplace, the communication process refers to the series of interactions through which information, feedback, and instructions are exchanged between employees or teams to achieve common goals and facilitate effective work dynamics.

It involves both verbal and non-verbal communication , utilizing various channels and methods to ensure clear and meaningful understanding among employees and across different levels of the organization. 

Communication process in advertising 

In advertising, the communication process refers to the strategic and systematic approach of developing and delivering persuasive messages to target audiences with the goal of promoting products, services, or ideas. It involves a series of interconnected stages that aim to capture attention, generate interest, and elicit desired actions from the audience.

Impact of Technology on the communication process 

The impact of technology on the communication process refers to the changes and transformations that technology has brought to the way people exchange information, connect with others, and engage in communication. It has revolutionized various aspects of communication, including speed, accessibility, reach, and modes of interaction. Here are some key impacts of technology on the communication process:

• Speed and Efficiency: Technology has drastically increased the speed and efficiency of communication. Messages can be sent and received instantly through various digital platforms, reducing the time required for information exchange and decision-making processes.
• Global Connectivity: The internet and digital communication technologies have facilitated global connectivity, bringing together individuals from diverse regions of the world. Geographic barriers no longer limit communication, allowing individuals to connect, collaborate, and engage with others regardless of their physical location.
• Expanded Communication Channels: Technology has expanded the range of communication channels available. In addition to face-to-face conversations, people can communicate through emails, instant messaging, video calls, social media platforms, and other digital tools. This variety of channels provides flexibility and choice in how people interact and exchange information.

In addition, the impact of technology on the communication process also comes with challenges. Misinterpretation, miscommunication, and information overload are limitations of digital communication . Balancing virtual interactions with maintaining personal connections and non-verbal cues can also be a challenge. It is important to be mindful of these challenges and adapt communication strategies accordingly.

What makes the communication process effective and ineffective? 

Key factors that make the communication process effective:.

1/ Clarity: Clearly articulating ideas and messages using concise and understandable language helps ensure that the intended meaning is easily comprehended by the audience.

2/ Active Listening: Actively engaging in the communication process by attentively listening to the speaker, seeking clarification when needed, and demonstrating genuine interest in their message.

3/ Empathy and Understanding: Showing empathy towards others’ perspectives, being open-minded, and seeking to understand their viewpoints fosters a positive and inclusive communication environment.

4/ Feedback and Confirmation: Providing feedback to the speaker to confirm understanding, asking questions, and actively seeking clarification when necessary to ensure accurate comprehension.

5/ Contextual Awareness: Being mindful of the context and situation in which the communication takes place, including cultural norms, social dynamics, and any relevant background information.

6/ Timeliness: Communicating information in a timely manner, providing updates and responses promptly, and avoiding unnecessary delays to maintain the relevance and effectiveness of the communication .

By incorporating these factors into the communication process, individuals can enhance their ability to convey messages clearly and promote meaningful and effective interactions.

Key factors that can make the communication process ineffective:

1/ Non-Verbal Inconsistency: Sending conflicting non-verbal cues, such as mismatched facial expressions or body language, can create confusion and mistrust.

2/ Information Overload: Overwhelming the audience with excessive or irrelevant information can lead to disengagement and hinder understanding.

3/ Assumptions and Stereotyping: Making assumptions about others’ knowledge, beliefs, or experiences based on stereotypes can lead to miscommunication and misunderstandings.

4/ Emotional Barriers: Allowing strong emotions, such as anger, frustration, or fear, to dominate the communication process can prevent effective dialogue and problem-solving.

Awareness of these factors can help individuals identify and address potential barriers to effective communication and fostering productive interactions

Frequently Asked Questions 

Q1) what are the 7 steps of the communication process .

Ans: The communication process involves seven key steps: sender, message, channel, encoding, decoding, receiver, and feedback. The sender initiates the process by encoding a message, which is transmitted through a chosen channel. The receiver decodes the message and provides feedback, completing the communication loop. Following these steps enhances communication effectiveness.

Q2) What are the 5 stages of communication? 

Ans: The communication process involves five stages: sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback. The sender encodes and delivers the message through a chosen channel, which is then received, decoded, and responded to by the receiver. 

Q3) What is most important in the communication process?

Ans: The most important aspects of effective communication are clarity and active listening. Clarity involves using clear and concise language, while active listening refers to actively engaging with the speaker during a conversation or communication exchange.  Other important elements include feedback, non-verbal communication, empathy, emotional intelligence, and adaptability.

Q4) What are the basics of the communication process? 

Ans: The basics of the communication process include a sender who encodes a clear message, a chosen channel for transmission, an engaged receiver who decodes the message, and feedback for effective communication. Minimizing noise and considering the context is important.

Q5) What is a two-way communication process?

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Chapter 1: The Speech Communication Process

The Speech Communication Process

• Listener(s)

Interference

As you might imagine, the speaker is the crucial first element within the speech communication process. Without a speaker, there is no process.  The  speaker  is simply the person who is delivering, or presenting, the speech.  A speaker might be someone who is training employees in your workplace. Your professor is another example of a public speaker as s/he gives a lecture. Even a stand-up comedian can be considered a public speaker. After all, each of these people is presenting an oral message to an audience in a public setting. Most speakers, however, would agree that the listener is one of the primary reasons that they speak.

The listener is just as important as the speaker; neither one is effective without the other.  The  listener  is the person or persons who have assembled to hear the oral message.  Some texts might even call several listeners an “audience. ” The listener generally forms an opinion as to the effectiveness of the speaker and the validity of the speaker’s message based on what they see and hear during the presentation. The listener’s job sometimes includes critiquing, or evaluating, the speaker’s style and message. You might be asked to critique your classmates as they speak or to complete an evaluation of a public speaker in another setting. That makes the job of the listener extremely important. Providing constructive feedback to speakers often helps the speaker improve her/his speech tremendously.

Another crucial element in the speech process is the message.  The  message  is what the speaker is discussing or the ideas that s/he is presenting to you as s/he covers a particular topic.  The important chapter concepts presented by your professor become the message during a lecture. The commands and steps you need to use, the new software at work, are the message of the trainer as s/he presents the information to your department. The message might be lengthy, such as the President’s State of the Union address, or fairly brief, as in a five-minute presentation given in class.

The  channel  is the means by which the message is sent or transmitted.  Different channels are used to deliver the message, depending on the communication type or context. For instance, in mass communication, the channel utilized might be a television or radio broadcast. The use of a cell phone is an example of a channel that you might use to send a friend a message in interpersonal communication. However, the channel typically used within public speaking is the speaker’s voice, or more specifically, the sound waves used to carry the voice to those listening. You could watch a prerecorded speech or one accessible on YouTube, and you might now say the channel is the television or your computer. This is partially true. However, the speech would still have no value if the speaker’s voice was not present, so in reality, the channel is now a combination of the two -the speaker’s voice broadcast through an electronic source.

The context is a bit more complicated than the other elements we have discussed so far. The context is more than one specific component. For example, when you give a speech in your classroom, the classroom, or  the physical location of your speech, is part of the context  . That’s probably the easiest part of context to grasp.

But you should also consider that the  people in your audience expect you to behave in a certain manner, depending on the physical location or the occasion of the presentation  . If you gave a toast at a wedding, the audience wouldn’t be surprised if you told a funny story about the couple or used informal gestures such as a high-five or a slap on the groom’s back. That would be acceptable within the expectations of your audience, given the occasion. However, what if the reason for your speech was the presentation of a eulogy at a loved one’s funeral? Would the audience still find a high-five or humor as acceptable in that setting? Probably not. So the expectations of your audience must be factored into context as well.

The cultural rules -often unwritten and sometimes never formally communicated to us -are also a part of the context. Depending on your culture, you would probably agree that there are some “rules ” typically adhered to by those attending a funeral. In some cultures, mourners wear dark colors and are somber and quiet. In other cultures, grieving out loud or beating one’s chest to show extreme grief is traditional. Therefore,  the rules from our culture  -no matter what they are -play a part in the context as well.

Every speaker hopes that her/his speech is clearly understood by the audience. However, there are times when some obstacle gets in the way of the message and interferes with the listener’s ability to hear what’s being said.  This is  interference  , or you might have heard it referred to as “noise. ”  Every speaker must prepare and present with the assumption that interference is likely to be present in the speaking environment.

Interference can be mental, physical, or physiological.  Mental interference  occurs when the listener is not fully focused on what s/he is hearing due to her/his own thoughts.  If you’ve ever caught yourself daydreaming in class during a lecture, you’re experiencing mental interference. Your own thoughts are getting in the way of the message.

A second form of interference is  physical interference  . This is noise in the literal sense -someone coughing behind you during a speech or the sound of a mower outside the classroom window. You may be unable to hear the speaker because of the surrounding environmental noises.

The last form of interference is  physiological  . This type of interference occurs when your body is responsible for the blocked signals. A deaf person, for example, has the truest form of physiological interference; s/he may have varying degrees of difficulty hearing the message. If you’ve ever been in a room that was too cold or too hot and found yourself not paying attention, you’re experiencing physiological interference. Your bodily discomfort distracts from what is happening around you.

The final component within the speech process is feedback. While some might assume that the speaker is the only one who sends a message during a speech, the reality is that the  listeners in the audience are sending a message of their own, called  feedback  .  Often this is how the speaker knows if s/he is sending an effective message. Occasionally the feedback from listeners comes in verbal form – questions from the audience or an angry response from a listener about a key point presented. However, in general, feedback during a presentation is typically non-verbal -a student nodding her/his head in agreement or a confused look from an audience member. An observant speaker will scan the audience for these forms of feedback, but keep in mind that non-verbal feedback is often more difficult to spot and to decipher. For example, is a yawn a sign of boredom, or is it simply a tired audience member?

Generally, all of the above elements are present during a speech. However, you might wonder what the process would look like if we used a diagram to illustrate it. Initially, some students think of public speaking as a linear process -the speaker sending a message to the listener -a simple, straight line. But if you’ll think about the components we’ve just covered, you begin to see that a straight line cannot adequately represent the process, when we add listener feedback into the process. The listener is sending her/his own message back to the speaker, so perhaps the process might better be represented as circular. Add in some interference and place the example in context, and you have a more complete idea of the speech process.

Fundamentals of Public Speaking Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Prepare a Presentation on Communication?

Complication of Data and Information for helping you to prepare a  presentation on Communication! After reading this article we will learn about:- 1. Communicating among People 2. Importance and Meaning of Communication 3. Process 4. Model 5. Behavioural Processes 6. Networks in Organisations 7. Communication in Groups 8. Managing the Communication Process 9. Organisational Actions and Other Details .

• Media and Communication

1. Communicating among People:

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Communicating among people is not an easy task as it may appear to a layman. Thus, for managers to be able to communicate effectively, they must understand certain fundamental aspects of the communication process, i.e., how interpersonal factors such as perception, communication channels, nonverbal behaviour, and listening — all work to enhance or detract from communication.

1. Perception and Communication,

2. Communication Channels,

3. Nonverbal Communication, and

4. Listening.

1. Perception and Communication:

Perception refers to the process one uses to make sense out of the environment. However, perception in itself often fails to give us an accurate picture of the environment. Perpetual selectivity refers to the process by which various objects and stimuli that vie for our attention are screened and selected by individuals. Certain stimuli fail to catch our attention but others do.

Once individuals recognize a stimulus, they organize or categorise it according to their frame of reference, that is, perceptual organisation. We just need a partial one to enable perceptual organisation to take place. For example, anybody can spot an old friend from a long distance and, without seeing the face or other features, recognize the person from the body movement.

The most common form of perceptual organisation is stereo-typing. A stereotype is “a widely held generalisation about a group of people that assigns attributes to them solely on the basis of one or a few categories, such as age, race, or, occupation.” For instance, young men usually assume that old people have a conservative outlook. Students may stereotype professors of philosophy as absent-minded.

What is of importance to managers is that they should be aware of the fact that words can mean different things to different people and should not assume that they already know what the other person or the communication is about.

2. Communication Channels:

Managers have a choice of many channels through which to communicate to others (both managers or employees). A manager may discuss a problem face to face, use the telephone, write a memo or letter, or put an item in a newsletter, depending on the nature of the management. In truth, channels differ in their capacity to convey information.

To be more specific, the physical characteristics of a channel limit the type and quantum of information that can be conveyed among managers. The channels available to managers can be classified into a hierarchy based on information richness. Channel richness refers to the quantum of information that can be transmitted during a communi­cation episode. Figure 14.1 illustrates the hierarchy of channel richness.

The capacity of an information channel is influenced by three characteristics:

(1) The ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously;

(2) The ability to facilitate rapid feedback; and

(3) The ability to establish a personal focus for the communication.

On the contrary, interpersonal written media, including fliers, bulletins and computer reports, are the lowest in richness.

Channel selection also depends on whether the message is routine or non-routine. There is no misinterpretation in case of routine messages because they convey data or statistics or simply put into words what managers already agree on and understand. This explains why routine messages can be efficiently communicated through a channel lower in richness.

In a word, routing messages are simple and straightforward. On the contrary, non-routine messages typically are ambiguous, concern novel events, and have great potential for misunderstanding. These are often characterised by time pressure and surprise. It is possible for managers to communicate non-routine messages effectively only by selecting rich channels.

3. Nonverbal Communication:

Such communication refers to messages sent through human actions and behaviours (such as body movements, facial expressions, posture, or dress) rather than through words. It represents a major portion of the messages we send or receive.

Nonverbal communication occurs mostly face to face. So far three sources of communication cues during face-to-face communication have been discovered: the verbal, which are the actual spoken words, the vocal which include the pitch, tone, and timbre of a person’s voice; and facial expressions.

R. L. Dafts has rightly suggested that “managers should pay close attention to non-verbal behaviour when communicating. They must learn to coordinate their verbal and non-verbal messages and at the same time be sensitive to what their peers, subordinates and supervisors are saying nonverbally.”

4. Listening:

The last important characteristic associated with successful interpersonal communication is listen­ing. A good listener must have certain qualities: he has to find areas of interest, be flexible, work hard at listening and use thought speed to mentally summarise, weigh, and anticipate what the speaker will say. Table 14.1 illustrates a number of ways to distinguish a bad from a good listener.

The listener is responsible for message reception, which is no doubt a vital link in the communication process. The listener must actively seek to grasp facts and feelings and interpret the genuine meaning of the message. Only at this stage can the receiver provide the feedback with which to complete the communication circuit. Listening requires at least 3 things: attention, energy and skill.

Most U.S. multinational firms take listening very seriously. Managers are made to know that they are expected to listen to employees.

2. Importance and Meaning of Communication :

Communication permeates every organisational (managerial) function. It is a problem that plagues many organisations and individual managers. When for instance, managers perform the planning function, they collect information, write letters, memos, and reports, and then meet with other managers to explain the nature of the plan.

When managers act as leaders, they communicate with subordinates with a view to motivating them to accomplish certain tasks. In performing the organising function, managers gather necessary information about the state of the organisation and communicate to others about a new organisational structure.

Thus there is hardly any need to emphasise that communication skills are a basic part of any managerial function (activity). Commu­nication is just a managerial tool designed to accomplish objectives and should not be treated as an end in itself.

In a particular day, the manager performs various tasks — attending meetings, making and receiving telephone calls and correspondence. Ail are a necessary part of a every manager’s job and all clearly involve communication.

The various roles of managers involve a great deal of communication. The three major types of managerial roles of interpersonal, decisions and informational. The interpersonal roles involve interacting with supervisors, subordinates, peers and others outside the organisation.

The decisional roles require that managers seek out information to use in making decisions and then communicate those decisions to others. The informational roles obviously involve communication; they focus specifically on acquiring and transmitting information.

Communication also relates directly to the basic management functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling.

As Griffin has summed up the whole thing in the following words:

“Environmental scanning, integrating, planning time horizons and decision-making, for example, all necessitate communication. Delegation, coordination and organisation change and development also contain communication. Developing reward systems and interacting with subordinates as a part of leading function would be impossible without some form of communication. And, commu­nication is essential to establishing standards, monitoring performance and taking corrective actions as a part of control”.

Communication is essentially the process of transmitting information from one person to another and can thus be defined as “the process by which information is exchanged and understood by two or more people, usually with the intent to motivate or influence behaviour.”

3. Process of Communication :

Effective communication is the process of sending message in such a way that the message received is close in meaning to the message, this definition of effective communication incorporates the ideas of meaning and consistency of meaning. Meaning is that which the individual who initiates the communication process wishes to convey.

In effective communication, the meaning is transmitted in such a manner that the receiving person understands it. However it is to be noted at the outset that communication is not just sending information. The distinction between sharing and proclaim­ing is crucial for managerial success.

A manager who does not listen to others is like a used car dealer who claims, “I sold the car-he just did not buy it.” True enough, management communication is a two-way street that includes listening and other forms of feedback.

Three conditions:

Three conditions are necessary for communication to take place. Firstly, there must be at least two people involved. The relationship between these two people can vary signifi­cantly, in terms of proximity, intensity and time. Two managers having a discussion in an office engage in communication. Of course, more than two people may be engaged in consumer. Secondly, there must be information to be communicated. And third, there is need to make so attempt to transmit this information.

In the words of D.K. Berlo, effective communication is as follows:

When two people interact, they put themselves into each other’s shoes, try to perceive the world as the other person perceives it, try to predict how the other will respond. Interaction involves reciprocal role-taking, the mutual employment of empathetic skills. The goal of interaction is ‘the merge of self and other, a complete ability to anticipate, predict and behave in accordance with the joint needs of self and other.

It is the sheer desire to share understanding that motivates executives to visit employees on the shop floor and share food with them. The things managers succeed in learning from direct communication with employees shape their understanding of the corporation.

In a broad sense, communication is the process of transferring meaning in the form of ideas or information from one person to another. It is to be noted that a true interchange of meaning between people includes not only the words used in their conversations. It includes a number of other aspects of human behaviour, viz., shades of meaning and emphasis, facial expressions, vocal inflections, and all the unintended and involuntary gestures that suggest real meaning.

For an effective interchange mere transmission of data is not enough. What is required is that the person sending the message and receiving it rely on certain skills (speaking, writing, listening, reading and the like) to make the exchange of meaning successful.

Communication is the chain of understanding that links the members of different units or divisions of an organisation at various levels and in diverse areas.

It has three major elements:

(1) An act of making oneself understood,

(2) A means of pairing information between people, and

(3) A system for communicating between individuals.

This is the traditional view of communication which may occur between two or among more individuals. This view is being modified by the technological revolution to include communication between people, between people and machines, and even one machine and another (or one machine and other machines).

4. A Model of the Communication Process :

Most organisational people think that communication is a simple task because they communicate without conscious thought or effort. However, a deeper analysis reveals that effective communica­tion is really a complex ex­ercise and in any organisa­tion there are innumerable opportunities for sending or receiving the wrong mes­sages.

Often managers say, “But that’s not what I meant.” There are also occa­sions when a manager gives people directions in a clear fashion (at least in his own opinion) and they still get lost. Often a subordinate wastes time on misunder­stood instructions.

These are some of the situations in which individuals fail to communicate effectively with one another. In order to understand the reasons for such failure, we may now examine a model of inter-personal communication developed by C. Shannon and W. Weaver in 1949. The model is described in Fig. 14.2 below.

One-way communication (or communication from one person to another) involves five steps: meaning, encoding, transmission, decoding, and meaning. In the case of two-way communication (involving interaction between people), the three steps of encoding, transmission, and decoding are repeated as the second person responds to the first.

The process begins when one person (a sender) initiates a communication exchange. This person has decided that a fact, idea, opinion, or similar concept needs to be transmitted to someone else. This fact, idea, or opinion has meaning to the sender, whether it be simple and concrete or complex and abstract. Thus meaning is the first step in the communication process.

The next step is to encode the meaning into a form appropriate to the situation. This encoding might take the form of words, facial expressions, gestures, or even artistic expressions and physical action.

Obviously, the selection of an appropriate form for encoding the meaning is one point in the process where problems can arise.

After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel. The channel by which this present encoded message is being transmitted to you is the printed page. Other common channels include face-to-face discussion, the air waves (usually one-way communi­cation) and telephone lines. Transmission is step 3 of the communication process.

Next, the message is received and decoded by one or more other people via such senses as eyesight and hearing. And, after the message is received, it must be translated into meaning relevant to the receiver.

In many cases, this meaning prompts a response, and the cycle is continued when the new message is sent by the same steps back to the original sender (steps 6,7, and 8). As suggested in Figure 14.2, “noise” may disrupt the process after it is transmitted but before it is received. Noise can literally be noise, such as someone coughing, a truck driving by, or two other people talking close at hand.

It can also include such disruptions as a letter being lost in the mail, a telephone line going dead, or one of the participants in a conversation being called away before the communication process is completed.

5. Behavioural Processes that Effect Communication :

Since communication involves more than one person, we would expect emotional and psychological differences between people to affect the communication process. And, the behavioural processes that probably have the most impact on communication are perception and attitudes.

Perception and Communication :

Perception can be defined as “the processes an individual uses to receive information from the environment”. This means that perception exploits the five senses of hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting and smelling. In terms of communication, perception plays a major role in receiving the message transmitted from the sender (step 3 in Fig. 14.2) and decoding it (step 4 in Fig. 14.2).

For managers the barrage of information takes the form of sales forecasts, phone calls and conversations. As Fig. 14.3 shows, perception acts as a filter for organisational people. It screens out information that is trivial and irrelevant. Perception helps us select and organise information from the external environment of business.

Selection (also known as selective perception) is the process of screening out informa­tion organisation people are uncomfortable with (cost saving by a rival firm) or just do not want to bother about (development of a new sales promotion strategy by a competing firm).

Organising:

As we select and filter information from the external environment, it is to be organised. Organising refers to the process of categorising, grouping and filling in information in a systematic fashion. Information is organised either by stereotyping or by grouping it into categories. After organising information, it is also necessary to fill in gaps to make it more meaningful.

Attitudes and Communication:

A second important behavioural process that can affect communication is the attitudes of the people involved. As attitude is a person’s predisposition to respond in a favourable or unfavourable way to an object (in this sense, an object can be a person or an idea or even a physical object). All people develop their own attitudes toward jobs, other people and everything else they come into contact with.

People’s attitudes have three basic components, viz., emotional, knowledge and behavioural. The emotional component is the individual’s feelings about the object, i.e., it reflects whether a person likes or dislikes the object and how central this like or dislike is to his (her) personal value system.

The knowledge component of an attitude is the beliefs and information the person has about the object. The third output of an attitude is behavioural interrelation. Because of how we feel about the object and what we think we know about it, we develop intentions of how we expect to behave. However, people’s behavioural intentions change with changes in circumstances.

Attitudes are closely related to both the decoding (step 4) and the meaning (step 5) stages of the communication world presented in Fig. 14.2. They also influence the receiver’s responses. Attitudes interact with perception within the communication process. In short, attitudes help determine what information people selectively perceive and how they organise it.

Interpersonal Communication :

Interpersonal communication normally refers to communication between a small number of people. Such communication is of three types – oral, written and nonverbal.

(i) Oral Communication:

Oral communication involves face-to-face conversation, group discussions, telephone calls and other situations in which the sender uses the spoken word to communicate. The main advantages of this form of communication is that it allows prompt feedback in the form of verbal questions or agreement, facial expressions and gestures. Oral communication is easy and can be done with little preparation and without any equipment.

However, oral communication may suffer from problems of inaccuracy as the speaker chooses the wrong words to convey his (her) meaning or leaves out pertinent details, as noise disrupts the process, or as the receiver forgets part of or all of the message. In a two-way discussion, there is hardly any time for a thoughtful, considered response or for introducing many new facts. And, there is no permanent record of what has been said.

(ii) Written Communication:

Written communication may solve most of the problems inherent in oral communication. However, this type of communication does not occur presently. Moreover, it is not respected by managers.

The most serious drawback of written communication is that it slows feedback and often leads to misunderstanding. This problem can easily be solved by a phone call.

On the positive side, written communication is often quite accurate and it provides a permanent record of the communication which, in future, can serve as an ‘evidence’ of exactly what took place.

(iii) Non-Verbal Communication :

It refers to any communication exchange that does not use words and that uses verbalization to carry more meaning than the strict definition of the words themselves. Facial expressions, body move­ments, physical contact, sneers and gestures may all be used.

Study has indicated that three important kinds of nonverbal communication are practiced by managers: images, settings and body language. Images in this context refer to the kinds of words people elect to use.

The setting for communication refers to such things as boundaries, familiarity, the home turf and other such elements. Organisational theorists have written much about the symbols of power in organisations. The size and location of one’s office, the kinds of furniture in the office, and the accessibility of the person in the office all communicate useful information.

Body language is the third form of nonverbal communication. The distance we stand from someone as we speak, for example, has meaning. Positioning oneself closer than customary may signal familiarity or aggression. Another effective means of nonverbal communication is eye contact. Depending on the situation, prolonged eye contact might suggest either hostility or romantic interest. Other kinds of body language include body and arm movement, pauses in speech and mode of dress.

Organisational Communication :

Unlike interpersonal communication discussed so far, organisational communication involves broad pattern of communication, involving a large number of people. To start with, we may discuss various organisational communication networks.

Communication Network (channels) :

Communication networks refer to certain structured arrangements of a small number of individuals who are allowed to transmit information and communicate with one another only in a set and well-defined pattern. Simply put, a communication network is a pattern through which the members of the group communicate. Four types of networks have been discussed in groups numbering three, four, five members. See Fig.14.4

1. The wheel network:

In this network one member is at the center and four (or more) members are at each end of a spoke. In the wheel, all communication flows through one central person who is probably the group formal or informal leader. Obviously this network is highly centralised because one person receives and transmits all information.

2. The Y network:

The Y is slightly less centralised: two persons are closer to the centre.

3. The chain network:

In this case two members serve as endpoints; each can communicate directly with one person in the middle. The middle members act as relay points to the individual at the centre. The chain begins to offer a more even flow of information among members.

The path is closed by the shaded circle. In such a situation, the central person communicates directly only with the two middle members. They can have any communi­cation with the end individuals. So, the chain network is also centralised. But, it is not as centralised as the wheel network.

4. The circle network:

It is to some extent decentralised in the sense that each individual in it can communicate with the other two next to him.

5. The completely connected (all-channel) network:

It allows a free flow of information among all group members. This type of network is highly decentralised in nature. In this situation, every individual in the group can participate equally and communicate directly with every other individual in the group and the group’s leader, if there is one, is not likely to have excessive power.

Consequences:

(a) Centralised Networks:

It may be noted that the two highly centralised networks — such as the wheel and the chain — are effective in solving routine and clear problems that mainly involve information gathering. This is logical in the sense that the individual at the centre of the wheel and chain networks is processing and weeding out the information the group generates, thus totally ignoring irrelevant communications.

Furthermore, in these types of communication networks, the leadership position of the central individual is strong. It is because he stands the strongest chance of influencing the other members of the group. The final point about centralised networks is that these groups structure their communication patterns very rapidly, since everyone learns quickly that he must process informa­tion through the individual in the central position.

(b) Decentralised networks:

Two decentralised networks such as the all-channel and the circle are more appropriate when the group is faced with a non-routine or ambiguous problem. Since, under these two systems, individu­als can communicate directly with each other they feel free to express opinions and to generate various solutions; mostly of a creative and innovative nature.

The members of the groups enjoy a greater degree of satisfaction than in centralised networks because they are allowed to communicate with one another and to express their own points of view.

6. Networks in Organisations:

The practising manager can supply these findings to the behaviour of small specialised work groups within an organisation. In case of structured work which is to be performed by the members of the group in a set and routine fashion, the manager is possibly dealing with a centralised network.

On the contrary, if the manager directs the activities of a group whose work is non-routine, he seems to be a part of a decentralized network. Virtually all the properties of formal network models are found to exist in actual work groups most of the time. Unskilled employees, for instance, who perform repetitive jobs on the assembly line, work in centralised networks in the sense that the pace of the assembly line allows only limited communication among individuals.

Formal Communication Flows:

To understand organisational communication we have to examine the basic directions in which it moves. Formal communication channels are largely dictated by the structure of the organisation. Alternatively, they are prescribed by some other formal means. As Fig, 14.5 shows three basic com­munication channels are: vertical (upward and downward), hori­zontal (central) and di­agonal.

As each level in the communication chain can add to, take from, modify, or completely change the intent of a given message, there will be loss of information in the chain of command.

One proximate reason for this seems to be that messages are usually broader and more general at higher levels of management. As Chester Barnard has noted: “It follows that something may be lost or added by transmission at each stage of the process……. Moreover, when communications go from high positions down they often must be made more specific as they proceed.”

2. Managerial Unanimity:

Authority is a necessary feature of any representative organisation. It is not possible to accomplish much without certain persons having the right to make decisions. Yet the basic fact that one person supervises others creates a barrier to free and open communication.

3. Specialisation:

Specialisation is no doubt a part of organisational life. But it is not an unmixed blessing. It often tends to separate people even when they work side by side. The performance of difference functions, the pursuance of special interests of subgroups, use of different technical terms frequently prevent any commonality of feeling, make understanding very difficult, create strains between individuals and departments, act as barriers to communication and lead to errors.

In the words of Dafts: “Differences across departments in terms of needs and goals interfere with communications. Each department perceives problems in its own terms.” The production depart­ment, for instance, is concerned with production schedules and may not fully appreciate the need for and urgency of the department to supply the product in the market as quickly as possible.

Likewise, the specialised jargon (or technical vocabulary) of the engineering department may make it difficult for engineers to communicate with less educated foremen on the shop floor.

4. Lack of Channels:

Additionally, lack of adequate formal channels reduces communication effectiveness. It is of considerable importance for organisations to provide adequate upward, downward, and horizontal communication in the form of employee surveys, open door policies, newsletters, memos, task forces, and liaison personnel. In the absence of such formal channels, it is not possible for the organisation as a whole to communicate.

5. Mismatch between Communication Flow and Organisation’s Tasks:

Finally, it may be noted that the communication flow may not fit the group’s or organisation’s task. As Dafts has noted: “If a centralized communication structure is used for a non-routine task, there will not be enough information circulated to solve problems. When a decentralised, wide open communication style is used for solving simple tasks, excess communication takes place. The organisation, department or group is most efficient when the amount of communication flowing among employees fits the nature of the task.”

6. Perpetual Differences:

If people perceive a situation differently, they may also have difficulty in communicating with one another. Two people often fail to communicate effectively if one has a positive impression and the other a negative one about the same problem or the same solution to a particular problem.

Individual Barriers :

Even in the absence of the above organisational barriers managers could find that their messages would became distorted. On most occasions miscommunications are caused not by organisational factors, but by problems of human and language imperfections.

Individual barriers are of the following four categories:

1. Interpersonal Barriers:

Such barriers include problems with emotions and perceptions held by group participation. Com­munication will be a hazardous task if, for instance, people are more concerned with their own feelings and emotions than with the people with whom they are communicating. Dafts has noted that “Rigid perpetual labeling or categorizing of others prevents modification or alteration of opinions. If a person’s mind is made up before the start of the communication process, communi­cation will fail. Moreover, people with diverse backgrounds or knowledge may interpret commu­nication in different ways.”

A deeper analysis reveals that there are five specific inter-personnel barriers to communication. These are discussed below (and illustrated in Fig. 14.9).

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Chapter Two – The Communication Process

Models of communication.

It should be clear by now that public speaking happens all around us in many segments of our lives. However, to truly understand what is happening within these presentations, we need to take a step back and look at some of the key components of the communication process.

Linear Model of Communication

The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver for Bell Laboratories. [1] This three-part model was intended to capture the radio and television transmission process. However, it was later adapted to human communication and is now known as the linear model of communication. The first part of the model is the sender, and this is the person who is speaking. The second part of the model is the channel, which is the apparatus for carrying the message (i.e., the phone or TV). The third part of the model is the receiver, and this is the person who picks up the message. In this model, communication is seen as a one-way process of transmitting a message from one person to another person. This model can be found in Figure 1.1. If you think about situations when you communicate with another person face-to-face or when you give a speech, you probably realize that this model is inadequate — communication is much more complicated than firing off a message to others.

“Figure 1.1”  by Public Speaking Project.  CC-BY-NC-ND .

Transactional Model of Communication

Models of communication have evolved significantly since Shannon and Weaver first proposed their well- known conceptual model over sixty years ago. One of the most useful models for understanding public speaking is Barnlund’s transactional model of communication. [2]  In the transactional model, communication is seen as an ongoing, circular process. We are constantly affecting and are affected by those we communicate with. The transactional model has a number of interdependent processes and components, including the encoding and decoding processes, the communicator, the message, the channel and noise. Although not directly addressed in Barnlund’s (2008) original transactional model, participants’ worldviews and the context also play an important role in the communication process. See Figure 1.2 for an illustration.

“Figure 1.2”  by Public Speaking Project.  CC-BY-NC-ND .

He who would learn to fly  one day must first learn to  stand and walk and run and  climb and dance; one cannot  fly into flying. ~ Friedrich Nietzsche

Elements of the Communication Process

Encoding and decoding.

Encoding  refers to the process of taking an idea or mental image, associating that image with words, and then speaking those words in order to convey a message. So, if you wanted to explain to your aunt the directions to your new apartment, you would picture in your mind the landscape, streets and buildings, and then you would select the best words that describe the route so your aunt could find you.

Decoding  is the reverse process of  listening to words, thinking about them, and turning those words into mental images. If your aunt were trying to find her way to your apartment, she would listen to your words, associate these words with streets and landmarks that she knows, and then she would form a mental map of the way to get to you.

Communicator

The term  communicator refers to all of the people in the interaction or speech setting. It is used instead of sender and receiver, because when we are communicating with other people, we are not only sending a message, but we are also receiving messages from others simultaneously. When we speak, we observe others’ nonverbal behavior  to see if they understand us and we gauge their emotional state. The information we gain from these observations is known as feedback . Over the telephone, we listen to paralinguistic cues, such as pitch, tone, volume and fillers (i.e., “um,” “uh,” “er,” “like,” and so on). This means that communication is not a one-way process. Even in a public speaking situation, we watch and listen to audience members’ responses. If audience members are interested, agree, and understand us, they may lean forward in their seats, nod their heads, have positive or neutral facial expressions, and provide favorable vocal cues (such as laughter, “That’s right,” “Uh huh,” or “Amen!”). If audience members are bored, disagree, or are confused by our message, they may be texting or looking away from us, shake their heads, have unhappy or confused expressions on their faces, or present oppositional vocal cues (like groans, “I don’t think so,” “That doesn’t make sense,” or “You’re crazy!”). Thus, communication is always a transactional process—a give and take of messages.

The  message involves those verbal and nonverbal behaviors, enacted by communicators, that are interpreted with meaning by others. The verbal portion of the message refers to the words that we speak, while the nonverbal portion includes our characteristics of our voice and other non-vocal components such as personal appearance, posture, gestures and body movements, eye behavior, the way we use space, and even the way that we smell. For instance, the person who gets up to speak wearing a nice suit will be interpreted more positively than a person giving the exact same speech wearing sweats and a graphic t-shirt. Or if a speaker tries to convince others to donate to a charity that builds wells in poor African villages using a monotone voice, she will not be as effective as the speaker who gives the same speech but speaks with a solemn tone of voice. If there is ever a conflict between the verbal and the non-verbal aspects of a message, people will generally believe the nonverbal portion of the message. To test this, tighten your muscles, clench your fists at your sides, pull your eyebrows together, purse your lips, and tell someone in a harsh voice, “NO, I’m NOT angry!” See if they believe your words or your nonverbal behavior.

The message can also be intentional or unintentional. When the message is intentional, this means that we have an image in our mind that we wish to communicate to an audience or a person in a conversation, and we can successfully convey the image from our mind to others’ minds with relative accuracy. An unintentional message is sent when the message that we wish to convey is not the same as the message the other person receives. Let’s say you are returning from an outing with your significant other and they ask, “Did you have a good time?” You  did have a good time but are distracted by a TV commercial when asked, so you reply in a neutral tone, “Sure, I had fun.” Your significant other may interpret your apathetic tone of voice and lack of eye contact to mean that you did not enjoy the evening, when in fact you actually did. Thus, as communicators, we cannot always be sure that the message we wish to communicate is interpreted as we intended.

The  channel  is very simply the means through which the message travels. In face-to-face communication the channel involves all of our senses, so the channel is what we see, hear, touch, smell and perhaps what we taste. When we’re communicating with someone online, the channel is the computer; when texting the channel is the cell phone; and when watching a movie on cable, the channel is the TV. The channel can have a profound impact on the way a message is interpreted. Listening to a recording of a speaker does not have the same psychological impact as listening to the same speech in person or watching that person on television. One famous example of this is the 1960 televised presidential debate between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon. According to History.com (2012), on camera, Nixon looked away from the camera at the reporters asking him questions, he was sweating and pale, he had facial hair stubble, and he wore a grey suit that faded into the set background. “Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley reportedly said [of Nixon], ‘My God, they’ve embalmed him before he even died.” [3]  Kennedy, on the other hand, looked into the camera, was tanned, wore a dark suit that made him stand out from the background, and appeared to be calm after spending the entire weekend with aides practicing in a hotel room. Most of those who listened to the radio broadcast of the debate felt that it was a tie or that Nixon had won, while 70% of those watching the televised debate felt that Kennedy was the winner.

“Kennedy Nixon Debate”  by United Press International. Public domain.

The next aspect of the model of communication is noise.  Noise  refers to anything that interferes with message transmission or reception (i.e., getting the image from your head into others’ heads). There are several different types of noise. The first type of noise is  physiological noise , and this refers to bodily processes and states that interfere with a message. For instance, if a speaker has a headache or the flu, or if audience members are hot or they’re hungry, these conditions may interfere with message accuracy. The second type of noise is psychological noise.  Psychological noise  refers to mental states or emotional states that impede message transmission or reception. For example, if someone has just broken up with a significant other, or if they’re worried about their grandmother who is in the hospital, or if they are thinking about their shopping list, this may interfere with communication processes as well. The third type of noise is actual  physical noise,  and this would be simply the actual sound level in a room. Loud music playing at a party, a number of voices of people talking excitedly, a lawnmower right outside the window, or anything that is overly loud will interfere with communication. The last type of noise is cultural noise.  Cultural noise refers to message interference that results from differences in peoples’ worldviews. Worldview is discussed in more detail below but suffice it to say that the greater the difference in worldview, the more difficult it is to understand one another and communicate effectively.

“The 2nd most famous face in Pushkar”  by Shreyans Bhansali.  CC-BY-NC-SA .

Most people don’t give a lot of thought to the communication process. In the majority of our interactions with others, we are operating on automatic pilot. Although the encoding and decoding process may appear to be fairly straightforward, it is actually much more complicated than it seems. The reason for this is because we all have different worldviews.  Worldview  is the overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, and interprets the world and interacts with it. There are five core components to our worldview.

1. Epistemology  is the way that we acquire knowledge and/or what counts as knowledge. Think about the process of conducting research. Thirty years ago, to find a series of facts one had to use a card catalogue and scour the library stacks for books. Now researchers can access thousands of pages of information via their computer from the comfort of their own home. Epistemology is linked to public speaking because it governs audience members’ preferred learning styles and who or what they consider to be credible sources.

2. Ontology  refers to our belief system, how we see the nature of reality or what we see as true or false. We may (or may not) believe in aliens from outer space, that butter is bad for you, that the Steelers will win the Superbowl, or that humans will be extinct in 200 years. Speech writers should be careful not to presume that audience members share the same beliefs. If a speaker claims that illness can be aided with prayer, but several people in the audience are atheists, at best the speaker has lost credibility and at worst these audience members could be offended.

3. Axiology  represents our value system, or what we see as right or wrong, good or bad, and fair or unfair. One of the ways that you can tell what people value is to ask them what their goals are, or to ask them what qualities they look for in a life partner. Our values represent the things that we hope for—they do not represent reality. Values can have an impact on multiple levels of the public speaking process, but in particular values impact speaker credibility and effectiveness in persuasion. For instance, some cultures value modest dress in women, so a female speaker wearing a sleeveless blouse while speaking could cause her to lose credibility with some audience members. Or if audience members value the freedom to bear arms over the benefits of government regulation, a speaker will have a difficult time convincing these audience members to vote for stricter gun control legislation.

4. Cosmology  signifies the way that we see our relationship to the universe and to other people. Cosmology dictates our view of power relationships and may involve our religious or spiritual beliefs. Controversial speech topics (like universal health care and the death penalty) are often related to this aspect of worldview as we must consider our responsibilities to other human beings and our power to influence them. Interestingly, cosmology would also play a role in such logistical points as who is allowed to speak, the order of speakers on a schedule (e.g., from most to least important), the amount of time a speaker has to speak, the seating arrangement on the dais, and who gets the front seats in the audience.

“NFL Superfans”  by HMJD02.  CC-BY-SA .

5. Praxeology  denotes our preferred method of completing everyday tasks or our approach to solving problems. Some speech writers may begin working on their outlines as soon as they know they will need to give a speech, while others may wait until a few days before their speech to begin preparing (we do not recommend this approach). Praxeology may also have an impact on a speaker’s preference of delivery style, methods of arranging main points, and choice of slideware (i.e., Power Point versus Prezi).

It is always good to explore the stuff you don’t agree with, to try and understand a different lifestyle or foreign worldview. I like to be challenged in that way, and always end up learning something I didn’t know. – Laura Linney

It is important to understand worldview because it has a profound impact on the encoding and decoding process, and consequently on our ability to be understood by others. Try this simple experiment. Ask two or three people to silently imagine a dog while you imagine a dog at the same time. “Dog” is a very  concrete word  (a word that describes a tangible object that can be perceived through the senses), and it is one of the first words children in the United States learn in school. Wait a few seconds and then ask each person what type of dog they were thinking of. Was it a Chihuahua? A greyhound? Golden retriever? Rottweiler? Or some other dog? Most likely each person you asked had a different image in his or her mind than you had in yours. This is our worldview at work.

“Lasagna”  by David K.  CC-BY-SA .

To further illustrate, you may tell a co-worker, “I can’t wait to go home this weekend—we are having lasagna!” Seems like a fairly clear-cut statement, doesn’t it? Unfortunately, it is not. While “lasagna” is also a concrete word, our worldviews cause us to interpret each word in the statement differently. Where is “home?” Who is making the meal? What ingredients will be used in the lasagna? Is this dish eaten as a regular meal or for a special occasion? Will there be leftovers? Are friends invited? Since everyone who has eaten lasagna has had a different experience of the cuisine, we all acquire a different image in our mind when we hear the statement “…we are having lasagna!”

Complicating matters is the fact that the more abstract the word becomes, the more room there is for interpretation.  Abstract words  (words that refer to ideas or concepts that are removed from material reality) like “peace,” “love,” “immoral,” “justice,” “freedom,” “success,” and “honor” can have a number of different meanings; each of which is predicated on one’s worldview. Communicators have their own unique worldviews that shape both the encoding and decoding processes, which means that we can never be completely understood by another person. People from the Midwest may call carbonated beverages “pop,” while those from the East Coast may say “soda,” and those from Georgia may say “coke.” Even when simple terms are used like “oak tree” or “fire hydrant,” each listener will form a different mental image when decoding the message. Never take communication for granted, and never assume your listener will understand you. It takes hard work to make yourself understood by an audience.

Context is worth 80 IQ points .- Alan Kay

“Talking technique”  by The U.S. Army.  CC-BY .

The last element of the communication process is the  context  in which the speech or interaction takes place. In the 1980’s context was taught as the actual physical setting where communication occurred, such as in a place of worship, an apartment, a workplace, a noisy restaurant, or a grocery store. People communicate differently in each one of these places as there are unwritten rules of communication (called  norms ) that govern these settings. More recently the concept of context has evolved and expanded to include the type of relationships we have with others and the communicative rules that govern those relationships. So, you do not speak the same way to your best friend as you do to a small child, your parent, your boss, your doctor or a police officer. And you may speak to your best friend differently in your apartment than you do in your parents’ home, and your communication may also change when you are both out with friends on the weekend. In sum, the context refers to the norms that govern communication in different situations and relationships.

• Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949).  The mathematical theory of communication . Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ↵
• Barnlund, D. C. (2008).  A transactional model of communication . In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory (2nd Ed), pp. 47 – 57. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction.  ↵
• History.com. (2012). The Kennedy-Nixon Debates. History.com. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/kennedy-nixon-debates   ↵

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• Chapter 1 Elements of the Communication Process.  Authored by : Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft.  Provided by : Millersville University, Millersville, PA.  Located at :  http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html .  Project : The Public Speaking Project.  License :  CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• the 2nd most famous face in Pushkar.  Authored by : Shreyans Bhansali.  Located at :  https://flic.kr/p/7mWPS6 .  License :  CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
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1.2 The Communication Process

Learning objectives.

• Identify and define the components of the transmission model of communication.
• Identify and define the components of the interaction model of communication.
• Identify and define the components of the transaction model of communication.
• Compare and contrast the three models of communication.
• Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter.

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a communication encounter starts and ends. Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication. The three models of communication we will discuss are the transmission, interaction, and transaction models.

Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements. The first two models we will discuss, the transmission model and the interaction model, include the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your friend.

Although models of communication provide a useful blueprint to see how the communication process works, they are not complex enough to capture what communication is like as it is experienced.

Chris Searle – Blueprint – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, he decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts in order to make meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel , or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get his attention by waving your hands before you can ask him about dinner.

Transmission Model of Communication

The transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences within the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive his or her message or not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the message was successfully received.

Figure 1.1 The Transmission Model of Communication

Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the sender to help ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective communication. Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere with a message being accurately received and decoded. The transmission model of communication accounts for environmental and semantic noise. Environmental noise is any physical noise present in a communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded diner could interfere with your ability to transmit a message and have it successfully decoded. While environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the message, semantic noise refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when participants do not understand a symbol. To use a technical example, FM antennae can’t decode AM radio signals and vice versa. Likewise, most French speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa. Semantic noise can also interfere in communication between people speaking the same language because many words have multiple or unfamiliar meanings.

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication that we will discuss more later. This model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic face-to-face interactions, but there are instances in which communication is one-way and linear, especially computer-mediated communication (CMC). As the following “Getting Plugged In” box explains, CMC is integrated into many aspects of our lives now and has opened up new ways of communicating and brought some new challenges. Think of text messaging for example. The transmission model of communication is well suited for describing the act of text messaging since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was effectively conveyed or that the message was received at all. Noise can also interfere with the transmission of a text. If you use an abbreviation the receiver doesn’t know or the phone autocorrects to something completely different than you meant, then semantic noise has interfered with the message transmission. I enjoy bargain hunting at thrift stores, so I just recently sent a text to a friend asking if she wanted to go thrifting over the weekend. After she replied with “What?!?” I reviewed my text and saw that my “smart” phone had autocorrected thrifting to thrusting ! You have likely experienced similar problems with text messaging, and a quick Google search for examples of text messages made funny or embarrassing by the autocorrect feature proves that many others do, too.

“Getting Plugged In”

Computer-Mediated Communication

When the first computers were created around World War II and the first e-mails exchanged in the early 1960s, we took the first steps toward a future filled with computer-mediated communication (CMC) (Thurlow, Lengel, & Tomic, 2004). Those early steps turned into huge strides in the late 1980s and early 1990s when personal computers started becoming regular features in offices, classrooms, and homes. I remember getting our first home computer, a Tandy from Radio Shack, in the early 1990s and then getting our first Internet connection at home in about 1995. I set up my first e-mail account in 1996 and remember how novel and exciting it was to send and receive e-mails. I wasn’t imagining a time when I would get dozens of e-mails a day, much less be able to check them on my cell phone! Many of you reading this book probably can’t remember a time without CMC. If that’s the case, then you’re what some scholars have called “digital natives.” When you take a moment to think about how, over the past twenty years, CMC has changed the way we teach and learn, communicate at work, stay in touch with friends, initiate romantic relationships, search for jobs, manage our money, get our news, and participate in our democracy, it really is amazing to think that all that used to take place without computers. But the increasing use of CMC has also raised some questions and concerns, even among those of you who are digital natives. Almost half of the students in my latest communication research class wanted to do their final research projects on something related to social media. Many of them were interested in studying the effects of CMC on our personal lives and relationships. This desire to study and question CMC may stem from an anxiety that people have about the seeming loss or devaluing of face-to-face (FtF) communication. Aside from concerns about the digital cocoons that many of us find ourselves in, CMC has also raised concerns about privacy, cyberbullying, and lack of civility in online interactions. We will continue to explore many of these issues in the “Getting Plugged In” feature box included in each chapter, but the following questions will help you begin to see the influence that CMC has in your daily communication.

• In a typical day, what types of CMC do you use?
• What are some ways that CMC reduces stress in your life? What are some ways that CMC increases stress in your life? Overall, do you think CMC adds to or reduces your stress more?
• Do you think we, as a society, have less value for FtF communication than we used to? Why or why not?

Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

The interaction model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the transmission model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received, the interaction model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

Figure 1.2 The Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your communication. I have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting around a large conference table, and even once in an auditorium where I was positioned on the stage facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience. I’ve also been walked around campus to interview with various people in temperatures below zero degrees. Although I was a little chilly when I got to each separate interview, it wasn’t too difficult to warm up and go on with the interview. During a job interview in Puerto Rico, however, walking around outside wearing a suit in near 90 degree temperatures created a sweating situation that wasn’t pleasant to try to communicate through. Whether it’s the size of the room, the temperature, or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in our communication.

Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. I recently found out some troubling news a few hours before a big public presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate because the psychological noise triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my other thoughts. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication. During the initial stages of a romantic relationship individuals may be so “love struck” that they don’t see incompatible personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate behaviors they might otherwise find off-putting. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

Transaction Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is and what communication does. The transmission model views communication as a thing, like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view, communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model views communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction, and so on. From this view, communication is defined as producing conversations and interactions within physical and psychological contexts. The transaction model views communication as integrated into our social realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand them but also create and change them.

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators . Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you are done sending your verbal message to start receiving and decoding the nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you are simultaneously sending your verbal message and receiving your date’s nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.

Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. As we are socialized into our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up on norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social contexts include don’t lie to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they greet you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on. Parents and teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their children or students. Rules may be stated over and over, and there may be punishment for not following them.

Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a new employee you may over- or underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how to dress at the holiday party, you will notice your error without someone having to point it out, and you will likely not deviate from the norm again in order to save yourself any potential embarrassment. Even though breaking social norms doesn’t result in the formal punishment that might be a consequence of breaking a social rule, the social awkwardness we feel when we violate social norms is usually enough to teach us that these norms are powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules. Norms even have the power to override social rules in some situations. To go back to the examples of common social rules mentioned before, we may break the rule about not lying if the lie is meant to save someone from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close friends when we’re having an exciting conversation, but we wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a professor while they are lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and cultures, relational and cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model in order to help us understand the multiple contexts that influence our communication.

Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and attentiveness and might spend the whole day cleaning the house for the first time you invite your new neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in your house, you may also make them the center of your attention during their visit. If you end up becoming friends with your neighbors and establishing a relational context, you might not think as much about having everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your whole attention during later visits. Since communication norms and rules also vary based on the type of relationship people have, relationship type is also included in relational context. For example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to a supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister relationship and vice versa. Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate, so does culture.

Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We will learn more about these identities in Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception” , but for now it is important for us to understand that whether we are aware of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication.

Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

When cultural context comes to the forefront of a communication encounter, it can be difficult to manage. Since intercultural communication creates uncertainty, it can deter people from communicating across cultures or lead people to view intercultural communication as negative. But if you avoid communicating across cultural identities, you will likely not get more comfortable or competent as a communicator. Difference, as we will learn in Chapter 8 “Culture and Communication” , isn’t a bad thing. In fact, intercultural communication has the potential to enrich various aspects of our lives. In order to communicate well within various cultural contexts, it is important to keep an open mind and avoid making assumptions about others’ cultural identities. While you may be able to identify some aspects of the cultural context within a communication encounter, there may also be cultural influences that you can’t see. A competent communicator shouldn’t assume to know all the cultural contexts a person brings to an encounter, since not all cultural identities are visible. As with the other contexts, it requires skill to adapt to shifting contexts, and the best way to develop these skills is through practice and reflection.

Key Takeaways

• Communication models are not complex enough to truly capture all that takes place in a communication encounter, but they can help us examine the various steps in the process in order to better understand our communication and the communication of others.
• The transmission model of communication describes communication as a one-way, linear process in which a sender encodes a message and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. The transmission of the message many be disrupted by environmental or semantic noise. This model is usually too simple to capture FtF interactions but can be usefully applied to computer-mediated communication.
• The interaction model of communication describes communication as a two-way process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts. This model captures the interactive aspects of communication but still doesn’t account for how communication constructs our realities and is influenced by social and cultural contexts.
• The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. This model includes participants who are simultaneously senders and receivers and accounts for how communication constructs our realities, relationships, and communities.
• Getting integrated: How might knowing the various components of the communication process help you in your academic life, your professional life, and your civic life?
• What communication situations does the transmission model best represent? The interaction model? The transaction model?
• Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter you had. Sketch out the communication encounter and make sure to label each part of the model (communicators; message; channel; feedback; and physical, psychological, social, relational, and cultural contexts).

Barnlund, D. C., “A Transactional Model of Communication,” in Foundations of Communication Theory , eds. Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1970), 83–92.

Ellis, R. and Ann McClintock, You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice in Human Communication (London: Edward Arnold, 1990), 71.

Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).

Shannon, C. and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949), 16.

Thurlow, C., Laura Lengel, and Alice Tomic, Computer Mediated Communication: Social Interaction and the Internet (London: Sage, 2004), 14.

Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The Basic Elements of the Communication Process

ThoughtCo / Hilary Allison

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Whenever you've had a conversation, texted a friend, or given a business presentation, you have engaged in communication . Any time two or more people get together to exchange messages, they are engaging in this basic process. Although it seems simple, communication is actually quite complex and has a number of components.

Communication Process Definition

The term communication process refers to the exchange of information (a message ) between two or more people. For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to exchange information and understand each other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails.

The communication process begins with the sender , who is also called the communicator or source . The sender has some kind of information — a command, request, question, or idea — that he or she wants to present to others. For that message to be received, the sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood, such as by the use of a common language or industry jargon, and then transmit it.

The Receiver

The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter . To comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender's information and then decode or interpret it. 

The Message

The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver. Additional subtext can be conveyed through body language and tone of voice. Put all three elements together — sender, receiver, and message — and you have the communication process at its most basic.

Also called the channel , the  medium  is the means by which a message is transmitted. Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell phones.

The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a written or verbal response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response (indirect).

Other Factors

The communication process isn't always so simple or smooth, of course. These elements can affect how information is transmitted, received, and interpreted:

• Noise : This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent, received, or understood. It can be as literal as static over a phone line or radio or as esoteric as misinterpreting a local custom.
• Context : This is the setting and situation in which communication takes place. Like noise, context can have an impact on the successful exchange of information. It may have a physical, social, or cultural aspect to it. In a private conversation with a trusted friend, you would share more personal information or details about your weekend or vacation, for example, than in a conversation with a work colleague or in a meeting.

The Communication Process in Action

Brenda wants to remind her husband, Roberto, to stop by the store after work and buy milk for dinner. She forgot to ask him in the morning, so Brenda texts a reminder to Roberto. He texts back and then shows up at home with a gallon of milk under his arm. But something's amiss: Roberto bought chocolate milk when Brenda wanted regular milk. 

In this example, the sender is Brenda. The receiver is Roberto. The medium is a text message. The code is the English language they're using. And the message itself is "Remember the milk!" In this case, the feedback is both direct and indirect. Roberto texts a photo of milk at the store (direct) and then came home with it (indirect). However, Brenda did not see the photo of the milk because the message didn't transmit (noise) and Roberto didn't think to ask what kind of milk (context).

• Definition and Examples of Senders in Communication
• Noise and Interference in Various Types of Communication
• Science Says You Should Leave the Period Out of Text Messages
• A Receiver's Role in Clear, Effective Communication Is an Important One
• Email Message
• What Is a Message in Communication?
• What Is Wei Xin?
• What Does Medium Mean in the Communication Process?
• Texting (Text Messaging)
• The Power of Indirectness in Speaking and Writing
• What Is Communication?
• Spanish Cell Phone and Social Media Abbreviations and Vocabulary
• History of Pagers and Beepers
• Basic Parts of the Brain and Their Responsibilities
• Use and Omission of Subject Pronouns in Spanish
• Communicate With Special Education Parents

Understanding Figurative Language: A Comprehensive Guide

Figurative language overview, common types of figurative language, how to identify figurative language, figurative language in literature, figurative language in poetry, figurative language in prose, figurative language in day-to-day conversations, figurative language in popular culture, why figurative language matters in communication, ways to improve your figurative language skills.

Have you ever heard the phrase "it's raining cats and dogs" and looked up to see if Fido and Whiskers were indeed falling from the sky? The phrase is an example of figurative language, a tool used by writers and speakers to enrich their communication. This blog post will help you have a better grasp of the definition of figurative language, its different types, and how it's used in various contexts. So, let's dive into this fascinating world of words and expressions together!

Simply put, figurative language is a way of saying something other than the literal meaning of the words. It's like a secret code you have to decode to get the real meaning. But don't worry—you don't need to be a spy to understand it; you just need to pay a bit more attention to words and how they're used. Often, people use figurative language to make their speech or writing more interesting, colorful, or impactful.

Here's the definition of figurative language for you: Figurative language is a method of expression that uses words or phrases out of their literal meaning to achieve a more complex or special effect. Think of it as the salt and pepper of language—it adds flavor and zest to otherwise bland sentences.

• Metaphor: "Life is a roller-coaster." Here, life isn't literally a roller-coaster, but this phrase helps convey the ups and downs of life.
• Simile: "She runs like a deer." Again, she's not literally a deer. This phrase is just a way to illustrate her speed and gracefulness.
• Hyperbole: "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse." Don't worry, no horses are harmed in the process. It's just a humorous way to express extreme hunger.

These are just a few examples of figurative language. There are many more types, each with its unique charm and impact. Understanding the definition of figurative language and its types can help you better appreciate the beauty of language and improve your communication skills. So, are you ready to dive deeper? Let's go!

Familiarizing yourself with the common types of figurative language can make your reading, writing, and daily conversations much more engaging and enjoyable. So, let's take a closer look at some of the most common types, shall we?

• Simile : A simile compares two things using 'like' or 'as'. For example, "Busy as a bee," compares someone's level of activity to a bee's.
• Metaphor : A metaphor makes a comparison without using 'like' or 'as'. "Time is a thief," is a classic example of a metaphor. It means that time passes quickly and often unnoticed, like a thief who comes and goes without being detected.
• Personification : Personification gives human characteristics to non-human things. "The sun smiled down on us," is an example where the sun is given the human ability to smile.
• Hyperbole : Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement not meant to be taken literally. If you've ever said, "I've told you a million times," then you've used hyperbole.
• Onomatopoeia : Onomatopoeia is a word that imitates the sound it represents, like 'buzz', 'hiss', or 'sizzle'.
• Idiom : An idiom is a phrase with a figurative meaning that's different from its literal meaning. "Break a leg," is an idiom that actually means "good luck."

These are just a few of the many types of figurative language we use in our daily life. Once you understand the definition of figurative language and become familiar with these types, you'll start noticing them everywhere, from books and poems to TV shows and advertisements. Ready to dive into the next section?

Now that we've explored the definition of figurative language and its various types, let's learn how to identify them in text and conversation. It's not as tricky as you might think.

Tip 1: Look for comparisons : Figurative language often involves some form of comparison. If you see words like 'as', 'like', or 'than', you might be dealing with a simile or a metaphor.

Tip 2: Watch out for personification : If you notice non-human things being described with human characteristics, that's personification. For instance, "The wind whistled through the trees."

Tip 3: Spot exaggerations : Hyperboles are all about overstatement. If something seems ridiculously exaggerated, chances are it's a hyperbole.

Tip 4: Listen for sound words : Onomatopoeia is all about words that mimic sounds. If a word sounds like the noise it's describing, it's probably onomatopoeia.

Tip 5: Decode idioms : Idioms can be tricky because their meanings aren't literal. But if a phrase seems strange or nonsensical, you might be dealing with an idiom.

Remember, figurative language is all about adding color and depth to language. It's the spice in the soup of conversation and the color in the painting of literature. By understanding the definition of figurative language and learning to identify it, you're taking a big step toward appreciating the richness of language. So, are you ready to spot some figurative language in the wild?

Figurative language is the lifeblood of literature. It's the heartbeat that keeps a story alive, vivid, and engaging. So, let's dive into some examples of how authors use figurative language to create unforgettable narratives.

Metaphor : In Harper Lee's "To Kill a Mockingbird", the title itself is a metaphor. The act of killing a mockingbird symbolizes the destruction of innocence.

Simile : J.K. Rowling, in "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", uses a simile to describe a character's voice: "Her voice was high, rather breathy, and she spoke as though she was permanently on the verge of a sort of giggly collapse."

Personification : In "1984" by George Orwell, the author personifies the clocks: "The clocks were striking thirteen."

Hyperbole : In "Alice in Wonderland", Lewis Carroll uses hyperbole to emphasize Alice's growing size: "She grew so tall that she seemed to shoot up like a telescope."

Onomatopoeia : In "The Hobbit" by J.R.R. Tolkien, onomatopoeia is used to create sound effects: "There came a 'drip-drip-drip' from the branches."

Figurative language has an incredible ability to capture our imaginations and make literature come alive. It's one of the reasons why we can so vividly picture Hogwarts, empathize with a mockingbird, and feel the oppressive weight of Big Brother watching. By understanding the definition of figurative language and its role in literature, you're well on your way to becoming a more perceptive reader.

Just as a painter uses colors and strokes to create an image, poets use figurative language to paint vivid pictures with their words. Let's look at a few examples that illuminate the definition of figurative language in the world of poetry.

Metaphor : In Emily Dickinson's "Hope is the thing with feathers", hope is metaphorically depicted as a bird that perches in the soul and sings unwaveringly, even in the hardest times.

Simile : In "A Red, Red Rose" by Robert Burns, the poet uses a simile to describe his love: "O my Luve is like a red, red rose."

Personification : In "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" by William Wordsworth, daffodils are personified as dancing and fluttering in the breeze, providing comfort and joy to the lonely narrator.

Hyperbole : In "As I Walked Out One Evening" by W.H. Auden, the poet uses hyperbole to emphasize the enduring nature of love: "I'll love you till the ocean is folded and hung up to dry."

Onomatopoeia : Edgar Allan Poe's "The Bells" is a famous example of onomatopoeia in poetry, with words that mimic the sounds of the bells they describe: "How they clang, and clash, and roar!"

So, whether it's a metaphor that gives hope wings, a simile that turns love into a vibrant rose, or onomatopoeia that brings the sound of bells to life, figurative language is a powerful tool in the hands of a skilled poet. It adds depth, beauty, and emotional resonance to the verses, making each poem a unique and moving experience.

Just as a chef uses spices to add flavor to a dish, writers of prose use figurative language to spice up their narratives. Prose, like novels or short stories, is full of opportunities to explore the definition of figurative language. Let's take a peek into some classics.

Metaphor : In "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee, the mockingbird itself is a metaphor for innocence and goodness, harmed by injustice and prejudice.

Simile : J.K. Rowling's "Harry Potter" series is teeming with similes. For instance, Harry's infamous scar is described as being "like a bolt of lightning."

Personification : Charles Dickens often personified objects and ideas in his works. In "A Tale of Two Cities", he opens with "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times," personifying time itself.

Hyperbole : In "The Catcher in the Rye", J.D. Salinger's protagonist Holden Caulfield is known for his dramatic exaggerations, such as when he declares, "I'd probably be the only person who got hit by a car and then run over by a cab."

Irony : George Orwell's "Animal Farm" is a masterclass in irony, as he critiques totalitarian regimes through a seemingly simple farmyard tale.

Figurative language enriches prose, making even the most mundane descriptions intriguing. It helps to create memorable characters, build dramatic tension, and evoke emotional responses, making reading a more engaging and immersive experience. It's like a secret sauce — just a dash can transform the flavor of the story.

Figurative language doesn't just live in the pages of your favorite novel — it's part of our everyday chatter too! We often use figurative language without even realizing it. Don't believe me? Let's walk through some examples:

Idioms : Ever said, "It's raining cats and dogs" when it's pouring outside? That's an idiom, a phrase that doesn't make sense if you take it literally but is understood as a common expression.

Metaphors : If you've ever claimed to be "drowning in homework," then you've used a metaphor. No, there's no actual water involved, but it paints a vivid picture of the overwhelming workload, doesn't it?

Hyperboles : "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse" — sounds familiar? That's a hyperbole. Unless you're an actual horse-eater, you're using this phrase to emphasize your extreme hunger.

These are just a few examples of how we use figurative language in our day-to-day conversations. It adds color to our speech, making it more expressive and interesting. So next time, when you're "on cloud nine" or feeling "under the weather," remember — that's the power of figurative language at work!

Just like in our everyday conversations, figurative language also takes center stage in popular culture. It's everywhere — from song lyrics to movie lines, from political speeches to advertisements. Here are a few places where the definition of figurative language really shines:

Song Lyrics : Remember the hit song "Firework" by Katy Perry? The lyrics, “Do you ever feel like a plastic bag, drifting through the wind, wanting to start again?" is a beautiful example of a simile, comparing a person's feeling of aimlessness to a plastic bag drifting in the wind.

Movie Lines : When Forrest Gump famously said, "Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you're gonna get," he used a simile to express the unpredictability of life.

Advertisements : Have you noticed how car advertisements often use metaphors? Phrases like "This car is a beast" or "Experience lightning speed" are common, making the product more appealing by using figurative language.

So, whether you're jamming to your favorite tune, watching a blockbuster, or just looking at billboards on the highway, you're experiencing figurative language. It's the secret ingredient that makes our pop culture so engaging and relatable.

Now that we've seen how the definition of figurative language plays out in popular culture, let's get to the heart of the matter: Why is it so important in communication?

1. Adds Spice to Our Speech: Figurative language is like the spice in your favorite dish. It adds flavor to your conversations and makes your speech more interesting. Imagine eating a plate full of plain rice every day — wouldn't that be boring? Similarly, conversations without figurative language are plain and uninteresting.

2. Engages the Listener: Figurative language paints a picture in the listener's mind. When you say "It's raining cats and dogs," the listener doesn't just understand that it's raining heavily; they actually visualize it, making the conversation more engaging.

3. Expresses Complex Ideas: Sometimes, it's hard to express complex emotions or ideas directly. That's where figurative language comes in. Saying "I'm feeling blue" is much easier and more expressive than explaining the specifics of your sadness.

4. Helps in Persuasion: If you've ever watched a speech by Martin Luther King Jr. or read a Harry Potter book, you'll know how persuasive figurative language can be. It's a powerful tool that can sway opinions and stir emotions.

So next time you're having a conversation, remember the importance of figurative language. It's not just a fancy literary device, it's a vital part of our communication. And who knows? With a dash of metaphor or a sprinkle of simile, you might just become the life of the party!

So, you've got the definition of figurative language down, and you understand why it's important. Awesome! Now, how about we try to improve your figurative language skills? Here are some simple, practical steps you can take:

1. Read, Read, Read: Reading is one of the best ways to improve your figurative language skills. From novels to newspapers, figurative language is everywhere. The more you read, the more familiar you'll get with different types of figurative language.

2. Practice Writing: Start incorporating figurative language into your writing. You can use similes, metaphors, personification, or any other type of figurative language that you like. The key here is practicing regularly.

3. Use Figurative Language in Conversations: Try to use figurative language in your daily conversations. Don't worry if it feels unnatural at first. With practice, it will become second nature.

4. Reflect on the Figurative Language You Encounter: Whenever you come across figurative language, take a moment to reflect on it. Understand its meaning, why it's used, and how it enhances the message.

5. Learn from the Masters: There are many songwriters, poets, and authors who are masters of figurative language. Learn from them. Listen to songs by Bob Dylan, read poems by Maya Angelou, or read novels by J.K. Rowling. See how they use figurative language to convey their messages.

Improving your figurative language skills is a journey, not a destination. So, take it one step at a time, practice regularly, and most importantly, have fun with it. Happy learning!

For a deeper understanding of how figurative language can inspire your visual creations, check out Juliet Schreckinger's workshop, ' Composing Complex Illustrations using Basic Shapes .' This workshop will guide you through the process of turning abstract concepts and ideas into compelling visual compositions, using basic shapes as the foundation.

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Article • 17 min read

The Communication Cycle

Six steps to better communication.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

Whether you're writing an email to a co-worker, delivering on-the-job training to a new team member, or giving an important presentation to the board of directors, you must communicate in a way that is clear, concise, and easy to understand.

But do you ever get lost while planning out your message, or struggle to identify what your audience truly needs to know?

There are so many factors to consider during preparation and presentation that it's easy to forget an important point. The Communication Cycle is a six-step process that can help you to tailor and refine your messages. Originally developed by Charles Berner, the model was updated into its modern form by Oxford professor Michael Argyle in his 1972 book, The Social Psychology of Work. [1]

The Communication Cycle helps you to ensure that you don't forget anything essential the first time you present it, and can maximize its impact. By putting the process into the form of a cycle, this approach encourages you to use the feedback you receive to improve your communications in the future.

See the transcript for this video here .

In this article, we'll examine the Communication Cycle, and look at how you can use it to improve your daily communications. We'll also look at an example which shows how you can use it to deliver important communications.

Understanding the Communication Cycle

The Communication Cycle (shown below in Figure 1) provides a handy checklist that can help you to communicate effectively with your audience.

You can apply the Communication Cycle to any situation where communication is involved, but you'll likely find it most useful for preparing and delivering important or complex communications, such as team or organizational emails, marketing materials, and presentations.

The Communication Cycle doesn't include a "test" step. However, you can still apply steps three, four, five, and six to testing your communication. (For example, by asking colleagues to proofread and comment on text, or by practicing a presentation in front of a small group.) You then use any feedback to change and improve your message when you restart the cycle.

How to Use the Communication Cycle

Follow these steps to use the cycle:

Step One: Clarify Your Aim

Organize your thoughts about the message that you want to communicate by answering these questions:

• To whom am I communicating?
• What message am I trying to send? What am I trying to achieve?
• Why do I want to send this message? Do I need to send it at all?
• What do I want my audience to feel?
• What does my audience need or desire from this message?
• What do I want my audience to do with this information?

Our article on The 7 Cs of Communication may be helpful during Step One. Our Communication Skills article also gives some useful tips on removing barriers to communication.

Step Two: Compose/Encode

Now that you've organized your thoughts with the questions in Step 1, start crafting your message. Ask yourself:

• What's the best way to communicate this message?
• What level/type of language should I use?
• Does the audience have any background information on the topic?
• Will my audience need any additional resources to understand my message?
• Am I expressing emotions in my message? If so, which emotions?
• Will the audience assume anything about me or my motives that will damage the credibility of the communication?

Our articles on The Rhetorical Triangle and Monroe's Motivated Sequence can show you how to structure your communications effectively, so that you can inspire your audience to act.

Step Three: Transmit/Deliver

The way that you communicate your message is vital to ensuring that your audience receives it effectively. Ask yourself:

• Is this the right time to send this message?
• What is my audience's state of mind likely to be, and what workload will they be experiencing when they receive this message? How should I present my message to take account of this?
• Will there be any distractions that may damage the impact of the communication? (This is especially important to consider when giving a speech or presentation.)
• Should I include anyone else in the audience?

Step Four: Receive Feedback

This is a key step in the Communication Cycle. Without feedback from your audience, you'll never know how you can improve the way that you communicate your message.

Make sure that you include some type of feedback process as part of your communication. For instance:

• Do you know how to read body language , and could you use it to steer your presentation?
• If you're giving a speech or presentation, will you allow time for a question-and-answer session at the end?
• Will you have a process for getting feedback from your audience?
• When you receive feedback, is it generally what you want and expect?

Remember to use indirect feedback here, too. Did you get the response that you wanted from your communication? Is there anything more that you can interpret from the response that you received?

Step Five: Analyze/Decode/Learn

Use the feedback that you received in Step Four to learn and grow. Depending on your situation, you might need to rewrite your message and try again. (One of the benefits of testing your message on a small scale is that you can do this before the big day.) Questions to ask yourself might include:

• Why did you receive this feedback? What does this tell you about your message?
• What could you have done differently to get the response that you wanted?
• Did the audience feel the way you expected them to feel? If not, why not?
• How should you act or behave differently to move forward?

Step Six: Change/Improve

This step completes the cycle. All of the feedback in the world won't help you unless you commit to learning and changing. Do this by:

• Honoring and respecting the feedback that you've received. If you believe it's valid, change your message or behavior.
• Identifying resources that can help you to improve. For instance, ask colleagues for help and advice; do more testing; or use surveys, classes, books, seminars, and so on.

A Communication Cycle Example

Using the Communication Cycle is fairly straightforward. Think of it as a checklist for creating your messages.

Here's an example of how you can use it:

You're responsible for IT in your organization, and you need to create a presentation for your CEO and executive board. The content should explain exactly what the IT department does and how much work you're all responsible for. The presentation's goal is to show how vital IT is to the organization so that you can hire additional staff to manage the workload, instead of facing budget cuts next quarter.

Here's how you could use the Communication Cycle to organize your presentation effectively.

Step One: Aim

• The CEO and executive board.
• I must show that IT is an essential part of the organization, and that we deserve additional funding to hire more staff.
• Without the board's understanding, they might cut our budget next year.
• I want them to feel excited about the valuable service that IT performs, and concerned about the threats the company might face if our staff is cut.
• My audience needs to understand thoroughly what IT does and, specifically, that we protect the organization from daily threats. The board will need strong data about the money that we've saved the company over the past two years.
• They must understand that giving IT additional funding is in their best interest.
• Group presentation.
• I should avoid using IT jargon and terms. My language should be professional, but easy to understand.
• Some members of the executive board have only a vague understanding of what the IT department does. Others have a much sharper idea.
• The executive board has figures to show that the IT budget is higher than that of other departments.
• Graphs and statistics, on paper or in a PowerPoint presentation, will be helpful visuals.
• I must express how excited I am by my job and my department, as well as the urgency we all feel when faced with additional budget cuts, especially when we provide such an important service to the organization.
• They might assume that, since I'm in IT, I'll naturally be a poor communicator. I must prove right away that this isn't true.
• Yes, because the board will soon approve the budget for the next year.
• They're likely to be overloaded with information already. I must be concise, yet convincing.
• The presentation will likely be in Conference Room A. There's a noisy air vent in that room, so I'll have to speak loudly.
• The presentation is near the end of a long day for the executive team, so they might be tired or lose interest easily.
• I'll allow 10 minutes at the end of the presentation for a question-and-answer session with the board.
• I'll meet with the CEO immediately after the presentation to get his input.
• I'm going to do some research on body language , which will help me see cues from board members on how I'm doing throughout the presentation.

Steps Five and Six: Analyze, and Improve

A few days after the presentation, your boss tells you that the board liked your message and approved additional funding, thanks to your convincing statistics and message. However, they thought that the presentation was a little too long.

With this knowledge, you commit to shortening your speeches and presentations in the future, and you'll do a better job cutting unnecessary information while you're creating your message.

The Communication Cycle is a six-step process for organizing and presenting a message effectively. You can apply it in all situations that involve communication, but it's most useful for important or complex communications.

The process follows a cycle that includes these six steps:

• Clarify your aim.
• Compose/Encode.
• Transmit/Deliver.
• Receive feedback.
• Analyze/Decode/Learn.
• Change/Improve.

By looping through the cycle twice or more, you can continue to improve your communications by analyzing audience response and learning from the feedback that you receive.

[1] Argyle M. (1972). 'The Social Psychology of Work,' London: (Allen Lane).

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1.2: Basic Process Models of Communication

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• Page ID 90671

• Daniel Usera & contributing authors
• Austin Community College

LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Identify and define the basic components of different communication models.
• Discuss how various communication models can be applied to real-world situations.

BASIC PROCESS MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Imagine you are learning how to build your own computer. You are familiar with how to use computer technology and on a functional level you understand how computers work. Have you ever taken the time to examine and learn the process of computing to understand the series of actions necessary to make them work?

Learning about the communication process is like learning about any other process. We are familiar with different ways we communicate through channels like the spoken word or text messaging. What are some of the processes that shape communication? How can we understand these processes to become more competent communicators?

Understanding interpersonal communication is enhanced by internalizing processes of interaction. To continue this process, we turn to interaction models that elucidate the unique phenomena involved in human communication. The basic process models covered in this module do not include every model but focus on important models pertinent to grasping communication.

Transmission models

Transmission models of communication focuses on the transportation of message(s) from one communicator to another to disseminate knowledge over space (Sapienza, et. al., 2016). Transmission models are focuse on communication as a linear process where the sender is projecting a message to a target without much consideration to ongoing process or feedback loops as described in other models.

In 1949 mathematician Claude Shannon and engineer Warren Weaver developed a basic transmission model of communication that serves as a foundational tool to understanding the communication process (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). The Shannon and Weaver model breaks communication down into five parts- Sender, Encoder, Channel, Decoder, Receiver (Figure 1).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Shannon-Weaver’s Model of Communication

Note . Notice how the sender and receiver both undergo the transaction simultaneously.

The sender is the original information source of the message. Encoder refers to the transmitter that converts the message into signals. Channel is the means by which the message is conveyed. Decoder is the location of the signal that converts the message. Receiver is the intended target of the message. As a message passes from sender to receiver, it can be impeded by noise , which can alter or distort the message meant for the receiver.

For example, let’s say that Blake is a chemistry professor who is explaining the periodic table in class. Blake would represent the sender or information source.

Blake’s means of encoding or transmitting would be his brain converting the ideas into a message. The channel professor Blake is using is their voice accompanied by writing a diagram on the board.

The decoders would be the ears and eyes of the students in the class. The receivers or destinations are the brains of the students. In this chemistry class there is an abundance of noise that is inhibiting the transmission of the message that Professor Blake is sending. Jamie and Dakota are mischievous class clown types who are intent on derailing the learning experience by making various animal noises at their lab station.

Alex is more interested in watching YouTube videos on a phone with one earbud in and one out, feigning attention to Professor Blake’s message. Meanwhile, Jordan who is desperately attempting to learn chemistry is internally enraged at the inattentive classmates and periodically sneers and makes gestures imploring others to be silent.

In mass mediated communication, messages are encoded into various channels. In a State of the Union address, the President of the United States has a target audience- the American public. The President and his team craft the speech over a period to be delivered to Congress and broadcast live to a television audience. This speech will be simultaneously broadcast through radio and internet channels.

The process described above differs from the immediate interpersonal context of transaction because it is not as dependent on immediate feedback. Yes, people will respond in real time through discussions and social media posts. However, this has no impact on the original message created as it was designed as a one-way communication event. How the President’s message is interpreted will differ significantly due to subjective interpretations based on identity.

Even in a process that is more one-way than immediately interactive, human beings are still communicating meaning to each other. Understanding the differences in structure, code and channel help us gain insight in how these processes influence our interactions on a macro and micro level. In a State of the Union address the President is speaking to the entire country with specific ideas and declarations to embolden ardent supporters.

All of these examples show how noise can impede the quality of a message. Now that we have briefly discussed the Shannon and Weaver model, we will turn to Berlo’s adaptation of the Shannon and Weaver model.

Berlo’s SMCR Model

In 1960, David Berlo expanded the Shannon and Weaver model to more accurately reflect the communication process (Turaga, 2016). Berlo’s model is divided into four basic components: source, message, and channel and receiver. In each pillar of Berlo’s model are subcategories that describe the interaction process in greater detail (Figure 2).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

Adapted from Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication, by Communication Theory ( https://www.communicationtheory.org/...communication/ )

The source is the origin of the message. Source can also be analogous to sender as the messenger provides the initial context of the interaction. The source must have basic communication skills such as reading, speaking and listening to be an effective communicator. In addition, the attitude of the sender is important in developing a relationship with the audience. The sender must also be knowledgeable regarding the subject matter she/he is discussing.

Inherent in every message are the social systems (values, beliefs, religion) the sender is immersed in, which impacts the rhetorical choices the sender makes. Culture also influences the sender’s message as messages can be interpreted differently depending on an individual’s cultural background.

The first element to consider in a message is content. What is included in the message from beginning to end? Elements are additional aspects such as gestures and signs, that accompany the transmission of the message. Treatment is the way the message is sent, similar to gift wrapping of a present where the message itself is wrapped inside the treatment.

Structure refers to the framework of the message or how the message is constructed. Code refers to form, i.e. text or language that the message is conveyed in.

Similar to the Shannon and Weaver model, channel refers to the medium in which the message is delivered. In order for the message to be received it must be perceived by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Most often, messages are conveyed through sight and sound but non-verbal elements such as touch, taste or smell can also convey meaning, as any chef or dancer will tell you.

Receiver is the person, destination or decoder of the message. As we discussed with the sender, attitude, knowledge, social systems and culture must be considered in understanding how this process works.

Berlo’s model is a simplistic description of the communication process. All messages begin with a person of origin and destination. Let’s return to our scenario involving Professor Blake’s chemistry class. Professor Blake needs to relay and important message to students involving next week’s test. Blake wants to inform them about changes to the study guide but has noticed a few of the students were absent in the last class meeting.

Professor Blake is the source and the message describes the important changes. To ensure continuity, Blake decides to send the message through the channel of email. The message is marked “URGENT” in capital letters to increase the chances the students will open it.

The tag “URGENT” is an example of an element to punctuate the message. Despite the fact Blake has been frustrated lately with some of the students in class, Blake makes sure to use an upbeat tone to not display frustration. Good teachers need to be balanced and exhibit patience.

Always remember attitude is important in developing and maintaining a relationship with the audience. If Professor Blake does not get the desired feedback then changes may need to be made to the communication channel or code.

Transactional model

The transactional model of communication is a more simplified model for understanding the communication process. Developed by Dean Barnlund (2008), the transactional model can be understood as a circular model of communication, more focused on the simultaneous interaction of participants than a linear process (Figure 3).

Both sender and receiver are continually affected by the messages being sent and received back and forth. The transactional model reflects an exchange of ideas, meaning and feelings. Similar to a relationship between a business owner and a client, communication depends on the giving and receiving of information or content.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Transactional Model of Communication

Note . Observe that the Transactional Model recognizes feedback in communication, suggesting the joint activity and meaning-making that occurs between interlocutors.

In the transactional model, communication is simultaneous and interdependent. Riley is a physical therapist who helps clients recover from injuries. Much of Riley’s job is to understand the pain and discomfort of the clients in order to effectively help them recuperate. In this situation, both Riley and the clients must exchange information in order to accomplish mutual goals. Riley wants to help the clients recover and the clients want to feel better.

Riley’s newest client, Cameron is a challenge to help. Cameron has suffered from several injuries from playing soccer, including a few concussions. The problem is Cameron does not like to verbally disclose the injuries because of the desire to continue playing. This unwillingness to disclose injuries makes it difficult for Riley to properly treat Cameron.

In this situation, both Riley and Cameron are dependent on each other to reach the desired outcome. They both have different goals. While Riley wants to do the job properly and ensure Cameron’s health and safety, Cameron is reluctant to disclose information in order to stay on the field. Each person in this situation must mitigate the other’s feelings, ideas and goals in real time to come to a shared meaning or mutually beneficial outcome.

The transactional model of communication emphasizes the role of feedback and the ongoing negotiation of participants in an interpersonal context. How is communication different in situations that are less personal and immediate? To help answer this question, we turn to the transmission model of communication.

Now that we have discussed the idea of communication as transmission we turn to a discussion of rituals. Often, our communication practices depend on a repetitive dynamic of sharing meaning through symbolic interaction and the reinforcement of cultural values.

Ritual model

The ritual model of communication focuses on the sharing of information and preserving that information over time (Figure 5). Ritual communication relies on shared belief systems (Carey, 2009).

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Ritual model

Note . The ritual model emphasizes how communicators draw from outside sources to establish the meaning of everyday messages.

Developed by James Carey, the ritual model considers symbolism, shared practices and codes which produce a cultural identity. An audience is more participant than receiver in an ongoing dance of familiar steps. Communication is not a simple process of sending a message to a receiver. Communication is shaped by the process itself, rather than the content of the message.

Take the evening news for example. Often these broadcasts begin with morbid subjects like the coverage of a murder or kidnapping. Then the broadcast will cover the weather, sports and a human-interest story. Viewers have an expectation of how this format will proceed because of the familiarity of the format.

Content does not change much from broadcast to broadcast as the same types of stories are plugged into the recognizable format. Evening news broadcasts may be viewed while the family eats dinner and discusses the day’s proceedings. Engagement with the evening news serves as cultural currency for the consumer and the messages therein become conversation points to expand on in everyday conversations. Thus, communication content is shaped directly by the evening news ritual.

In closing, we have covered three types of models of communication to understand how interactions work and are affected by feedback and context. Our everyday interactions are shaped by a variety of factors that can alter the meaning or understanding of content. Often, the same message can be understood more effectively by changing the code or channel in which it is presented. By learning process models, we can more effectively encode and decode messaging to become more competent communicators.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Personal Model of Interpersonal Communication

In small groups of 3-5 students, have them develop their own model of interpersonal communication. Include all of the components that are necessary to describe how communication between people works. The model could be a drawing or an object (such as a toaster or slinky toy) that symbolizes the communication process. Prepare to share the model with the class, explaining in detail about the model.

Activity 2: Barriers to Communication

In small groups of 3-5 students, assign each group a different communication context (i.e., verbal, written and/or online). Have them discuss within their group potential communication barriers for their context and ways to reduce those barriers. They should be prepared to discuss their answers with the class. During this discuss, the instructor should highlight common barriers that overlap the varied contexts for further discussion about the communication process (in general).

Examples of different communication contexts that may be used in this activity include:

· Verbal : interpersonal conversations with friends, family, co-workers, acquaintances and others; presentations in public settings; and communication business situations.

· Written : writing a personal letter; text messaging with family, friends or others; and business writing such as a proposal, memo or presentation.

· Online : emailing family or friends; using social media to connect with friends or others; communicating with others via instant messaging or video conferencing software.

Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Ed.), Communication Theory (2 nd ed., pp. 47-57). Routledge.

Carey, J.W. (2009). A cultural approach to communication. In Communication as Culture (pp. 11-28). Routledge.

Sapienza, Z.S., et. al. (2016). The transmission model of communication: Toward a multidisciplinary explication. A Review of General Semantics, 73 (4).

Shannon, C.E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication . University of Illinois Press.

Turaga, R. (2016). Organizational Models of Communication. IUP Journal of Soft Skills , 10 (2), 56-65.

• Sender: The original information source of the message.
• Encoding: The translation of an idea into a message that can be understood by the receiver.
• Decoding: The translation of the message into meaning by the receiver.
• Channel: The means by which the message is conveyed.
• Receiver: The intended target audience of the message.
• Noise: Interference that impedes the transmission of a message.
• Source: The origin of the message.
• Element: An additional aspect that accompanies the transmission of the message (i.e., a gesture or sign).
• Treatment: The manner in which the message is sent.
• Structure: The framework of the message and how the message is constructed.
• Code: The text or language the message is conveyed in.

Multimedia 1: Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

Watch this animated video about Barnlunds Transactional Model. How does it compare and contrast with the other models of communication?

Watch it here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VrFXNRzfJKU

Multimedia 2: Communication as Culture, a conversation with James Carey

Watch this conversation with renowned scholar, James Carey, as he discuss the ritual model of communciation. What are some concepts that he mentions that add to what was mentioned in this chapter?

You can view it here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Mozx7z6ues

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Matt Abrahams: How Do You Make a Memorable Presentation?

A Stanford lecturer and expert on public speaking explains how to manage anxiety and deliver a smooth presentation.

February 26, 2014

Having a structure helps you remember what you plan to say. (Reuters photo by Stephen Lam)

As a communication professor and coach, I hear a lot from presenters about anxiety. Their two greatest fears: They will forget what to say, and the audience won’t remember what they said. These dual fears are certainly understandable and create much angst among nervous and novice presenters. In this series of posts, I will suggest several steps you can take to make your presentations more memorable — for both you and your audience.

Let’s start with remembering. Delivering a smooth presentation requires a lot of effort. You can dramatically increase the likelihood of remembering all your points by:

• Employing good presentation hygiene
• Structuring your presentation
• Practicing properly

Presentation Hygiene: The Good Habits of Effective Speakers

Your parents were right! By eating healthfully, keeping fit and sleeping well, you can improve your well-being — plus help alleviate your presentation anxiety and improve your memory. Like a long-distance runner carbo-loading for a marathon, you will find it helpful to eat certain foods — in this case, to facilitate memory formation and retention — ahead of your presentation. Complex carbohydrates, nuts, oils, foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids and foods that contain flavanols (such as grapes, berries, apples and cocoa) are good choices. Avoid simple sugars and sweets because they provide a quick energy boost that is often followed by sluggishness and mental haziness. And plan your caffeine consumption wisely: Caffeine facilitates creativity and productivity, but it also invites jitters, dry mouth and flighty memory. It may make some sense to go for the triple mocha latte when you’re preparing a speech, but it’s not a good idea the day of. (Remember, the effects of caffeine linger in the body for a number of hours.) Finally, it may be tempting to use alcohol to calm your nerves, but evidence suggests it causes forgetfulness and “loosens the tongue,” which could lead to regret.

Quote A healthy diet, proper rest, and exercise can help alleviate your public speaking anxiety.

Exercise plays an important role in both memory and anxiety resilience. Fit presenters respond better to both the mental and physical aspects of stress. Additionally, physical activity increases lung capacity and bolsters mental focus, two very important aspects of speech delivery. Finally, exercise provides an avenue for releasing pent-up anxiety and stress. Try to go for a quick swim, jog or walk prior to writing or practicing a speech. The resulting calming effect comes not just from getting outside and distancing yourself from the stressor, but also from your body’s natural endorphins, which are often released when you exercise. Memory research clearly shows that the less stressed you are, the more information you will retain. Exercising after practicing a presentation can help, too: Short, intense bursts of exercise that follow new learning have been shown to increase memory retention.

Sleep is also critical. Good-quality, deep sleep prepares your brain for learning and consolidates newly learned memories so that you can recall them more easily. When you are preparing a speech, pulling an all-nighter is the worst thing you can do.

Structure Sets You Free

A powerful way to help you remember your presentation is to provide a meaningful structure to your content. Research shows that people retain structured information up to 40% more reliably and accurately than information that is presented in a more freeform manner. There are many presentation structures on which you can rely, including:

• Past-Present-Future — good for providing a history or stepping people through a process
• Comparison-Contrast — good for showing the relative advantages of your position
• Cause-Effect — good for helping people understand the underlying logic of your position

Having a structure helps you remember what you plan to say, because even if you forget the specifics, you can use the general framework to stay on track. For example, when using the Problem-Solution-Benefit structure — good for persuading and motivating people — you first lay out a specific problem (or opportunity), then you detail a solution to address the problem, and finally you define the benefits to your solution. If you are in the middle of the Solution portion of your talk and you blank out, then by simply thinking back to your structure, you know that the Benefits portion comes next.

My favorite structure is What?-So What?-Now What? This useful structure can help you not only in planned presentations but also in spontaneous speaking situations, such as job interviews. When using this structure, you start with your central claim (“I am qualified for this position because of my experience”) and then explain its importance or value (“This experience will allow me to start contributing to your firm immediately”) before concluding with a call to action or next steps (“So when can I start?”).

The Right Way to Practice

Practice is clearly important for remembering your presentation. However, many presenters don’t practice properly. They simply mentally rehearse or flip through a slide deck, passive approaches that don’t really simulate the conditions of a presentation. To practice effectively, you also need to stand and deliver — even if you are presenting virtually, you need to physically stand up to project effectively. Rather than only thinking through a presentation, standing up and practicing your speech helps you remember it. Specifically, hearing your own voice and using relevant, appropriate gestures improve later recall. You remember more because your mental imagery and physical practice use overlapping neural networks in your brain, improving what’s known as memory consolidation, or the process by which a thought becomes cemented into your long-term memory.

One very useful technique, called focused practice, involves taking one aspect of your presentation — say, the introduction — and delivering it repeatedly until you become highly familiar and comfortable with it. (You should not memorize your presentation, because memorizing invites blanking out.) Next, you move on to another aspect of your presentation, such as transitioning between two specific visual aids. Focused practice allows you to feel less anxious because you do not have to spend valuable mental effort thinking about all the particular aspects of your presentation at once.

The location where you practice your presentation should be in the place where you’ll be presenting, or at least in a similar place. For example, if you are going to give a speech in a large room with big windows where people are quiet and attentive, you should practice giving the speech in a large room with windows. The context in which you learn helps you remember and will boost your confidence, since the surroundings will feel comfortable. This advice also works for presenting via the Web or teleconference. Practice in the room with the technology that you will be using. In fact, practicing with the technology in advance is always a good idea.

Through proper preparation, structure and practice, you will be able to more easily remember your presentation. And the added confidence you will have in your memory will allow you to present in a more compelling manner.

For media inquiries, visit the Newsroom .

Explore More

Navigating the nuance: the art of disagreeing without conflict, more than a feeling: the keys to making the right choice, from good to great: what makes a “supercommunicator”, editor’s picks.

July 25, 2014 Matt Abrahams: A Good Question Can Be the Key to a Successful Presentation A Stanford GSB lecturer and expert on public speaking explains how you can become a more compelling and confident presenter by asking – not telling – in the right situations.

March 13, 2014 Matt Abrahams: How to Make Unforgettable Presentations A Stanford lecturer and expert on public speaking explains how to ensure your audience remembers what they hear and see.

March 04, 2014 Matt Abrahams: Presentations and the Art of the Graceful Recovery A Stanford lecturer and expert on public speaking explains what to do when memory fails.

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Home Blog Business The Ultimate Guide to Using Metaphors in Presentations and Speeches

The Ultimate Guide to Using Metaphors in Presentations and Speeches

Metaphors are one of the often-forgotten tricks among presenters. Along with other figures of speech such as similes, analogies personification, and alliteration, they make your texts more engaging, memorable and eloquent. As well, metaphors serve as a great tool for breaking down complex concepts into more digestible statements.

In this guide, we’ll show you how to artfully use metaphors in your presentations and speeches. And you can scroll down to the bottom part for 25+ metaphor examples. Let’s dive in!

Defining the Metaphor

Finance Growth Metaphor PowerPoint Template by SlideModel

A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two things, people, ideas, etc.by stating that one is the other. The two are not similar, of course, and the purpose of the comparison is for emphasis, symbolism, or adding humor/color to an author’s language.

A few famous metaphor examples are as follows:

• “All the world’s a stage” – William Shakespeare
• “Conscience is a man’s compass” – Vincent Van Gogh
• “You ain’t nothing but a hound dog, been snoopin’ round my door, you can wag your tail, but I ain’t gonna’ feed you no more” – Elvis Presley, “Hound Dog” Song.

The Simile vs. the Metaphor

As mentioned earlier, metaphor is just one of the many speech figures you can use to create comparisons.

A simile is the second most used tool for that. Both the simile and the metaphor compare two, unlike things. A simile, though, compares these two by using the words “like” or “as.” Thus, “He was like a pressure cooker, ready to explode.”

As a metaphor, this statement would be, “He was a pressure cooker, ready to explode.”

The Analogy vs. the Metaphor

An analogy is a lengthier comparison, a short narrative that explains the relationship between two different things. A metaphor makes a comparison using a short phrase, to provide emphasis but not a full explanation. The metaphor is left for the listener or reader to form in his own mind.

So, an analogy might read, “A captain is to his ship as a coach is to his team.”

The metaphor might read, “A coach is the captain of his ship.”

Why Use Metaphors in Your Presentations and Speeches

Message in a Bottle Metaphor PowerPoint Design by SlideModel

Speeches and presentations, particularly those that have a lot of information, data, and perhaps some tough concepts, can turn an audience off. They may suffer from overload, confusion, and, probably most often, plain boredom.

Metaphors can help you cope with all of the above in the following way:

Metaphors can help an audience visualize something intangible in a tangible way

What, for example, does “reliable” really mean? You can use synonyms like “trustworthy,” but they are intangible too. Gerald Zaltman, the author of Marketing Metaphoria , uses the example of insurance companies and the metaphors they use to convey reliability – Traveler’s umbrella, Allstate’s hands, and Prudential’s rock.

Here are a few more metaphors that tangibly allow visualization of the intangible.

• Love is : a garden, a nutrient, an experiment, a thrill ride, a battlefield, a fine wine
• Truth and Justice : Truth is solid; Justice is a liquid
• Freedom : Freedom is a gust of wind letting you spread your wings.

Source: Gear & Puzzle Metaphor illustration by SlideModel

Many companies use what are called “deep metaphors” as they market their products. Deep metaphors are more complex and lengthy metaphors based upon some intangible such as peace, relaxation, and even joy and freedom. Harley-Davidson is a great example pointed by Zaltman in his book . The metaphor is that riding a Harley is the same as those intangibles, and they provide great visuals people can access in their minds.

Organic food companies use metaphors in their marketing all the time. Thus, processed foods with lots of additives are pollution to the body. Organic foods, on the other hand, are the cleansers of the body.

They engage an audience by giving them something they can relate to

People have many situations in common to which they can all relate – procrastination, lack of focus, not enough time to get everything done, lack of sleep, accidents, etc. Each of these can be the subjects of metaphoric comparisons.

Lack of focus can be compared to a cluttered closet, for example . That cluttered closet is disorganized, things are strewn about in no order, and finding important items can be very tough.

Procrastination is a thief of time. Time metaphors, in fact, are some of the most common metaphors used in speeches and presentations on many topics. And they are also often used in literature:

• “Time is an equal opportunity employer…” The Joy of Working by Denis Waitley
• “Time is but the stream I go fishing in.” Walden Pond by Henry David Thoreau
• “Time is a gift, given to you…” “The Phantom Tollbooth” by Norton Juster

Metaphors are persuasive

Politicians often use metaphors to provide a persuasive context for the points they want to make and to get listeners to “buy-in” to their beliefs, opinions, and proposals.

Martin Luther King was a master of metaphors in both his speeches and writings. And those metaphors made his works so much more compelling. Consider just a few from his famous speech, “I Have a Dream.”

• “Seared in the flames of injustice,” referring to the seeking of justice but being denied due to racism
• He also refers to the “vast ocean of prosperity” and the “lonely island of poverty”
• He speaks to the inequality of justice as the “storms of persecution”

Presidents have used metaphors in speeches to garner support for what they want to do.

• In his 1933 inaugural address, Franklin Roosevelt compared the people, fighting together to beat the Depression as an army. “I assume unhesitatingly the leadership of the great army of our people dedicated to a disciplined attack upon our common problems.”
• President John Kennedy needs support for the cost of his space program. At a dedication of the Aerospace Medical Center in Texas, he stated, “America has tossed its cap over the wall of space,” indicating that the U.S. would enter the space race and win.
• Bill Clinton, in his inaugural address of 1993, announced a major shift in the policies and goals. “And you have changed the face of Congress, the Presidency, and the political process itself. Yes, you, my fellow Americans, have forced the spring. Now we must do the work the season demands.” Spring has always been a metaphor for new beginnings and hope, especially in poetry.

Finally, they can move the common up to new levels

For instance, instead of merely stating the expected and boring “our new software is a great sales tool”, you can reinforce your idea and pack in additional context by saying that: “Our new sales software is a rocket ship that will catapult your business to the stratosphere of productivity”.

Source: Metaphor illustration by SlideModel

How to Start Using Metaphors in Your Speeches and Presentations

Effective metaphors should simplify the concept, not leave the audience wondering what exactly you were trying to say. Thus, it takes a bit of practice and some creative thought to come up with great metaphors. Below are several quick tips to help you with that.

Use a Metaphoric Theme

Instead of coming up with a series of scattered metaphors, stick with one theme. Doing so will help you maintain interest and avoid confusion.

For example, if you are saying that your app has “Zeus-like powers”, continue with the Greek mythology theme within the rest of your presentation. You can further state that dealing with some industry problems is similar to battling a Medusa and sometimes to find the right solution and get out of the labyrinth, one will need an Ariadne thread.

This trick of using themed metaphors is also called “extended metaphor”.

Custom Metaphors Should Always Be Relevant

It may be tempting to come up with truly out-of-the-box metaphors. But don’t rush to do so. After all, the audience will best relate to metaphors that are relevant and within their experience. Otherwise, they’ll fail to fully grasp the concept you are pitching and feel disengaged.

Use Metaphors to Add Some Spice to Data

Audiences may hear the figure $1 trillion but almost ignore that figure because it is hard to visualize in their heads. So, how about using a time metaphor? “One dollar is one second in time. One trillion dollars is 32,000 years in seconds. Our National Debt is over $23 trillion, so that is 23 times 32,000. Who has the answer for how many years that is?”

Add a Metaphor to The Opening Slide to Set a Scene

When you can use a great, engaging metaphor for your opening slide in a presentation, you will grab attention right away. If you can pique curiosity and interest upfront, your audience is far more willing to “tune in.”

Close with a Metaphor for Additional Emphasis

If you began with the metaphor, “Turn Your Work into a Box of Chocolates,” and you have used that extended metaphor throughout your presentation, then that metaphor should carry through to your closing. If you have compared each type of candy in that box to a type of task (hard nut, creamy centers, medium-soft caramels, etc.), then speak to the order in which they might be prioritized or varied to achieve maximum productivity.

A Big List of Metaphor Examples For All Types of Topics

Free Business Growth Metaphor Template for PowerPoint by SlideModel

Business Metaphors

• Products are solutions . This is a relatively new type of business metaphor and is often used in marketing collateral. The concept is that people buy products to solve a problem they have – they want nicer skin, a reliable car, a better phone, etc. Marketers offer solutions to these needs and problems.
• Business growth is horticulture . This metaphor is somewhat common but spot-on when entrepreneurs think about the step-by-step process that occurs. Seeds are sown and require water and sunlight (investment). Growth cannot be rushed, and if nourished properly and sequentially, the harvest (success) will be great.
• Companies are ships with a captain and designated roles and responsibilities for everyone on that ship. Again, this is common but quite neat.

Metaphors for Success

• “She’s the kind of girl who climbed the ladder of success wrong by wrong.”, Mae West.
• “The sweet smell of success.” – a novelette by Ernest Lehman and musical based upon the novelette.
• “Failure is the condiment that gives success its flavor.” – Truman Capote

Metaphors for Freedom

• “I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice” Martin Luther King’s ‘I Have a Dream Speech’ in 1963
• “I can taste the aroma of liberation” – Poem “Of Surrealism and Reality” by Millard Lowe.
• Freedom is a bonfire that began as just a few sparks from twigs. It grows as you do and your idea of freedom matures over time.

Metaphors for Ideas

• An idea can be a wall. It stops you dead in your tracks and forces you in a new direction.
• “A library, to modify the famous metaphor of Socrates, should be the delivery room for the birth of ideas…” – Norman Cousins
• “Bobby Holloway says my imagination is a three-hundred-ring circus.” Seize the Night by Dean Koontz

Metaphors for Leadership

• “You are pioneers. Nobody has been where you’re going. So, it’s your job to go there and leave a trail. It’s everyone else’s job to follow.”   Delaine Hampton, speaking to her team charged with a new research initiative at Proctor and Gamble.
• Fear of any challenge is a giant, and until that giant is whittled down to a smaller and manageable size, a team can succumb to that fear. It is the leader’s job to whittle down that giant to a manageable and conquerable size. – Metaphor adapted from a story told by Paul Smith, keynote speaker and author of the book, Lead With a Story.
• A leader is a conductor of a symphony. – Martha Denton, consultant and presenter, and founder/CEO of The Presentation School.

Metaphors for Hard Work

• Hard work is rowing upstream. It may seem like you are making little progress, but, step by step, you do reach your destination.
• Those who work hard are lasers. They are focused beams of light that stay on target.
• “Life for me ain’t been no crystal stair” – from “Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes

Metaphors for Time

• Time is a parade. It marches forward, no matter how big the crowd, no matter how many or few cheers there are, and no matter what the weather. Using time wisely means ignoring all of these distractions.
• Time is an enemy for those who waste it.
• “Time’s a trap, I’m caught in it.” from “The Handmaid’s Tale” by Margaret Atwood

Metaphors for Knowledge

• Knowledge is light. It eliminates the darkness of ignorance and lack of understanding.
• “Knowledge as Love” Keynote Address by Daniel Andriessen at the 8th European Conference on Knowledge Management, 2007
• “Knowledge is power” attributed to Sir Francis Bacon from his “Meditationes Sacrae.”

Metaphors for Growth

• Business Growth: “Small microelectronic companies suddenly sprouted all over the valley.: – Ian Mackenzie, Professor of Financial English, Heinle Cengage Learning.
• Personal growth is a bamboo tree. No one can see that growth for four years. But in the fifth year, it comes forth and grows exponentially. – Tom Speaks, Impact Group Leadership Academy.
• “We grow like one note becoming a tune” Tyler Stenson, songwriter.

The topic list of metaphors is almost in-exhaustible. Your speech or presentation might use metaphors for strength, metaphors for change, or metaphors for productivity or teamwork. The overall point is that, if you can use a metaphor to make something more relevant or engaging, then do so. Just don’t overdo. An entire speech or presentation filled with metaphors will turn your audience off too. And avoid mixed metaphors. People cannot be eagles soaring in the sky and flowers that blossom at the same time – this is just confusing.

Figurative language has stood the test of time. It is used by authors, famous philosophers, inventors, scientists, politicians, songwriters, TV personalities, and, yes, far less famous people who write and make speeches. Metaphors are one of the most popular because they can provide visual, relevant, and unique comparisons of two very unlike things. Consider incorporating their use in your next speech or presentation – you may find your audience response quite positive.

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Using Figurative Language As A Leader: A Powerful Communication Tool

Figurative language refers to words, phrases, and sentences that convey meaning beyond the literal definition.

As a leader, using figurative language strategically can make communication more vivid, impactful, and memorable.

This guide will provide an overview of figurative language, explain why it is a useful leadership tool, and give examples of how leaders can apply it in the workplace.

Definitions of Figurative Language

Here are some common types of figurative language:

• Metaphor: An implied comparison between two unlike things, often without using “like” or “as.” For example, “you are my rock.”
• Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as.” For example, “our team is like a well-oiled machine.”
• Hyperbole: Exaggeration for emphasis or effect. For example, “I have a million things to do today.”
• Personification: Giving human traits or abilities to non-human things. For example, “the trees danced in the wind.”
• Alliteration: The repetition of initial consonant sounds. For example, “fast and furious.”

10 Characteristics of Figurative Language

Effective figurative language often:

• Paints a vivid picture
• Evokes emotion
• Creates strong mental images
• Uses sensory details
• Surprises the audience
• Clarifies abstract concepts
• Sticks in people’s memory
• Establishes tone or mood
• Condenses complex ideas
• Engages the audience

5 Benefits of Using Figurative Language as a Leader

Here are some key advantages leaders can gain by using figurative language:

• Makes communication more engaging and persuasive
• Helps simplify complex ideas
• Makes leaders appear eloquent and articulate
• Builds an emotional connection with the audience
• Makes messages more memorable and impactful

Areas to Implement Figurative Language

Leaders can strategically use figurative language when:

• Delivering speeches or presentations
• Communicating vision and strategy
• Explaining difficult concepts or processes
• Motivating teams
• Providing performance feedback
• Storytelling and sharing anecdotes
• Writing emails, memos, or other communications

7 Examples of Using Figurative Language as a Leader

Here are some examples of figurative language a leader might use in the workplace:

• Metaphor for teamwork: “Together we are a magnificent orchestra, but each of us is a virtuoso musician.”
• Simile for a new strategy: “This new plan will spread through the company like wildfire.”
• Hyperbole for excellence: “You have done a million things right with this project.”
• Personification for vision: “Opportunity is knocking at our door.”
• Alliteration for change: “The winds of change bring fresh perspective.”
• Metaphor for performance: “You are the heartbeat of this team.”
• Simile for communication: “Your words shine like a beacon, guiding us forward.”

Figurative language can make communication more colorful, compelling, and memorable.

As a leader, strategic use of figurative language techniques like metaphor, simile, and hyperbole can aid in simplifying concepts, connecting emotionally, and motivating others.

With practice, figurative language can become a vital element of impactful leadership communication.

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How to develop a graphical framework to chart your research

Graphic representations or frameworks can be powerful tools to explain research processes and outcomes. David Waller explains how researchers can develop effective visual models to chart their work

David Waller

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While undertaking a study, researchers can uncover insights, connections and findings that are extremely valuable to anyone likely to read their eventual paper. Thus, it is important for the researcher to clearly present and explain the ideas and potential relationships. One important way of presenting findings and relationships is by developing a graphical conceptual framework.

A graphical conceptual framework is a visual model that assists readers by illustrating how concepts, constructs, themes or processes work. It is an image designed to help the viewer understand how various factors interrelate and affect outcomes, such as a chart, graph or map.

These are commonly used in research to show outcomes but also to create, develop, test, support and criticise various ideas and models. The use of a conceptual framework can vary depending on whether it is being used for qualitative or quantitative research.

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There are many forms that a graphical conceptual framework can take, which can depend on the topic, the type of research or findings, and what can best present the story.

Below are examples of frameworks based on qualitative and quantitative research.

As shown by the table below, in qualitative research the conceptual framework is developed at the end of the study to illustrate the factors or issues presented in the qualitative data. It is designed to assist in theory building and the visual understanding of the exploratory findings. It can also be used to develop a framework in preparation for testing the proposition using quantitative research.

In quantitative research a conceptual framework can be used to synthesise the literature and theoretical concepts at the beginning of the study to present a model that will be tested in the statistical analysis of the research.

It is important to understand that the role of a conceptual framework differs depending on the type of research that is being undertaken.

So how should you go about creating a conceptual framework? After undertaking some studies where I have developed conceptual frameworks, here is a simple model based on “Six Rs”: Review, Reflect, Relationships, Reflect, Review, and Repeat.

Process for developing conceptual frameworks:

Review: literature/themes/theory.

Reflect: what are the main concepts/issues?

Relationships: what are their relationships?

Reflect: does the diagram represent it sufficiently?

Review: check it with theory, colleagues, stakeholders, etc.

Repeat: review and revise it to see if something better occurs.

This is not an easy process. It is important to begin by reviewing what has been presented in previous studies in the literature or in practice. This provides a solid background to the proposed model as it can show how it relates to accepted theoretical concepts or practical examples, and helps make sure that it is grounded in logical sense.

It can start with pen and paper, but after reviewing you should reflect to consider if the proposed framework takes into account the main concepts and issues, and the potential relationships that have been presented on the topic in previous works.

It may take a few versions before you are happy with the final framework, so it is worth continuing to reflect on the model and review its worth by reassessing it to determine if the model is consistent with the literature and theories. It can also be useful to discuss the idea with  colleagues or to present preliminary ideas at a conference or workshop –  be open to changes.

Even after you come up with a potential model it is good to repeat the process to review the framework and be prepared to revise it as this can help in refining the model. Over time you may develop a number of models with each one superseding the previous one.

A concern is that some students hold on to the framework they first thought of and worry that developing or changing it will be seen as a weakness in their research. However, a revised and refined model can be an important factor in justifying the value of the research.

Plenty of possibilities and theoretical topics could be considered to enhance the model. Whether it ultimately supports the theoretical constructs of the research will be dependent on what occurs when it is tested.  As social psychologist, Kurt Lewin, famously said “ There's nothing so practical as good theory ”.

The final result after doing your reviewing and reflecting should be a clear graphical presentation that will help the reader understand what the research is about as well as where it is heading.

It doesn’t need to be complex. A simple diagram or table can clarify the nature of a process and help in its analysis, which can be important for the researcher when communicating to their audience. As the saying goes: “ A picture is worth 1000 words ”. The same goes for a good conceptual framework, when explaining a research process or findings.

David Waller is an associate professor at the University of Technology Sydney .

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Figurative Language: Everything You Need To Know

Figurative language is everywhere. You can easily find it in poetry, literature, marketing messages, pop culture, and in your daily speech. If you've ever thought, "she sings like a lark," “I'm as hungry as a horse," or "that movie was an emotional roller coaster," you already know what figurative language is.

So, how do you distinguish figures of speech from other forms of language? How can you use figurative language to establish your reputation as an impactful communicator? 

Figures of speech can significantly benefit team discussions, presentations, and other workplace scenarios. Below, Poised explains figurative language in more detail and shares how to harness these tools to improve your communication skills.

What Is Figurative Language?

Figurative language employs figures of speech to elicit new images or strengthen the impact of content. If you’re trying to deliver a specific message or evoke a particular feeling in an interesting way, figurative language is an excellent platform.

For instance, you might tell your friend, "It's raining cats and dogs out here," to describe the inconvenient weather conditions you’re caught in. You could just say, "It's raining heavily," but the latter statement more aptly expresses the urgency of the circumstances.

Using figures of speech allows you to connect with listeners and readers on a deeper level because it creates fresh connections between images, concepts, or objects that normally would not be linked. This offers your audience new insights and helps them gain a more vivid, imaginative picture of the content. 

Figurative language can take something rather ordinary and make it significant. It can explain abstract concepts through comparisons with something your audience can relate to.

Authors across genres employ figures of speech to identify and evoke precise moods and feelings for which conventional wording wouldn't suffice. Business leaders, employees, and politicians can use figures of speech to persuade listeners. Novelists can use them to bring readers into the fictional world they've worked so hard to develop.

There are many types of figurative language worth learning. For brevity's sake, let's discuss the three primary forms of figurative language:

What Is a Metaphor?

A metaphor is a word or phrase for a specific thing that refers to a different thing to suggest or highlight the similarities between the two things. The term metaphor also refers to an idea, activity, or object that serves as a symbol of a different thing.

Metaphors describe actions or objects in a manner that isn't literally true but helps the listener understand the context by comparing different things or expressing an idea. Simply put, a metaphor says that one thing is another thing (unlike a simile, which states that something is like another thing). Metaphors equate the two things for comparison or symbolism's sake. 

Many consider William Shakespeare to be the king of the metaphor in the English Language. Perhaps the most common example of this type of figurative speech can be found in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, with the line "It is the east and Juliet is the sun."

Assuming the literal meaning of a metaphor can quickly make you confused. It's vital to recognize metaphors for what they are and allow them to add color and insight to the language in which they are active.

Sometimes, the colorful language of metaphors is the only way to truly describe abstract concepts or emotions. Other times, it simply makes communication more exciting and entertaining.

What Is a Simile?

Another standard figure of speech is the simile, which is essentially a metaphor that uses the words "like" or "as" to compare different things. People use similes to further describe something by comparing it to something else that may seem unrelated on the surface. 

You may have heard the statement, "Life is like a box of chocolates." This famous line from the 1994 film Forrest Gump beautifully illustrates the unpredictability of life. Choose a random piece of chocolate in a box, and you won't know the flavor until you take a bite. 

Most communicators use hyperbole for added emphasis when employing similes. Consider the statement "They were moving at the speed of light" to describe race car drivers at a race. 

Obviously, no human beings or cars can move that fast. But the statement succinctly expresses that the drivers were traveling at extraordinarily high speeds during the race. In other words, similes can make your communication more compelling and even informative.

Working the occasional simile into your presentation can do wonders for boosting your message’s clarity and keeping your audience engaged. As with metaphors, you can also use similes to enlighten your listeners on hard-to-explain concepts.

Furthermore, similes are more direct in their comparisons than metaphors, which tend to be more subtle and poetic. However, some figurative language examples are overused in everyday speech or as literary devices. When this occurs, they become a clicé and should be avoided. 

What Is an Analogy?

An analogy also compares two things to explain ideas, objects, or images. The two things in an analogy are physically distinct yet have figurative similarities; the analogy identifies those similarities.

Analogies are almost always used to simplify abstract or complex ideas. You can link unfamiliar ideas with common ones to help your team members better comprehend the key points of your message.

Take, for example, the concepts of time and money . The two terms are physically different, but the phrase "Time is money, so spend it wisely" gets a clear message across to listeners.

So, how is an analogy different from a metaphor or simile? Metaphors and similes are figures of speech that compare or imply a similarity between two things, and these devices help communicators to “show” instead of “tell.” On the other hand, an analogy focuses more on clarification or explanation. 

In other words, analogies go deeper. Here are a few sentences to demonstrate the difference between metaphors, similes, and analogies:

• Metaphor: She is a well of wisdom.
• Simile: She is like a well of wisdom.
• Analogy: She is like a well of wisdom guiding them to a more fulfilling life.

What Are Some Examples of Figurative Language?

So, you're ready to see figurative language in action. Here are some common examples of metaphors, similes, and analogies to consider:

Examples of Metaphors 

• She has a heart of stone: Someone with this condition may be cold and unemotional.
• That’s a slippery slope: A warning that one or two minor steps could lead to a dangerous outcome.
• He’s my better half: A metaphor that assumes the union of two individuals. Many people employ this phrase to describe their spouses.
• We live in a beautiful melting pot. A culture or location that includes people from various backgrounds.
• He was the black sheep of the family: A member of a family or other group that doesn't quite fit in with the other members.
• She was brilliant but also a late bloomer: A popular comparison between the aging process and a blooming flower.

Examples of Similes

• The kids were babbling like brooks.
• The older lady was as sweet as sugar.
• She runs like a gazelle.
• He went white as a ghost when they jumped out.
• You look like a monkey hanging from those bars.
• He thought the science project was as easy as pie.
• The businessman was cool as a cucumber in the meeting.
• Are you always busy as a bee?

Examples of Analogies

• Life is like a race: You must keep running to the best of your ability as life brings unexpected circumstances. Those who continue to run and participate in the race are the ones fully prepared in the long run.
• That’s like finding a needle in a haystack: To find a needle in a haystack is almost impossible, which is why this analogy is used to describe the search for a significant other or something else of great value.
• We must leave our comfort zones as a caterpillar comes out of its cocoon: The idea behind this analogy is that a person can reach their beautiful potential by coming out of their shell like a caterpillar exits its cocoon, and transforms into a butterfly.
• That was as irritating as nails on a chalkboard: Rub your fingernails along a chalkboard, and you'll clearly understand this analogy!
• The pen is the writer’s weapon, just as the sword is the warrior’s weapon: Swords are used for killing or protecting, and writers can do the same with their pens (or keys).

How To Use Figurative Language

You may already have an idea of how you can employ figures of speech in your virtual meetings and other workplace scenarios.

Here are a few brief tips for using figurative language in your communication:

Make Your Communication More Interesting

No matter what industry your company works in, chances are your team covers many of the same topics on a weekly basis. You can use metaphors, similes, and analogies to present ideas, review guidelines, and devise strategies in a new light. Add a splash of color to the conversation; the right figure of speech can entertain and engage your listeners.

Make a Point More Effectively

Pay attention to some of the abstract concepts you encounter in team meetings. These ideas can be difficult to explain using only literal language. Be mindful of how you can incorporate engaging figures of speech to explain the unexplainable through comparison or symbolism. 

Tell a Relevant Story

Every leader and employee understands the importance of telling compelling stories in virtual meetings and at other work functions. One of the easiest ways to make your story more relevant to your audience is to use metaphors, similes, or analogies to compare your ideas to other things your listeners are sure to understand. 

Poised: The Simplest Way To Improve Your Communication

Being literal sometimes just isn’t enough. Continue to learn how you can work more figures of speech into your video calls, collaboration sessions, and other work situations. 

Remember to use any tools available to boost your communication skills and help you reach your next career milestone. The Poised AI-powered communication coach will help you communicate more effectively during meetings while analyzing your long-term performance for regular progress updates. 

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Communication Processes

Noise/interference in communication processes.

• Physical noise
• Physiological noise
• Technical noise
• Organizational noise
• Cultural noise
• Psychological noise
• Semantic noise (language, words)

Physical Noise

Physical noise is interference that comes from an external source, or the environment in which the communication is occurring.  Static on a phone call, meeting rooms in a building near an airport’s flight path, conversations during a presentation, not muting your sound while typing during an online meeting all constitute physical noise.  Physical noise also can be non-auditory in nature. Pop-ups create visual noise in an online environment, just as a co-worker gesturing outside of your office window while you are in an online meeting creates visual noise. Sometimes you can control physical noise, as in asking directly at the start of on online meeting for participants to mute their sound when they are not talking.  Other times you will have no control over physical noise.  As a communicator, realize that you’ll need to be prepared to deal with physical noise.

Some strategies to help your audience understand your message, even with physical noise present, include repeating key information, following up an in-person meeting or presentation with an emailed summary, or repeating questions that participants ask during an online meeting.

Physiological Noise

Physiological noise deals with your own abilities to see and hear, your state of health, whether you are tired or hungry at the time of the communication, or any of many different physiological issues that can interfere with paying attention to a message.  While you cannot do much as a communicator to allay other individuals’ physiological noise, you can pick up visual cues during in-person, real-time communications and adjust your message accordingly.  For example, you can speak more slowly or loudly, or be more succinct if you see your audience’s interest waning before lunch.  For both in-person and electronic communications, you can offer electronic versions of your information to audience members who may need to increase font size.  Be aware that physiological noise exists, and be prepared to adjust to the communication situation and your audience’s needs.

Technical Noise

Technical equipment issues can interfere with your audience receiving and understanding your message.  Online or video conferencing equipment may not work for everyone, connectivity may be slow, or servers may go down. To reduce technical noise, make sure that you practice with the equipment you need to use, and have a back-up plan for communicating lengthy or very important messages using a lower-tech format.

Organizational Noise

Organizational noise can occur if you are unaware of, or disregard, expected communication channels in your organization.  Some organizations are structured so that employees at certain levels only communicate with employees at similar levels, while other organizations are less structured with their communication channels.  As a communicator, make sure you understand your organizational culture as much as possible. Don’t be afraid to ask peers or supervisors about appropriate channels of communication so that others focus on your message and not the route or persons to whom it was sent.

Cultural Noise

Cultural noise occurs when cultural expectations, etiquette, attitudes, and values differ.  Many different cultures exist based on nationalities, ages, genders, regions, social positions, work groups, and more, and individuals belong to multiple cultures.  As a communicator, your task is to try to reduce cultural noise by being as informed as possible about your communication audience; trying to anticipate and address questions from other points of view; and using inclusive, non-biased language.

The following video was created by Japanese students to teach the concept of noise.  From your perspective as a student in the U.S., what would create cultural noise for you if you were on assignment in Japan as a new hire in this organization?

After viewing the video, consider what you might do as a communicator to reduce cultural noise for a new hire from Japan who is now working in your organization in the U.S.

Psychological Noise

Psychological noise occurs as a result of personal attitudes, assumptions, and biases.  People have particular perspectives and world views; communication noise occurs when content, language, and perceived attitudes of the communicator and the audience do not mesh. Just as with cultural noise, your task as a communicator dealing with psychological noise is to realize that people will interpret your message differently, depending on their own perspectives.  Try to reduce psychological noise by offering your communication very clearly and directly, using inclusive and unbiased language, and responding calmly and thoughtfully to questions and issues raised.

Semantic Noise

Semantic noise deals with words and language.  Is the language of the communication clear and easy to understand?  Is it free from professional jargon (if the audience is at a low or mixed level of professional understanding)?  Are abstract concepts backed up by concrete examples? Is the language free from grammatical and technical errors?  Are the sentences clear in their structure and easy to read or listen to?  Are concepts offered in an order logical to the communication’s purpose and appropriate to its audience?  Is there too much information, and/or are there too many words?  All of these language issues, however small, can derail focus from the content of your message. As an example, you may have read documents in which the writer consistently uses “its/it’s” incorrectly, or you may have listened to speakers who constantly say “uh” while speaking.  Have you found yourself more focused on counting the “its” or the “uhs” more than listening to the message?

Example of semantic & cultural noise

Cultural expressions and expectations differ not only internationally, but also on many different dimensions from regional to interpersonal.

Someone raised in a rural environment in the Pacific Northwest may have a very different interpretation of “downtown” from someone raised in New York City. To the rural resident, downtown refers to a place, such as the center or urban area of any big city, no matter where that place is located. To a person who lives in or near New York City, though, downtown may be a direction that is more southerly, more than a place. One can go uptown, toward the Metropolitan Museum, or downtown, toward the 9/11 Memorial.  When asked, “Where are you from?,” a New Yorker’s answer may refer to a different sort of place such as a borough (“I grew up in Manhattan”) or a neighborhood (“I’m from the East Village”).

This example involves people with geographical differences, but we can further subdivide between people raised in the same state from two regions, people of the opposite sex, or people from different generations. The combinations and possibilities for semantic and cultural noise, or other types of noise, are endless.

As a communicator, you should work to eliminate semantic noise through careful revision.  Also, whenever possible, request feedback from others to determine whether your audience understands your language in the way you intended.

The following video delves more fully into semantic and psychological noise.

The following video reviews many types of noise that can derail focus from your communication.  However, the video itself contains some noise—see if you can find it, and consider the effect it has on you.

• Noise/Interference in Communication Processes. Authored by : Susan Oaks. Project : Communications for Professionals. License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
• image of people with question mark bubbles. Authored by : geralt. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/photos/group-team-balloons-question-mark-464644/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• video 10 Barriers to Effective Communication . Provided by : Young Entrepreneurs Forum. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=slq1nAhZuqE . License : Other . License Terms : YouTube video
• video Noise in Communication. Authored by : John Edmonds. Provided by : Pearcemayfield. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zy4T5OhaDUk . License : Other . License Terms : YouTube video
• video Communication Barriers in Workplace. Authored by : Alwyn Fong. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9GqWfGav7ic . License : Other . License Terms : YouTube video
• Example of Semantic & Cultural Noise adapted from Business Communication for Success, page 4.6 on Overcoming Barriers to Effective Written Communication. Provided by : University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing. Located at : https://open.lib.umn.edu/businesscommunication/chapter/4-6-overcoming-barriers-to-effective-written-communication/ . Project : Business Communication for Success. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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Table of Contents

Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, figurative language.

Figurative language refers to the use of words in nonliteral ways . For instance, writers, speakers, knowledge workers . . . use f igurative language to help people imagine something new. Metaphor can be a way to connect established ideas, known information , with new ideas, new information . Figurative language is the language of poetry and the arts. Learn to use figurative language to create vivid images in your reader’s mind that will not only give your writing a more distinctive style and make it more enjoyable to read but will also help make your argument more convincing. Learn to identify figurative language in your writing and the writing of others.

What is Figurative Language?

I t’s

• Personification & Metaphor Examples : “Your government is working night and day to repel this virus, and we will succeed, just as this country has seen off every alien invader for the last thousand years” (Boris Johnson)
• to make their compositions more engaging and clearer .
• to project an appropriate voice , tone , persona
• an attribute of prose, a style of writing, that is common among poets, fiction writers, and creative nonfiction writers.

Types of Figurative Language

Personification.

Related Concepts:  Concrete, Sensory Writing ;  Description ;  Code Switching ;  Figurative Language ;  Given to New Contract ;  Register ;  Vague Language ;  Writer-Based Prose Style

What Does Figurative Language Matter?

“All the world’s a stage” —have you ever wondered why people remember and quote lines from Shakespeare so much?

One of the reasons is because he used figurative language very effectively in his writings .

You may have heard the term figurative language before, and perhaps when you heard it you were in a class analyzing novels or poetry. But it’s not just used in literature: you can employ it in your academic and workplace writing to great effect.

Figurative language adds color to your writing by taking your words and applying them to other, often unexpected, objects or concepts.

Writers, speakers, knowledge workers . . . use figurative language to make a text more clear , engaging, interesting, evocative. Because figurative language is more dramatic and visual than concrete, sensory language , it enables you to better arrest your reader’s attention and perhaps cause him/her/they to pause and think more about your assertions. 

When interpreting texts, metaphors , similes , and personification can help you better understand complex and abstract ideas because you are attaching these abstract ideas to an image or human role and in that way making it more concrete and understandable.

Figurative language can also just make your writing more pleasurable to read and consequently more likely to gain your reader’s thoughtful consideration.  We all like to be entertained, even in just little ways, and are more likely to pay attention to things that seek to interest us.

Figurative Language, Clarity & Readability

• Engage in rhetorical analysis . Practice rhetorical reasoning to ensure that the use of figurative language is appropriate for your rhetorical context . Some genres—especially genres of poetry and fiction—rely extensively whereas other genres reject the use of figurative language or call for sparase use figurative language. Thus, as always, you need to engage in rhetorical analysis in order to determine whether or not it’s appropriate to use figurative language.
• Make your metaphors and similes understandable (you want to interest and intrigue your reader!)
• Stay away from clichéd comparisons (what’s the point of using figurative language if you’re just going to recycle the same tired metaphors?)
• Avoid using too much figurative language (a little goes a long way).
• Figurative language can be used in any part of your text . 

Recommended Resources

Plain Language: Beyond a Movement .

Related Articles:

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