sample interview questions for phenomenological research

Exploring phenomenological interviews: questions, lessons learned and perspectives

• Published: 06 January 2022
• Volume 21 , pages 1–7, ( 2022 )

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• Svetlana Sholokhova   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9427-3912 1 ,
• Valeria Bizzari 2 &
• Thomas Fuchs 3  

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Acknowledgments

Valeria Bizzari wishes to thank the Center for Psychosocial Medicine, Department of Psychiatry of the Clinic University of Heidelberg, the Fritz Thyssen Foundation and the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) for the financial support (project 3H200042).

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Sholokhova, S., Bizzari, V. & Fuchs, T. Exploring phenomenological interviews: questions, lessons learned and perspectives. Phenom Cogn Sci 21 , 1–7 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-021-09799-y

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19.4 Phenomenology

Learning objectives.

Learners will be able to…

• Begin to distinguish key features that are associated with phenomenological design
• Determine when a phenomenological study design may be a good fit for a qualitative research study

What is the purpose of phenomenology research?

Phenomenology is concerned with capturing and describing the lived experience of some event or “phenomenon” for a group of people. One of the major assumptions in this vein of research is that we all experience and interpret our encounters with the world around us. Furthermore, we interpret these experiences from our own unique worldview, shaped by our beliefs, values and previous encounters. We then go on to attach our own meaning to them. By studying the meaning that people attach to their experiences, phenomenologists hope to understand these experiences in much richer detail. Ideally, this allows them to translate a unidimensional idea that they are studying into a multidimensional understanding that reflects the complex and dynamic ways we experience and interpret our world.

As an example, perhaps we want to study the experience of being a student in a social work research class, something you might have some first-hand knowledge with. Putting yourself into the role of a participant in this study, each of you has a unique perspective coming into the class. Maybe some of you are excited by school and find classes enjoyable; others may find classes boring. Some may find learning challenging, especially with traditional instructional methods; while others find it easy to digest materials and understand new ideas. You may have heard from your friends, who took this class last year, that research is hard and the professor is evil; while the student sitting next to you has a mother who is a researcher and they are looking forward to developing a better understanding of what she does. The lens through which you interpret your experiences in the class will likely shape the meaning you attach to it, and no two students will have the exact same experience, even though you all share in the phenomenon—the class itself. As a phenomenologist, I would want to try to capture how various students experienced the class. I might explore topics like: what did you think about the class, what feelings were associated with the class as a whole or different aspects of the class, what aspects of the class impacted you and how, etc. I would likely find similarities and differences across your accounts and I would seek to bring these together as themes to help more fully understand the phenomenon of being a student in a social work research class. From a more professionally practical standpoint, I would challenge you to think about your current or future clients. Which of their experiences might it be helpful for you to better understand as you are delivering services? Here are some general examples of phenomenological questions that might apply to your work:

• What does it mean to be part of an organization or a movement?
• What is it like to ask for help or seek services?
• What is it like to live with a chronic disease or condition?
• What do people go through when they experience discrimination based on some characteristic or ascribed status?

Just to recap, phenomenology assumes that…

• Each person has a unique worldview, shaped by their life experiences
• This worldview is the lens through which that person interprets and makes meaning of new phenomena or experiences
• By researching the meaning that people attach to a phenomenon and bringing individual perspectives together, we can potentially arrive at a shared understanding of that phenomenon that has more depth, detail and nuance than any one of us could possess individually.

What is involved in phenomenology research?

Again, phenomenological studies are best suited for research questions that center around understanding a number of different peoples’ experiences of particular event or condition, and the understanding that they attach to it. As such, the process of phenomenological research involves gathering, comparing, and synthesizing these subjective experiences into one more comprehensive description of the phenomenon. After reading the results of a phenomenological study, a person should walk away with a broader, more nuanced understanding of what the lived experience of the phenomenon is.

While it isn’t a hard and fast rule, you are most likely to use purposive sampling to recruit your sample for a phenomenological project. The logic behind this sampling method is pretty straightforward since you want to recruit people that have had a specific experience or been exposed to a particular phenomenon, you will intentionally or purposefully be reaching out to people that you know have had this experience. Furthermore, you may want to capture the perspectives of people with different worldviews on your topic to support developing the richest understanding of the phenomenon. Your goal is to target a range of people in your recruitment because of their unique perspectives.

For instance, let’s say that you are interested in studying the subjective experience of having a diagnosis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). We might imagine that this experience would be quite different across time periods (e.g. the 1980’s vs. the 2010’s), geographic locations (e.g. New York City vs. the Kingdom of Eswatini in southern Africa), and social group (e.g. Conservative Christian church leaders in the southern US vs. sex workers in Brazil). By using purposive sampling, we are attempting to intentionally generate a varied and diverse group of participants who all have a lived experience of the same phenomenon. Of course, a purposive recruitment approach assumes that we have a working knowledge of who has encountered the phenomenon we are studying. If we don’t have this knowledge, we may need to use other non-probability approaches, like convenience or snowball sampling. Depending on the topic you are studying and the diversity you are attempting to capture, Creswell (2013) suggests that a reasonable sample size may range from 3 -25 participants for a phenomenological study. Regardless of which sample size you choose, you will want a clear rationale that supports why you chose it.

Most often, phenomenological studies rely on interviewing. Again, the logic here is pretty clear—if we are attempting to gather people’s understanding of a certain experience, the most direct way is to ask them. We may start with relatively unstructured questions: “can you tell me about your experience with…..”, “what was it it like to….”, “what does it mean to…”. However, as our interview progresses, we are likely to develop probes and additional questions, leading to a semi-structured feel, as we seek to better understand the emerging dimensions of the topic that we are studying. Phenomenology embodies the iterative process that has been discussed; as we begin to analyze the data and detect new concept or ideas, we will integrate that into our continuing efforts at collecting new data. So let’s say that we have conducted a couple of interviews and begin coding our data. Based on these codes, we decide to add new probes to our interview guide because we want to see if future interviewees also incorporate these ideas into how they understand the phenomenon. Also, let’s say that in our tenth interview a new idea is shared by the participant. As part of this iterative process, we may go back to previous interviewees to get their thoughts about this new idea. It is not uncommon in phenomenological studies to interview participants more than once. Of course, other types of data (e.g. observations, focus groups, artifacts) are not precluded from phenomenological research, but interviewing tends to be the mainstay.

In a general sense, phenomenological data analysis is about bringing together the individual accounts of the phenomenon (most often interview transcripts) and searching for themes across these accounts to capture the essence or description of the phenomenon. This description should be one that reflects a shared understanding as well as the context in which that understanding exists. This essence will be the end result of your analysis.

To arrive at this essence, different phenomenological traditions have emerged to guide data analysis, including approaches advanced by van Manen (2016) [1] , Moustakas (1994) [2] , Polikinghorne (1989) [3] and Giorgi (2009) [4] . One of the main differences between these models is how the researcher accounts for and utilizes their influence during the research process. Just like participants, it is expected in phenomenological traditions that the researcher also possesses their own worldview. The researcher’s worldview influences all aspects of the research process and phenomenology generally encourages the researcher to account for this influence. This may be done through activities like reflexive journaling (discussed in Chapter 20 on qualitative rigor) or through bracketing (discussed in Chapter 19 on qualitative analysis), both tools helping researchers capture their own thoughts and reactions towards the data and its emerging meaning. Some of these phenomenological approaches suggest that we work to integrate the researcher’s perspective into the analysis process, like van Manen; while others suggest that we need to identify our influence so that we can set it aside as best as possible, like Moustakas (Creswell, 2013). [5] For a more detailed understanding of these approaches, please refer to the resources listed for these authors in the box below.

Key Takeaways

• Phenomenology is a qualitative research tradition that seeks to capture the lived experience of some social phenomenon across some group of participants who have direct, first-hand experience with it.
• As a phenomenological researcher, you will need to bring together individual experiences with the topic being studied, including your own, and weave them together into a shared understanding that captures the “essence” of the phenomenon for all participants.

Reflexive Journal Entry Prompt

• As you think about the areas of social work that you are interested in, what life experiences do you need to learn more about to help develop your empathy and humility as a social work practitioner in this field of practice?

To learn more about phenomenological research

Errasti‐Ibarrondo et al. (2018). Conducting phenomenological research: Rationalizing the methods and rigour of the phenomenology of practice .

Giorgi, A. (2009).  The descriptive phenomenological method in psychology: A modified Husserlian approach . Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press.

Koopman, O. (2015). Phenomenology as a potential methodology for subjective knowing in science education research .

Moustakas, C. (1994).  Phenomenological research methods.  Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Newberry, A. M. (2012). Social work and hermeneutic phenomenology .

Polkinghorne, D. E. (1989). Phenomenological research methods. In R. S. Valle & S. Halling (Eds.). Existential-phenomenological perspectives in psychology (pp. 41-60). Boston, MA: Springer.

Seymour, T. (2019, January, 30). Phenomenological qualitative research design .

Van Manen, M. (2016).  Phenomenology of practice: Meaning-giving methods in phenomenological research and writing . New York: Routledge.

For examples of phenomenological research

Curran et al. (2017). Practicing maternal virtues prematurely: The phenomenology of maternal identity in medically high-risk pregnancy .

Kang, S. K., & Kim, E. H. (2014). A phenomenological study of the lived experiences of Koreans with mental illness .

Pascal, J. (2010). Phenomenology as a research method for social work contexts: Understanding the lived experience of cancer survival .

• van Manen, M. (2016). Phenomenology of practice: Meaning-giving methods in phenomenological research and writing . New York: Routledge. ↵
• Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ↵
• Polkinghorne, D. E. (1989). Phenomenological research methods. In R. S. Valle & S. Halling (Eds.). Existential-phenomenological perspectives in psychology (pp. 41-60). Boston, MA: Springer. ↵
• Giorgi, A. (2009). The descriptive phenomenological method in psychology: A modified Husserlian approach . Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press. ↵
• Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles Sage. ↵

A qualitative research design that aims to capture and describe the lived experience of some event or "phenomenon" for a group of people.

In a purposive sample, participants are intentionally or hand-selected because of their specific expertise or experience.

also called availability sampling; researcher gathers data from whatever cases happen to be convenient or available

For a snowball sample, a few initial participants are recruited and then we rely on those initial (and successive) participants to help identify additional people to recruit. We thus rely on participants connects and knowledge of the population to aid our recruitment.

An iterative approach means that after planning and once we begin collecting data, we begin analyzing as data as it is coming in.  This early analysis of our (incomplete) data, then impacts our planning, ongoing data gathering and future analysis as it progresses.

Often the end result of a phenomological study, this is a description of the lived experience of the phenomenon being studied.

A research journal that helps the researcher to reflect on and consider their thoughts and reactions to the research process and how it may be shaping the study

A qualitative research technique where the researcher attempts to capture and track their subjective assumptions during the research process. * note, there are other definitions of bracketing, but this is the most widely used.

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Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that focuses on exploring the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals. Phenomenology aims to understand how people make meaning of their experiences and how they interpret the world around them.

Phenomenological research typically involves in-depth interviews or focus group discussions with individuals who have experienced a particular phenomenon or event. The data collected through these interviews or discussions are analyzed using thematic analysis. 

Today, we will learn how a scholar can successfully conduct a phenomenological study and draw inferences based on individual's experiences. This information would be especially useful for those who conduct qualitative research . Well then, let’s dive into this together!

What Is Phenomenological Research: Definition

Let’s define phenomenological research notion. It is an approach that analyzes common experiences within a selected group. With it, scholars use live evidence provided by actual witnesses. It is a widespread and old approach to collecting data on certain phenomenon. People with first-hand experience provide researchers with necessary data. This way the most up-to-date and, therefore, least distorted information can be received.  On the other hand, witnesses can be biased in their opinions. This, together with their lack of understanding about subject, can influence your study. This is why it is important to validate your results. If you aren’t sure how to validate the outcomes, feel free to contact our dissertation writers . They have proven experience in conducting different research studies, including phenomenology.

Phenomenological Research Methodology

You should use phenomenological research methods carefully, when writing an academic paper. Aside from chance of running into bias, you risk misplacing your results if you don't know what you're doing. Luckily, we're here to provide thesis help and explain what steps you should take if you want your work to be flawless!

• Form a target group. It is typically 10 to 20 people who have witnessed a certain event or process. They may have an inside knowledge of it.
• Systematically observe participants of this group. Take necessary notes.
• Conduct interviews, conversation or workshops with them. Ask them questions about the subject like ‘what was your experience with it?’, ‘what did it mean?’, ‘what did you feel about it?’, etc.
• Analyze the results to achieve understanding of the subject’s impact on the group. This should include measures to counter biases and preconceived assumptions about the subject.

Phenomenological Research: Pros and Cons

Phenomenological research has plenty of advantages. After all, when writing a paper, you can benefit from collecting information from live participants. So, here are some of the cons:

• This method brings unique insights and perspectives on a subject. It may help seeing it from an unexpected side.
• It also helps to form deeper understanding about a subject or event in question. Many details can be uncovered, which would not be obvious otherwise.
• It provides undistorted data first-hand.

But, of course, you can't omit some disadvantages of phenomenological research. Bias is obviously one of them, but they don't stop with it. Observe:

• Sometimes participants may find it hard to convey their experience correctly. This happens due to various factors, like language barriers.
• Organizing data and conducting analysis can be very time consuming.
• You can generalize the resulting data easily.
• Preparing a proper presentation of the results may be challenging.

Phenomenological Research: Questions With Examples

It is important to know what phenomenological research questions can be used for certain papers. Remember, that you should use a qualitative approach here. Use open-ended questions each time you talk with a participant. This way the participant could give you much more information than just ‘yes’ or ‘know’.  Here are a few real examples of phenomenological research questions that have been used in academic works by term paper writers .

Phenomenological Research Questions: Examples

When you're stuck with your work, you might need some examples of phenomenological research questions. They focus on retrieving as much data as possible about a certain phenomenon. Participants are encouraged to share their experiences, feelings and emotions. This way scholars could get a deeper and more detailed view of a subject.

• What was it like, when the X event occurred?
• What were you thinking about when you first saw X?
• Can you tell me an example of encountering X?
• What could you associate X with?
• What was the X’s impact on your life/your family/your health etc.?

Phenomenological Research Examples

Do you need some real examples of phenomenological research? We'll be glad to provide them here, so you could better understand the information given above. Please note that good research topics should highlight the problem. It must also indicate the way you will collect and process data during analysis.

• Understanding the role of a teacher's personality and ability to lead by example play in the overall progress of their class. A study conducted in 6 private and public high schools of Newtown.
• Perspectives of aromatherapy in treating personality disorders among middle-aged residents of the city. A mixed methods study conducted among 3 independent focus groups in Germany, France and the UK.
• View and understanding of athletic activities' roles by college students. Their impact on overall academic success. Several focus groups have been selected for this study. They underwent both online conduct surveys and offline workshops to voice their opinions on the subject.

Phenomenological Research: Final Thoughts

Phenomenological qualitative research is crucial if you must collect data from live participants. In this article, we have examined the concept of this approach. Moreover, we explained how you can collect your data. Hopefully, this will provide you with a broader perspective about phenomenological research!

Or do tight deadlines give you a headache? Check out our paper writing services ! We’ve got a team of skilled authors with expertise in various academic fields. Our papers are well written, proofread and always delivered on time!

Frequently Asked Questions About Phenomenological Qualitative Research

1. what are the 4 various types of experiences in phenomenology.

Phenomenology studies the structure of various types of experience. It attempts to view a subject from many different angles. A good phenomenological research requires focusing on different ways the information can be retrieved from respondents. These can be: perception, thought, memory, imagination, emotion, desire, and volition. With them explained, a scholar can retrieve objective information, impressions, associations and assumptions about the subject.

3. What is the purpose of phenomenological research design?

Main goal of the phenomenological approach is highlighting the specific traits of a subject. This helps to identify phenomena through the perceptions of live participants. Phenomenological research design helps to formulate research statements. Questions must be asked so that the most informative replies could be received.

4. What is phenomenological research study?

A phenomenological research study explores what respondents have actually witnessed. It focuses on their unique experience of a subject in order to retrieve the most valuable and least distorted information about it. The study must include open-ended questions, target focus groups who will provide answers, and the tools to analyze the results.

2. What is hermeneutic phenomenology research?

Hermeneutic phenomenology research is a method often used in qualitative research in Education and other Human Sciences. It inspects deeper layers of respondents’ experiences by analyzing their interpretations and their level of comprehension of actual events, processes or objects. By viewing a person’s reply from different perspectives, researchers try to understand what is hidden beneath that.

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The essential guide to developing a boomtastic semi-structured interview schedule for your Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) research study

Written by Elena Gil-Rodriguez

Data collection for your interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa), aka: how do i come up with some awesome interview questions.

Updated February 2022

Semi-Structured Interviews are the prince (or princess) of data collection methods for your IPA

I am well aware that many of you will be conducting semi-structured interviews (SSIs) as your data collection method for your Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) research study. After all, it is the exemplar and the most common data collection method for this type of study.

As I have already covered developing your IPA research question (RQ) in a previous article, I will now turn my attention to constructing an effective interview schedule for your data collection.

A high-quality interview schedule (or interview guide) will give you the best chance of gathering high-quality data for your IPA

Another no-brainer but the quality of your preparation for interviewing process will really help ensure that you do not get caught in a ‘garbage in, garbage out’ situation with your data.

Firstly, make sure you have mapped out your topic area sufficiently with the extant literature and have therefore done your background research, and are clear on the gaps that you are looking to fill.

The reason for this is that it will inform what you ask in the interview and will help you avoid going over the same ground that has already been covered before in previous research.

Spend time on developing your interview schedule!

It is well worth investing the time and energy in optimising your schedule as far as is humanly possible to avoid the ‘garbage in and garbage out’ dilemma.

Practical tips for constructing your IPA interview schedule

Identify the main themes relevant to your RQ and start to develop specific questions around each theme.

Start freewriting, attempting to construct as many open-ended questions as you can.

You will eventually whittle this down to a shorter set of approximately ten questions – remember you will have lots of space for prompts and probes (see my next article on interviewing) to extend the conversation further.

So, while only having ten questions might feel anxiety-provoking, I can assure you it is more than enough if you mine the interview as much as possible by skilfully employing your prompts and probes to keep the conversation going and achieve greater depth from your participant. See this article to help with this aspect of your interview technique.

Once you have constructed your short-list of questions, check them over and ask yourself:

• Are they suitable for the topic area (e.g., are they relevant as per above)?
• Will my interview questions will help me answer my RQ?
• Is my first question broader and ‘scene setting’ to help settle my participant into the interview and develop rapport?
• Are my questions suitable for my participant group (e.g., are they worded correctly for specific groups such as young people, children, vulnerable participants etc)?
• Are they understandable (i.e., not confusing to the participant)? Do try them out on your geek-love study buddy to check comprehension and that you haven’t asked two questions in one (this is a common and very human habit)
• Can I get some broader peer feedback and take my schedule to my local IPA regional group?
• Can I organise a ‘reverse interview’ and try these questions on myself? This is where you get a buddy to interview you using your schedule so that you have some idea of how it might be to be the participant. NOTE: Doing a reverse interview can also help to reveal some of your fore conceptions as part of the hermeneutic circle and is sometimes referred to as a ‘bracketing interview’  

What if the areas I am interested in are not covered by the participant in the interview?

Don’t fret!

IPA SSIs are participant-led and we are looking for their take on the phenomenon , not our take on the phenomenon.

We therefore need to allow the participant to set the parameters of the topic area and describe their experience, not what you assume their experience is .

You never know, you might uncover something quite novel and exciting that you had not anticipated by giving them the space to lead the interview! 

You can, of course, introduce your topic of interest later in the interview if the participant does not raise it themselves. In this way, you will have let them set the parameters of that experience and yet can also probe into your area of concern once they have done this on their own terms.

What resources can I access to help me develop my IPA interview schedule?

Of course, the Smith, Flowers, and Larkin (2009) ‘bible’ pages 59 to 62 gives a great overview of types of questions with a bucketload of examples. I encourage you to access this helpful resource.

S mith, J.A., Larkin, M., & Flowers, P. (2009) . Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory, method and research . London: Sage

In the 2022 Second Edition , Chapter 4, ‘Collecting data’ is where you want to immediately head for guidance.

Braun and Clarke also have an excellent chapter on interviewing, including constructing a guide (schedule) in their wonderful 2013 text. This is also highly recommended.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: a practical guide for beginners . London: Sage .

Other references that may be useful to you include:

Brinkmann, S., & Kvale, S. (2018). Doing interviews . (2nd ed.) London: Sage

Warren, C.A.B. (2011). Qualitative interviewing. In J.F. Gubrium & J.A. Holstein (Eds.), Handbook of Interview Research (pp.83-102). London: Sage

The need to systematically develop your interviewing skills

Finally, just to mention that I obviously go into this area in a great deal of detail on my Supercharge Your Semi-Structured Interviewing workshop . I lead you by the hand through the process of constructing a high-quality interview schedule and preparing extensively for the interview process. We also spend a significant amount of time practicing interview skills in a group exercise.

I encourage you to attend one of my workshops dedicated specifically to helping you achieve the required skillset to conduct high-quality IPA interviews and therefore optimise the data that you gather for your study. You cannot make a silk purse from a sow’s ear and good quality data that achieves sufficient experiential depth is essential to make your life easier at the point of conducting your analysis.

As Professor Smith repeats, time and time again: ‘Interviewing is a critical part of the process and it can require considerable time to develop expertise’ (Smith, 2011, p. 23)

Reference: Smith, J.A. (2011). Evaluating the contribution of interpretative phenomenological analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5 , 9-27.

This is an area that students typically struggle with, just as I did! This is why I developed my Supercharge Your Semi-Structured Interviewing workshop – to help you develop your ability in this vital area. Developing these skills and grappling with this task in your research journey are all part of the process of becoming a qualitative researcher. I encourage you to see it as such rather than a monkey on your back that is whispering doom and gloom into your ear!

Until next time!

To your research success, Elena

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Phenomenology: One way to Understand the Lived Experience

8/21/17 / Matt Bruce

• Market Research
• Qualitative Research

How do workers experience returning to work after an on-the-job injury? How does a single-mother experience taking her child to the doctor? What is a tourist’s experience on his first visit to Colorado?

These research questions could all be answered by phenomenology, a research approach that describes the lived experience. While not a specific method of research, phenomenology is a series of assumptions that guide research tactics and decisions.Phenomenological research is uncommon in traditional market research, but that may be due to little awareness of it rather than its lack of utility. (However, UX research, which follows many phenomenological assumptions, is quickly gaining popularity). If you have been conducting research, but feel like you are no longer discovering anything new, then a phenomenology approach may shed some fresh insights.

Phenomenology is a qualitative research approach. It derives perspectives defined by experience and context, and the benefit of this research is a deeper and/or boarder understanding of these perspectives. To ensure perspectives are revealed, rather than prescribed, phenomenology avoids abstract concepts. The research doesn’t ask participants to justify their opinions or defend their behaviors. Rather, it investigates the respondents’ own terms in an organic way, assuming that people do not share the same interpretation of words or labels.

In market research, phenomenology is usually explored by unstructured, conversational interviews. Additional data, such as observing behavior (e.g., following a visitor’s path through a welcome center), can supplement the interviews. Interview questions typically do not ask participants to explain why they do, feel, or think something. These “why” questions can cause research participants to respond in ways that they think the researcher wants to hear, which may not be what’s in their head or heart. Instead, phenomenology researchers elicit stories from research participants by asking questions like “Can you tell me an example of when you…?” or, “What was it like when…?” This way, the researcher seeks and values context equally with the action of the experience.

The utility of this type of research may not be obvious at first. Project managers and decision makers may conclude the research project with a frustrating feeling of “now what?” This is a valid downside of phenomenological research. On the other hand, this approach has the power to make decision makers and organization leaders rethink basic assumptions and fundamental beliefs. It can reveal how reality manifests in very different ways.

A phenomenology study is not appropriate in all instances. But it is a niche option in our research arsenal that might best answer the question you are asking. As always, which research approach you use depends on your research question and how you want to use the results.

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Designing interview guides on stress and coping related to parenting pre‐teen children: an example from a hermeneutic phenomenological study

Sarah oerther.

1 Saint Louis University School of Nursing, St. Louis MO, USA

Associated Data

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article [and/or] its supplementary materials.

To develop a semi‐structured interview guide on stress and coping related to parenting pre‐teen children for a hermeneutic phenomenological research study.

Hermeneutic phenomenological research approach which describes the development of an interview guide with semi‐structured questions.

Ovid MEDLINE, CIHAHL, ERIC, SCOPUS, Web of Science, JSTOR, Education Source, PsyINFO and ProQuest were searched to identify possible interview guides with questions related to stress and coping. The literature was searched in 2019 and included manuscripts from 1970–2019. An initial interview guide was constructed. Mock interviews were used to confirm the rigour of the guide.

The final outcome was a semi‐structured interview guide on stress and coping related to parenting pre‐teen children.

The development of this semi‐structured interview guide is relevant to hermeneutic phenomenological researchers who are interested in discovering how personal background meanings and interpersonal concerns shape parents’ day‐to‐day stress appraisals and coping with parenting pre‐teen children.

This semi‐structured interviewing guide can be an impactful tool for researchers to use to understand how personal background meanings and interpersonal concerns shape background meanings and concerns related to stress and coping with parenting pre‐teen children.

1. INTRODUCTION

Hermeneutic phenomenological research is an established qualitative approach that is well matched to reveal self‐world relations and varied patterns and transitions in human meanings and practices (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ; SmithBattle,  2018 ). Hermeneutic phenomenological research is contextual and offers a way “to study persons, events, and practices in their own terms” (Benner,  1994 , p. 99). A major premise of the approach is that humans primarily relate to the world by engaging in practical activities; that is, people learn how to act and relate to others by absorbing the meanings embedded in everyday activities (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ; SmithBattle,  2018 ). Data for employing hermeneutic phenomenological research are generally collected using semi‐structured interviews with the aid of interview guides.

With semi‐structured interviews, researchers develop an a priori set of questions as an interview guide before conducting the interview, and then during the semi‐structured interview the set of questions guide, but do not dictate, the interview (SmithBattle,  2014 ). Every semi‐structured interview guide must be based on the study aims and the sampling criteria established for the study. Emerging scholars may find it difficult to develop interview guides for hermeneutic phenomenological research. This paper demonstrates the construction of a stress and coping interview guide for parenting pre‐teen children. In addition, suggestions to enhance the rigour of interview guides are also discussed.

2. BACKGROUND

2.1. rene descartes.

Rene Descartes (1596—1,650), a French philosopher, believed that the universe operated similar to a machine, and if the laws of the universe could be understood, then actions of the human body could be deduced and repaired, like a machine (Berman,  1981 ). His philosophical reasoning resulted in the view that the body and mind are separate (Magee,  1987 ). Descartes was the first to depict the body as a machine, which contributed to the mechanistic view of the body (Leder,  1992 ). The living patient's body is divided into its component parts and their interactions, and viewed in a machine‐like fashion (Leder,  1984 ). This contributed to the notion in philosophy that the body and mind, the subject and the object, and the person and the world are separate and distinct entities, which came be to known as Cartesian dualism (Guignon,  1983 ).

Knowledge began to be conceptualized by some medical professionals as something that is entirely in the mind and separate from the body (Leder,  1984 ). A patient was viewed as subject, and the world, or the environment, as objective. A consequence of this reasoning was that healthcare professionals became fixated with the idea of a person as a collection of variables, such as “anxiety” or “self‐esteem,” which measured as context‐free traits to be joined according to theories that can be discovered through the scientific method (Leonard,  1989 ).

2.2. Martin Heidegger

In contrast to Descartes, Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher writing during the twentieth century, proposed that knowledge was not limited to conscious thought (McConnell‐Henry et al.,  2009 ; Moran & Mooney,  2002 ). Rather, Heidegger claimed that Descartes’ focus on universal objective knowledge overlooked practical or pre‐theoretical understanding that is not held in the mind but is embedded in everyday practices (Guignon,  1983 ). For instance, when people drive a car, they are often unaware of all the embodied skills they use to drive the car (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ). A skilled driver barely notices actions such as turning the steering wheel, staying in the lane or hitting the brake, even though the driver might do this almost fifty times on a trip to the store. These actions are automatic and escape the driver's conscious thought. Instead, the skilled driver's attention is usually focused on manoeuvring around other cars to get to the destination, or the driver is focused on the conversation with a passenger in the car (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ).

Heidegger's book, Being and Time , challenged the Cartesian dualism that separated the subjective from the objective, mind from body and person from world (Guignon,  1983 ). Heidegger was interested in the ontological question of what it is to be, and he focused on “being‐in‐the world” (Guignon,  1983 ). Heidegger uses the term Dasein to describe the human way of being‐in‐the world. Dasein is a German word that can be defined as existence (Guignon,  1983 ). Dasein is the human being's ordinary, pre‐theoretical understanding of being, which is reflected in the everyday activities of relating to others and skilful coping (Dreyfus,  1991 ; Guignon,  1983 ; Moran,  2000 ).

For Heidegger, people are thrown into a shared world as members of a particular culture, community and family. Those shared understandings and practices situate them in the world in specific ways (Dreyfus,  1991 ). For instance, it is expected that parents’ experiences of raising pre‐teen children are implicit in their everyday parenting practices and that these experiences shape their day‐to‐day appraisals of stress and situate them in the world (Benner,  1994 ; Packer & Addison,  1989 ). Their parenting practices can only be articulated by considering their past background experiences as members of specific cultures, communities and families. For researchers to understand parents and discover meaning, they must understand how parents of pre‐teen children are constituted by their world and family relationships (Benner,  1994 ).

According to Heidegger, there are three modes of “being‐in‐the world”: ready‐to‐hand, unready‐to‐hand and present‐at‐hand (Dreyfus,  1991 ). In the ready‐to‐hand mode, everyday skills and practices are familiar to people as they are actively absorbed in everyday activities. As people engage in activities with expertise, the tools they use become transparent and their bodies act skilfully without conscious thought (Guignon,  1983 ; Packer & Addison,  1989 ). This skilful coping is taken for granted because it is pre‐reflexive (Leonard,  1989 ; Magee,  1987 ). For instance, the bodily experience of driving a car passes largely unnoticed for a driver with experience. This is because the driver does not have to purposefully think about all of the bodily actions (e.g. steering the wheel or braking) as long as everything is running smoothly (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ). The same is thought to be true when parents and pre‐teen children remain connected and have a healthy relationship; everyday activities run smoothly and interactions become transparent (Benner,  1994 ; Guignon,  1983 ; Packer & Addison,  1989 ).

The unready‐to‐hand mode of engagement occurs when a dilemma or breakdown interrupts practical, pre‐reflexive, smoothly running everyday activities. When this occurs, the surrounding conditions that constitute the world come explicitly into view and people become aware of the breakdown (Guignon,  1983 ; Packer & Addison,  1989 ). A good way to describe this mode of being is switching from driving an automatic car to a stick shift. An experienced driver of an automatic car might have been driving for many years, so their actions are essentially taken for granted and are often outside the realm of conscious thought. However, suddenly the experienced driver now needs to reflect on all the skills needed to drive the car, such as applying pressure to the gas pedal, pressing down the clutch, and changing gears and then releasing the clutch to reengage the drive. Suddenly, driving becomes a very “cognitive” task, and they start to consider when and how to adjust their driving speed, change gears and break. Basically, driving an automatic car was so automatic that it was often barely noticed; driving only appeared in a conscious way in learning to use a stick shift (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ). Similarly, if a parent loses a job, becomes depressed and is unable to fully participate in everyday activities with their pre‐teen child, parent–child interactions may be interrupted and may become problematic (Benner,  1994 ).

Present‐at‐hand is when a person detaches themselves from the situation to find a solution. Present‐at‐hand is also any experience in which skilful coping is no longer possible, and it forces people to switch to deliberate attention. Implicit action becomes explicit. A person becomes like a scientist observing an experiment and disengages from the dilemma to find a solution. For instance, present‐at‐hand is the way a scientist would examine the characteristics and properties of a rock, measuring its mass and size. It is the mode of staring at something without engagement (Guignon,  1983 ; Packer & Addison,  1989 ). Scientists also approach parenting in the present‐at‐hand mode by identifying and measuring variables and their interactions separate from parents’ interpretations and contexts.

Seeking to understand everyday practices and modes of being helps to disclose the shared world and makes it possible to understand what Heidegger calls "the clearing" (Guignon,  1983 ; Moran & Mooney,  2002 ). World‐disclosing, or the clearing, is an interpretation or understanding made possible only through a shared background understanding (Guignon,  1983 ; Moran & Mooney,  2002 ). Parents learn to skilfully cope with the many stressors and challenges they face as parents based on the background meanings, or practical understandings, of being‐in‐the world as, for instance, residents of a rural community.

2.3. Stress and coping

The Lazarus Stress and Coping Paradigm is the framework for designing this semi‐structured interview guide on stress and coping related to parenting pre‐teen children. The Lazarus Stress and Coping Paradigm views stress as residing not in the person or the event but in their interaction (Lazarus & Launier,  1978 ). Stress can be defined as a person's grasp of the meaning of circumstances for the self when that meaning overloads or surpasses normal adaptive resources (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ). The response to stress interrupts practical, smoothly running everyday activities. Coping can be defined as what a person does in response to the disruption (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ). This paradigm permits meanings to be identified without transforming them into discrete variables that would destroy the meaning of the situation. This paradigm is complementary to a hermeneutic phenomenological research approach because “stress” and “coping” refer to the dynamic relationship between the person and the world.

Caring for pre‐teen children sets up what counts as stressful for parents and what coping options are available for parents. Parenting stress can be defined as difficulties with the concerns surrounding the parenting role, which were meaning‐dependent and context‐dependent (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ; Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ). Coping is integral to the parenting experience and the understanding of the parents’ stress, and consequently may transform the original understanding of situations and their concerns. Parental coping can be defined as what is effective for parents to do and is understood as what parents actually do in the situation, including new skills and meanings that parents learned from different situations (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ).

3. CONSTRUCTING QUESTIONS

Since the Age of Reason, during the 17th and 18th centuries, stories have been dismissed as unscientific and have been discounted as a methodological tool because formal reasoning has been elevated as valid knowledge at the cost of practical rationality (Mishler,  1986 ). Yet stories continue to be an essential foundation for understanding. For instance, reading a story opens up the world of the narrator, full of the possibilities, concerns, intentions, contradictions, options and impossibilities given in the world of that person. The first‐person account of a story offers an inside‐out viewpoint vital to grasping the terms in which people perceive their life and revealing people's self‐understandings, as well the background conditions that situate activities and contextualize the person (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ; Mishler,  1986 ). Stories from parents of pre‐teen children can recover what formal theories necessarily overlook; namely, how parents of pre‐teen children are social and historical beings.

What distinguishes a hermeneutic phenomenological semi‐structured interview guide from alternatives such as quantitative surveys is the researcher's approach to interviewing diverges in style and form from quantitative interviewing techniques. For example, quantitative surveys are generally carried in a consistent manner to allow the comparison of cases according to a normative structure. The detached style of a quantitative survey and the power of the quantitative researcher to exclusively define legitimate questions and responses that are characteristic of a quantitative survey generally have the practical effect of discouraging contextualized, narrative accounts or stories (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ; Mishler,  1986 ). Standardized quantitative surveys with predetermined and extremely focused lines of questioning limit the essential dialogue, restricting the work of understanding that is the purpose of hermeneutic phenomenological research.

The hermeneutic phenomenological research stance assumes that the study participants’ background meanings provide the basis for understanding. For instance, a parent of a pre‐teen child may take up meanings that are embedded in particular skills and practices of parenting without ever being aware of those meanings. If a parent loses a job, becomes depressed and is unable to fully participate in everyday activities with their pre‐teen child, parent–child interactions may be interrupted and may become problematic (Benner,  1994 ). Meanings such as these are inherent in parenting practices; they are best studied by examining actual events through stories (SmithBattle,  2014 ).

Hermeneutic phenomenological research offers a view of the person that is profoundly different from more traditional quantitative notions that are inherently Cartesian. It offers emerging scholars the opportunity to understand the meaningfully rich and complex lived world of those parents of pre‐teen children for whom they care (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ; Mishler,  1986 ). Semi‐structured interview guide questions seek to elicit stories from, for instance, parents of pre‐teen children that reveal the context within which parents and pre‐teen children act, demonstrating how meanings are lived out on the background of shared understandings that develop within a socio‐cultural tradition.

Creating a semi‐structured interview guide for a study employing hermeneutic phenomenological research is an iterative process (SmithBattle,  2014 ). In a hermeneutic phenomenological research study, the semi‐structured interview guide should encapsulate the aims of what the researcher is trying to reveal, or the ontological, epistemological and methodological stance of the researcher's study (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ). “Research questions embed the values, world view, and direction of an inquiry. They also are influential in determining what type of knowledge is going to be generated” (Trede & Higgs,  2009 , p. 18). For instance, Phinny ( 2000 ) used hermeneutic phenomenological research to examine how people with dementia understand their illness and how their lives changed as a result of dementia.

3.1. Stage 1: Identifying the research aims

For much of modern history, medical professionals’ mechanical lens for seeing parents has been used to develop theories on parenting stress and objective resources for coping, using a deductive thought process. Theorists on parenting often treat the parent and child in a machine‐like fashion, and reduce them down to their interactions. This focus on the mechanical constructs and interactions of parents and pre‐teen children, such as parental involvement, engagement, accessibility and responsibility, without understanding the concerns of parents as shaped by context, limits understanding of the world of pre‐teen parents. For example, parenthood not only generates stressors that derive directly from parenting and the parent/pre‐teen child relationship, but it can also exacerbate problems or produce new stressors, such as stress from long‐term illness, occupational stress and financial stress, which may result in parental stress that can have effects on a parent's ability to care for their pre‐teen children.

Experiential meanings that constituted parents’ understanding of raising pre‐teen children (eight to 12 years old) in rural communities were examined using hermeneutic phenomenology research. The researcher examined parenting practices during this developmental stage, as well as the adaptive demands of parenting and the ways parents cope with those demands. Two of the research aims for this study related to stress and coping were to:

• Uncover the challenges of parenting pre‐teen children in rural communities.
• Describe the resources that support parents in raising pre‐teen children in rural communities.

The overall goal in developing this semi‐structured interview guide on stress and coping related to parenting pre‐teen children was to discover how personal background meanings and interpersonal concerns shape parents’ day‐to‐day stress appraisals and coping with parenting pre‐teen children. Additionally, the researcher decided the sample for this study would consist of a convenience sample of 16 married or cohabitating parenting dyads from a rural Midwest community with at least one pre‐teen child, born any time from 2008–2011. The researcher wanted this semi‐structured interview on stress and coping related to parenting pre‐teen children to last approximately 60 min.

3.2. Stage 2: Literature review

After deciding on the purpose of the study and research goal(s), and determining which study participants would provide the best information to answer the research question based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, relevant literature related to stress and coping was reviewed. A medical librarian‐assisted literature search was performed through the databases Ovid MEDLINE, CIHAHL, ERIC, SCOPUS, Web of Science, JSTOR, Education Source, PsyINFO and ProQuest. The search terms included the words “hermeneutic*” or “phenomenology*” and “stress*” or “coping*” and “interview*” in the title, abstract or keywords. The literature search was conducted in 2019 and examined articles from 1 January 1970 to 30 June 2019. The search yielded 3,475 articles after duplicates were deleted. An ancestry search of the reference list of manuscripts and authors was also completed; 20 additional manuscripts were found. Inclusion criteria were studies using hermeneutic phenomenological research to evaluate stress and coping. Manuscripts were excluded if they did not include a semi‐structured interview guide (Figure  1 ).

PRISMA flow diagram. Note . Search terms: “hermeneutic*” or “phenomenology*” and “stress*” or “coping*” and “interview*” Search period: January 1970 through September of 2019. PRISMA = Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (Liberati et al.,  2009 )

Unfortunately, it is uncommon for researchers to publish how they created interview guides, and it can be difficult for some emerging scholars to find good examples of semi‐structured interview guides for a hermeneutic phenomenological research study. However, some dissertations provide examples of interview guides.

Many researchers’ dissertations have constructed interview guides to investigate stress and coping. For instance, SmithBattle ( 1992 ) examined the teenager's transition to mothering as shaped by the family's caregiving practices and the mother's participation in a defining community. She examined personal and family understandings related to caring for a young mother and her child as they are expressed in actual caregiving practices and rituals, and in stress and coping incidents (SmithBattle,  1992 ). Pohlman ( 2003 ) used semi‐structured interview guides to examine the meanings, concerns and practices of fathers of pre‐term infants. Stressful aspects of their experience were located outside the NICU and involved the juggling act between work, hospital visits and home; paradoxically, work was also noted as a coping resource for fathers (Pohlman,  2003 ). Another researcher sought to identify patterns and indicators of pre‐clinical disability among older women. A hermeneutic phenomenological research approach was taken to explore embodiment, taken‐for‐granted bodily sensations and coping practices (Lorenz,  2007 ). Finally, Fyle‐Thorpe ( 2015 ) examined the experiences of low‐income, non‐resident African American fathers with regard to parenting and depression. She revealed the challenges and barriers to parenting among low‐income non‐resident African American fathers (Fyle‐Thorpe,  2015 ).

A table was constructed with types of guiding questions, including (a) warm up questions; (b) core questions; (c) probing questions; and (d) wrap up questions related to stress and coping (Table  1 ). Warm up questions do not have to directly relate to the aims of the researcher's study (although they might), but help with rapport‐building, which will put the researcher and study participant more at ease with one another, allowing the rest of the interview to progress smoothly. Core questions are more difficult or potentially embarrassing questions. The goal is to tap into study participants’ experiences and expertise. Probing questions elicit more detailed and elaborate responses to key questions. For a study employing hermeneutic phenomenological research, the more details the study participants share, the better. Finally, wrap up questions provide closure for an interview and prevent the interview from ending abruptly.

Guiding questions

The researcher made sure all questions put in the table were open ended, neutral, and clear, and avoided leading language. In addition, the researcher only included example questions that used familiar language and avoided jargon. Table  1 gives details of the types of guiding questions including warm up questions, core questions, probing questions and wrap up questions (SmithBattle,  2014 ).

3.3. Stage 3: Writing the questions

The questions for this stress and coping interview guide were based on the work of other hermeneutic phenomenological researchers (Fyle‐Thorpe,  2015 ; Lorenz,  2007 ; Pohlman, 2005 ; SmithBattle,  1992 ). An initial list of questions was developed based on Table  1 . First, warm up questions were developed (Figure ​ (Figure2). 2 ). These questions were used to help parents feel more at ease talking about potentially stressful situations.

Stress and coping interview

Second, core questions were developed. These questions were adapted to fit the study participants, parents of pre‐teen children living in rural communities. When using a hermeneutic phenomenological research approach for an interview guide about stress and coping, it is important to remember the primary source of knowledge is everyday practical activity. The study participant's perspective is paramount and core questions need to encourage detailed stories of lived experiences. In contrast to a quantitative survey, the core questions for this semi‐structured interview guide on stress and coping seek to elicit stories about specific incidents, events and situations directed at human behaviour which became the text analogue that was studied and interpreted in order to discover hidden or obscured meaning. It is also important for emerging scholars to remember that the core questions are not fixed, standardized interviews that guarantee minimal responses amenable to discrete coding, interview protocols but core questions serve as flexible guides that encourage a dialogue that provides rich, thick descriptions.

Finally, probing questions were developed to elicit more detailed stories that would provide specific examples of how personal background meanings and concerns shape parents’ day‐to‐day stress appraisals and coping with parenting pre‐teen children in rural communities. It is important for emerging scholars to remember that meaning is often hidden because it is so pervasive and so taken for granted that it goes unnoticed. Since everyday lived experiences are so taken for granted as to go unnoticed, it is often through breakdowns that the researcher achieves flashes of insight into the lived world. Therefore, probes can assist in eliciting rich, descriptive information about the research setting, study participants, and their stories of their experiences. The probing questions were developed more as suggestions that may help the study participant to elaborate a detailed story of what they actually did, thought and felt about specific situations as they evolved and with enough detail so that the context of the situation would be fully described. Emerging scholars need to remember that the relevance of the probing questions may change from study participant to study participant, and some probing questions may not be asked.

After the initial list of questions was developed, the list was reviewed for language and sequencing. This semi‐structured interview guide on stress and coping begins with a warm up question. The researcher took care to make sure this was something the study participant could answer easily but that wouldn't take too long. Next, the researcher considered the flow of the interview to make sure it was logical. What issues should be asked about first? What questions should come next, and would seem more or less “natural”? The most challenging or possibly upsetting core questions were asked towards the end of the interview, after rapport had been built. The last question, or the wrap up question, was intentionally chosen to leave the study participant feeling encouraged, heard, or otherwise glad they participated in the interview (SmithBattle,  2014 ).

3.4. Stage 4: Assessing rigour

Assessing the rigour of a hermeneutic phenomenological semi‐structured interview guide requires different criteria than those for assessing the validity and reliability of a quantitative survey (Creswell,  2016 ; Streubert & Carpenter,  2011 ). The rigour of a hermeneutic phenomenological semi‐structured interview guide must be consistent with understanding human experience (Benner et al.,  1996 ). The researcher promoted the rigour of this semi‐structured interview guide in several different ways. First, the researcher participated in interpretive reading groups as a way to refine, challenge and validate initial semi‐structured interview guide questions (Benner,  1994 ). Colleagues read and analysed the questions. These sessions provided insight and feedback that assisted in refining and confirming the questions (Benner,  1994 ; Morse,  2015 ).

Then, the semi‐structured interview guide was used in mock interviews and feedback was given. A mock interview is an experience that includes both professors and doctoral students who practise together and help each other refine skills for interviewing (SmithBattle,  2014 ). Conducting mock interviews allowed the researcher to make sure questions were simple and that they were not asking more than one question at a time (SmithBattle,  2014 ). Conducting mock interviews allowed the researcher to begin to understand which questions prompted the longest answers from the study participants. The researcher found some of the questions could only be answered with a few words; these questions were removed. The researcher crafted the questions so that study participants would be encouraged to answer as authentically and completely as possible. During the mock interviews, the researcher thought through alternative ways of answering a few of the questions, such as through observation. Limitations and biases of the semi‐structured interview guide questions were also discussed with the researcher's advisor. It took several mock interviews to judge the correct length of the semi‐structured interview guide.

To ensure the rigour of this semi‐structured interview guide, the researcher also considered sensitivity to context, transparency and generalizability. Sensitivity to context was established through demonstrating sensitivity to the existing literature and the socio‐cultural setting of the study when writing the interview questions (Rodgers & Cowles,  1993 ). Transparency refers to how clearly the stages of the research process are described in the write‐up (Rodgers & Cowles,  1993 ). The semi‐structured interview guide was created using a table, which established an audit trail as a way to enhance transparency. The principle of generalizability or transferability is controversial in hermeneutic phenomenological research because the goal is to provide a rich, contextualized understanding of the human experience. The principle of generalizability in hermeneutic phenomenological research reflects how well or sensitively a piece of research is conducted, and whether or not it tells the reader something clinically useful (Creswell,  2016 ; Morse,  2015 ; Rodgers & Cowles,  1993 ). To achieve generalizability, the researcher sought to create rich, high‐quality questions that would elicit descriptive information about the research setting, study participants and their experiences. This will assist future researchers in making appropriate judgements about the proximal similarity of study contexts and their own environments.

3.5. Limitations

When hermeneutic phenomenological researchers create a semi‐structured interview guide and then conduct interviews and observations, they are thrown forward from their forestructure of understanding into the experiences of their study participants (Packer & Addison,  1989 ). This process is called the hermeneutic circle. The hermeneutic circle consists of forestructure and biases (pre‐suppositions), which are positive and negative (Packer & Addison,  1989 ). As the researcher moves in this circle of understanding, the researcher begins with their biases or what they already know (from personal experience, theory, research findings) and returns as they gain an appreciation of where they began (forestructure) and where their initial understanding may confirm or diverge from their study participants’ understanding and experience (Gadamer,  1975 ). While their initial biases helped them to enter the field, study participants’ data may enlarge their understanding and eventually, the hermeneutic phenomenological researcher experiences a fusion of horizons with study participants as the researcher better understands how one's own forestructure has shaped the original aims, research questions and early interpretation of the data (Gadamer,  1975 ). Therefore, limitations and biases of the semi‐structured interview guide questions were discussed with the researcher's advisor as the semi‐structured interview guide was developed. The researcher's own forestructure was also acknowledged as the semi‐structured interview guide was developed. Acknowledging forestructure is consistent with the hermeneutic phenomenological research process (Crist & Tanner,  2003 ; Finlay, 2006 ; Morse,  2015 ).

4. DISCUSSION

The goal of this semi‐structured interview guide on stress and coping related to parenting pre‐teen children was to encourage study participants to tell stories of their experiences so that meaning in context could be captured from personal accounts of the everyday world (Mishler, 1979 ). The semi‐structured interview guide was used to initiate conversation and encourage dialogue with parents of pre‐teen children. None of the questions in this semi‐structured interview guide abstracted experience and life events from their context of the parents’ stories. Parents were asked to describe a recent difficult or challenging situation, followed by a recent meaningful episode. Careful probing questions assisted parents in elaborating their thoughts, feelings and actions in self‐selected stress and coping situations, as they occurred in context. The probing, clarifying questions changed during conversations with parents, and the interviewer sought to help them provide detailed stories of what they did, thought and felt about specific situations as they occurred. The researcher sought to elicit as much detail about their stories as possible so that the researcher could more fully understand the parents’ thoughts and actions about particular situations (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ; Mishler,  1986 ). The researcher followed the parents’ lead in the conversations because what parents of pre‐teen children chose to talk about reflected their practical understanding of their world of parenting pre‐teen children. Language, as noted by Guignon ( 1983 ), who interpreted Heidegger's philosophy, constitutes both the understanding and situatedness of our everyday being and lays out the possibilities of grasping the world.

Hermeneutic phenomenological research analysis began after the first interview and continued as data were collected. Interpretation of transcripts from interviews did not proceed in a linear or step‐like predetermined manner but was a circular process that unfolded as the researcher's provisional understanding of the transcripts from the study participants’ stories grew in depth from multiple readings and analysis (Benner & Wrubel,  1989 ). Initially, the transcripts were read by the researcher to obtain an overall understanding of the study participants’ meanings of parenting; then, texts were compared and contrasted to identify differences and similarities in meanings and practices (Allen et al., 1986). Through systematic analysis of the whole, the researcher gained new perspectives and depths of understanding. The researcher used this insight to examine parts of the whole and then reconsider the whole in light of the understanding gained from the parts. Each transcript was read multiple times to obtain a sense of each parent's situation and to gain an overall sense of their meanings (Sandelowski,  1995 ; Streubert & Carpenter,  2011 ). This phase raised numerous questions as narrative descriptions of stress and coping activities related to parenting pre‐teen children provided contrasts and similarities between whole cases and between differing perspectives of the mothers and fathers. This process followed this part‐whole strategy until the researcher was satisfied with the depth of understanding. Recurring themes relating to stress and coping were identified in this first phase and modified with successive readings.

Emerging scholars need to be aware that research questions may be transformed during the process of conducting interviews, as practices and meaning emerge from the perspectives of various study participants. Emerging scholars should anticipate that the semi‐structured interview guide will be revised as the study continues, as new questions emerge from interviews (SmithBattle,  2014 ). For instance, the original aims of one researcher's study were to: “(a) increase understanding of what the experience of receiving family care means to elders; (b) show how the personal, social, and cultural meanings of health and illness of elders shape their interpretation of receiving family care; and (c) identify patterns about receiving family care that are shared across gender, age, and culture” (Crist & Tanner,  2003 ). After it was obvious that having family care did not mean the experience was a defining aspect of the lives of the first study participants engaging in the interviews, the aim was modified (Crist & Tanner,  2003 ).

5. CONCLUSION

Semi‐structured interviewing can be an impactful tool for emerging scholars to use to understand how personal background meanings and interpersonal concerns shape background meanings and concerns related to stress and coping. To clarify this approach to creating a stress and coping interview guide for emerging scholars, recommendations for the essential steps to follow in order to best create semi‐structured interviews related to stress and coping were suggested. Emerging scholars should expect that their ability to develop semi‐structured interview guides will be improved and refined as they continue to conduct studies that advance the science and practice of nursing.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

No conflict of interest has been declared by the author.

ETHICAL APPROVAL

This semi‐structured interview guide received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval prior to interviews being conducted. Study participants had an opportunity to ask questions or raise concerns with the researcher prior to starting the interview. During this time, the researcher reiterated that study participants had the option to refuse to answer any question and could withdraw from the study at any time. Additionally, study participants were notified that, with their consent, audio recordings and notes were collected throughout the interview.

Oerther S. Designing interview guides on stress and coping related to parenting pre‐teen children: an example from a hermeneutic phenomenological study . Nurs Open . 2021; 8 :2142–2152. 10.1002/nop2.778 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not‐for‐profit sectors

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What Is a Research Design? | Definition, Types & Guide

Introduction

Parts of a research design, types of research methodology in qualitative research, narrative research designs, phenomenological research designs, grounded theory research designs.

• Ethnographic research designs

Case study research design

Important reminders when designing a research study.

A research design in qualitative research is a critical framework that guides the methodological approach to studying complex social phenomena. Qualitative research designs determine how data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted, ensuring that the research captures participants' nuanced and subjective perspectives. Research designs also recognize ethical considerations and involve informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and handling sensitive topics with the utmost respect and care. These considerations are crucial in qualitative research and other contexts where participants may share personal or sensitive information. A research design should convey coherence as it is essential for producing high-quality qualitative research, often following a recursive and evolving process.

Theoretical concepts and research question

The first step in creating a research design is identifying the main theoretical concepts. To identify these concepts, a researcher should ask which theoretical keywords are implicit in the investigation. The next step is to develop a research question using these theoretical concepts. This can be done by identifying the relationship of interest among the concepts that catch the focus of the investigation. The question should address aspects of the topic that need more knowledge, shed light on new information, and specify which aspects should be prioritized before others. This step is essential in identifying which participants to include or which data collection methods to use. Research questions also put into practice the conceptual framework and make the initial theoretical concepts more explicit. Once the research question has been established, the main objectives of the research can be specified. For example, these objectives may involve identifying shared experiences around a phenomenon or evaluating perceptions of a new treatment.

Methodology

After identifying the theoretical concepts, research question, and objectives, the next step is to determine the methodology that will be implemented. This is the lifeline of a research design and should be coherent with the objectives and questions of the study. The methodology will determine how data is collected, analyzed, and presented. Popular qualitative research methodologies include case studies, ethnography , grounded theory , phenomenology, and narrative research . Each methodology is tailored to specific research questions and facilitates the collection of rich, detailed data. For example, a narrative approach may focus on only one individual and their story, while phenomenology seeks to understand participants' lived common experiences. Qualitative research designs differ significantly from quantitative research, which often involves experimental research, correlational designs, or variance analysis to test hypotheses about relationships between two variables, a dependent variable and an independent variable while controlling for confounding variables.

Literature review

After the methodology is identified, conducting a thorough literature review is integral to the research design. This review identifies gaps in knowledge, positioning the new study within the larger academic dialogue and underlining its contribution and relevance. Meta-analysis, a form of secondary research, can be particularly useful in synthesizing findings from multiple studies to provide a clear picture of the research landscape.

Data collection

The sampling method in qualitative research is designed to delve deeply into specific phenomena rather than to generalize findings across a broader population. The data collection methods—whether interviews, focus groups, observations, or document analysis—should align with the chosen methodology, ethical considerations, and other factors such as sample size. In some cases, repeated measures may be collected to observe changes over time.

Data analysis

Analysis in qualitative research typically involves methods such as coding and thematic analysis to distill patterns from the collected data. This process delineates how the research results will be systematically derived from the data. It is recommended that the researcher ensures that the final interpretations are coherent with the observations and analyses, making clear connections between the data and the conclusions drawn. Reporting should be narrative-rich, offering a comprehensive view of the context and findings.

Overall, a coherent qualitative research design that incorporates these elements facilitates a study that not only adds theoretical and practical value to the field but also adheres to high quality. This methodological thoroughness is essential for achieving significant, insightful findings. Examples of well-executed research designs can be valuable references for other researchers conducting qualitative or quantitative investigations. An effective research design is critical for producing robust and impactful research outcomes.

Each qualitative research design is unique, diverse, and meticulously tailored to answer specific research questions, meet distinct objectives, and explore the unique nature of the phenomenon under investigation. The methodology is the wider framework that a research design follows. Each methodology in a research design consists of methods, tools, or techniques that compile data and analyze it following a specific approach.

The methods enable researchers to collect data effectively across individuals, different groups, or observations, ensuring they are aligned with the research design. The following list includes the most commonly used methodologies employed in qualitative research designs, highlighting how they serve different purposes and utilize distinct methods to gather and analyze data.

The narrative approach in research focuses on the collection and detailed examination of life stories, personal experiences, or narratives to gain insights into individuals' lives as told from their perspectives. It involves constructing a cohesive story out of the diverse experiences shared by participants, often using chronological accounts. It seeks to understand human experience and social phenomena through the form and content of the stories. These can include spontaneous narrations such as memoirs or diaries from participants or diaries solicited by the researcher. Narration helps construct the identity of an individual or a group and can rationalize, persuade, argue, entertain, confront, or make sense of an event or tragedy. To conduct a narrative investigation, it is recommended that researchers follow these steps:

Identify if the research question fits the narrative approach. Its methods are best employed when a researcher wants to learn about the lifestyle and life experience of a single participant or a small number of individuals.

Select the best-suited participants for the research design and spend time compiling their stories using different methods such as observations, diaries, interviewing their family members, or compiling related secondary sources.

Compile the information related to the stories. Narrative researchers collect data based on participants' stories concerning their personal experiences, for example about their workplace or homes, their racial or ethnic culture, and the historical context in which the stories occur.

Analyze the participant stories and "restore" them within a coherent framework. This involves collecting the stories, analyzing them based on key elements such as time, place, plot, and scene, and then rewriting them in a chronological sequence (Ollerenshaw & Creswell, 2000). The framework may also include elements such as a predicament, conflict, or struggle; a protagonist; and a sequence with implicit causality, where the predicament is somehow resolved (Carter, 1993).

Collaborate with participants by actively involving them in the research. Both the researcher and the participant negotiate the meaning of their stories, adding a credibility check to the analysis (Creswell & Miller, 2000).

A narrative investigation includes collecting a large amount of data from the participants and the researcher needs to understand the context of the individual's life. A keen eye is needed to collect particular stories that capture the individual experiences. Active collaboration with the participant is necessary, and researchers need to discuss and reflect on their own beliefs and backgrounds. Multiple questions could arise in the collection, analysis, and storytelling of individual stories that need to be addressed, such as: Whose story is it? Who can tell it? Who can change it? Which version is compelling? What happens when narratives compete? In a community, what do the stories do among them? (Pinnegar & Daynes, 2006).

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A research design based on phenomenology aims to understand the essence of the lived experiences of a group of people regarding a particular concept or phenomenon. Researchers gather deep insights from individuals who have experienced the phenomenon, striving to describe "what" they experienced and "how" they experienced it. This approach to a research design typically involves detailed interviews and aims to reach a deep existential understanding. The purpose is to reduce individual experiences to a description of the universal essence or understanding the phenomenon's nature (van Manen, 1990). In phenomenology, the following steps are usually followed:

Identify a phenomenon of interest . For example, the phenomenon might be anger, professionalism in the workplace, or what it means to be a fighter.

Recognize and specify the philosophical assumptions of phenomenology , for example, one could reflect on the nature of objective reality and individual experiences.

Collect data from individuals who have experienced the phenomenon . This typically involves conducting in-depth interviews, including multiple sessions with each participant. Additionally, other forms of data may be collected using several methods, such as observations, diaries, art, poetry, music, recorded conversations, written responses, or other secondary sources.

Ask participants two general questions that encompass the phenomenon and how the participant experienced it (Moustakas, 1994). For example, what have you experienced in this phenomenon? And what contexts or situations have typically influenced your experiences within the phenomenon? Other open-ended questions may also be asked, but these two questions particularly focus on collecting research data that will lead to a textural description and a structural description of the experiences, and ultimately provide an understanding of the common experiences of the participants.

Review data from the questions posed to participants . It is recommended that researchers review the answers and highlight "significant statements," phrases, or quotes that explain how participants experienced the phenomenon. The researcher can then develop meaningful clusters from these significant statements into patterns or key elements shared across participants.

Write a textual description of what the participants experienced based on the answers and themes of the two main questions. The answers are also used to write about the characteristics and describe the context that influenced the way the participants experienced the phenomenon, called imaginative variation or structural description. Researchers should also write about their own experiences and context or situations that influenced them.

Write a composite description from the structural and textural description that presents the "essence" of the phenomenon, called the essential and invariant structure.

A phenomenological approach to a research design includes the strict and careful selection of participants in the study where bracketing personal experiences can be difficult to implement. The researcher decides how and in which way their knowledge will be introduced. It also involves some understanding and identification of the broader philosophical assumptions.

Grounded theory is used in a research design when the goal is to inductively develop a theory "grounded" in data that has been systematically gathered and analyzed. Starting from the data collection, researchers identify characteristics, patterns, themes, and relationships, gradually forming a theoretical framework that explains relevant processes, actions, or interactions grounded in the observed reality. A grounded theory study goes beyond descriptions and its objective is to generate a theory, an abstract analytical scheme of a process. Developing a theory doesn't come "out of nothing" but it is constructed and based on clear data collection. We suggest the following steps to follow a grounded theory approach in a research design:

Determine if grounded theory is the best for your research problem . Grounded theory is a good design when a theory is not already available to explain a process.

Develop questions that aim to understand how individuals experienced or enacted the process (e.g., What was the process? How did it unfold?). Data collection and analysis occur in tandem, so that researchers can ask more detailed questions that shape further analysis, such as: What was the focal point of the process (central phenomenon)? What influenced or caused this phenomenon to occur (causal conditions)? What strategies were employed during the process? What effect did it have (consequences)?

Gather relevant data about the topic in question . Data gathering involves questions that are usually asked in interviews, although other forms of data can also be collected, such as observations, documents, and audio-visual materials from different groups.

Carry out the analysis in stages . Grounded theory analysis begins with open coding, where the researcher forms codes that inductively emerge from the data (rather than preconceived categories). Researchers can thus identify specific properties and dimensions relevant to their research question.

Assemble the data in new ways and proceed to axial coding . Axial coding involves using a coding paradigm or logic diagram, such as a visual model, to systematically analyze the data. Begin by identifying a central phenomenon, which is the main category or focus of the research problem. Next, explore the causal conditions, which are the categories of factors that influence the phenomenon. Specify the strategies, which are the actions or interactions associated with the phenomenon. Then, identify the context and intervening conditions—both narrow and broad factors that affect the strategies. Finally, delineate the consequences, which are the outcomes or results of employing the strategies.

Use selective coding to construct a "storyline" that links the categories together. Alternatively, the researcher may formulate propositions or theory-driven questions that specify predicted relationships among these categories.

Develop and visually present a matrix that clarifies the social, historical, and economic conditions influencing the central phenomenon. This optional step encourages viewing the model from the narrowest to the broadest perspective.

Write a substantive-level theory that is closely related to a specific problem or population. This step is optional but provides a focused theoretical framework that can later be tested with quantitative data to explore its generalizability to a broader sample.

Allow theory to emerge through the memo-writing process, where ideas about the theory evolve continuously throughout the stages of open, axial, and selective coding.

The researcher should initially set aside any preconceived theoretical ideas to allow for the emergence of analytical and substantive theories. This is a systematic research approach, particularly when following the methodological steps outlined by Strauss and Corbin (1990). For those seeking more flexibility in their research process, the approach suggested by Charmaz (2006) might be preferable.

One of the challenges when using this method in a research design is determining when categories are sufficiently saturated and when the theory is detailed enough. To achieve saturation, discriminant sampling may be employed, where additional information is gathered from individuals similar to those initially interviewed to verify the applicability of the theory to these new participants. Ultimately, its goal is to develop a theory that comprehensively describes the central phenomenon, causal conditions, strategies, context, and consequences.

Ethnographic research design

An ethnographic approach in research design involves the extended observation and data collection of a group or community. The researcher immerses themselves in the setting, often living within the community for long periods. During this time, they collect data by observing and recording behaviours, conversations, and rituals to understand the group's social dynamics and cultural norms. We suggest following these steps for ethnographic methods in a research design:

Assess whether ethnography is the best approach for the research design and questions. It's suitable if the goal is to describe how a cultural group functions and to delve into their beliefs, language, behaviours, and issues like power, resistance, and domination, particularly if there is limited literature due to the group’s marginal status or unfamiliarity to mainstream society.

Identify and select a cultural group for your research design. Choose one that has a long history together, forming distinct languages, behaviours, and attitudes. This group often might be marginalized within society.

Choose cultural themes or issues to examine within the group. Analyze interactions in everyday settings to identify pervasive patterns such as life cycles, events, and overarching cultural themes. Culture is inferred from the group members' words, actions, and the tension between their actual and expected behaviours, as well as the artifacts they use.

Conduct fieldwork to gather detailed information about the group’s living and working environments. Visit the site, respect the daily lives of the members, and collect a diverse range of materials, considering ethical aspects such as respect and reciprocity.

Compile and analyze cultural data to develop a set of descriptive and thematic insights. Begin with a detailed description of the group based on observations of specific events or activities over time. Then, conduct a thematic analysis to identify patterns or themes that illustrate how the group functions and lives. The final output should be a comprehensive cultural portrait that integrates both the participants (emic) and the researcher’s (etic) perspectives, potentially advocating for the group’s needs or suggesting societal changes to better accommodate them.

Researchers engaging in ethnography need a solid understanding of cultural anthropology and the dynamics of sociocultural systems, which are commonly explored in ethnographic research. The data collection phase is notably extensive, requiring prolonged periods in the field. Ethnographers often employ a literary, quasi-narrative style in their narratives, which can pose challenges for those accustomed to more conventional social science writing methods.

Another potential issue is the risk of researchers "going native," where they become overly assimilated into the community under study, potentially jeopardizing the objectivity and completion of their research. It's crucial for researchers to be aware of their impact on the communities and environments they are studying.

The case study approach in a research design focuses on a detailed examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Cases can be individuals, groups, organizations, or events. Case studies are particularly useful for research designs that aim to understand complex issues in real-life contexts. The aim is to provide a thorough description and contextual analysis of the cases under investigation. We suggest following these steps in a case study design:

Assess if a case study approach suits your research questions . This approach works well when you have distinct cases with defined boundaries and aim to deeply understand these cases or compare multiple cases.

Choose your case or cases. These could involve individuals, groups, programs, events, or activities. Decide whether an individual or collective, multi-site or single-site case study is most appropriate, focusing on specific cases or themes (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003).

Gather data extensively from diverse sources . Collect information through archival records, interviews, direct and participant observations, and physical artifacts (Yin, 2003).

Analyze the data holistically or in focused segments . Provide a comprehensive overview of the entire case or concentrate on specific aspects. Start with a detailed description including the history of the case and its chronological events then narrow down to key themes. The aim is to delve into the case's complexity rather than generalize findings.

Interpret and report the significance of the case in the final phase . Explain what insights were gained, whether about the subject of the case in an instrumental study or an unusual situation in an intrinsic study (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

The investigator must carefully select the case or cases to study, recognizing that multiple potential cases could illustrate a chosen topic or issue. This selection process involves deciding whether to focus on a single case for deeper analysis or multiple cases, which may provide broader insights but less depth per case. Each choice requires a well-justified rationale for the selected cases. Researchers face the challenge of defining the boundaries of a case, such as its temporal scope and the events and processes involved. This decision in a research design is crucial as it affects the depth and value of the information presented in the study, and therefore should be planned to ensure a comprehensive portrayal of the case.

Qualitative and quantitative research designs are distinct in their approach to data collection and data analysis. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research prioritizes understanding the depth and richness of human experiences, behaviours, and interactions.

Qualitative methods in a research design have to have internal coherence, meaning that all elements of the research project—research question, data collection, data analysis, findings, and theory—are well-aligned and consistent with each other. This coherence in the research study is especially crucial in inductive qualitative research, where the research process often follows a recursive and evolving path. Ensuring that each component of the research design fits seamlessly with the others enhances the clarity and impact of the study, making the research findings more robust and compelling. Whether it is a descriptive research design, explanatory research design, diagnostic research design, or correlational research design coherence is an important element in both qualitative and quantitative research.

Finally, a good research design ensures that the research is conducted ethically and considers the well-being and rights of participants when managing collected data. The research design guides researchers in providing a clear rationale for their methodologies, which is crucial for justifying the research objectives to the scientific community. A thorough research design also contributes to the body of knowledge, enabling researchers to build upon past research studies and explore new dimensions within their fields. At the core of the design, there is a clear articulation of the research objectives. These objectives should be aligned with the underlying concepts being investigated, offering a concise method to answer the research questions and guiding the direction of the study with proper qualitative methods.

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