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Biochemistry

By Michael Marshall

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Shutterstock / Leigh Prather

Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals that make up life and how they behave. It seeks to explain how inanimate chemicals like carbohydrates and proteins can give rise to living organisms.

Biochemistry as a scientific discipline began in the 1700s and 1800s, with early studies of phenomena like fermentation and the discovery of the first enzyme. However, it blossomed in the 20 th century, thanks in part to new techniques like X-ray crystallography that allowed biochemists to study the precise three-dimensional structures of molecules.

Perhaps the most famous biochemical molecule is deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, the material that carries our genes . The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 after a frantic (and at times disreputable ) race. Famously, DNA is a double helix, made up of two strands that coil around each other. Each strand carries a sequence of “letters”, which are the basis of genes .

In the wake of this discovery, biochemists like Francis Crick realised that the information on DNA is used to make proteins , which are long chains of smaller molecules called amino acids. Proteins are the workhorses of living cells , doing everything from digesting food to pushing waste out of the cell. The long chains fold up into remarkably intricate structures, which are crucial to the proteins’ function .

However, before proteins can be made the information from DNA is first copied onto a third kind of molecule called RNA (ribonucleic acid), which is similar to DNA. RNA can also act as an enzyme, as proteins do. Its ability to perform so many tasks has led some biochemists to suggest that it played a key role in the origin of life on Earth , before DNA and protein arose.

Besides genetics, a second key area of biochemistry is metabolism : the processes by which organisms extract energy from their environment (for instance from food) and use it to move and build their bodies. Metabolism involves elaborate sequences of chemical reactions , some of which are cyclic so the original chemicals are recreated at the end. Complex chemicals are broken down into simpler ones to provide energy , and that energy is used to build new chemicals that the organism can use. Different organisms can have radically different metabolisms .

Biochemistry has also revealed that living cells have structural molecules. Some form the walls and membranes that surround cells and hold them together , while others link up into a kind of scaffolding called the cytoskeleton .

Other biochemical molecules are remarkable feats of evolutionary engineering. There are molecular motors and even rotating axles .

Biochemists are still discovering new things about natural organisms (although reports that some organisms can incorporate arsenic into their DNA appear to be false ). They have also started designing new biochemistries, for example adding new letters to the DNA “alphabet” or swapping out some of the amino acids used to make proteins. This synthetic biology may lead to new medicines and other biotechnologies, as well as shedding light on the nature of life .

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Biochemistry Introduction and Overview

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• Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
• B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College

Biochemistry is the science in which chemistry is applied to the study of living organisms and the atoms and molecules which comprise living organisms. Take a closer look at what biochemistry is and why the science is important.

What Is Biochemistry?

Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living things. This includes organic molecules and their chemical reactions. Most people consider biochemistry to be synonymous with molecular biology.

What Types of Molecules Do Biochemists Study?

The principal types of biological molecules or biomolecules are:

• carbohydrates
• nucleic acids

Many of these molecules are complex molecules called polymers, which are made up of monomer subunits. Biochemical molecules are based on carbon .

What Is Biochemistry Used For?

• Biochemistry is used to learn about the biological processes which take place in cells and organisms.
• Biochemistry may be used to study the properties of biological molecules, for a variety of purposes. For example, a biochemist may study the characteristics of the keratin in hair so that shampoo may be developed that enhances curliness or softness.
• Biochemists find uses for biomolecules. For example, a biochemist may use a certain lipid as a food additive.
• Alternatively, a biochemist might find a substitute for a usual biomolecule. For example, biochemists help to develop artificial sweeteners.
• Biochemists can help cells to produce new products. Gene therapy is within the realm of biochemistry. The development of biological machinery falls within the realm of biochemistry.

What Does a Biochemist Do?

Many biochemists work in chemistry labs. Some biochemists may focus on modeling, which would lead them to work with computers. Some biochemists work in the field, studying a biochemical system in an organism. Biochemists typically are associated with other scientists and engineers. Some biochemists are associated with universities and they may teach in addition to conducting research. Usually, their research allows them to have a normal work schedule, based in one location, with a good salary and benefits.

What Disciplines Are Related to Biochemistry?

Biochemistry is closely related to other biological sciences that deal with molecules. There is considerable overlap between these disciplines:

• Molecular Genetics
• Pharmacology
• Molecular Biology
• Chemical Biology
• The 5 Main Branches of Chemistry
• Overview of the Branches of Chemistry
• Types of Organic Compounds
• College Chemistry Topics
• Best Colleges for Biology Majors
• Top Biology Programs in U.S. Universities
• Monomers and Polymers in Chemistry
• What Are Proteins and Their Components?
• Biological Polymers: Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids
• MCAT Sections: What's on the MCAT?
• Medicinal Chemistry Definition
• The Different Fields of Physics
• Macromolecule Definition and Examples
• Biography of Emmett Chappelle, American Inventor
• Fat Definition and Examples (Chemistry)
• What Is Chemistry? Definition and Description

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What is Biochemistry?

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Biochemistry is the application of chemistry to the study of biological processes at the cellular and molecular level. It emerged as a distinct discipline around the beginning of the 20th century when scientists combined chemistry, physiology, and biology to investigate the chemistry of living systems.

The study of life in its chemical processes

Biochemistry is both life science and a chemical science - it explores the chemistry of living organisms and the molecular basis for the changes occurring in living cells. It uses the methods of chemistry,

"Biochemistry has become the foundation for understanding all biological processes. It has provided explanations for the causes of many diseases in humans, animals and plants."

physics, molecular biology, and immunology to study the structure and behaviour of the complex molecules found in biological material and the ways these molecules interact to form cells, tissues, and whole organisms.

Biochemists are interested, for example, in mechanisms of brain function, cellular multiplication and differentiation, communication within and between cells and organs, and the chemical bases of inheritance and disease. The biochemist seeks to determine how specific molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, vitamins, and hormones function in such processes. Particular emphasis is placed on the regulation of chemical reactions in living cells.

An essential science

Biochemistry has become the foundation for understanding all biological processes. It has provided explanations for the causes of many diseases in humans, animals, and plants. It can frequently suggest ways by which such diseases may be treated or cured.

A practical science

Because biochemistry seeks to unravel the complex chemical reactions that occur in a wide variety of life forms, it provides the basis for practical advances in medicine, veterinary medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology. It underlies and includes such exciting new fields as molecular genetics and bioengineering.

The knowledge and methods developed by biochemists are applied to in all fields of medicine, in agriculture and in many chemical and health-related industries. Biochemistry is also unique in providing teaching and research in both protein structure/function and genetic engineering, the two basic components of the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology.

A varied science

As the broadest of the basic sciences, biochemistry includes many subspecialties such as neurochemistry, bioorganic chemistry, clinical biochemistry, physical biochemistry, molecular genetics, biochemical pharmacology, and immunochemistry. Recent advances in these areas have created links among technology, chemical engineering, and biochemistry.

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Department of Biochemistry

What is biochemistry.

The Department of Biochemistry is a diverse group of scientists, trainees, and staff dedicated to discovering the basic mechanisms of biological processes through fundamental research and disseminating that knowledge via education and service to our community. We use tools ranging from simple chemical probes to multi-million-dollar imaging systems and apply them in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. Our investigators are leaders in applying advanced approaches in structural biology, mass spectrometry, chemical biology, cell biology, and genetics to thematic areas like DNA and RNA metabolism, cell division, enzymology, molecular cancer biology, signaling, toxicology, and metabolism. We are united in seeking molecular answers to biomedical questions.

The Vanderbilt Department of Biochemistry began in 1925. Through its history since then the Department has flourished under the direction of six chairs. It currently has 23 primary investigator-track faculty and another ~50 secondary, educator, and research-track faculty. An exceptional group of graduate, medical, and undergraduate students and large cohort of post-doctoral fellows train in our laboratories supported by over $30M in NIH funding (#1 in the U.S.).

As one of four basic science departments in the School of Medicine Basic Sciences , Biochemistry benefits from being affiliated with a large medical center and medical school as well as Colleges of Arts and Sciences and Engineering. We bridge basic mechanistic discovery with clinical application to improve human health. Our unique administrative structure allows us to strategically invest in infrastructure, initiatives, and people to fulfill our missions of research, education, and service.

The offices and laboratories of the department are in Light Hall, the Robinson Research Building, the Preston Research Building, and Medical Research Building III (see  maps ) on the Vanderbilt University and Vanderbilt Medical Center campus.

Over the years, faculty in the Department of Biochemistry have received considerable recognition, including receipt of major University awards, election to the National Academy of Sciences, and a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ( Stanley Cohen , 1986). We are proud of our history and current status, and we strive towards continued excellence in research, training, and service in the field of biochemistry.

–David Cortez, Ph.D., Chair

We invite queries regarding graduate studies, postdoctoral training, and faculty positions.

A recent article about the Biochemistry Department can be found here .

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What Is Biochemistry?

A 3D clay model of a nanodisc

At its most basic, biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes occurring in living matter. However, this simple definition encompasses an incredibly diverse field of research that touches nearly all aspects of our lives.

One of the most pressing issues in our society, environmental degradation, is being addressed by biochemists. A few examples of work currently being performed include improvements in the efficiency of photosynthesis to increase crop yields, bioremediation of polluted soils, development of new feed-stocks, chemistries for the production of biofuels, genetic mapping of ecosystems to monitor biodiversity, and methodologies for boosting biological capture of carbon. These and other biochemical technologies may play a crucial role in our efforts to find a sustainable means of living.

Perhaps the most obvious application of biochemistry in our everyday existence is in the field of health research. Biochemistry has been a key to our growing understanding of a myriad of health issues; from diabetes to arteriosclerosis to cancer.  The tools of biochemists have identified the gene, protein and pathway disruptions that lead to disease and, in many cases, point us to preventions, treatments or cures. From aspirin to interleukins, the treatment of human disease relies heavily on biochemistry.

Many other, less obvious, aspects of our society are also being altered and improved by biochemical research. Industry is being transformed as biological chemistry is being used to generate new materials with novel properties or to improve the efficiency of older processes. Law enforcement increasingly relies on biochemistry-based forensics to provide evidence in investigations. Archaeology is rapidly advancing as genetic and isotopic investigations of our ancestral remains are illuminating much of human history and pre-history.

It would be difficult to overstate the importance of the role biochemistry plays in all our lives. No doubt many amazing and transformational discoveries lie ahead; we hope you choose to explore the many opportunities and possibility biochemistry offers!

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Biochemistry articles within Nature

Article | 17 April 2024

Stepwise activation of a metabotropic glutamate receptor

We propose a model for a sequential, multistep activation mechanism of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5, including a series of structures in lipid nanodiscs, from inactive to fully active, with agonist-bound intermediate states.

• Kaavya Krishna Kumar
• , Haoqing Wang
•  &  Brian K. Kobilka

Article 17 April 2024 | Open Access

Streptomyces umbrella toxin particles block hyphal growth of competing species

Streptomyces are discovered to produce antibacterial protein complexes that selectively inhibit the hyphal growth of related species, a function distinct from that of the small-molecule antibiotics they are known for.

• Qinqin Zhao
• , Savannah Bertolli
•  &  Joseph D. Mougous

Promiscuous G-protein activation by the calcium-sensing receptor

Structures of the human calcium-sensing receptor can be bound into complex with G proteins from three different Gα subtypes while maintaining G-protein-binding specificity.

• , Jinseo Park
•  &  Qing R. Fan

Article 10 April 2024 | Open Access

Emergence of fractal geometries in the evolution of a metabolic enzyme

Citrate synthase from the cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus is shown to self-assemble into Sierpiński triangles, a finding that opens up the possibility that other naturally occurring molecular-scale fractals exist.

• Franziska L. Sendker
• , Yat Kei Lo
•  &  Georg K. A. Hochberg

Article | 10 April 2024

Metabolic rewiring promotes anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids

Glucocorticoids reprogram the mitochondrial metabolism of macrophages, resulting in increased and sustained production of the anti-inflammatory metabolite itaconate and, as a consequence, inhibition of the inflammatory response.

• Jean-Philippe Auger
• , Max Zimmermann
•  &  Gerhard Krönke

Article 03 April 2024 | Open Access

Structural basis of Integrator-dependent RNA polymerase II termination

Cryo-electron microscopy structures of the human Integrator complex in three different functional states shed light on how Integrator terminates RNA polymerase II (Pol II) transcription by disengaging Pol II from the DNA template.

• Isaac Fianu
• , Moritz Ochmann
•  &  Patrick Cramer

Molecular insights into capsular polysaccharide secretion

An ensemble of cryo-electron microscopy structures of the KpsMT ABC transporter in complex with the KpsE co-polymerase and a glycolipid substrate reveal how capsular polysaccharides are recognized and translocated across bacterial cell membranes.

• Jeremi Kuklewicz
•  &  Jochen Zimmer

Article 20 March 2024 | Open Access

Cryo-EM structures of RAD51 assembled on nucleosomes containing a DSB site

Cryo-electron microscopy structures of human RAD51 in complex with the nucleosome show that RAD51 can adopt two conformations—rings and filaments—and reveal how RAD51 binds to the nucleosome through its N-terminal lobe domain.

• Takuro Shioi
• , Suguru Hatazawa
•  &  Hitoshi Kurumizaka

Where I Work | 18 March 2024

I study small organisms to tackle big climate problems

Marine biologist Gabriel Renato Castro cultivates compounds from cyanobacteria to support agriculture and the environment.

• Nikki Forrester

Article | 18 March 2024

Structural insights into vesicular monoamine storage and drug interactions

Monoamines and neurotoxicants share a binding pocket in VMAT1 featuring polar sites for specificity and a wrist-and-fist shape for versatility, and monoamine enrichment in storage vesicles arises from dominant import via favoured lumenal-open transition of VMAT1 and protonation-precluded binding during its cytoplasmic-open transition.

• , Huaping Chen
•  &  Weikai Li

Article | 13 March 2024

Time-resolved cryo-EM of G-protein activation by a GPCR

Time-resolved cryo-EM is used to capture structural transitions during G-protein activation stimulated by a G-protein-coupled receptor.

• Makaía M. Papasergi-Scott
• , Guillermo Pérez-Hernández
•  &  Georgios Skiniotis

Article 13 March 2024 | Open Access

Substrate-induced condensation activates plant TIR domain proteins

Binding of the substrates NAD + and ATP to the plant Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain proteins induces phase separation and, thereby, activation of TIR enzymatic and immune signalling activity.

•  &  Jijie Chai

Research Briefing | 11 March 2024

Dysregulated cellular stress management becomes a source of stress

Stress responses protect cells from harmful conditions, but once the stress has resolved, these responses must be actively turned off to avoid cell damage that might lead to the development of neurodegenerative disease.

Matters Arising | 06 March 2024

Model uncertainty obscures major driver of soil carbon

• , Rose Z. Abramoff
•  &  Daniel S. Goll

Review Article | 28 February 2024

Ion and lipid orchestration of secondary active transport

This Review describes the various mechanisms of ion-coupled transport across membranes and how the activities of transporter proteins are modulated by the composition of the lipid bilayer.

•  &  Olga Boudker

Article 28 February 2024 | Open Access

The CRL5–SPSB3 ubiquitin ligase targets nuclear cGAS for degradation

The ubiquitin proteasomal system degrades nuclear cGAS in cycling cells.

• Pengbiao Xu
•  &  Andrea Ablasser

Article | 28 February 2024

CST–polymerase α-primase solves a second telomere end-replication problem

Incomplete duplication of the C-rich telomeric repeat strand by lagging-strand DNA synthesis is counteracted by DNA synthesis mediated by CST–polymerase α-primase.

• Hiroyuki Takai
• , Valentina Aria
•  &  Titia de Lange

Technology Feature | 27 February 2024

How phase separation is revolutionizing biology

Imaging and molecular manipulation reveal how biomolecular condensates form and offer clues to the role of phase separation in health and disease.

• Elie Dolgin

Article 21 February 2024 | Open Access

The UFM1 E3 ligase recognizes and releases 60S ribosomes from ER translocons

Attachment of the ubiquitin-like modifier UFM1 to 60S ribosomes has a critical function in the release and recycling of stalled or terminated ribosomes from the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.

• Linda Makhlouf
• , Joshua J. Peter
•  &  Yogesh Kulathu

IL-10 constrains sphingolipid metabolism to limit inflammation

IL-10 exerts its anti-inflammatory activity in macrophages by increasing the expression of enzymes that promote fatty acid desaturation and downstream regulation of the transcription factor REL.

• Autumn G. York
• , Mathias H. Skadow
•  &  Richard A. Flavell

Article | 21 February 2024

Activation of Thoeris antiviral system via SIR2 effector filament assembly

A study reports that the Theoris anti-phage defence system is activated through helical filament assembly of the ThsA effector and details the activation mechanism.

• Giedre Tamulaitiene
• , Dziugas Sabonis
•  &  Virginijus Siksnys

Article | 07 February 2024

Allosteric modulation and G-protein selectivity of the Ca 2+ -sensing receptor

Cryo-electron microscopy structures of the human calcium-sensing receptor in complex with G i and G q proteins reveal how this receptor activates distinct G protein subtypes and how its function is modulated by a variety of ligands.

• , Cheng-Guo Wu

Article 07 February 2024 | Open Access

Bile salt hydrolase catalyses formation of amine-conjugated bile acids

We find that bile salt hydrolase N -acyltransferase activity can form bacterial bile acid amidates that are positively correlated with the colonization of gut bacteria that assist in the regulation of the bile acid metabolic network.

• Bipin Rimal
• , Stephanie L. Collins
•  &  Andrew D. Patterson

Bile salt hydrolase acyltransferase activity expands bile acid diversity

Acyltransferase activity of the enzyme bile salt hydrolase is identified and shown to mediate microbial bile acid conjugation, diversifying the bile acid pool and expanding their role in gut physiology.

• Douglas V. Guzior
• , Maxwell Okros
•  &  Robert A. Quinn

Structural basis of ribosomal 30S subunit degradation by RNase R

Cryo-electron microscopy structures of intermediates formed during the degradation of the 30S ribosomal unit shed light on how the 3′ to 5′ exonuclease ribonuclease R controls the ribosomal degradation process.

• Lyudmila Dimitrova-Paternoga
• , Sergo Kasvandik
•  &  Helge Paternoga

Article | 31 January 2024

Conformational ensembles of the human intrinsically disordered proteome

A computational model generates conformational ensembles of 28,058 intrinsically disordered proteins and regions (IDRs) in the human proteome and sheds light on the relationship between sequence, conformational properties and functions of IDRs.

• Giulio Tesei
• , Anna Ida Trolle
•  &  Kresten Lindorff-Larsen

Article 31 January 2024 | Open Access

Stress response silencing by an E3 ligase mutated in neurodegeneration

The E3 ligase SIFI is identified as a dedicated silencing factor of the integrated stress response, a finding that has implications for the development of therapeutics for neurodegenerative diseases caused by mitochondrial protein import stress.

• Diane L. Haakonsen
• , Michael Heider
•  &  Michael Rapé

Article | 24 January 2024

Coordination of cohesin and DNA replication observed with purified proteins

We study the interplay between cohesin and replication by reconstituting a functional replisome using purified proteins, showing how cohesin initially responds to replication and providing a molecular model for the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion.

• Yasuto Murayama
• , Shizuko Endo
•  &  Hiroyuki Araki

Article 24 January 2024 | Open Access

The HIV capsid mimics karyopherin engagement of FG-nucleoporins

Dissection of the nuclear pore complex provides a model in which the HIV capsid enters the nucleus through karyopherin mimicry, a mechanism likely to be conserved across other viruses.

• C. F. Dickson
• , S. Hertel
•  &  D. A. Jacques

Article 17 January 2024 | Open Access

Alternative splicing of latrophilin-3 controls synapse formation

Latrophilin-3 organizes synapses through a convergent dual-pathway mechanism in which Gα s signalling is activated and phase-separated postsynaptic protein scaffolds are recruited.

• , Chelsea DeLeon
•  &  Thomas C. Südhof

News & Views | 15 January 2024

Snapshots of genetic copy-and-paste machinery in action

LINE-1 DNA elements self-duplicate, inserting the copy into new regions of the genome — a key process in chromosome evolution. Structures of the machinery that performs this process in humans are now reported.

• Gael Cristofari

Article 10 January 2024 | Open Access

MRE11 liberates cGAS from nucleosome sequestration during tumorigenesis

The double-strand break sensor MRE11 is identified as a pivotal mediator of cGAS activation in response to multiple types of DNA damage.

• Min-Guk Cho
• , Rashmi J. Kumar
•  &  Gaorav P. Gupta

Article 20 December 2023 | Open Access

Cryo-EM structures of PP2A:B55–FAM122A and PP2A:B55–ARPP19

Cryo-electron microscopy structures of the PP2A:B55 holoenzyme bound to its inhibitors ARPP19 and FAM122A show distinct binding modes of the two inhibitors.

• Sathish K. R. Padi
• , Margaret R. Vos
•  &  Wolfgang Peti

Research Briefing | 18 December 2023

Oceans can capture more carbon dioxide than previously thought

The strength of the biological carbon pump was estimated using direct measurements of nutrients collected over decades. The findings indicate that ocean waters can capture and store larger amounts of carbon dioxide than previously estimated. This might have implications for climate-change models.

Article | 18 December 2023

A light-driven enzymatic enantioselective radical acylation

Enzyme-bound ketyl radicals derived from thiamine diphosphate are selectively generated through single-electron oxidation by a photoexcited organic dye and shown to lead to enantioselective radical acylation reactions.

• Yuanyuan Xu
• , Hongwei Chen
•  &  Xiaoqiang Huang

Article 18 December 2023 | Open Access

De novo design of high-affinity binders of bioactive helical peptides

A study describes a direct computational approach without experimental optimization to design high-affinity proteins that bind small helical peptides.

• Susana Vázquez Torres
• , Philip J. Y. Leung
•  &  David Baker

Article 14 December 2023 | Open Access

Template and target-site recognition by human LINE-1 in retrotransposition

Human LINE-1 ORF2p relies on upstream single-stranded target DNA to position the adjacent duplex in the endonuclease active site for nicking of the longer DNA strand, with a single nick generating a staggered DNA break.

• Akanksha Thawani
• , Alfredo Jose Florez Ariza
•  &  Kathleen Collins

News & Views | 12 December 2023

Structures of the amphetamine-binding receptor will aid drug discovery

High-resolution structures of TAAR1 — the receptor bound by amphetamines and molecules called trace amines — reveal detailed interactions with ligand molecules that will inform efforts to design antipsychotic drugs.

• Harald H. Sitte

Article | 11 December 2023

SlyB encapsulates outer membrane proteins in stress-induced lipid nanodomains

SlyB, a lipoprotein in the PhoPQ stress regulon in Gram-negative bacteria, forms stable stress-induced complexes with the outer membrane proteome.

• Arne Janssens
• , Van Son Nguyen
•  &  Han Remaut

Transport and inhibition mechanisms of human VMAT2

Structures of human vesicular monoamine transporter 2 in complexes with serotonin and three clinical drugs provide insights into the structural basis for serotonin transport and inhibition of transporter activity by the drugs.

• , Qihao Chen
•  &  Daohua Jiang

News | 06 December 2023

Are your organs ageing well? The blood holds clues

One organ in a person’s body can age faster than the rest — with implications for health and mortality.

Article 05 December 2023 | Open Access

Reverse metabolomics for the discovery of chemical structures from humans

A new discovery strategy, ‘reverse metabolomics’, facilitates high-throughput matching of mass spectrometry spectra in public untargeted metabolomics datasets, and a proof-of-concept experiment identified an association between microbial bile amidates and inflammatory bowel disease.

• Emily C. Gentry
•  &  Pieter C. Dorrestein

Research Highlight | 04 December 2023

A low-cost electron microscope maps proteins at speed

Bespoke cryo-electron microscope reveals 3D details of cellular structures — and is an order of magnitude cheaper than its rivals.

Research Briefing | 29 November 2023

Atomic-level structures show how accuracy is maintained in protein synthesis

A series of structures of the eukaryotic protein-synthesis machinery are imaged at high resolution in defined states of the elongation phase of protein synthesis. Analysis suggests that there are underlying molecular mechanisms that increase the accuracy of translation of genetic information in eukaryotes.

Article | 29 November 2023

mRNA reading frame maintenance during eukaryotic ribosome translocation

The accuracy of eukaryotic ribosome translocation relies on eukaryote-specific elements of the 80S ribosome, elongation factor 2 and transfer RNAs, all of which contribute to the maintenance of the messenger RNA reading frame.

• Nemanja Milicevic
• , Lasse Jenner
•  &  Gulnara Yusupova

Article 22 November 2023 | Open Access

Structural insights into intron catalysis and dynamics during splicing

Analysis of the group II intron ribonucleoprotein shows the molecular interactions involved in branchpoint adenosine recognition, lariat formation and exon ligation, providing clues to the evolutionary conservation of structural components and catalytic mechanisms in premessenger RNA splicing.

• , Tianshuo Liu
•  &  Anna Marie Pyle

Article | 22 November 2023

Recognition and maturation of IL-18 by caspase-4 noncanonical inflammasome

Activated human caspase-4 directly and efficiently processes IL-18 in vitro and during bacterial infections, cleaving the same tetrapeptide site in pro-IL-18 as caspase-1.

• , Qichao Sun
•  &  Feng Shao

Technology Feature | 20 November 2023

Microbial miners take on rare-earth metals

As a tech-hungry world gobbles up rare-earth elements, researchers are adapting bacteria that can isolate and purify the metals in the absence of harsh chemicals.

• Amber Dance

Article 15 November 2023 | Open Access

The social and structural architecture of the yeast protein interactome

A protein interaction network constructed with data from high-throughput affinity enrichment coupled to mass spectrometry provides a highly saturated yeast interactome with 31,004 interactions, including low-abundance complexes, membrane protein complexes and non-taggable protein complexes.

• André C. Michaelis
• , Andreas-David Brunner
•  &  Matthias Mann

Article | 15 November 2023

Stepwise requirements for polymerases δ and θ in theta-mediated end joining

Polymerase delta is required for multiple steps in polymerase theta-dependent repair of chromosome breaks, a pathway targeted in cancer therapy.

• Susanna Stroik
• , Juan Carvajal-Garcia
•  &  Dale A. Ramsden

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What is Biochemistry?

Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of the living world. Biochemists study organisms at the molecular level in order to understand how they carry out life processes. In laboratory experiments, the biochemist separates substances isolated from living cells and determines their chemical structures and properties. Then these substances are put back together under controlled conditions to find out how they interact .

What does all this mean? Let's illustrate by example. The fermentation process by which sugar from cellulosic plant wastes is chemically changed into alcohol underlies the production of gasohol. Yet the fermentation of sugars in fruit juice is one of the oldest cottage industries, having been practiced long before the word "biochemistry" ever existed. The origins of biochemistry lie in the study of these fermentation processes.

Louis Pasteur discovered that transformation of sugar to alcohol is caused by a living organism, yeast. Eduard Buchner later expanded upon that conclusion by grinding up yeast cells and extracting a water-soluble, cell-free "juice" that could ferment sugar to alcohol in the absence of living cells. Pasteur had done a biology experiment. He showed that fermentation was a life process that occurred in a living organism. Buchner had done a biochemistry experiment. He showed that living cells could be taken apart. A mixture of dissolved substances, lifeless molecules, could still carry out the "life process" of fermentation.

Biochemists study how living organisms extract food and energy from their environment and how they use the extracted molecules to make more of themselves. Buchner, by taking apart yeast cells, had opened the way to ask biochemical questions  like: What kinds of molecules cause fermentation? How many different molecules are necessary? Why does the yeast cell undertake the process of fermentation? Why does fermentation only happen if you keep oxygen out? These are questions that can be answered by separating the "dissolved substances" in the "juice" and asking what they are, how they interact with each other, and how their properties are related to their chemical nature.

By using this type of investigative approach, biochemists have discovered that...

Although too much cholesterol can cause heart disease, our bodies make cholesterol because it is an essential component of the membranes of our cells.

Cells distinctively mark themselves by putting specific groups of sugars, linked together in recognizable patterns, on their surfaces. Your body will reject transplanted tissue if the cells of that tissue have the wrong pattern of sugar groups on their surfaces.

One of the reasons plants require the mineral nutrient magnesium is because it forms part of the structure of chlorophyll, the molecule plants use to trap solar energy.

Penicillin kills bacteria by preventing them from putting together the chemical structure of their cell walls.

The molecular modification of chromatin that comprises the "epigenetic code" contributes to differentiation of embyronic stem cells and supression of tumor formation.

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• v.295(31); 2020 Jul 31

A revolution in biochemistry and molecular biology education informed by basic research to meet the demands of 21st century career paths

Paul n. black.

Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA

The National Science Foundation estimates that 80% of the jobs available during the next decade will require math and science skills, dictating that programs in biochemistry and molecular biology must be transformative and use new pedagogical approaches and experiential learning for careers in industry, research, education, engineering, health-care professions, and other interdisciplinary fields. These efforts require an environment that values the individual student and integrates recent advances from the primary literature in the discipline, experimentally directed research, data collection and analysis, and scientific writing. Current trends shaping these efforts must include critical thinking, experimental testing, computational modeling, and inferential logic. In essence, modern biochemistry and molecular biology education must be informed by, and integrated with, cutting-edge research. This environment relies on sustained research support, commitment to providing the requisite mentoring, access to instrumentation, and state-of-the-art facilities. The academic environment must establish a culture of excellence and faculty engagement, leading to innovation in the classroom and laboratory. These efforts must not lose sight of the importance of multidimensional programs that enrich science literacy in all facets of the population, students and teachers in K-12 schools, nonbiochemistry and molecular biology students, and other stakeholders. As biochemistry and molecular biology educators, we have an obligation to provide students with the skills that allow them to be innovative and self-reliant. The next generation of biochemistry and molecular biology students must be taught proficiencies in scientific and technological literacy, the importance of the scientific discourse, and skills required for problem solvers of the 21st century.

Establishing the foundation

For many biochemists and molecular cell biologists, the foundations driving interests in biology were immediately experiential. Most young children watch seeds sprout, plant a small garden, or conduct the celery experiment with colored water; some may make a pH indicator from purple cabbage or help deliver a calf or a litter of puppies. With such experiences, I always had questions about natural things—mostly biology, many not immediately answered—and thus required a visit to the local library or taking a dusty college book off the shelf in the living room. By middle school, interests grew, and learning about and drawing atomic orbitals was nothing short of fantastic. The subsequent foundations in math, chemistry, physics, and biology in high school were routine and lacked the excitement from earlier instructors with one exception. As a senior and taking now what would be called AP Biology or AP Chemistry, there was immersion with hands-on activities that included everything from pH curves and enzyme assays to animal dissections coupled with active discussions by teams of students of how and why. This was the foundation that established interests, thus setting the stage for my decisions and programs of study in college.

As an undergraduate student in the mid-1970s, I immediately realized that basic research was fundamental in driving education in biochemistry and cell and molecular biology. The journal Cell had been established in 1974 and, along with more established journals including the Journal of Biological Chemistry , Journal of Cell Biology , and Biochemistry , served as a platform linking cutting-edge research with teaching a sophomore-level cell biology course and extending to biochemistry and biophysical chemistry in subsequent years. The use of primary literature, while tough, provided real-time information that was being integrated into foundational concepts. As so, following my sophomore year, it was time to join a research laboratory, which was initially daunting, yet in time, an independent research project was developed that along with a rigorous course of study in biology and chemistry was foundational for advanced studies.

Graduate school offered the opportunity to deploy many of the same strategies using primary literature while teaching cell and molecular biology laboratory and learning the value of teamwork. There was an immediate realization that one's passion for cutting-edge science was not universal, and thus it was essential to develop strategies demonstrating how the use of a research article in a laboratory setting was approachable. It became important to ask: How do you teach a sophomore to read a primary research paper? Where does data come from, and how can it be interpreted? How can a team be more effective that a single individual in addressing a specific question? And how does that data yield new information to drive the field forward? What came from this two-year period was a basic understanding of balancing the need to understand a concept and coupling that information with cutting-edge research to further advance that concept.

One of the highlights of being a postdoctoral research fellow in the early 1980s was working with undergraduate students with a keen interest in biochemistry and molecular biology. My research was addressing the mechanistic basis of fatty acid transport and linkages to fatty acid activation and oxidation in Escherichia coli . It was during this period that the real importance of teamwork in science at the bench became apparent and that undergraduate students were effective members of a team given the proper mentoring. The undergraduate students were involved in key aspects of the work that included cloning the gene required for fatty acid transport ( fadL ), defining both patterns of complementation and expression, and culminating with purifying the protein FadL and showing that it was localized to the outer membrane. Three of the five papers published as a postdoc included undergraduate authors ( 1 , – 3 ).

These foundations are not unique, as most scientists have comparable experiences. They did however, guide my passion to link research with teaching and learning with the firm belief that biochemistry and molecular biology education is informed by basic research. These linkages are coincident with science (and, more broadly, STEM) education research addressing the importance of asking questions, designing and conducting experiments, collecting data, drawing conclusions, participating in scientific discourse, developing novel pedagogical tools, and communicating findings to advance the field. This experiential learning, as informed by science education research, also requires creating rubrics to establish goals and outcomes and to assess learning ( 4 , – 6 ).

Setting the stage to create the right balance in biochemistry and molecular biology education and cutting-edge research

The Morrill Act of 1862 establishing land grant universities, including the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (UNL), was profound by promoting “without excluding other scientific and classical studies…the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life” ( 7 ). The training in biochemistry at UNL embraces the importance of broader practical instruction and the training of scientifically literate graduates, which is consistent with the view that higher education is the major engine for socio-economic development. The transformation of our programs of study in biochemistry began in earnest in 2010, beginning with the recommendations from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Science Foundation, and the National Education Council found in seminal documents, including Vision and Change in Undergraduate Biology Education: A Call to Action ( 8 ) and Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future ( 9 ). This transformation was also informed by pioneering faculty at the university, in particular that of the botanist Charles Bessey. Bessey was known for innovative teaching methods that followed his belief that education was to be informed by research ( 10 ). His teaching and research were experiential and included establishing the classification system for flowering plants that has become standard. The impact of his efforts continues to resonate in the Nebraska National Forest, the first artificial forest that began with his tree-planting experiments with his students and in the establishment of federal programs that funded modern agricultural experiment stations.

The efforts to fully integrate the undergraduate and graduate education and research missions in the Department of Biochemistry began with the development of guiding principles, which were founded with the understanding that what we do in research and teaching is to improve the human condition.

• Commit to an uncompromising pursuit of excellence . Commitment to excellence is the firm ethos in teaching and research and is reflected by excellence in undergraduate and graduate education, cutting-edge research, and the generation of knowledge that is world class.
• Stimulate research and creative work that fosters discovery, pushes frontiers, and advances society . The highest standards for advancing research must be sustained through extramural funds and publications in the highest-quality journals in biochemistry and the molecular life sciences.
• Establish research and creative work as the foundation for teaching and learning . Students pursing a biochemistry and molecular biology degree must be afforded every opportunity to conduct high-impact research in faculty laboratories with funding from individual grants and institutional programs that support such research efforts.
• Prepare students for life through learner-centered education . Students must be guided and challenged in classrooms and laboratories to become independent in seeking the knowledge and skills required to become successful professionals in biochemistry, molecular biology, biomedicine, and related fields.
• Engage with academic, business, and civic communities throughout the state and the world . Interactions and collaborations in biochemistry extend beyond the walls of the university to colleges and universities within the state and around the world, and through engagement with the private sector it is essential to bring the products of research and teaching to consumers as a benefit to society.
• Create an academic environment that values diversity of ideas and people. The faculty and staff of the Department of Biochemistry at UNL embrace diversity and inclusive excellence as a fundamental core value.

Establishing a scholarly environment where research informs teaching and teaching informs research

The Department of Biochemistry at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln was formally established in its current structure in 1995. The major immediately became popular, especially for students wanting to pursue medical school. By 2006, the department had a number of high-impact and established research programs, yet as a small research-intensive unit, teaching was seen as secondary. I joined the department as Chair in 2008 with a highly productive and externally supported research program, continuing our efforts to understand the mechanistic basis of fatty acid transport. Our work had progressed from a bacterial model and over a 23-year period had progressed to yeast, mammalian cell culture, and animal models ( e.g. see Refs. 11 , – 15 ). The attraction of leading biochemistry at UNL was that all fundamentals were in place; the challenge was to move the department into the 21st century by linking research and teaching in proactive ways through engagement and new faculty recruitment. At the time, the department had a robust graduate program with high-caliber students conducting cutting-edge research.

Three members of the biochemistry faculty were working in the biochemistry education research space at that time, but their efforts were not integrated with the traditionally research-intensive faculty ( 16 , 17 ). This situation was not unique to UNL, as there are comparable challenges in the STEM fields throughout the country, many of which have resulted into two-tiered departments. To this end, there was a significant uphill battle that had to occur in moving faculty from the “talking head” in course delivery to active learning with full integration of teaching and learning with research. I had seen this in play out as an undergraduate student and knew the value of this linkage and how basic research informed teaching. Further, during the 22 years prior to assuming the leadership of biochemistry at UNL, my teaching was in both medical and graduate education, where integrating foundational research into teaching, including medical biochemistry, was an essential part of my approach. A number of issues at UNL began to coalesce, including the opportunity to hire a significant number of faculty and build a modern, high-impact Department of Biochemistry with strong research programs linked to teaching and learning and meeting the demands of 21st century career paths. This included hiring 19 new faculty members (2 joint) since 2010 to advance the biochemistry research and teaching missions. The challenges were to hire both strategically and deliberately to strengthen research and teaching and to establish a faculty with demographics that were shared by the student population. A central tenant in all of these efforts was one of inclusive excellence.

The initial challenge was to convince the “traditionalists” that teaching 21st century biochemistry and molecular biology the way they were taught was inconsistent with training a modern workforce with a biochemistry education at the core. Part of this first challenge was eliminated with retirements. The second challenge was to identify strategic needs within the unit that worked collectively to advance both research and teaching. I likened this challenge to being the conductor of an orchestra, where all parts are essential and where the whole was greater than the sum of the parts. If the violins were not in synchrony with the brass, the result would be catastrophic. If there were weaknesses in the percussion or woodwinds that needed to be addressed, this became the priority. As a department chair, I did not need to tell the faculty what to do but, like a conductor, had to establish the environment to achieve optimal collaboration and integration among the existing and newly recruited faculty, professional and technical staff, and students. This challenge was also mindful of linking research areas and programs both within biochemistry and with other programs for added strength and impact. It was also mindful of the changing face of modern biochemistry and molecular biology to be more quantitative, especially with the emergence of high-throughout data and systems biology. A final and important challenge was to make biochemistry a true academic home for nearly 400 undergraduate majors. This necessitated a careful review of the curriculum and the establishment of practices where students were engaged and mentored in their progression through the program over four years. This also required building a faculty that valued basic research in biochemistry and molecular biology that extended to teaching and learning. The result was a broad appreciation of the interplay between research that advanced teaching and learning and the development of novel pedagogical tools and basic research that generated new knowledge.

The environment that was established over a 10-year period was one of inclusive excellence and one that allowed the best ideas to come forward and be discussed and refined with many being implemented. During this same period, the research programs with highly talented graduate students and postdoctoral research fellows flourished, advancing programs in plant biochemistry, metabolic biochemistry, biomedical biochemistry, biophysical chemistry, and biochemical informatics. One key outcome of this excellence was the development of a graduate training program, supported by the National Institutes of Health, in the Molecular Mechanisms of Disease. The breadth of research in combination with changes in the teaching culture established a landscape required to advance the training of students for existing and emerging career paths.

Leadership, innovation, and team building

Leadership in any academic department requires a long-term vision, not simply maintaining the status quo and steering the unit. Like a conductor and their orchestra, academic leadership requires a clear understanding of the team, the measures of success, and how that fuels the vision. In biochemistry, the excitement of basic research and the generation of new knowledge is foundational. The hum of active research programs is contagious and spills into the hallways and seminar rooms where there is experimental planning, the sharing of data, and active discussions. As members of a biochemistry department not associated with a medical school, the graduate and undergraduate students in the laboratories and classrooms become part of the fabric and through a fully engaged learning environment, gain the requisite foundations for their chosen career paths.

A central component of leadership in biochemistry, especially in a research-intensive institution, is to lead by example and embrace the missions of the department. At UNL, this was the clear expectation of the faculty—in essence, leadership that understood the details of the interrelated academic missions by being in and coming from the trenches. Academic leadership in a research-intensive department cannot be equated with just being a unit administrator. Leading by example was crucial in building biochemistry and required maintaining a robust research program with undergraduate and graduate students ( e.g. see Refs. 18 and 19 ), contributing to the teaching mission and team building. It also required continual engagement with the faculty, staff, and students and proactive discussions with the deans and upper university administration. The balancing required was much like walking on a floor of marbles and meeting the needs and vision of the faculty using the resources available through the university.

In 2010-11 and again in 2016-17, the Department of Biochemistry had to complete formal academic program reviews. As is the case for most academic departments, both were initiated with a self-study, which culminated with guiding principles and strategic visions. My resolve was that these reviews be faculty-driven, and indeed this was the case. Both occurred at the right time in moving the department forward. The first was significant as it identified the challenges and gaps required to advance the research and teaching missions into the 21st century. The second built on the outcomes of the first and included a number of new faculty hires that were crucial in developing the Vision of Excellence 2017–2022 document that, while dynamic, has proven highly successful in meeting the challenges of a 21st century Department of Biochemistry. Following the first academic program review, key faculty hires were made that were largely directed to strengthening the research programs in redox biochemistry, biophysical chemistry, metabolic biochemistry, plant biochemistry, and systems biology and biochemical informatics. It became important at the time that a significant effort be made to advance biochemistry in teaching and learning. During this period and as noted above, the interplay between research that advanced teaching and the development of novel pedagogical tools and basic research that generated new knowledge became part of the departmental culture.

The 2016-17 academic program review was able to highlight the successes of the previous years and set the stage for the continued growth of the department with the understanding that research and teaching are interdependent and that strength in one provides strength to the other. During this period, the four-year curriculum had been modified to include biochemistry courses in each academic year, thus creating an academic home for the undergraduate students. There were expanded efforts to engage as many students as possible in basic research laboratory work in biochemistry and across campus in the larger molecular life sciences. In concert with these efforts, internal and external grants were awarded to members of the faculty to strengthen biochemistry teaching and learning—these grants were given the same high level of recognition as those supporting basic research. These efforts were coincident with strengthening a strong graduate program to include increased emphasis on the diversity of career paths. All of this was occurring in an environment that was driven by the faculty and from team building that was coming from within. The outcomes have been remarkable, with a level of faculty interaction in both research and teaching and, more specifically, a level of excitement linking the two. In addition to grants being awarded to support teaching and learning, four members of the faculty were awarded National Science Foundation CAREER grants in 2018 and 2019. These grants require outreach and education as central pillars of a cutting-edge research program. I remain convinced that these awards were successful in large part because of the environment established in the department that values research and teaching at the same level—this is an environment of inclusive excellence.

As the University of Nebraska celebrated the 150th year since its founding and the Department of Biochemistry its 25th year, the department was awarded the 2019 University-wide Departmental Teaching Award as one of the President's Faculty Excellence Awards. The University of Nebraska system specifically recognized the tradition of pedagogical excellence through faculty engagement and innovation. There was praise for the department's innovative educational programs that emphasize critical thinking, experimental testing, and molecular and computational modeling that are directly linked to excellence in basic research in redox biochemistry, biophysical chemistry, metabolic biochemistry, plant biochemistry, and systems biology and biochemical informatics. The department was recognized for transforming biochemistry education and developing life-long learners, leading to a number of high-impact career paths. The linkage between research that advanced teaching and the development of novel pedagogical tools and basic research that generated new knowledge was the common thread creating synergy leading to strength.

Program of study, critical thinking, and importance of scientific discourse

With the modernization of the biochemistry undergraduate curriculum to meet 21st century career paths, as is the case in many programs throughout the country, student engagement in their learning through critical thinking has become an expectation. It is now the tradition of biochemistry at UNL to present a body of information in concert with asking where it came from and how it advanced the field. As noted above, the biochemistry program has been modified to cover all four years. These changes in the undergraduate biochemistry curriculum have been driven by the faculty and supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, and the Kelly Fund, which is an internal philanthropic fund that supports advances in teaching and learning. The fundamentals are taught, but with a high level of student engagement in current trends in research, thereby providing an important backdrop to add interest and applicability to the learning process.

Beginning as freshman, students are introduced to fundamental concepts stemming from the ASBMB accreditation core concepts (energy is required by and transformed in biological systems; macromolecular structure determines function and regulation; information storage and flow are dynamic and interactive; and discovery requires objective measurement, quantitative analysis, and clear communication) at the same time they are taking initial sequences in biology, math, and chemistry. Student learning is assessed through on-line concept inventories. Students write a position abstract using the tools of scientific discourse to argue for or against statements made on a product that claims to be scientifically or clinically proven. Finally, they write a short scientific paper based on suggested topics within the core concepts that requires mastery of PubMed, learning to write in their own words, and citations of at least three primary works using the Journal of Biological Chemistry format. These efforts are integrated with college planning and skills, goal setting, discussions of working in a research laboratory and understanding the importance of teamwork in learning, and discussions of career paths.

As the biochemistry students progress through the curriculum as sophomores, they are introduced to the critical nature of biochemical data and in particular how is it generated, interpreted, and presented in a scientific publication. These efforts are completed in concert with more writing and the integration of the data analyzed with other related works. Students work individually and in groups of four, with the class size limited to 24. This approach, while demanding, generates much discussion and a clear appreciation of scientific teamwork. Our experience shows that students taking this course prior to taking the year-long biochemistry sequence have enhanced performance.

The third year of study includes a two-semester comprehensive biochemistry sequence that has evolved from being presented in a typical lecture style to one blending experiential learning and standard lectures. The challenge has been the delivery of such a biochemistry sequence with 300-350 students, including 70-80 biochemistry majors. Faculty that teach in this sequence have led efforts developing interactive learning modules using dynamic 3D printed models to allow students to visualize biomolecular structures. At present, three targeted learning objectives related to DNA and RNA structure, transcription factor-DNA interactions, and DNA supercoiling dynamics have been developed and accompanied by assessment tools to gauge student learning in a large classroom setting. Students had normalized learning gains of 49% with respect to their ability to understand and relate molecular structures to biochemical functions ( 20 ). The technologies developed are significant and allow students to understand macromolecular structure-function relationships and observe molecular dynamics and interactions ( 21 ). I am quite certain that additional innovative teaching technologies along these lines will be developed to enhance learning in this biochemistry sequence. An additional and highly innovative platform developed by biochemistry faculty, the Cell Collective, uses computational modules allowing students to gain first-hand experience in areas as diverse as cellular respiration and the molecular dynamics of the lac operon ( 22 ). These efforts break down the barriers common in a large classroom setting, allowing students to work in small groups to understand complex biochemical processes. The junior/senior laboratory sequence in biochemistry has been modernized and directly linked to ongoing basic research in faculty members' laboratories. As students gain broad understanding of basic biochemical concepts, they become well-prepared for advanced training in biophysical chemistry and structural biology that includes hands-on experience using programs such as PyMOL. These later efforts are coordinated with literature reviews, problem solving, and group presentations.

As seniors, biochemistry students complete a capstone course in Advanced Topics in Biochemistry with different topics that range from Plant Metabolic Engineering and Trace Metals in Redox Homeostasis to Metabolons and Metabolic Flux and the Biochemistry of Starvation and Obesity. These classes are limited to 24 students with group discussions that culminate in writing an advanced scientific paper and presentations. A central aspect of this course centers on scientific discourse with active discussions addressing potential discordance of data stemming from different experimental approaches. One instructor uses peer review of the student manuscripts, which culminates with a compendium of papers in the student journal, Advances in Biochemistry , that is shared with the class and archived by the department. Although the topical areas differ by instructor, this course is assessed using rubrics that are common among all sections.

For the majority of UNL biochemistry majors, their participation in laboratory-based research is woven throughout the program of study. In addition, and importantly, each student is individually mentored throughout the program of study.

Primary research and creative works and the balance to maintain excellence in the biochemistry curriculum

The Department of Biochemistry at UNL has top-tier research programs with research expenditures of $9-10 million/year, the majority of which are externally supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundation, USDA, Department of Energy, and private foundations including the American Heart Association and Michael J. Fox Foundation. Coupled with this strength in research is a university-wide and highly impactful undergraduate research program, Undergraduate Creative Activities and Research Experiences (UCARE), that supports students over two semesters or a summer. UCARE is funded in part by gifts from the Pepsi Quasi Endowment and Union Bank and Trust. The office of the Agriculture Research Division (ARD) also supports academic and summer research experiences for undergraduate students. UCARE and ARD students must identify a research mentor and write a research proposal that is peer-reviewed. In biochemistry, additional undergraduate research students are supported during the academic year and summer by funds from individual research grants. These students are guided through standard operating procedures in research, biosafety, codes of conduct, expectations for ethical research, finding the right graduate program, and assistance through the graduate school application process.

At any given time, there are upwards of 50 undergraduate research students in the Department of Biochemistry laboratory. In addition, an additional 80–90 biochemistry undergraduate students are in the molecular life science laboratory, ranging from those in the Departments of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Chemistry to those in Psychology and Food Science and Technology. It is important to point out that many of these students begin working in a research laboratory in their freshman and sophomore years and continue through graduation. All of the undergraduate research students participate in two university-wide research fairs, which involve juried poster presentations. Many of these students present their work in national forums including the ASBMB Annual Undergraduate Research Symposium. In addition to these undergraduate research programs, the university hosts numerous Research Experience for Undergraduate (REU) programs that are directed to students outside the university for research-intensive experiences in the summer. For those with interests in biochemistry, there are programs in Redox Biology, Biomedical Engineering, Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, and Virology.

Embedded within these high-impact research programs are graduate students and postdoctoral research fellows. At any given time, there are 30–35 Ph.D. students and an additional 30–35 postdoctoral research fellows. These laboratories provide cutting-edge research environments where undergraduate research students become members of research teams, much in the same way I did as an undergraduate student.

These research experiences for undergraduate students occur because all members of the biochemistry faculty (and others in the molecular life sciences) see this as part of their scholarly activities and as members of the academy. Whereas maintaining a high research profile is essential for our institution, the proactive engagement of undergraduate students is also part of the fabric of the department.

This brings me back to the orchestra. The conductor generally does not play an instrument, yet he or she occupies a unique space between the orchestra and the audience. The conductor must understand the dynamics that occur in that setting and set the stage to benefit both the audience and the orchestra. Orchestrating a research-intensive biochemistry department, like that at UNL, with nearly 400 undergraduate students has many of the same elements. The cutting-edge research in biophysical chemistry or metabolism is part of the foundation. Initially, the students see such activities as the audience, many as freshmen as they are introduced to the discipline and asking the question of why study biochemistry with its demands. They see the latest papers published from the department faculty on electronic boards highlighting novel cutting-edge research. Like a student of the orchestra, they are introduced to a small part of what we call biochemistry, but with the clear understanding that this is only a part of the total. Many students may not be able to work in in a research laboratory due to a variety of circumstances. In these situations, they gain experience in a teaching laboratory that is designed to emulate basic research. In both situations, these students learn and grow, in both the laboratory and a classroom that is increasingly experiential. Through the integration of basic research and modern teaching, these students become members of the orchestra we call biochemistry. The leadership of modern programs in biochemistry and molecular biology must facilitate this process. Like the conductor, departmental leadership must understand all aspects of the orchestra and the audience, in essence research and teaching and learning. They must establish an environment where students are trained in the discipline to advance their chosen career paths. This is the balance of teaching and research that maintains excellence in the biochemistry curriculum.

The richness of this type of training environment cannot be understated. The biochemistry students at UNL have been highly successful as evidenced by co-authorship on research papers, presentations, and awards. Over the past five years, biochemistry students have presented their research at the ASBMB annual meeting, where they have had opportunities to talk with the leaders in the field. Several of our students received outreach grants from the ASBMB, including one to support the Science Olympiad. Locally, biochemistry undergraduate research students continue to receive top awards at the university-wide research fairs. A number of these students have extended their efforts through participation in activities outside the traditional mainstream of basic research. One example are biochemistry students who have participated in the International Genetically Engineered Machine (IGEM) program. Others have coupled study abroad programs with experiential learning in biochemistry and biomedicine. Prior to graduation, students meet with the department chair, individually or in small groups, to provide their assessment of the program—over the past five years, the feedback has been uniformly positive. Finally, and importantly, the majority of biochemistry students enter postbaccalaureate programs with a high level of success, ranging from graduate programs in biochemistry and molecular biology to medical school, law school, and allied health programs. Others enter the local biotechnology sector, and in several cases, these individuals have risen to leadership roles in a short time.

Biochemistry and the nonmajor, engagement in K-12 education, and outreach

Biochemistry interfaces with many life science and engineering programs, and through course offerings for nonmajors, the department continues to occupy an important niche in teaching these students. These efforts are essential to the vitality of the department and are essential parts of the orchestra. In many cases, the challenges are greater, as many of these students do not have the vested interest in the discipline and are taking biochemistry courses as part of their degree requirements. Nonetheless, members of the biochemistry faculty have been highly innovative in this space and are now using course‐based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs) as part of these activities, both in large classroom and laboratory settings. In addition, full on-line versions for summer and continuing education students and blended learning approaches are also being fully deployed.

There are now significant efforts coming from the biochemistry faculty to engage students in K-12 education. Current efforts include discipline-based education research and science literacy programs leading to the development of novel pedagogical strategies with a specific focus on developing educational programs in the molecular life sciences for K-12 schools and nonformal learning environments. These efforts are advancing the department's national leadership in youth education in the molecular life sciences, affording increased awareness of and interest in careers related to science. One area of particular interest is instruction in core biochemistry courses that serve the broader life sciences community, including delivery to nontraditional learners ( e.g. on-line courses for continuing education).

As part of the culture of inclusive excellence and linking research to teaching and learning, the department continues to be active in science outreach efforts. These efforts may be more minor at the outset, but consider how elements within an orchestral program come together—the tympani or piccolo at just the right time and with the right amount of emphasis and impact results in an outcome far greater than the sum of the parts. These efforts are driven by the faculty that become involved in university-wide efforts to provide broad exposure of students, especially those from underserved communities, to the importance and impact of modern science. Two programs hosted by UNL that are of special note, Upward Bound and Women in Science, include efforts led by biochemistry research–intensive faculty with a commitment to teaching and learning outside the traditional boundaries of the academy.

Importance of ASBMB accreditation and maintaining high standards of excellence for 21st century career paths

Undergraduate education is a fundamental priority of the University of Nebraska. The biochemistry faculty have developed an undergraduate academic program that is directed at providing the foundation required for careers in industry, research, education, engineering, health professions, or other interdisciplinary fields. The B.S. degree is reflective of the discipline as a whole and includes current advances from medicine to biotechnology. The philosophy underpinning the undergraduate biochemistry program is a curriculum that includes coursework in each of the four years of study, individual mentoring, and the requisite electives for modern career specializations. Central to this philosophy are pedagogical strategies that include discussions of current research trends in biochemistry in the classroom at all undergraduate levels. Finally, and as detailed above, the biochemistry program works to provide primary research opportunities for all undergraduate majors, beginning as early as first semester freshman, as part of their experiential learning.

The Department of Biochemistry's undergraduate program was accredited by the ASBMB in 2016 for a full seven-year term. The move to have a fully accredited program was driven by the high standards expected in the program of study, ongoing program assessment through concept inventories, and increased national recognition ( 23 , – 25 ). The assessment exam given each year has allowed faculty to identify areas of strength and weakness in the program of study. One outcome of this assessment was to develop a senior level course in Biophysical Chemistry and Structural Biology, which integrates core concepts of physical chemistry with a focus on basic biochemical mechanisms. Since the biochemistry major was accredited, the number of undergraduate majors has increased by nearly 20%. More recently, the department has deployed a second biochemistry track with increased emphasis on biochemical informatics, statistics, and computational modeling. Coincident with these changes, the department has recently built a Biochemistry Resource Center that provides a visible home for the biochemistry undergraduate and graduate programs and a facility with full audio-visual capabilities for individualized study, tutoring, and small group discussions that include course-based and research-based efforts.

The finale of a symphonic work comes when all of the parts are visible—and heard—and this collective has lasting impact. This is not the result of one individual but of the many and, as noted, requires leadership that allows the best in each part to come forward. This finale is played in the UNL Department of Biochemistry just prior graduation in May and December, where members of the faculty host a Graduation Celebration to honor individual undergraduate and graduate students and their accomplishments. This finale extends to the recognition of biochemistry juniors and seniors as ASBMB Honor Society (Chi Omega Lambda) members. From 2016 to 2020, 28 of our students were inducted into Chi Omega Lambda and received their cords as part of the Graduation Celebration in May in recognition of their scholarly achievements, research accomplishments, and outreach activities. A final highlight to this finale is the department's ASBMB-affiliated Student Chapter, which interfaces with the basic biochemistry research programs through active discussions with graduate students and postdoctoral research fellows, contributes to new student recruitment, is involved in community outreach and philanthropy, and hosts programs in career planning. These types of efforts led to the UNL Biochemistry Club being recognized in 2017 as the ASBMB Outstanding Student Chapter.

Can these successes be replicated at other types of institutions including larger state universities with large enrollments but fewer research-active faculty, those with less funding, or smaller colleges and universities with fewer students and faculty? The answer is a resounding yes. There are several key points leading to this success. The first is that the leader of a biochemistry and molecular biology undergraduate program must have the ability to assemble a highly dedicated team. She or he must recognize individual strengths within the team, facilitate discussion, and work within to advance the best ideas directed toward the success of the program. As I have indicated above, the leader is like a conductor, allowing members of the orchestra to be their best while assembling a final product that is greater than the sum of the parts. The second point is that members of the team must be dedicated to the breadth of a 21st century program of study in biochemistry and molecular biology. They must contribute their individual scholarship through novel ideas and approaches and be willing to take risks in the development and deployment of new pedagogy. And third, the leader of such a program must listen to all members of the team and be mindful that such efforts are not about them, but rather the greater good.

Colleges or universities with fewer research faculty should not see such successes as unobtainable. The nature of experimental inquiry is part of who we are—picking up the latest Science or Nature provides an immediate snapshot of highly impactful science. For those of us in biochemistry and molecular biology, time well-spent each week is with the Journal of Biological Chemistry, Biochemistry , and Journal of Cell Biology , to name only a few. We can take what is at the cutting edge of modern biochemistry and molecular biology and, with our team, integrate this information into the classroom. For me back in the mid-1970s, it was the integration of research into teaching that contributed to the key decisions driving my early career. Our collective efforts in advancing biochemistry and molecular biology education can be bolstered by concerted efforts to acquire external funds, especially through the National Science Foundation. Finally, it is important for leadership to partner with upper administration in the college or university and let them know the power of our discipline in training students for the 21st century career paths. It has been this type of partnership at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln that has provided financial support to students along with faculty for their research and in the development of novel pedagogical approaches to advance biochemistry and molecular biology education.

Perspective

Twenty-first century programs in biochemistry and molecular biology must have a continuing commitment and dedication to the education of students resulting in their chosen career paths with high impact. These shared efforts require the firm ethos of the faculty to maintain an uncompromising pursuit of excellence, which is reflected in their commitment to teaching and learning that is directly linked to cutting-edge research and the generation of world-class knowledge. The biochemistry and molecular biology students must be well-prepared for life through learner-centered education. It is essential that they are guided and challenged in classrooms and laboratories to become more independent in seeking the knowledge and skills required to become successful professionals in biochemistry, molecular biology, biomedicine, and related fields. All members of a biochemistry and molecular biology faculty must embrace established research and creative works as the foundation for teaching and learning. In concert, it is essential that biochemistry students contribute to independent basic re-search projects, many of which result in national presentations and publications—in essence, learning by doing. The educational and research programs in biochemistry and molecular biology must be holistic and highly integrated in such a manner to advance modern research to inform the academic program development, which includes the deployment of novel pedagogical strategies. These collective activities are the orchestra of biochemistry and molecular biology with many interrelated and essential parts. This is the esprit de corps underpinning the interrelated academic missions of the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, one of inclusive excellence reflecting the diversity and ideas and people as a fundamental core value.

Acknowledgments

I thank the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology for the 2020 ASBMB Award for Exemplary Contributions to Education.

Conflict of interest — The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest with the contents of this article .

Abbreviations —The abbreviations used are:

• Chemistry Articles

Biochemistry

Have you ever observed how chemical reactions or processes occur within the human body? How do metabolic activities take place? Yes, you will get to know all these life processes through ‘Biochemistry.’

What is Biochemistry?

The branch of science dealing with the study of all the life processes such as control and coordination within a living organism is called Biochemistry.

This term was introduced to us by Carl Neuberg, the father of biochemistry in the year 1930. This field combines biology as well as chemistry to study the chemical structure of a living organism. The biochemists get into the investigation of the chemical reactions and combinations which are involved in various processes like reproduction, heredity, metabolism, and growth, thus performing research in different kinds of laboratories.

Introduction to Biochemistry includes wide areas of molecular biology as well as cell biology. It is relevant to molecules that make up the structure of organs and cells which is the molecular anatomy. It describes carbon compounds and the reactions they undergo in living organisms. It also describes molecular physiology, which is the functions of molecules in carrying out the requirements of the cells and organs.

It mainly deals with the study of the structure and functions of the biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins , acids, and lipids. Hence, it is also called Molecular biology.

Branches of Biochemistry

The primary branches of biochemistry are listed in this subsection.

Molecular Biology

It is also referred to as the roots of Biochemistry. It deals with the study of functions of the living systems. This field of biology explains all the interactions between DNA, proteins, and RNA and their synthesis.

Cell biology

Cell Biology deals with the structure and functions of cells in living organisms. It is also called Cytology. Cell biology primarily focuses on the study of cells of the eukaryotic organisms and their signalling pathways, rather than focussing on prokaryotes- the topics that will be covered under microbiology.

Metabolism is one of the most important processes taking place in all living things. It is nothing but the transformations or the series of activities that happens when food is converted into energy in a human body. One example of metabolism is the process of digestion.

Genetics is a branch of biochemistry that deals with the study of genes, their variations and the heredity characteristics in living organisms.

The other branches include Animal and Plant Biochemistry, Biotechnology, Molecular Chemistry, Genetic engineering, Endocrinology, Pharmaceuticals, Neurochemistry, Nutrition, Environmental, Photosynthesis, Toxicology, etc.

Importance of Biochemistry

Biochemistry is essential to understand the following concepts.

• The chemical processes which transform diet into compounds that are characteristics of the cells of a particular species.
• The catalytic functions of enzymes.
• Utilizing the potential energy obtained from the oxidation of foodstuff consumed for the various energy-requiring processes of the living cell.
• The properties and structure of substances that constitute the framework of tissues and cells.
• To solve fundamental problems in medicine and biology.

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What does a biochemist do?

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What is a Biochemist?

Biochemistry is a branch of science that focuses on the chemical reactions and processes that occur within living organisms. A biochemist specializes in this field of study, using their knowledge of chemistry and biology to investigate the complex chemical interactions that make life possible.

Biochemists seek to understand the molecular basis of biological processes, such as metabolism, cellular signaling, and gene expression, and use this knowledge to develop new treatments for diseases, improve agricultural practices, and develop new materials. The insights gained by biochemists have had a profound impact on our understanding of life processes and have led to numerous medical and technological advances.

What does a Biochemist do?

Biochemists advance our understanding of the chemical processes that occur within living organisms. They investigate the molecular and chemical basis of life and the ways in which biological molecules interact with each other and the environment. Their work is vital in many areas of science, from medicine to agriculture, and has led to major breakthroughs in the development of drugs, vaccines, and diagnostic tools.

Duties and Responsibilities Here are some of the common duties and responsibilities of biochemists:

• Research and Experimentation: Biochemists design and conduct experiments to investigate the chemical processes of living organisms. They may use a range of techniques and equipment, including molecular biology, chromatography, electrophoresis, and spectroscopy.
• Data Analysis: Biochemists analyze data and interpret experimental results to draw conclusions and make recommendations. They may use statistical software to process and analyze data and prepare reports or presentations to communicate findings.
• Development of New Products: Biochemists work with engineers and other scientists to develop new products or improve existing ones, such as drugs, vaccines, or diagnostic tests. They may also be involved in developing new biotechnologies or medical devices.
• Quality Control: Biochemists ensure that products and processes meet quality standards by conducting tests and analyzing data. They may also develop new quality control procedures and ensure that laboratory safety protocols are followed.
• Teaching and Mentoring: Biochemists may teach and mentor students in academic institutions, such as universities or colleges. They may also supervise and train technicians, research assistants, and junior scientists.
• Collaboration and Communication: Biochemists often work in interdisciplinary teams with scientists from other fields, such as physics, biology, or computer science. They need to communicate effectively with team members and external stakeholders, such as regulatory agencies or funding organizations.
• Grant Writing and Fundraising: Biochemists may apply for research grants from funding agencies or private organizations. They need to write grant proposals and justify the research goals and methodology. They may also participate in fundraising activities to secure financial support for their research.
• Continuing Education: Biochemists need to keep up with the latest advances in their field by attending conferences, reading scientific journals, and participating in continuing education programs. They may also be involved in peer review of scientific publications or serve on scientific committees or boards.

Types of Biochemists There are many types of biochemists, as biochemistry is a diverse field with numerous areas of specialization. Here are some common types of biochemists:

• Enzymologists: These biochemists study enzymes, which are specialized proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions in living organisms.
• Structural Biochemists: These biochemists study the three-dimensional structure of biomolecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids, to better understand how they function.
• Molecular Biologists : These biochemists study the molecular basis of biological processes, such as DNA replication, transcription, and translation.
• Metabolic Biochemists: These biochemists study the biochemical pathways and processes involved in metabolism, including the breakdown and synthesis of molecules in living organisms.
• Clinical Biochemists: These biochemists work in medical laboratories, analyzing biological samples to diagnose and monitor disease.
• Plant Biochemists: These biochemists study the biochemistry of plants, including the chemical processes involved in photosynthesis, plant growth and development, and plant-microbe interactions.
• Neurobiochemists: These biochemists study the biochemistry of the nervous system, including the molecular basis of brain function, neurotransmitter signaling, and neurodegenerative diseases.
• Biophysical Biochemists: These biochemists use physical methods, such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and electron microscopy, to study biomolecules and their interactions.
• Environmental Biochemists: These biochemists study the biochemical processes involved in environmental issues such as pollution, climate change, and sustainability.
• Computational Biochemists: These biochemists use computational and mathematical tools to model and simulate biological processes, including protein structure prediction, drug discovery, and systems biology.

Are you suited to be a biochemist?

Biochemists have distinct personalities . They tend to be investigative individuals, which means they’re intellectual, introspective, and inquisitive. They are curious, methodical, rational, analytical, and logical. Some of them are also artistic, meaning they’re creative, intuitive, sensitive, articulate, and expressive.

Does this sound like you? Take our free career test to find out if biochemist is one of your top career matches.

What is the workplace of a Biochemist like?

The workplace of a biochemist can vary depending on their area of specialization and the type of organization they work for. Many biochemists are employed in research and development (R&D) departments of pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, where they work on developing new drugs, vaccines, and other medical treatments.

In a typical R&D setting, biochemists may spend most of their time in the laboratory conducting experiments, analyzing data, and developing new techniques or processes. They may also collaborate with other scientists, such as chemists, biologists, and medical doctors, to design and execute experiments that test the safety and efficacy of new drugs.

Academic institutions, such as universities and research institutes, also employ biochemists as professors, postdoctoral fellows, and research scientists. In these settings, biochemists may spend more time teaching and mentoring students, as well as conducting their own research.

Government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), also employ biochemists in various roles. For example, biochemists working for the NIH may conduct basic research to better understand the molecular basis of diseases, or they may work on developing new diagnostic tools or therapies.

Regardless of the specific workplace, biochemists typically work in teams, collaborating with other scientists and researchers to achieve a common goal. They may work long hours, especially when conducting experiments that require careful monitoring and data collection. Attention to detail and excellent communication skills are also essential for success in this field.

Frequently Asked Questions

Biology related careers and degrees.

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• Forensic Science Technician
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• Horticulturist
• Hydrologist
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• Sociologist
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• Soil and Water Conservationist
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Biochemists are also known as: Biological Chemist

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What is Biochemistry Research?

Biochemistry research stands at the crossroads of chemistry and biology , seeking answers to questions about the chemistry of living beings and how chemical substances behave in the environment of a living person or animal or plant or other living being. It is also called both biochemical research and biological chemistry. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), most biochemists are involved in either academic or industrial biochemistry research.

Possible topics of study range from the complex chemical changes that occur at the cellular level to the processes within an individual living being, such as growth and brain function, to processes that take place across generations, such as heredity. Within any of these areas from the single cell to the family group—or even at larger levels—biochemists may study structures and their functions and processes, biochemical causes and effects, relationships between and among structures and organs. They may also attempt to synthesize or engineer products that would serve a role in medical science, for example.

With a focus on organic compounds, biochemistry research may focus on one of the four main types of organic matter found in a cell. One type is protein, the macromolecules made up of amino acids that form an essential component of the diet of people and animals. A second is carbohydrates, compounds composed entirely of oxygen, carbon , and hydrogen , which combine into foods such as sugars, cellulose, and starches. A third is called fats or lipids which are an important mechanism of providing energy reserves for organisms. Fourth is nucleic acids, which are present in all cells and which are key to protein synthesis and the transmission of genes.

Nutrition is another important area of biochemistry research and many biochemists are employed in the food industry. Biochemists study the biochemistry of food in and of itself as well as how it is used in the body, which involves the study of digestion. New food processes can be tested to see what, if any, impact they have on the nutritional quality of the food product, and new ideas for how to meet special nutritional needs can be devised. Other areas of biochemistry research include metabolism , hormones, the circulatory system, genetics , specific diseases, pharmacology, stem cell development, toxicology , and immunochemistry.

Biochemistry research was established by the late eighteenth century. The first time an organic compound was synthesized in the laboratory was when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea in 1828. Today, biochemistry research continues to look at some of the same areas that interested scientists several centuries ago, albeit using different equipment. Biochemistry researchers have some very specialized tools at their disposal. These include spectrophotometry, DNA gel electrophoresis, chromatography, and mass spectrometry.

Mary Elizabeth is passionate about reading, writing, and research, and has a penchant for correcting misinformation on the Internet. In addition to contributing articles to AllTheScience about art, literature, and music, Mary Elizabeth is a teacher, composer, and author. She has a B.A. from the University of Chicago’s writing program and an M.A. from the University of Vermont, and she has written books, study guides, and teacher materials on language and literature, as well as music composition content for Sibelius Software.

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• By: WavebreakMediaMicro Biochemistry combines the fields of chemistry and biology.
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What You Need to Know About Becoming a Biochemistry Major

Biochemistry majors combine elements of biology and chemistry to thoroughly understand living things.

Becoming a Biochemistry Major

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Biochemistry majors get a solid education in both biology and chemistry.

What Is a Biochemistry Major?

Biology looks at the bigger picture of life, focusing on anatomy and physiology. Chemistry takes the microscopic view by narrowing in on cells and molecular interactions. Biochemistry combines some of each to investigate the workings of life at its most basic, molecular level.

Undergraduate biochemistry majors earn an interdisciplinary education and considerable training in research. Upon graduating, students may wish to pursue graduate studies, apply for medical school or seek work in biomedicine, environmental science, clinical research or other fields.

Biochemistry major vs. biology major: What’s the difference?

Biology majors are more broadly concerned with living things – their anatomy and physiology, functions and roles in ecosystems, and evolution. They may later focus on specific disciplines such as zoology, ecology, botany or marine biology. Pursuing a bachelor’s in biology can open the door to a wide variety of research and career opportunities, given its broad applicability.

Biochemistry is typically considered a subdiscipline of biology and chemistry. Largely laboratory-based, the science focuses on the structure and composition of living systems, as well as the chemical reactions that develop in these systems and ways to control them. These biochemical interactions are what biochemists study to develop medications or evaluate the toxicological effects of pesticides on the environment.

Both majors are among the most popular degrees that premedical students attain.

Common Coursework Biochemistry Majors Can Expect  

Core coursework.

As the name implies, biochemistry involves a great deal of biology and chemistry, but it also requires considerable mathematics and physics. Students can expect plenty of lab work and often have their choice of relevant elective courses, such as pharmacology and toxicology, cellular neurobiology, virology and plant biochemistry. What might be an elective in one school’s program, however, might be a requirement in another.

Courses may include:

• Calculus (i.e., integral, differential, multivariable).
• General chemistry.
• Cell and molecular biology.
• Genetics and DNA.
• Microbiology.
• Organic chemistry. 
• Various laboratories (Examples include protein biochemistry, analytical biochemistry, organic chemistry and physics).

Concentrations

Biochemistry is a more specific and detailed science compared to the overarching sciences, such as biology or chemistry. For this reason, biochemistry is a concentration frequently offered at universities in biology, chemistry and even physics programs.

However, there are many fields a biochemistry major can specialize in. The variety of biochemistry electives universities offer reflects this, permitting students to customize their studies to their preferences.

Some areas of specialization can apply biochemistry to:

• Medical disciplines, such as neurochemistry, endocrinology and pharmacology.
• Technological and cutting-edge fields, such as biotechnology, synthetic biology and gene editing.
• Agriculture, food science and nutrition.
• Environmental and conservation science. 
• Cosmetic science.

Universities might also offer concentrations in:

• Business. 
• Pre-health.
• Medicinal chemistry.
• Options for teaching certification.

Is Biochemistry a Good Major For Me?

A science concerned with the processes and workings of life at the molecular level is well suited for detail-oriented individuals with a keen mind for math, data analysis and creative research innovation. Prospective students should have a strong interest in biology and chemical processes to persevere through the rigorous coursework.

Since biochemistry students will be substantially involved in lab work, interested individuals should be ready to work independently as well as collaboratively. Research in this field widely impacts all manner of living things, so ethical conduct, precision and accuracy, and an emphasis on lab safety and safe handling are crucial. Cutting corners isn’t an option, so students should be prepared to take great care in their work.

For students with a deep commitment to advancing research in biology, chemistry and any of the many fields they encompass, majoring in biochemistry is an ideal steppingstone to making an impact. For those who are scientifically inclined but less certain of their final career, the major opens the door to a vast array of careers.

What Can I Do With a Biochemistry Major?

Biochemistry is a common pre-med school degree. Students may find the challenging curriculum to be good preparation for the rigors of medical school. After all, plenty of their courses’ curriculum material translates directly to the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). Biochemistry is specifically involved in two of the MCAT’s four sections. Biochemistry students looking to get into dentistry may also be at an advantage in dental school.

A growing demand for research in medicine also means a growing demand for biochemists. The aging population and changing trends in disease outbreaks are driving the need for new drugs and treatments. Genetics – one area of focus in biology – plays a prominent role in various disorders and diseases, such as cancer, sickle cell disease, diabetes and Parkinson’s disease, as well as autoimmune conditions, like lupus, rheumatoid arthritis and celiac disease. The prevalence of diseases and disorders translates to a need for biochemists.

Beyond medicine, biochemistry majors might work in agriculture, engineering crops to resist disease. Or they might work in environmental science, investigating biofuels from plants as energy alternatives or developing more ways to protect the environment.

In practice, the availability of jobs will depend on a graduate’s level of study and areas of specialization and experience.

Fresh out of school, graduates might work as laboratory technicians for chemical, pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical manufacturers. They can become forensic scientists working with law enforcement or food scientists working in a laboratory. Graduates might also want to enter education, teaching in primary and secondary schools. Even science writing and communications work may be appealing.

Plenty of graduates continue their studies, aspiring toward master’s degrees , doctorates and postdoctoral research opportunities. They might become professors, pharmacists, leading researchers or specialists like epidemiologists, endocrinologists or pharmacologists. Pursuing graduate study is a must for those seeking advanced positions in biochemistry-related careers.

Data is sourced from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics .

Certifications, credentials and skills: 

Depending on the path taken, certifications can be useful for graduates to earn. In the area of chemistry and toxicology, students can gain certificates from organizations such as the National Registry of Certified Chemists and the American Board of Clinical Chemistry . Students interested in applying biochemistry toward environmental science may pursue certification from the National Registry of Environmental Professionals or the Board for Global EHS Credentialing .

More broadly, the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology offers certification in biochemistry and molecular biology. Premed students may want to consider certification in lab work from the American Society for Clinical Pathology . Given the prevalence of lab work in biochemistry, students will certainly benefit from certifications in lab safety, which can be earned from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration Education Center .

What Biochemistry Majors Say

“I find that pursuing a degree in Biochemistry can really give students a wide appreciation and array of skills that are present in every field of scientific research and health care fields as it's often hard to find answers to why people are afflicted by certain diseases or why a certain biological process malfunctions without understanding the fundamentals of biochemical study.” – Romele Robe Marcial A. Rivera, Arizona State University

“For me, biochemistry opened a window into a world that I didn’t realize existed. We all know that we exist, obviously. We know that science exists. Having a deep understanding of all the little mechanisms working symbiotically to keep us alive, though? That’s a whole different ballgame.” – Nicola Osgood, University of California San Diego

“Given that biochemistry is an inherently interdisciplinary subject, a student will likely be taking many seemingly unrelated courses in their first couple years and finding direction or purpose in studying biochemistry may not be easy in the beginning. THIS IS NORMAL. Biochemistry in its nature is a subject that requires at least a few semesters of college-level background to begin grasping. Knowing this fact before beginning a biochemistry degree can ease the confusion and lack of motivation students may have when they’re four semesters in and pondering why they’ve made the decision to study the hardest major (slightly biased take).

“ … Biochemistry has provided me with an entirely new lens to peer into my surroundings, and to think deeply and purposefully about the problems that face all humans; diseases, energy resources, climate, nutrition, consciousness, etc. For those looking to make a lasting impact on the advancement of the human condition, I believe biochemistry serves as an excellent medium to do so.

“Furthermore, I believe that premed students wishing to pursue medical school will be best off by studying biochemistry during their undergraduate experience. Not only will the rigor of biochemistry prepare them best for the rigor of medical school, but many of the courses in a biochemistry curriculum translate directly to MCAT preparation and future medical school classes. – Cameron Snyder, Georgia Institute of Technology

Schools Offering a Biochemistry Major

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School of Medicine Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry

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Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry

Cpb graduate program.

Scientists in the 21 st century need to understand the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying normal and diseased states, and to connect those mechanisms to function in larger systems. Our research-based program develops knowledge of molecular targets, the nature and design of molecules that interact with those targets, and the ability to test those interactions in the context of physiological systems. This breadth of investigation – from molecules to whole animals – is represented by the diverse research programs of the participating faculty.

The Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry Department is a member of the  Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences (PBMS) .

Chemical Physiology Hub

Biochemical, Molecular and Structural Biology Hub

Prospective Graduate Students

Please visit Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences (PBMS) .

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We are accepting applications for 2024 - 2025 CP T32 Fellowship until May 17, 2024.

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Scholars Popescu and Russo Elected AAAS Fellows

Gabriela K. Popescu, PhD, left, and Thomas A. Russo, MD, have been elected Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

By News Staff

Published April 18, 2024

Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences faculty members Gabriela K. Popescu, PhD , and Thomas A. Russo, MD ,  have been elected Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), which is the world’s largest general scientific society and publisher of the journal Science.

The honor is bestowed annually upon scientists, engineers and innovators who have been recognized for their achievements across disciplines, from research, teaching and technology, to administration in academia, industry and government, to excellence in communicating and interpreting science to the public, according to AAAS.

Research Centers Around NMDA Receptors

Gabriela K. Popescu, PhD

“For distinguished contributions to the field of molecular neuroscience, particularly in elucidating structural and functional aspects of neurotransmission in the central nervous system in health and disease.”

Popescu is a professor of biochemistry in the Jacobs School. Her research centers around NMDA receptors, which produce electrical currents that are essential for cognition, learning and memory.

Her current eight-year research grant from the National Institutes of Health focuses on the excess activation of these receptors, which can cause pathological cellular loss in stroke, brain and spinal cord diseases, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.

Popescu uses her leadership positions in national organizations to promote diversity and inclusion in academic medicine as well as public support for the sciences.

“I feel honored and privileged! Honored to have our contributions recognized by peers across scientific disciplines, and privileged with lifetime membership in a community of luminaries,” Popescu said. “I am also excited to represent UB on an international level.”

A Leading Expert in Infectious Diseases

Thomas A. Russo, MD

“For distinguished contributions to the field of bacterial pathogenesis, and the development of therapeutics, as well as distinguished contributions as an educator of the public, schools, and businesses throughout the COVID-19 pandemic.”

Russo, SUNY Distinguished Professor in the Department of Medicine and chief of its Division of Infectious Diseases , in the Jacobs School, is an expert in infectious diseases.

Russo, who cares for patients at the VA of Western New York, conducts research on gram-negative bacterial infections, antibiotic-resistant infections and works on developing targeted vaccines and drugs.

Russo led the team that discovered the first biomarkers that help identify hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumonaie, a potentially lethal pathogen that can infect healthy individuals.

He is also a go-to source for national and global media, sought for his straightforward explanations of complex medical topics.

“It is a great honor to be named an AAAS Fellow,” Russo said. “Knowing this recognition is not awarded easily, it validates my lifetime research accomplishments and affirms my efforts in communicating and educating the public, schools, and businesses on various infectious diseases issues, especially those surrounding the pandemic.”

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Upcoming Events

Bryce Wilson receives 2024-2025 Barry Goldwater Scholarship

Congratulations to Bryce Wilson for receiving the 2024-25 Barry Goldwater Scholarship.

Bryce is a junior majoring in Biochemistry and Molecular Cellular Biology. His research journey began before his undergrad and has led him to develop a deep love of science and medicine. Also selected from UArizona is Portia Cooper, a computer science major.

There were 438 Goldwater 2024 -2025 scholars were selected across the United States. The Goldwater Scholarship is one of the oldest and most prestigious science, technology, engineering, and math scholarships in the country. It aims to support undergraduate sophomores and juniors who show promise of becoming research leaders in their respective fields and intend to pursue a doctorate.

IPiB Thesis Defense May 9, 2024: Anna Zmich

Proteins are made of chains of comprised of combinations of twenty amino acids, known as canonical amino acids. Beyond these twenty, there are additional, non-canonical amino acids (ncAAs). These molecules, which exist naturally, are found in many pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and natural products, and are involved in metabolism and other biological functions.

Zmich’s research focused on the development and engineering of enzymes which can be used to produce a variety of ncAAs.

Zmich was interested in exploring enzymes that scientists can use to synthesize gamma-substituted amino acids, a name which refers to the positioning of the amino acid’s sidechain. Using bioinformatics tools, Zmich identified forty proteins in the vinylglycine ketimine (VGK) subfamily which are well-adapted to synthesizing gamma-substituted amino acids. Zmich then characterized the form and function all forty proteins to identify which enzyme is most effective at biosynthesizing ncAAs. She then used directed protein evolution to further enhanced the enzyme’s biosynthesis activity.

Zmich also characterized and investigated the chemical mechanisms of action used by cystathionine gamma-lyase, an enzyme known to break down gamma-substituted amino acids. “We can use this enzyme as a model to answer mechanistic questions that can help aid future protein engineering projects,” explains Zmich.

During her time as an IPiB graduate student, Zmich learned how to talk about her research to audiences with diverse backgrounds and perspectives in the biochemical sciences. “When I give a presentation to chemists, they see immediately how much biology is involved in my work,” says Zmich. “When I give a seminar through IPiB, I get to explain more about things like how the electrons are flowing in an enzyme mechanism. It’s the same research, but the way I explain it depends on the expertise of my audience.”

Zmich also served on IPiB’s Graduate Leadership and Development Committee. After graduating, Zmich is planning to work in industry.

To learn more about Zmich’s research, attend her Ph.D. defense, “Exploration of the Dual Reactivities of the Vinylglycine Ketimine PLP-Dependent Enzyme Activity,” on Thursday, May 9 at 2:00 p.m. CT in Room 1211 of Hector F. DeLuca Biochemical Sciences Building.