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Education and Communications
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Academic Writing
Research Papers

How to Write and Publish Your Research in a Journal

Last Updated: May 26, 2024 Fact Checked

Choosing a Journal

Writing the research paper, editing & revising your paper, submitting your paper, navigating the peer review process, research paper help.

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Cheyenne Main . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 707,149 times.

Publishing a research paper in a peer-reviewed journal allows you to network with other scholars, get your name and work into circulation, and further refine your ideas and research. Before submitting your paper, make sure it reflects all the work you’ve done and have several people read over it and make comments. Keep reading to learn how you can choose a journal, prepare your work for publication, submit it, and revise it after you get a response back.

Things You Should Know

Create a list of journals you’d like to publish your work in and choose one that best aligns with your topic and your desired audience.
Prepare your manuscript using the journal’s requirements and ask at least 2 professors or supervisors to review your paper.
Write a cover letter that “sells” your manuscript, says how your research adds to your field and explains why you chose the specific journal you’re submitting to.

Step 1 Create a list of journals you’d like to publish your work in.

Ask your professors or supervisors for well-respected journals that they’ve had good experiences publishing with and that they read regularly.
Many journals also only accept specific formats, so by choosing a journal before you start, you can write your article to their specifications and increase your chances of being accepted.
If you’ve already written a paper you’d like to publish, consider whether your research directly relates to a hot topic or area of research in the journals you’re looking into.

Step 2 Look at each journal’s audience, exposure, policies, and procedures.

Review the journal’s peer review policies and submission process to see if you’re comfortable creating or adjusting your work according to their standards.
Open-access journals can increase your readership because anyone can access them.

Step 1 Craft an effective introduction with a thesis statement.

Scientific research papers: Instead of a “thesis,” you might write a “research objective” instead. This is where you state the purpose of your research.
“This paper explores how George Washington’s experiences as a young officer may have shaped his views during difficult circumstances as a commanding officer.”
“This paper contends that George Washington’s experiences as a young officer on the 1750s Pennsylvania frontier directly impacted his relationship with his Continental Army troops during the harsh winter at Valley Forge.”

Step 2 Write the literature review and the body of your paper.

Scientific research papers: Include a “materials and methods” section with the step-by-step process you followed and the materials you used. [5] X Research source
Read other research papers in your field to see how they’re written. Their format, writing style, subject matter, and vocabulary can help guide your own paper. [6] X Research source

Step 3 Write your conclusion that ties back to your thesis or research objective.

If you’re writing about George Washington’s experiences as a young officer, you might emphasize how this research changes our perspective of the first president of the U.S.
Link this section to your thesis or research objective.
If you’re writing a paper about ADHD, you might discuss other applications for your research.

Step 4 Write an abstract that describes what your paper is about.

Scientific research papers: You might include your research and/or analytical methods, your main findings or results, and the significance or implications of your research.
Try to get as many people as you can to read over your abstract and provide feedback before you submit your paper to a journal.

Step 1 Prepare your manuscript according to the journal’s requirements.

They might also provide templates to help you structure your manuscript according to their specific guidelines. [11] X Research source

Step 2 Ask 2 colleagues to review your paper and revise it with their notes.

Not all journal reviewers will be experts on your specific topic, so a non-expert “outsider’s perspective” can be valuable.

Step 1 Check your sources for plagiarism and identify 5 to 6 keywords.

If you have a paper on the purification of wastewater with fungi, you might use both the words “fungi” and “mushrooms.”
Use software like iThenticate, Turnitin, or PlagScan to check for similarities between the submitted article and published material available online. [15] X Research source

Step 2 Write a cover letter explaining why you chose their journal.

Header: Address the editor who will be reviewing your manuscript by their name, include the date of submission, and the journal you are submitting to.
First paragraph: Include the title of your manuscript, the type of paper it is (like review, research, or case study), and the research question you wanted to answer and why.
Second paragraph: Explain what was done in your research, your main findings, and why they are significant to your field.
Third paragraph: Explain why the journal’s readers would be interested in your work and why your results are important to your field.
Conclusion: State the author(s) and any journal requirements that your work complies with (like ethical standards”).
“We confirm that this manuscript has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration by another journal.”
“All authors have approved the manuscript and agree with its submission to [insert the name of the target journal].”

Step 3 Submit your article according to the journal’s submission guidelines.

Submit your article to only one journal at a time.
When submitting online, use your university email account. This connects you with a scholarly institution, which can add credibility to your work.

Step 1 Try not to panic when you get the journal’s initial response.

Accept: Only minor adjustments are needed, based on the provided feedback by the reviewers. A first submission will rarely be accepted without any changes needed.
Revise and Resubmit: Changes are needed before publication can be considered, but the journal is still very interested in your work.
Reject and Resubmit: Extensive revisions are needed. Your work may not be acceptable for this journal, but they might also accept it if significant changes are made.
Reject: The paper isn’t and won’t be suitable for this publication, but that doesn’t mean it might not work for another journal.

Step 2 Revise your paper based on the reviewers’ feedback.

Try organizing the reviewer comments by how easy it is to address them. That way, you can break your revisions down into more manageable parts.
If you disagree with a comment made by a reviewer, try to provide an evidence-based explanation when you resubmit your paper.

Step 3 Resubmit to the same journal or choose another from your list.

If you’re resubmitting your paper to the same journal, include a point-by-point response paper that talks about how you addressed all of the reviewers’ comments in your revision. [22] X Research source
If you’re not sure which journal to submit to next, you might be able to ask the journal editor which publications they recommend.

Expert Q&A

About This Article

To publish a research paper, ask a colleague or professor to review your paper and give you feedback. Once you've revised your work, familiarize yourself with different academic journals so that you can choose the publication that best suits your paper. Make sure to look at the "Author's Guide" so you can format your paper according to the guidelines for that publication. Then, submit your paper and don't get discouraged if it is not accepted right away. You may need to revise your paper and try again. To learn about the different responses you might get from journals, see our reviewer's explanation below. Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Home » How to Publish a Research Paper – Step by Step Guide

How to Publish a Research Paper – Step by Step Guide

Table of Contents

Publishing a research paper is an important step for researchers to disseminate their findings to a wider audience and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their field. Whether you are a graduate student, a postdoctoral fellow, or an established researcher, publishing a paper requires careful planning, rigorous research, and clear writing. In this process, you will need to identify a research question , conduct a thorough literature review , design a methodology, analyze data, and draw conclusions. Additionally, you will need to consider the appropriate journals or conferences to submit your work to and adhere to their guidelines for formatting and submission. In this article, we will discuss some ways to publish your Research Paper.

How to Publish a Research Paper

To Publish a Research Paper follow the guide below:

Conduct original research : Conduct thorough research on a specific topic or problem. Collect data, analyze it, and draw conclusions based on your findings.
Write the paper : Write a detailed paper describing your research. It should include an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
Choose a suitable journal or conference : Look for a journal or conference that specializes in your research area. You can check their submission guidelines to ensure your paper meets their requirements.
Prepare your submission: Follow the guidelines and prepare your submission, including the paper, abstract, cover letter, and any other required documents.
Submit the paper: Submit your paper online through the journal or conference website. Make sure you meet the submission deadline.
Peer-review process : Your paper will be reviewed by experts in the field who will provide feedback on the quality of your research, methodology, and conclusions.
Revisions : Based on the feedback you receive, revise your paper and resubmit it.
Acceptance : Once your paper is accepted, you will receive a notification from the journal or conference. You may need to make final revisions before the paper is published.
Publication : Your paper will be published online or in print. You can also promote your work through social media or other channels to increase its visibility.

How to Choose Journal for Research Paper Publication

Here are some steps to follow to help you select an appropriate journal:

Identify your research topic and audience : Your research topic and intended audience should guide your choice of journal. Identify the key journals in your field of research and read the scope and aim of the journal to determine if your paper is a good fit.
Analyze the journal’s impact and reputation : Check the impact factor and ranking of the journal, as well as its acceptance rate and citation frequency. A high-impact journal can give your paper more visibility and credibility.
Consider the journal’s publication policies : Look for the journal’s publication policies such as the word count limit, formatting requirements, open access options, and submission fees. Make sure that you can comply with the requirements and that the journal is in line with your publication goals.
Look at recent publications : Review recent issues of the journal to evaluate whether your paper would fit in with the journal’s current content and style.
Seek advice from colleagues and mentors: Ask for recommendations and suggestions from your colleagues and mentors in your field, especially those who have experience publishing in the same or similar journals.
Be prepared to make changes : Be prepared to revise your paper according to the requirements and guidelines of the chosen journal. It is also important to be open to feedback from the editor and reviewers.

List of Journals for Research Paper Publications

There are thousands of academic journals covering various fields of research. Here are some of the most popular ones, categorized by field:

General/Multidisciplinary

Nature: https://www.nature.com/
Science: https://www.sciencemag.org/
PLOS ONE: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS): https://www.pnas.org/
The Lancet: https://www.thelancet.com/
JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association): https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama

Social Sciences/Humanities

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp
Journal of Consumer Research: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/journals/jcr
Journal of Educational Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/edu
Journal of Applied Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/apl
Journal of Communication: https://academic.oup.com/joc
American Journal of Political Science: https://ajps.org/
Journal of International Business Studies: https://www.jibs.net/
Journal of Marketing Research: https://www.ama.org/journal-of-marketing-research/

Natural Sciences

Journal of Biological Chemistry: https://www.jbc.org/
Cell: https://www.cell.com/
Science Advances: https://advances.sciencemag.org/
Chemical Reviews: https://pubs.acs.org/journal/chreay
Angewandte Chemie: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15213765
Physical Review Letters: https://journals.aps.org/prl/
Journal of Geophysical Research: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/2156531X
Journal of High Energy Physics: https://link.springer.com/journal/13130

Engineering/Technology

IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=5962385
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=59
IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=42
IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=87
Journal of Engineering Mechanics: https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jenmdt
Journal of Materials Science: https://www.springer.com/journal/10853
Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jcej
Journal of Mechanical Design: https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/mechanicaldesign

Medical/Health Sciences

New England Journal of Medicine: https://www.nejm.org/
The BMJ (formerly British Medical Journal): https://www.bmj.com/
Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA): https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama
Annals of Internal Medicine: https://www.acpjournals.org/journal/aim
American Journal of Epidemiology: https://academic.oup.com/aje
Journal of Clinical Oncology: https://ascopubs.org/journal/jco
Journal of Infectious Diseases: https://academic.oup.com/jid

List of Conferences for Research Paper Publications

There are many conferences that accept research papers for publication. The specific conferences you should consider will depend on your field of research. Here are some suggestions for conferences in a few different fields:

Computer Science and Information Technology:

IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM): https://www.ieee-infocom.org/
ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Data Communication: https://conferences.sigcomm.org/sigcomm/
IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP): https://www.ieee-security.org/TC/SP/
ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS): https://www.sigsac.org/ccs/
ACM Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (CHI): https://chi2022.acm.org/

Engineering:

IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA): https://www.ieee-icra.org/
International Conference on Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (ICMAE): http://www.icmae.org/
International Conference on Civil and Environmental Engineering (ICCEE): http://www.iccee.org/
International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE): http://www.icmse.org/
International Conference on Energy and Power Engineering (ICEPE): http://www.icepe.org/

Natural Sciences:

American Chemical Society National Meeting & Exposition: https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/meetings/national-meeting.html
American Physical Society March Meeting: https://www.aps.org/meetings/march/
International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology (ICEST): http://www.icest.org/
International Conference on Natural Science and Environment (ICNSE): http://www.icnse.org/
International Conference on Life Science and Biological Engineering (LSBE): http://www.lsbe.org/

Social Sciences:

Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association (ASA): https://www.asanet.org/annual-meeting-2022
International Conference on Social Science and Humanities (ICSSH): http://www.icssh.org/
International Conference on Psychology and Behavioral Sciences (ICPBS): http://www.icpbs.org/
International Conference on Education and Social Science (ICESS): http://www.icess.org/
International Conference on Management and Information Science (ICMIS): http://www.icmis.org/

How to Publish a Research Paper in Journal

Publishing a research paper in a journal is a crucial step in disseminating scientific knowledge and contributing to the field. Here are the general steps to follow:

Choose a research topic : Select a topic of your interest and identify a research question or problem that you want to investigate. Conduct a literature review to identify the gaps in the existing knowledge that your research will address.
Conduct research : Develop a research plan and methodology to collect data and conduct experiments. Collect and analyze data to draw conclusions that address the research question.
Write a paper: Organize your findings into a well-structured paper with clear and concise language. Your paper should include an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Use academic language and provide references for your sources.
Choose a journal: Choose a journal that is relevant to your research topic and audience. Consider factors such as impact factor, acceptance rate, and the reputation of the journal.
Follow journal guidelines : Review the submission guidelines and formatting requirements of the journal. Follow the guidelines carefully to ensure that your paper meets the journal’s requirements.
Submit your paper : Submit your paper to the journal through the online submission system or by email. Include a cover letter that briefly explains the significance of your research and why it is suitable for the journal.
Wait for reviews: Your paper will be reviewed by experts in the field. Be prepared to address their comments and make revisions to your paper.
Revise and resubmit: Make revisions to your paper based on the reviewers’ comments and resubmit it to the journal. If your paper is accepted, congratulations! If not, consider revising and submitting it to another journal.
Address reviewer comments : Reviewers may provide comments and suggestions for revisions to your paper. Address these comments carefully and thoughtfully to improve the quality of your paper.
Submit the final version: Once your revisions are complete, submit the final version of your paper to the journal. Be sure to follow any additional formatting guidelines and requirements provided by the journal.
Publication : If your paper is accepted, it will be published in the journal. Some journals provide online publication while others may publish a print version. Be sure to cite your published paper in future research and communicate your findings to the scientific community.

How to Publish a Research Paper for Students

Here are some steps you can follow to publish a research paper as an Under Graduate or a High School Student:

Select a topic: Choose a topic that is relevant and interesting to you, and that you have a good understanding of.
Conduct research : Gather information and data on your chosen topic through research, experiments, surveys, or other means.
Write the paper : Start with an outline, then write the introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion sections of the paper. Be sure to follow any guidelines provided by your instructor or the journal you plan to submit to.
Edit and revise: Review your paper for errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Ask a peer or mentor to review your paper and provide feedback for improvement.
Choose a journal : Look for journals that publish papers in your field of study and that are appropriate for your level of research. Some popular journals for students include PLOS ONE, Nature, and Science.
Submit the paper: Follow the submission guidelines for the journal you choose, which typically include a cover letter, abstract, and formatting requirements. Be prepared to wait several weeks to months for a response.
Address feedback : If your paper is accepted with revisions, address the feedback from the reviewers and resubmit your paper. If your paper is rejected, review the feedback and consider revising and resubmitting to a different journal.

How to Publish a Research Paper for Free

Publishing a research paper for free can be challenging, but it is possible. Here are some steps you can take to publish your research paper for free:

Choose a suitable open-access journal: Look for open-access journals that are relevant to your research area. Open-access journals allow readers to access your paper without charge, so your work will be more widely available.
Check the journal’s reputation : Before submitting your paper, ensure that the journal is reputable by checking its impact factor, publication history, and editorial board.
Follow the submission guidelines : Every journal has specific guidelines for submitting papers. Make sure to follow these guidelines carefully to increase the chances of acceptance.
Submit your paper : Once you have completed your research paper, submit it to the journal following their submission guidelines.
Wait for the review process: Your paper will undergo a peer-review process, where experts in your field will evaluate your work. Be patient during this process, as it can take several weeks or even months.
Revise your paper : If your paper is rejected, don’t be discouraged. Revise your paper based on the feedback you receive from the reviewers and submit it to another open-access journal.
Promote your research: Once your paper is published, promote it on social media and other online platforms. This will increase the visibility of your work and help it reach a wider audience.

Journals and Conferences for Free Research Paper publications

Here are the websites of the open-access journals and conferences mentioned:

Open-Access Journals:

PLOS ONE – https://journals.plos.org/plosone/
BMC Research Notes – https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/
Frontiers in… – https://www.frontiersin.org/
Journal of Open Research Software – https://openresearchsoftware.metajnl.com/
PeerJ – https://peerj.com/

Conferences:

IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM) – https://globecom2022.ieee-globecom.org/
IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM) – https://infocom2022.ieee-infocom.org/
IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM) – https://www.ieee-icdm.org/
ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Data Communication (SIGCOMM) – https://conferences.sigcomm.org/sigcomm/
ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS) – https://www.sigsac.org/ccs/CCS2022/

Importance of Research Paper Publication

Research paper publication is important for several reasons, both for individual researchers and for the scientific community as a whole. Here are some reasons why:

Advancing scientific knowledge : Research papers provide a platform for researchers to present their findings and contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. These papers often contain novel ideas, experimental data, and analyses that can help to advance scientific understanding.
Building a research career : Publishing research papers is an essential component of building a successful research career. Researchers are often evaluated based on the number and quality of their publications, and having a strong publication record can increase one’s chances of securing funding, tenure, or a promotion.
Peer review and quality control: Publication in a peer-reviewed journal means that the research has been scrutinized by other experts in the field. This peer review process helps to ensure the quality and validity of the research findings.
Recognition and visibility : Publishing a research paper can bring recognition and visibility to the researchers and their work. It can lead to invitations to speak at conferences, collaborations with other researchers, and media coverage.
Impact on society : Research papers can have a significant impact on society by informing policy decisions, guiding clinical practice, and advancing technological innovation.

Advantages of Research Paper Publication

There are several advantages to publishing a research paper, including:

Recognition: Publishing a research paper allows researchers to gain recognition for their work, both within their field and in the academic community as a whole. This can lead to new collaborations, invitations to conferences, and other opportunities to share their research with a wider audience.
Career advancement : A strong publication record can be an important factor in career advancement, particularly in academia. Publishing research papers can help researchers secure funding, grants, and promotions.
Dissemination of knowledge : Research papers are an important way to share new findings and ideas with the broader scientific community. By publishing their research, scientists can contribute to the collective body of knowledge in their field and help advance scientific understanding.
Feedback and peer review : Publishing a research paper allows other experts in the field to provide feedback on the research, which can help improve the quality of the work and identify potential flaws or limitations. Peer review also helps ensure that research is accurate and reliable.
Citation and impact : Published research papers can be cited by other researchers, which can help increase the impact and visibility of the research. High citation rates can also help establish a researcher’s reputation and credibility within their field.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Home → Get Published → How to Publish a Research Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

How to Publish a Research Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

Jordan Kruszynski

January 4, 2024

You’re in academia.

You’re going steady.

Your research is going well and you begin to wonder: ‘ How exactly do I get a research paper published?’

If this is the question on your lips, then this step-by-step guide is the one for you. We’ll be walking you through the whole process of how to publish a research paper.

Publishing a research paper is a significant milestone for researchers and academics, as it allows you to share your findings, contribute to your field of study, and start to gain serious recognition within the wider academic community. So, want to know how to publish a research paper? By following our guide, you’ll get a firm grasp of the steps involved in this process, giving you the best chance of successfully navigating the publishing process and getting your work out there.

Understanding the Publishing Process

To begin, it’s crucial to understand that getting a research paper published is a multi-step process. From beginning to end, it could take as little as 2 months before you see your paper nestled in the pages of your chosen journal. On the other hand, it could take as long as a year .

Below, we set out the steps before going into more detail on each one. Getting a feel for these steps will help you to visualise what lies ahead, and prepare yourself for each of them in turn. It’s important to remember that you won’t actually have control over every step – in fact, some of them will be decided by people you’ll probably never meet. However, knowing which parts of the process are yours to decide will allow you to adjust your approach and attitude accordingly.

Each of the following stages will play a vital role in the eventual publication of your paper:

Preparing Your Research Paper
Finding the Right Journal
Crafting a Strong Manuscript
Navigating the Peer-Review Process
Submitting Your Paper
Dealing with Rejections and Revising Your Paper

Step 1: Preparing Your Research Paper

It all starts here. The quality and content of your research paper is of fundamental importance if you want to get it published. This step will be different for every researcher depending on the nature of your research, but if you haven’t yet settled on a topic, then consider the following advice:

Choose an interesting and relevant topic that aligns with current trends in your field. If your research touches on the passions and concerns of your academic peers or wider society, it may be more likely to capture attention and get published successfully.
Conduct a comprehensive literature review (link to lit. review article once it’s published) to identify the state of existing research and any knowledge gaps within it. Aiming to fill a clear gap in the knowledge of your field is a great way to increase the practicality of your research and improve its chances of getting published.
Structure your paper in a clear and organised manner, including all the necessary sections such as title, abstract, introduction (link to the ‘how to write a research paper intro’ article once it’s published) , methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
Adhere to the formatting guidelines provided by your target journal to ensure that your paper is accepted as viable for publishing. More on this in the next section…

Step 2: Finding the Right Journal

Understanding how to publish a research paper involves selecting the appropriate journal for your work. This step is critical for successful publication, and you should take several factors into account when deciding which journal to apply for:

Conduct thorough research to identify journals that specialise in your field of study and have published similar research. Naturally, if you submit a piece of research in molecular genetics to a journal that specialises in geology, you won’t be likely to get very far.
Consider factors such as the journal’s scope, impact factor, and target audience. Today there is a wide array of journals to choose from, including traditional and respected print journals, as well as numerous online, open-access endeavours. Some, like Nature , even straddle both worlds.
Review the submission guidelines provided by the journal and ensure your paper meets all the formatting requirements and word limits. This step is key. Nature, for example, offers a highly informative series of pages that tells you everything you need to know in order to satisfy their formatting guidelines (plus more on the whole submission process).
Note that these guidelines can differ dramatically from journal to journal, and details really do matter. You might submit an outstanding piece of research, but if it includes, for example, images in the wrong size or format, this could mean a lengthy delay to getting it published. If you get everything right first time, you’ll save yourself a lot of time and trouble, as well as strengthen your publishing chances in the first place.

Step 3: Crafting a Strong Manuscript

Crafting a strong manuscript is crucial to impress journal editors and reviewers. Look at your paper as a complete package, and ensure that all the sections tie together to deliver your findings with clarity and precision.

Begin by creating a clear and concise title that accurately reflects the content of your paper.
Compose an informative abstract that summarises the purpose, methodology, results, and significance of your study.
Craft an engaging introduction (link to the research paper introduction article) that draws your reader in.
Develop a well-structured methodology section, presenting your results effectively using tables and figures.
Write a compelling discussion and conclusion that emphasise the significance of your findings.

Step 4: Navigating the Peer-Review Process

Once you submit your research paper to a journal, it undergoes a rigorous peer-review process to ensure its quality and validity. In peer-review, experts in your field assess your research and provide feedback and suggestions for improvement, ultimately determining whether your paper is eligible for publishing or not. You are likely to encounter several models of peer-review, based on which party – author, reviewer, or both – remains anonymous throughout the process.

When your paper undergoes the peer-review process, be prepared for constructive criticism and address the comments you receive from your reviewer thoughtfully, providing clear and concise responses to their concerns or suggestions. These could make all the difference when it comes to making your next submission.

The peer-review process can seem like a closed book at times. Check out our discussion of the issue with philosopher and academic Amna Whiston in The Research Beat podcast!

Step 5: Submitting Your Paper

As we’ve already pointed out, one of the key elements in how to publish a research paper is ensuring that you meticulously follow the journal’s submission guidelines. Strive to comply with all formatting requirements, including citation styles, font, margins, and reference structure.

Before the final submission, thoroughly proofread your paper for errors, including grammar, spelling, and any inconsistencies in your data or analysis. At this stage, consider seeking feedback from colleagues or mentors to further improve the quality of your paper.

Step 6: Dealing with Rejections and Revising Your Paper

Rejection is a common part of the publishing process, but it shouldn’t discourage you. Analyse reviewer comments objectively and focus on the constructive feedback provided. Make necessary revisions and improvements to your paper to address the concerns raised by reviewers. If needed, consider submitting your paper to a different journal that is a better fit for your research.

For more tips on how to publish your paper out there, check out this thread by Dr. Asad Naveed ( @dr_asadnaveed ) – and if you need a refresher on the basics of how to publish under the Open Access model, watch this 5-minute video from Audemic Academy !

Final Thoughts

Successfully understanding how to publish a research paper requires dedication, attention to detail, and a systematic approach. By following the advice in our guide, you can increase your chances of navigating the publishing process effectively and achieving your goal of publication.

Remember, the journey may involve revisions, peer feedback, and potential rejections, but each step is an opportunity for growth and improvement. Stay persistent, maintain a positive mindset, and continue to refine your research paper until it reaches the standards of your target journal. Your contribution to your wider discipline through published research will not only advance your career, but also add to the growing body of collective knowledge in your field. Embrace the challenges and rewards that come with the publication process, and may your research paper make a significant impact in your area of study!

Looking for inspiration for your next big paper? Head to Audemic , where you can organise and listen to all the best and latest research in your field!

Keep striving, researchers! ✨

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How to publish your research

A step-by-step guide to getting published.

Publishing your research is an important step in your academic career. While there isn’t a one-size-fits-all approach, this guide is designed to take you through the typical steps in publishing a research paper.

Discover how to get your paper published, from choosing the right journal and understanding what a peer reviewed article is, to responding to reviewers and navigating the production process.

Step 1: Choosing a journal

Vector illustration depicting two characters choosing a journal from a screen which is in the middle of them.

Choosing which journal to publish your research paper in is one of the most significant decisions you have to make as a researcher. Where you decide to submit your work can make a big difference to the reach and impact your research has.

It’s important to take your time to consider your options carefully and analyze each aspect of journal submission – from shortlisting titles to your preferred method of publication, for example open access .

Don’t forget to think about publishing options beyond the traditional journals format – for example, open research platform F1000Research , which offers rapid, open publication for a wide range of outputs.

Why choose your target journal before you start writing?

The first step in publishing a research paper should always be selecting the journal you want to publish in. Choosing your target journal before you start writing means you can tailor your work to build on research that’s already been published in that journal. This can help editors to see how a paper adds to the ‘conversation’ in their journal.

In addition, many journals only accept specific manuscript formats of article. So, by choosing a journal before you start, you can write your article to their specifications and audience, and ultimately improve your chances of acceptance.

To save time and for peace of mind, you can consider using manuscript formatting experts while you focus on your research.

How to select the journal to publish your research in

Choosing which journal to publish your research in can seem like an overwhelming task. So, for all the details of how to navigate this important step in publishing your research paper, take a look at our choosing a journal guide . This will take you through the selection process, from understanding the aims and scope of the journals you’re interested in to making sure you choose a trustworthy journal.

Don’t forget to explore our Journal Suggester to see which Taylor & Francis journals could be right for your research.

Go to guidance on choosing a journal

Step 2: Writing your paper

Writing an effective, compelling research paper is vital to getting your research published. But if you’re new to putting together academic papers, it can feel daunting to start from scratch.

The good news is that if you’ve chosen the journal you want to publish in, you’ll have lots of examples already published in that journal to base your own paper on. We’ve gathered advice on every aspect of writing your paper, to make sure you get off to a great start.

How to write your paper

How you write your paper will depend on your chosen journal, your subject area, and the type of paper you’re writing. Everything from the style and structure you choose to the audience you should have in mind while writing will differ, so it’s important to think about these things before you get stuck in.

Our writing your paper guidance will take you through everything you need to know to put together your research article and prepare it for submission. This includes getting to know your target journal, understanding your audiences, and how to choose appropriate keywords.

You can also use this guide to take you through your research publication journey .

You should also make sure you’re aware of all the Editorial Policies for the journal you plan to submit to. Don’t forget that you can contact our editing services to help you refine your manuscript.

Discover advice and guidance for writing your paper

Step 3: Making your submission

Once you’ve chosen the right journal and written your manuscript, the next step in publishing your research paper is to make your submission .

Each journal will have specific submission requirements, so make sure you visit Taylor & Francis Online and carefully check through the instructions for authors for your chosen journal.

How to submit your manuscript

To submit your manuscript you’ll need to ensure that you’ve gone through all the steps in our making your submission guide. This includes thoroughly understanding your chosen journal’s instructions for authors, writing an effective cover letter, navigating the journal’s submission system, and making sure your research data is prepared as required.

You can also improve your submission experience with our guide to avoid obstacles and complete a seamless submission.

To make sure you’ve covered everything before you hit ‘submit’ you can also take a look at our ‘ready to submit’ checklist (don’t forget, you should only submit to one journal at a time).

Understand the process of making your submission

Step 4: Navigating the peer review process

Now you’ve submitted your manuscript, you need to get to grips with one of the most important parts of publishing your research paper – the peer review process .

What is peer review?

Peer review is the independent assessment of your research article by independent experts in your field. Reviewers, also sometimes called ‘referees’, are asked to judge the validity, significance, and originality of your work.

This process ensures that a peer-reviewed article has been through a rigorous process to make sure the methodology is sound, the work can be replicated, and it fits with the aims and scope of the journal that is considering it for publication. It acts as an important form of quality control for research papers.

Peer review is also a very useful source of feedback, helping you to improve your paper before it’s published. It is intended to be a collaborative process, where authors engage in a dialogue with their peers and receive constructive feedback and support to advance their work.

Almost all research articles go through peer review, although in some cases the journal may operate post-publication peer review, which means that reviews and reader comments are invited after the paper is published.

If you’ll like to feel more confident before getting your work peer reviewed by the journal, you may want to consider using an in-depth technical review service from experts.

Understanding peer review

Peer review can be a complex process to get your head around. That’s why we’ve put together a comprehensive guide to understanding peer review . This explains everything from the many different types of peer review to the step-by-step peer review process and how to revise your manuscript. It also has helpful advice on what to do if your manuscript is rejected.

Visit our peer review guide for authors

Step 5: The production process

If your paper is accepted for publication, it will then head into production . At this stage of the process, the paper will be prepared for publishing in your chosen journal.

A lot of the work to produce the final version of your paper will be done by the journal production team, but your input will be required at various stages of the process.

What do you need to do during production?

During production, you’ll have a variety of tasks to complete and decisions to make. For example, you’ll need to check and correct proofs of your article and consider whether or not you want to produce a video abstract to accompany it.

Take a look at our guide to the production process to find out what you’ll need to do in this final step to getting your research published.

Your research is published – now what?

You’ve successfully navigated publishing a research paper – congratulations! But the process doesn’t stop there. Now your research is published in a journal for the world to see, you’ll need to know how to access your article and make sure it has an impact .

Here’s a quick tip on how to boost your research impact by investing in making your accomplishments stand out.

Below you’ll find helpful tips and post-publication support. From how to communicate about your research to how to request corrections or translations.

How to access your published article

When you publish with Taylor & Francis, you’ll have access to a new section on Taylor & Francis Online called Authored Works . This will give you and all other named authors perpetual access to your article, regardless of whether or not you have a subscription to the journal you have published in.

You can also order print copies of your article .

How to make sure your research has an impact

Taking the time to make sure your research has an impact can help drive your career progression, build your networks, and secure funding for new research. So, it’s worth investing in.

Creating a real impact with your work can be a challenging and time-consuming task, which can feel difficult to fit into an already demanding academic career.

To help you understand what impact means for you and your work, take a look at our guide to research impact . It covers why impact is important, the different types of impact you can have, how to achieve impact – including tips on communicating with a variety of audiences – and how to measure your success.

Keeping track of your article’s progress

Through your Authored Works access , you’ll be able to get real-time insights about your article, such as views, downloads and citation numbers.

In addition, when you publish an article with us, you’ll be offered the option to sign up for email updates. These emails will be sent to you three, six and twelve months after your article is published to let you know how many views and citations the article has had.

Corrections and translations of published articles

Sometimes after an article has been published it may be necessary to make a change to the Version of Record . Take a look at our dedicated guide to corrections, expressions of concern, retractions and removals to find out more.

You may also be interested in translating your article into another language. If that’s the case, take a look at our information on article translations .

Go to your guide on moving through production

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7 steps to publishing in a scientific journal

April 5, 2021 | 10 min read

By Aijaz Shaikh, PhD

Before you hit “submit,” here’s a checklist (and pitfalls to avoid)

As scholars, we strive to do high-quality research that will advance science. We come up with what we believe are unique hypotheses, base our work on robust data and use an appropriate research methodology. As we write up our findings, we aim to provide theoretical insight, and share theoretical and practical implications about our work. Then we submit our manuscript for publication in a peer-reviewed journal. For many, this is the hardest part of research. In my seven years of research and teaching, I have observed several shortcomings in the manuscript preparation and submission process that often lead to research being rejected for publication. Being aware of these shortcomings will increase your chances of having your manuscript published and also boost your research profile and career progression.

Dr Aijaz Shaikh gives a presentation.

In this article, intended for doctoral students and other young scholars, I identify common pitfalls and offer helpful solutions to prepare more impactful papers. While there are several types of research articles, such as short communications, review papers and so forth, these guidelines focus on preparing a full article (including a literature review), whether based on qualitative or quantitative methodology, from the perspective of the management, education, information sciences and social sciences disciplines.

Writing for academic journals is a highly competitive activity, and it’s important to understand that there could be several reasons behind a rejection. Furthermore, the journal peer-review process is an essential element of publication because no writer could identify and address all potential issues with a manuscript.

1. Do not rush submitting your article for publication.

In my first article for Elsevier Connect – “Five secrets to surviving (and thriving in) a PhD program” – I emphasized that scholars should start writing during the early stages of your research or doctoral study career. This secret does not entail submitting your manuscript for publication the moment you have crafted its conclusion. Authors sometimes rely on the fact that they will always have an opportunity to address their work’s shortcomings after the feedback received from the journal editor and reviewers has identified them.

A proactive approach and attitude will reduce the chance of rejection and disappointment. In my opinion, a logical flow of activities dominates every research activity and should be followed for preparing a manuscript as well. Such activities include carefully re-reading your manuscript at different times and perhaps at different places. Re-reading is essential in the research field and helps identify the most common problems and shortcomings in the manuscript, which might otherwise be overlooked. Second, I find it very helpful to share my manuscripts with my colleagues and other researchers in my network and to request their feedback. In doing so, I highlight any sections of the manuscript that I would like reviewers to be absolutely clear on.

2. Select an appropriate publication outlet.

I also ask colleagues about the most appropriate journal to submit my manuscript to; finding the right journal for your article can dramatically improve the chances of acceptance and ensure it reaches your target audience.

Elsevier provides an innovative Journal Finder opens in new tab/window search facility on its website. Authors enter the article title, a brief abstract and the field of research to get a list of the most appropriate journals for their article. For a full discussion of how to select an appropriate journal see Knight and Steinbach (2008).

Less experienced scholars sometimes choose to submit their research work to two or more journals at the same time. Research ethics and policies of all scholarly journals suggest that authors should submit a manuscript to only one journal at a time. Doing otherwise can cause embarrassment and lead to copyright problems for the author, the university employer and the journals involved.

3. Read the aims and scope and author guidelines of your target journal carefully.

Once you have read and re-read your manuscript carefully several times, received feedback from your colleagues, and identified a target journal, the next important step is to read the aims and scope of the journals in your target research area. Doing so will improve the chances of having your manuscript accepted for publishing. Another important step is to download and absorb the author guidelines and ensure your manuscript conforms to them. Some publishers report that one paper in five does not follow the style and format requirements of the target journal, which might specify requirements for figures, tables and references.

Rejection can come at different times and in different formats. For instance, if your research objective is not in line with the aims and scope of the target journal, or if your manuscript is not structured and formatted according to the target journal layout, or if your manuscript does not have a reasonable chance of being able to satisfy the target journal’s publishing expectations, the manuscript can receive a desk rejection from the editor without being sent out for peer review. Desk rejections can be disheartening for authors, making them feel they have wasted valuable time and might even cause them to lose enthusiasm for their research topic. Sun and Linton (2014), Hierons (2016) and Craig (2010) offer useful discussions on the subject of “desk rejections.”

4. Make a good first impression with your title and abstract.

The title and abstract are incredibly important components of a manuscript as they are the first elements a journal editor sees. I have been fortunate to receive advice from editors and reviewers on my submissions, and feedback from many colleagues at academic conferences, and this is what I’ve learned:

The title should summarize the main theme of the article and reflect your contribution to the theory.

The abstract should be crafted carefully and encompass the aim and scope of the study; the key problem to be addressed and theory; the method used; the data set; key findings; limitations; and implications for theory and practice.

Dr. Angel Borja goes into detail about these components in “ 11 steps to structuring a science paper editors will take seriously .”

Learn more in Elsevier's free Researcher Academy opens in new tab/window

5. Have a professional editing firm copy-edit (not just proofread) your manuscript, including the main text, list of references, tables and figures.

The key characteristic of scientific writing is clarity. Before submitting a manuscript for publication, it is highly advisable to have a professional editing firm copy-edit your manuscript. An article submitted to a peer-reviewed journal will be scrutinized critically by the editorial board before it is selected for peer review. According to a statistic shared by Elsevier, between 30 percent and 50 percent of articles submitted to Elsevier journals are rejected before they even reach the peer-review stage, and one of the top reasons for rejection is poor language. A properly written, edited and presented text will be error free and understandable and will project a professional image that will help ensure your work is taken seriously in the world of publishing. On occasion, the major revisions conducted at the request of a reviewer will necessitate another round of editing. Authors can facilitate the editing of their manuscripts by taking precautions at their end. These include proofreading their own manuscript for accuracy and wordiness (avoid unnecessary or normative descriptions like “it should be noted here” and “the authors believe) and sending it for editing only when it is complete in all respects and ready for publishing. Professional editing companies charge hefty fees, and it is simply not financially viable to have them conduct multiple rounds of editing on your article. Applications like the spelling and grammar checker in Microsoft Word or Grammarly are certainly worth applying to your article, but the benefits of proper editing are undeniable. For more on the difference between proofreading and editing, see the description in Elsevier’s WebShop.

6. Submit a cover letter with the manuscript.

Never underestimate the importance of a cover letter addressed to the editor or editor-in-chief of the target journal. Last year, I attended a conference in Boston. A “meet the editors” session revealed that many submissions do not include a covering letter, but the editors-in-chief present, who represented renewed and ISI-indexed Elsevier journals, argued that the cover letter gives authors an important opportunity to convince them that their research work is worth reviewing.

Accordingly, the content of the cover letter is also worth spending time on. Some inexperienced scholars paste the article’s abstract into their letter thinking it will be sufficient to make the case for publication; it is a practice best avoided. A good cover letter first outlines the main theme of the paper; second, argues the novelty of the paper; and third, justifies the relevance of the manuscript to the target journal. I would suggest limiting the cover letter to half a page. More importantly, peers and colleagues who read the article and provided feedback before the manuscript’s submission should be acknowledged in the cover letter.

7. Address reviewer comments very carefully.

Editors and editors-in-chief usually couch the acceptance of a manuscript as subject to a “revise and resubmit” based on the recommendations provided by the reviewer or reviewers. These revisions may necessitate either major or minor changes in the manuscript. Inexperienced scholars should understand a few key aspects of the revision process. First, it important to address the revisions diligently; second, is imperative to address all the comments received from the reviewers and avoid oversights; third, the resubmission of the revised manuscript must happen by the deadline provided by the journal; fourth, the revision process might comprise multiple rounds. The revision process requires two major documents. The first is the revised manuscript highlighting all the modifications made following the recommendations received from the reviewers. The second is a letter listing the authors’ responses illustrating they have addressed all the concerns of the reviewers and editors. These two documents should be drafted carefully. The authors of the manuscript can agree or disagree with the comments of the reviewers (typically agreement is encouraged) and are not always obliged to implement their recommendations, but they should in all cases provide a well-argued justification for their course of action.

Given the ever increasing number of manuscripts submitted for publication, the process of preparing a manuscript well enough to have it accepted by a journal can be daunting. High-impact journals accept less than 10 percent of the articles submitted to them, although the acceptance ratio for special issues or special topics sections is normally over 40 percent. Scholars might have to resign themselves to having their articles rejected and then reworking them to submit them to a different journal before the manuscript is accepted.

The advice offered here is not exhaustive but it’s also not difficult to implement. These recommendations require proper attention, planning and careful implementation; however, following this advice could help doctoral students and other scholars improve the likelihood of getting their work published, and that is key to having a productive, exciting and rewarding academic career.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Professor Heikki Karjaluoto, Jyväskylä University School of Business and Economics for providing valuable feedback on this article.

Sun, H., & Linton, J. D. (2014).

Structuring papers for success: Making your paper more like a high impact publication than a desk reject opens in new tab/window

Technovation.

Craig, J. B. (2010).

Desk rejection: How to avoid being hit by a returning boomerang opens in new tab/window

Family Business Review

Hierons, R. M. (2016).

The dreaded desk reject opens in new tab/window

, Software Testing, Verification and Reliability .

Borja, A (2014):

11 steps to structuring a science paper editors will take seriously

Elsevier Connect

Knight, L. V., & Steinbach, T. A. (2008).

Selecting an appropriate publication outlet: a comprehensive model of journal selection criteria for researchers in a broad range of academic disciplines opens in new tab/window

, International Journal of Doctoral Studies .

Tewin, K. (2015).

How to Better Proofread An Article in 6 Simple Steps opens in new tab/window ,

Day, R, & Gastel, B: How to write and publish a scientific paper. Cambridge University Press (2012)

Contributor

Aijaz shaikh, phd.

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How to publish your paper

On this page, journal specific instructions, nature journal pledge to authors, how to publish your research in a nature journal, editorial process, about advance online publication, journals' aop timetable, frequently asked questions.

For more information on how to publish papers in a specific Nature Portfolio title, please visit the author instructions page for the journal that is of interest to you.

Top of page ⤴

Editors of the Nature journals strive to provide authors with an outstandingly efficient, fair and thoughtful submission, peer-review and publishing experience. Authors can expect all manuscripts that are published to be scrutinized for peer-review with the utmost professional rigor and care by expert referees who are selected by the editors for their ability to provide incisive and useful analysis. Editors weigh many factors when choosing content for Nature journals, but they strive to minimize the time taken to make decisions about publication while maintaining the highest possible quality of that decision.

After review, editors work to increase a paper's readability, and thereby its audience, through advice and editing, so that all research is presented in a form that is both readable to those in the field and understandable to scientists outside the immediate discipline. Research is published online without delay through our Advance Online Publication system. Nature journals provide more than 3,000 registered journalists with weekly press releases that mention all research papers to be published. About 800,000 registered users receive e-mailed tables of contents, and many papers are highlighted for the nonspecialist reader on the journal's homepage, contents pages and in News and Views.

Throughout this process, the editors of Nature journals uphold editorial, ethical and scientific standards according to the policies outlined on the author and referee site as well as on our journal websites. We periodically review those policies to ensure that they continue to reflect the needs of the scientific community, and welcome comments and suggestions from scientists, either via the feedback links on the author and referees' website or via our author blog, Nautilus , or peer-review blog, Peer to Peer .

The Nature journals comprise the weekly, multidisciplinary Nature, which publishes research of the highest influence within a discipline that will be of interest to scientists in other fields, and fifteen monthly titles, publishing papers of the highest quality and of exceptional impact: Nature Biotechnology, Nature Cell Biology, Nature Chemical Biology, Nature Chemistry, Nature Climate Change, Nature Communications, Nature Genetics, Nature Geoscience, Nature Immunology, Nature Materials, Nature Medicine, Nature Methods, Nature Nanotechnology, Nature Neuroscience, Nature Photonics, Nature Physics, Nature Protocolsand Nature Structural and Molecular Biology. These journals are international, being published and printed in the United States, the United Kingdom and Japan. See here for more information about the relationship between these journals.

Nature and the Nature monthly journals have Impact Factors that are among the highest in the world. The high prestige of these journals brings many rewards to their authors, but also means that competition for publication is severe, so many submissions have to be declined without peer-review.

The Nature journals differ from most other journals in that they do not have editorial boards, but are instead run by professional editors who consult widely among the scientific community in making decisions about publication of papers. This article is to provide you with an overview of the general editorial processes of these unique journals. Although the journals are broadly similar and share editorial policies , all authors should consult the author information pages of the specific Nature journal before submitting, to obtain detailed information on criteria for publication and manuscript preparation for that journal, as some differences exist.

The following sections summarise the journals' editorial processes and describe how manuscripts are handled by editors between submission and publication. At all stages of the process, you can access the online submission system and find the status of your manuscript.

Presubmission enquiries

Many Nature journals allow researchers to obtain informal feedback from editors before submitting the whole manuscript. This service is intended to save you time — if the editors feel it would not be suitable, you can submit the manuscript to another journal without delay. If you wish to use the presubmission enquiry service, please use the online system of the journal of your choice to send a paragraph explaining the importance of your manuscript, as well as the abstract or summary paragraph with its associated citation list so the editors may judge the manuscript in relation to other related work. The editors will quickly either invite you to submit the whole manuscript (which does not mean any commitment to publication), or will say that it is not suitable for the journal. If you receive a negative response, please do not reply. If you are convinced of the importance of your manuscript despite editors' reservations, you may submit the whole manuscript using the journal's online submission system. The editors can then make a more complete assessment of your work. Note that not all Nature journals offer a presubmission enquiry service.

Initial submission

When you are ready to submit the manuscript, please use the online submission system for the journal concerned. When the journal receives your manuscript, it will be assigned a number and an editor, who reads the manuscript, seeks informal advice from scientific advisors and editorial colleagues, and compares your submission to other recently published papers in the field. If the manuscript seems novel and arresting, and the work described has both immediate and far-reaching implications, the editor will send it out for peer review, usually to two or three independent specialists. However, because the journals can publish only a few of the manuscripts in the field or subfield concerned, many manuscripts have to be declined without peer review even though they may describe solid scientific results.

Transfers between Nature journals

In some cases, an editor is unable to offer publication, but might suggest that the manuscript is more suitable for one of the other Nature journals. If you wish to resubmit your manuscript to the suggested journal, you can simply follow the link provided by the editor to transfer your manuscript and the reviewers' comments to the new journal. This process is entirely in your control: you can choose not to use this service and instead to submit your manuscript to any other Nature or nature research journal, with or without including the reviewers' comments if you wish, using the journal's usual online submission service. For more information, please see the manuscript transfers page .

Peer review

The corresponding author is notified by email when an editor decides to send a manuscript for review. The editors choose referees for their independence, ability to evaluate the technical aspects of the paper fully and fairly, whether they are currently or recently assessing related submissions, and whether they can review the manuscript within the short time requested.

You may suggest referees for your manuscript (including address details), so long as they are independent scientists. These suggestions are often helpful, although they are not always followed. Editors will honour your requests to exclude a limited number of named scientists as reviewers.

Decisions and revisions

If the editor invites you to revise your manuscript, you should include with your resubmitted version a new cover letter that includes a point-by-point response to the reviewers' and editors' comments, including an explanation of how you have altered your manuscript in response to these, and an estimation of the length of the revised version with figures/tables. The decision letter will specify a deadline, and revisions that are returned within this period will retain their original submission date.

Additional supplementary information is published with the online version of your article if the editors and referees have judged that it is essential for the conclusions of the article (for example, a large table of data or the derivation of a model) but of more specialist interest than the rest of the article. Editors encourage authors whose articles describe methods to provide a summary of the method for the print version and to include full details and protocols online. Authors are also encouraged to post the full protocol on Nature Protocols' Protocol Exchange , which as well as a protocols database provides an online forum for readers in the field to add comments, suggestions and refinements to the published protocols.

After acceptance

Your accepted manuscript is prepared for publication by copy editors (also called subeditors), who refine it so that the text and figures are readable and clear to those outside the immediate field; choose keywords to maximize visibility in online searches as well as suitable for indexing services; and ensure that the manuscripts conform to house style. The copy editors are happy to give advice to authors whose native language is not English, and will edit those papers with special care.

After publication

All articles are published in the print edition and, in PDF and HTML format, in the online edition of the journal, in full. Many linking and navigational services are provided with the online (HTML) version of all articles published by the Nature journals.

All articles and contact details of corresponding authors are included in our press release service, which means that your work is drawn to the attention of all the main media organizations in the world, who may choose to feature the work in newspaper and other media reports. Some articles are summarized and highlighted within Nature and Nature Portfolio publications and subject-specific websites.

Journals published by Nature Portfolio do not ask authors for copyright, but instead ask you to sign an exclusive publishing license . This allows you to archive the accepted version of your manuscript six months after publication on your own, your institution's, and your funder's websites.

Disagreements with decisions

If a journal's editors are unable to offer publication of a manuscript and have not invited resubmission, you are strongly advised to submit your manuscript for publication elsewhere. However, if you believe that the editors or reviewers have seriously misunderstood your manuscript, you may write to the editors, explaining the scientific reasons why you believe the decision was incorrect. Please bear in mind that editors prioritise newly submitted manuscripts and manuscripts where resubmission has been invited, so it can take several weeks before letters of disagreement can be answered. During this time, you must not submit your manuscript elsewhere. In the interests of publishing your results without unnecessary delay, we therefore advise you to submit your manuscript to another journal if it has been declined, rather than to spend time on corresponding further with the editors of the declining journal.

Nature journals offer Advance Online Publication (AOP).

We believe that AOP is the best and quickest way to publish high-quality, peer-reviewed research for the benefit of readers and authors. Papers published AOP are the definitive version: they do not change before appearing in print and can be referenced formally as soon as they appear on the journal's AOP website. In addition, Nature publishes some papers each week via an Accelerated Article Preview (AAP) workflow. For these papers, we upload the accepted manuscript to our website as an AAP PDF, without subediting of text, figures or tables, but with some preliminary formatting. AAP papers are clearly indicated by a watermark on each page of the online PDF.

Each journal's website includes an AOP table of contents, in which papers are listed in order of publication date (beginning with the most recent). Each paper carries a digital object identifier (DOI), which serves as a unique electronic identification tag for that paper. As soon as the issue containing the paper is printed, papers will be removed from the AOP table of contents, assigned a page number and transferred to that issue's table of contents on the website. The DOI remains attached to the paper to provide a persistent identifier.

Nature publishes many, but not all, papers AOP, on Mondays and Wednesdays.

For the monthly Nature journals publishing primary research, new articles are uploaded to the AOP section of their web sites once each week. Occasionally, an article may be uploaded on other days.

The monthly Nature Reviews journals also upload new articles to the AOP section of their web sites once each week.

Q. Which articles are published AOP?

A. Original research is published AOP — that is, Articles and Letters, and for the Nature journals that publish them, Brief Communications. Associated News and Views articles may be published with the AOP Article or Letter or when the papers are published in the print/online edition of the journal. Nature occasionally publishes other article types AOP, for example News and Commentaries.

Q. Is the AOP version of the article definitive?

A. Yes. Only the final version of the paper is published AOP, exactly as it will be published in the printed edition. The paper is thus complete in every respect except that instead of having a volume/issue/page number, it has a DOI (digital object identifier). This means that the paper can be referenced as soon as it appears on the AOP site by using the DOI. Nature also publishes some papers each week via an Accelerated Article Preview workflow, where the accepted version of the paper is uploaded as a PDF to our website without subediting of text, figures and tables, but with some preliminary formatting. These papers are clearly identified by a watermark on each page of the PDF.

Q. What is a Digital Object Identifier?

A. The DOI is an international, public, "persistent identifier of intellectual property entities" in the form of a combination of numbers and letters. For Nature Portfolio journals, the DOI is assigned to an item of editorial content, providing a unique and persistent identifier for that item. The DOI system is administered by the International DOI Foundation, a not-for-profit organization. CrossRef, another not-for-profit organization, uses the DOI as a reference linking standard, enables cross-publisher linking, and maintains the lookup system for DOIs. Nature Portfolio is a member of CrossRef.

Q. What do the numbers in the DOI signify?

A. The DOI has two components, a prefix (before the slash) and a suffix (after the slash). The prefix is a DOI resolver server identifer (10) and a unique identifier assigned to the publisher—for example, the identifier for Nature Portfolio is 1038 and the entire DOI prefix for an article published by Nature Portfolio is 10.1038. The suffix is an arbitrary number provided by the publisher. It can be composed of numbers and/or letters and does not necessarily have any systematic significance. Each DOI is registered in a central resolution database that associates it with one or more corresponding web locations (URLs). For example, the DOI 10.1038/ng571 connects to http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng571.

Q. Can I use the DOI in a reference citation?

A. Yes, instead of giving the volume and page number, you can give the paper's DOI at the end of the citation. For example, Nature papers should be cited in the form;

Author(s) Nature advance online publication, day month year (DOI 10.1038/natureXXX).

After print publication, you should give the DOI as well as the print citation, to enable readers to find the paper in print as well as online. For example;

Author(s) Nature volume, page (year); advance online publication, day month year (DOI 10.1038/natureXXX).

Q. How can I use a DOI to find a paper?

A. There are two ways:

DOIs from other articles can be embedded into the linking coding of an article's reference section. In Nature journals these appear as "|Article|" in the reference sections. When |Article| is clicked, it opens another browser window leading to the entrance page (often the abstract) for another article. Depending on the source of the article, this page can be on the Nature Portfolio's site or a site of another publisher. This service is enabled by CrossRef.
A DOI can be inserted directly into the browser. For example, for the DOI 10.1038/ng571, typing http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng571 brings up the entrance page of the article.

Q. What is the official publication date?

A. Many journals, and most abstracting and indexing services (including Medline and Thomson-Reuters) cite the print date as the publication date. Publishers usually state both the 'online publication date' and the 'print publication date'. Nature Portfolio publishes both dates for our own papers, in the hope that scientific communities, as well as abstracting and indexing services, will recognize these dates.

We endeavour to include both the online publication date and the usual print citation in reference lists of Nature Portfolio papers, where a paper has been published online before being published in print. Given the use of the DOI in locating an online publication in the future, we encourage authors to use DOIs in reference citations.

For legal purposes (for example, establishing intellectual property rights), we assume that online publication constitutes public disclosure. But this is for the courts to decide; Nature Portfolio's role as a publisher is to provide clear documentation of the publication history, online and in print.

Q. Must I be a subscriber to read AOP articles?

A. Yes. AOP papers are the same as those in the print/online issues: while abstracts are freely available on any Nature Portfolio journal's web site, access to the full-text article requires a paid subscription or a site license.

Q. Does Medline use DOIs?

A. Medline currently captures DOIs with online publication dates in its records, and is developing an enhanced level of support for the DOI system.

Q. Does Thomson-Reuters use DOIs?

A. Thomson Reuters captures DOIs in its records at the same time as the volume/issue/page number. Therefore, it is not using the DOI to capture information before print publication, but rather as an additional piece of metadata.

Q. How does AOP affect the Impact Factor?

A. Impact factors are calculated by Thomson-Reuters. At present, Thomson-Reuters bases its calculations on the date of print publication alone, so until or unless it changes its policy, AOP has no effect on impact factors.

Q. What are the page numbers in PDFs of AOP papers?

A. For convenience, the PDF version of every AOP article is given a temporary pagination, beginning with page 1. This is unrelated to the final pagination in the printed article.

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Publishing in a scholarly journal: Part one, the publishing process

As a psychology student or early career psychologist, you might be thinking about publishing your first paper in a scholarly journal. There are several important steps and points to consider as you embark on your publishing journey. Not sure where to start? We’ve got you covered!

Recognizing that not all young academics get all of their questions about publication answered in their respective training programs, we crowdsourced from trainees and early career psychologists using an anonymous Twitter poll and direct solicitation from various students and colleagues known to the authors, this three-part article series includes frequently asked questions about the publication process with answers from the Editor-in-Chief of Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology ( ECP ), William Stoops, the Associate Editor of ECP , Raina Pang, and a past ECP Editorial Fellow, Daniel Bradford. Part one focuses on crucial publishing insights for future authors; part two examines the role of the editorial board; and part three sheds light on peer review.

Choosing a journal

How does one choose a journal in which to publish and what factors (impact factor, journal content) should be considered?

In general, the most important factor to consider when choosing where to submit your article is the fit of the manuscript to the scope and profile of the journal; Aside from the quality of the science and writing, this is the largest factor that will determine whether a manuscript is accepted to a journal. To determine fit, one should examine the journal description, usually found on the journal website.

Additionally, it is helpful to browse the journal to see whether it has published articles on the same topic and with similar methods to the manuscript you are submitting.

In addition to the above, you may also consider online search engines, which can help generate a list of journals that may be appropriate for the manuscript being submitted:

JournalFinder
Springer Nature: Journal suggester
Enago’s Open Access Journal Finder
Journal/Author Name Estimator

Can you submit a paper to multiple journals at once?

No. Submitting a paper to multiple journals at once contravenes publishing guidelines and presents serious ethical concerns.

Is there a uniform format that I should submit my manuscript in?

Make sure to carefully read the manuscript submission instructions available on every journal’s webpage. Although there are certain rules that most journals follow (e.g. formatting in APA Style), each journal provides specific guidelines about certain aspects, for example the information that must be included within the manuscript.

What’s a predatory journal?

A predatory journal is a counterfeit publication that imitates that of a legitimate, respected publisher. Predatory publishers use various techniques to trick scholars into submitting their article for publication. A predatory publisher will usually solicit articles via email, emphasizing a publishing fee and touting a quick turnaround that often omits peer review.

Although the publishing fee is a red flag when it comes to identifying a predatory journal, not all journals that charge a publishing fee are predatory (see next question for more information). For tips on how to identify a predatory journal, see the following resources:

Scholars beware
How to avoid predatory publishers

Publishing fees

Does it usually cost money to publish?

It’s important to note that many journals do not charge the author(s) or their institution to publish an article. There are exceptions, however.

Some journals may charge a fee for publishing the article in a particular format. For example, some authors prefer or require their figures to be printed in color. Because printing in color costs more to the publisher, some journals may require a fee for each figure to be printed in color. Other journals may print one color figure for free, but charge for every additional color figure.

An increasing number of journals are also adding open access options which, when chosen, require fees paid by the author or their institution. Further, some reputable journals have recently gone entirely open access and thus require a fee to publish (the fee varies by journal). Open access journals are free to read for all and do not receive revenue from journal subscriptions—therefore, in many cases, an article publishing fee is charged to offset the cost of publishing (e.g., peer review management, production costs).

For example, APA’s open access journal Technology, Mind, and Behavior charges a $1,200 article processing charge (APC), however an author may apply for an APC waiver if they are unable to pay via grant, institutional funding, or by other means outlined on the journal website.

As such, it is important to recognize that journals charging a fee are not necessarily “predatory”—it’s crucial to consider other factors to figure out the legitimacy of the publication.

What is the difference between an open access journal and the open science movement?

Open access is a publishing model in which the author pays a fee to publish; the reader is able to access the article for free. Some journals are entirely open access, while others are “hybrid”—providing both a subscription as well as an open access publishing option.

Open science , on the other hand, is a movement towards increased transparency in publishing. It goes beyond open access, offering guidelines on the type of information that authors should include in their manuscript: for example, APA Style JARS provide guidelines for the details that authors should include in their methods section. Open science initiatives include data sharing, preregistration, preprints, registered reports, and more. The goals of open science initiatives are to increase openness and collaboration, and to improve reproducibility of science and research discovery.

Licensing and copyright

How does licensing and copyright work?

Authors usually own the copyright of their original work and are free to share, without limitation, any version of their articles prior to the final text (after the journal proofing / copy editing process). However, licensing of article versions and individual publisher stances on sharing of accepted articles vary and change frequently. Fortunately, there are many resources to help authors keep track of individual policies. For example, the Sherpa Romeo website includes a conveniently searchable tool of journals’ copyright and open access policies on a journal-by-journal basis.

The Open Science Knowledge Base provides detailed information and recommendations about licensing content .

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How to Write and Publish a Research Paper in 7 Steps

What comes next after you're done with your research? Publishing the results in a journal of course! We tell you how to present your work in the best way possible.

This post is part of a series, which serves to provide hands-on information and resources for authors and editors.

Things have gotten busy in scholarly publishing: These days, a new article gets published in the 50,000 most important peer-reviewed journals every few seconds, while each one takes on average 40 minutes to read. Hundreds of thousands of papers reach the desks of editors and reviewers worldwide each year and 50% of all submissions end up rejected at some stage.

In a nutshell: there is a lot of competition, and the people who decide upon the fate of your manuscript are short on time and overworked. But there are ways to make their lives a little easier and improve your own chances of getting your work published!

Well, it may seem obvious, but before submitting an academic paper, always make sure that it is an excellent reflection of the research you have done and that you present it in the most professional way possible. Incomplete or poorly presented manuscripts can create a great deal of frustration and annoyance for editors who probably won’t even bother wasting the time of the reviewers!

This post will discuss 7 steps to the successful publication of your research paper:

Check whether your research is publication-ready
Choose an article type
Choose a journal
Construct your paper
Decide the order of authors
Check and double-check
Submit your paper

1. Check Whether Your Research Is Publication-Ready

Should you publish your research at all?

If your work holds academic value – of course – a well-written scholarly article could open doors to your research community. However, if you are not yet sure, whether your research is ready for publication, here are some key questions to ask yourself depending on your field of expertise:

Have you done or found something new and interesting? Something unique?
Is the work directly related to a current hot topic?
Have you checked the latest results or research in the field?
Have you provided solutions to any difficult problems?
Have the findings been verified?
Have the appropriate controls been performed if required?
Are your findings comprehensive?

If the answers to all relevant questions are “yes”, you need to prepare a good, strong manuscript. Remember, a research paper is only useful if it is clearly understood, reproducible and if it is read and used .

2. Choose An Article Type

The first step is to determine which type of paper is most appropriate for your work and what you want to achieve. The following list contains the most important, usually peer-reviewed article types in the natural sciences:

Full original research papers disseminate completed research findings. On average this type of paper is 8-10 pages long, contains five figures, and 25-30 references. Full original research papers are an important part of the process when developing your career.

Review papers present a critical synthesis of a specific research topic. These papers are usually much longer than original papers and will contain numerous references. More often than not, they will be commissioned by journal editors. Reviews present an excellent way to solidify your research career.

Letters, Rapid or Short Communications are often published for the quick and early communication of significant and original advances. They are much shorter than full articles and usually limited in length by the journal. Journals specifically dedicated to short communications or letters are also published in some fields. In these the authors can present short preliminary findings before developing a full-length paper.

3. Choose a Journal

Are you looking for the right place to publish your paper? Find out here whether a De Gruyter journal might be the right fit.

Submit to journals that you already read, that you have a good feel for. If you do so, you will have a better appreciation of both its culture and the requirements of the editors and reviewers.

Other factors to consider are:

The specific subject area
The aims and scope of the journal
The type of manuscript you have written
The significance of your work
The reputation of the journal
The reputation of the editors within the community
The editorial/review and production speeds of the journal
The community served by the journal
The coverage and distribution
The accessibility ( open access vs. closed access)

4. Construct Your Paper

Each element of a paper has its purpose, so you should make these sections easy to index and search.

Don’t forget that requirements can differ highly per publication, so always make sure to apply a journal’s specific instructions – or guide – for authors to your manuscript, even to the first draft (text layout, paper citation, nomenclature, figures and table, etc.) It will save you time, and the editor’s.

Also, even in these days of Internet-based publishing, space is still at a premium, so be as concise as possible. As a good journalist would say: “Never use three words when one will do!”

Let’s look at the typical structure of a full research paper, but bear in mind certain subject disciplines may have their own specific requirements so check the instructions for authors on the journal’s home page.

4.1 The Title

It’s important to use the title to tell the reader what your paper is all about! You want to attract their attention, a bit like a newspaper headline does. Be specific and to the point. Keep it informative and concise, and avoid jargon and abbreviations (unless they are universally recognized like DNA, for example).

4.2 The Abstract

This could be termed as the “advertisement” for your article. Make it interesting and easily understood without the reader having to read the whole article. Be accurate and specific, and keep it as brief and concise as possible. Some journals (particularly in the medical fields) will ask you to structure the abstract in distinct, labeled sections, which makes it even more accessible.

A clear abstract will influence whether or not your work is considered and whether an editor should invest more time on it or send it for review.

4.3 Keywords

Keywords are used by abstracting and indexing services, such as PubMed and Web of Science. They are the labels of your manuscript, which make it “searchable” online by other researchers.

Include words or phrases (usually 4-8) that are closely related to your topic but not “too niche” for anyone to find them. Make sure to only use established abbreviations. Think about what scientific terms and its variations your potential readers are likely to use and search for. You can also do a test run of your selected keywords in one of the common academic search engines. Do similar articles to your own appear? Yes? Then that’s a good sign.

4.4 Introduction

This first part of the main text should introduce the problem, as well as any existing solutions you are aware of and the main limitations. Also, state what you hope to achieve with your research.

Do not confuse the introduction with the results, discussion or conclusion.

4.5 Methods

Every research article should include a detailed Methods section (also referred to as “Materials and Methods”) to provide the reader with enough information to be able to judge whether the study is valid and reproducible.

Include detailed information so that a knowledgeable reader can reproduce the experiment. However, use references and supplementary materials to indicate previously published procedures.

4.6 Results

In this section, you will present the essential or primary results of your study. To display them in a comprehensible way, you should use subheadings as well as illustrations such as figures, graphs, tables and photos, as appropriate.

4.7 Discussion

Here you should tell your readers what the results mean .

Do state how the results relate to the study’s aims and hypotheses and how the findings relate to those of other studies. Explain all possible interpretations of your findings and the study’s limitations.

Do not make “grand statements” that are not supported by the data. Also, do not introduce any new results or terms. Moreover, do not ignore work that conflicts or disagrees with your findings. Instead …

Be brave! Address conflicting study results and convince the reader you are the one who is correct.

4.8 Conclusion

Your conclusion isn’t just a summary of what you’ve already written. It should take your paper one step further and answer any unresolved questions.

Sum up what you have shown in your study and indicate possible applications and extensions. The main question your conclusion should answer is: What do my results mean for the research field and my community?

4.9 Acknowledgments and Ethical Statements

It is extremely important to acknowledge anyone who has helped you with your paper, including researchers who supplied materials or reagents (e.g. vectors or antibodies); and anyone who helped with the writing or English, or offered critical comments about the content.

Learn more about academic integrity in our blog post “Scholarly Publication Ethics: 4 Common Mistakes You Want To Avoid” .

Remember to state why people have been acknowledged and ask their permission . Ensure that you acknowledge sources of funding, including any grant or reference numbers.

Furthermore, if you have worked with animals or humans, you need to include information about the ethical approval of your study and, if applicable, whether informed consent was given. Also, state whether you have any competing interests regarding the study (e.g. because of financial or personal relationships.)

4.10 References

The end is in sight, but don’t relax just yet!

De facto, there are often more mistakes in the references than in any other part of the manuscript. It is also one of the most annoying and time-consuming problems for editors.

Remember to cite the main scientific publications on which your work is based. But do not inflate the manuscript with too many references. Avoid excessive – and especially unnecessary – self-citations. Also, avoid excessive citations of publications from the same institute or region.

5. Decide the Order of Authors

In the sciences, the most common way to order the names of the authors is by relative contribution.

Generally, the first author conducts and/or supervises the data analysis and the proper presentation and interpretation of the results. They put the paper together and usually submit the paper to the journal.

Co-authors make intellectual contributions to the data analysis and contribute to data interpretation. They review each paper draft. All of them must be able to present the paper and its results, as well as to defend the implications and discuss study limitations.

Do not leave out authors who should be included or add “gift authors”, i.e. authors who did not contribute significantly.

6. Check and Double-Check

As a final step before submission, ask colleagues to read your work and be constructively critical .

Make sure that the paper is appropriate for the journal – take a last look at their aims and scope. Check if all of the requirements in the instructions for authors are met.

Ensure that the cited literature is balanced. Are the aims, purpose and significance of the results clear?

Conduct a final check for language, either by a native English speaker or an editing service.

7. Submit Your Paper

When you and your co-authors have double-, triple-, quadruple-checked the manuscript: submit it via e-mail or online submission system. Along with your manuscript, submit a cover letter, which highlights the reasons why your paper would appeal to the journal and which ensures that you have received approval of all authors for submission.

It is up to the editors and the peer-reviewers now to provide you with their (ideally constructive and helpful) comments and feedback. Time to take a breather!

If the paper gets rejected, do not despair – it happens to literally everybody. If the journal suggests major or minor revisions, take the chance to provide a thorough response and make improvements as you see fit. If the paper gets accepted, congrats!

It’s now time to get writing and share your hard work – good luck!

If you are interested, check out this related blog post

[Title Image by Nick Morrison via Unsplash]

David Sleeman

David Sleeman worked as Senior Journals Manager in the field of Physical Sciences at De Gruyter.

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How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

Clara busse.

1 Department of Maternal and Child Health, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, 135 Dauer Dr, 27599 Chapel Hill, NC USA

Ella August

2 Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2029 USA

Associated Data

Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1 , we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Introduction

Writing a scientific paper is an important component of the research process, yet researchers often receive little formal training in scientific writing. This is especially true in low-resource settings. In this article, we explain why choosing a target journal is important, give advice about authorship, provide a basic structure for writing each section of a scientific paper, and describe common pitfalls and recommendations for each section. In the online resource 1 , we also include an annotated journal article that identifies the key elements and writing approaches that we detail here. Before you begin your research, make sure you have ethical clearance from all relevant ethical review boards.

Select a Target Journal Early in the Writing Process

We recommend that you select a “target journal” early in the writing process; a “target journal” is the journal to which you plan to submit your paper. Each journal has a set of core readers and you should tailor your writing to this readership. For example, if you plan to submit a manuscript about vaping during pregnancy to a pregnancy-focused journal, you will need to explain what vaping is because readers of this journal may not have a background in this topic. However, if you were to submit that same article to a tobacco journal, you would not need to provide as much background information about vaping.

Information about a journal’s core readership can be found on its website, usually in a section called “About this journal” or something similar. For example, the Journal of Cancer Education presents such information on the “Aims and Scope” page of its website, which can be found here: https://www.springer.com/journal/13187/aims-and-scope .

Peer reviewer guidelines from your target journal are an additional resource that can help you tailor your writing to the journal and provide additional advice about crafting an effective article [ 1 ]. These are not always available, but it is worth a quick web search to find out.

Identify Author Roles Early in the Process

Early in the writing process, identify authors, determine the order of authors, and discuss the responsibilities of each author. Standard author responsibilities have been identified by The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) [ 2 ]. To set clear expectations about each team member’s responsibilities and prevent errors in communication, we also suggest outlining more detailed roles, such as who will draft each section of the manuscript, write the abstract, submit the paper electronically, serve as corresponding author, and write the cover letter. It is best to formalize this agreement in writing after discussing it, circulating the document to the author team for approval. We suggest creating a title page on which all authors are listed in the agreed-upon order. It may be necessary to adjust authorship roles and order during the development of the paper. If a new author order is agreed upon, be sure to update the title page in the manuscript draft.

In the case where multiple papers will result from a single study, authors should discuss who will author each paper. Additionally, authors should agree on a deadline for each paper and the lead author should take responsibility for producing an initial draft by this deadline.

Structure of the Introduction Section

The introduction section should be approximately three to five paragraphs in length. Look at examples from your target journal to decide the appropriate length. This section should include the elements shown in Fig. 1 . Begin with a general context, narrowing to the specific focus of the paper. Include five main elements: why your research is important, what is already known about the topic, the “gap” or what is not yet known about the topic, why it is important to learn the new information that your research adds, and the specific research aim(s) that your paper addresses. Your research aim should address the gap you identified. Be sure to add enough background information to enable readers to understand your study. Table Table1 1 provides common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

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The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations

Pitfall	Recommendation
Introduction is too generic, not written to specific readers of a designated journal.	Visit your target journal’s website and investigate the journal’s readership. If you are writing for a journal with a more general readership, like PLOS ONE, you should include more background information. A narrower journal, like the Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, may require less background information because most of its readers have expertise in the subject matter.
Citations are inadequate to support claims.	If a claim could be debated, it should be supported by one or more citations. To find articles relevant to your research, consider using open-access journals, which are available for anyone to read for free. A list of open-access journals can be found here: . You can also find open-access articles using PubMed Central:
The research aim is vague.	Be sure that your research aim contains essential details like the setting, population/sample, study design, timing, dependent variable, and independent variables. Using such details, the reader should be able to imagine the analysis you have conducted.

Pitfall

Recommendation

Introduction is too generic, not written to specific readers of a designated journal.

Visit your target journal’s website and investigate the journal’s readership. If you are writing for a journal with a more general readership, like PLOS ONE, you should include more background information. A narrower journal, like the Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, may require less background information because most of its readers have expertise in the subject matter.

Citations are inadequate to support claims.

If a claim could be debated, it should be supported by one or more citations.

To find articles relevant to your research, consider using open-access journals, which are available for anyone to read for free. A list of open-access journals can be found here: . You can also find open-access articles using PubMed Central:

The research aim is vague.

Be sure that your research aim contains essential details like the setting, population/sample, study design, timing, dependent variable, and independent variables. Using such details, the reader should be able to imagine the analysis you have conducted.

Methods Section

The purpose of the methods section is twofold: to explain how the study was done in enough detail to enable its replication and to provide enough contextual detail to enable readers to understand and interpret the results. In general, the essential elements of a methods section are the following: a description of the setting and participants, the study design and timing, the recruitment and sampling, the data collection process, the dataset, the dependent and independent variables, the covariates, the analytic approach for each research objective, and the ethical approval. The hallmark of an exemplary methods section is the justification of why each method was used. Table Table2 2 provides common methods section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Common methods section pitfalls and recommendations

Pitfall	Recommendation
The author only describes methods for one study aim, or part of an aim.	Be sure to check that the methods describe all aspects of the study reported in the manuscript.
There is not enough (or any) justification for the methods used.	You must justify your choice of methods because it greatly impacts the interpretation of results. State the methods you used and then defend those decisions. For example, justify why you chose to include the measurements, covariates, and statistical approaches.

Pitfall

Recommendation

The author only describes methods for one study aim, or part of an aim.

Be sure to check that the methods describe all aspects of the study reported in the manuscript.

There is not enough (or any) justification for the methods used.

You must justify your choice of methods because it greatly impacts the interpretation of results. State the methods you used and then defend those decisions. For example, justify why you chose to include the measurements, covariates, and statistical approaches.

Results Section

The focus of the results section should be associations, or lack thereof, rather than statistical tests. Two considerations should guide your writing here. First, the results should present answers to each part of the research aim. Second, return to the methods section to ensure that the analysis and variables for each result have been explained.

Begin the results section by describing the number of participants in the final sample and details such as the number who were approached to participate, the proportion who were eligible and who enrolled, and the number of participants who dropped out. The next part of the results should describe the participant characteristics. After that, you may organize your results by the aim or by putting the most exciting results first. Do not forget to report your non-significant associations. These are still findings.

Tables and figures capture the reader’s attention and efficiently communicate your main findings [ 3 ]. Each table and figure should have a clear message and should complement, rather than repeat, the text. Tables and figures should communicate all salient details necessary for a reader to understand the findings without consulting the text. Include information on comparisons and tests, as well as information about the sample and timing of the study in the title, legend, or in a footnote. Note that figures are often more visually interesting than tables, so if it is feasible to make a figure, make a figure. To avoid confusing the reader, either avoid abbreviations in tables and figures, or define them in a footnote. Note that there should not be citations in the results section and you should not interpret results here. Table Table3 3 provides common results section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Common results section pitfalls and recommendations

Pitfall	Recommendation
The text focuses on statistical tests rather than associations.	The relationships between independent and dependent variables are at the heart of scientific studies and statistical tests are a set of strategies used to elucidate such relationships. For example, instead of reporting that “the odds ratio is 3.4,” report that “women with exposure X were 3.4 times more likely to have disease Y.” There are several ways to express such associations, but all successful approaches focus on the relationships between the variables.
Causal words like “cause” and “impact” are used inappropriately	Only some study designs and analytic approaches enable researchers to make causal claims. Before you use the word “cause,” consider whether this is justified given your design. Words like “associated” or “related” may be more appropriate.
The direction of association unclear.	Instead of “X is associated with Y,” say “an increase in variable X is associated with a decrease in variable Y,” a sentence which more fully describes the relationship between the two variables.

Pitfall

Recommendation

The text focuses on statistical tests rather than associations.

The relationships between independent and dependent variables are at the heart of scientific studies and statistical tests are a set of strategies used to elucidate such relationships. For example, instead of reporting that “the odds ratio is 3.4,” report that “women with exposure X were 3.4 times more likely to have disease Y.” There are several ways to express such associations, but all successful approaches focus on the relationships between the variables.

Causal words like “cause” and “impact” are used inappropriately

Only some study designs and analytic approaches enable researchers to make causal claims. Before you use the word “cause,” consider whether this is justified given your design. Words like “associated” or “related” may be more appropriate.

The direction of association unclear.

Instead of “X is associated with Y,” say “an increase in variable X is associated with a decrease in variable Y,” a sentence which more fully describes the relationship between the two variables.

Discussion Section

Opposite the introduction section, the discussion should take the form of a right-side-up triangle beginning with interpretation of your results and moving to general implications (Fig. 2 ). This section typically begins with a restatement of the main findings, which can usually be accomplished with a few carefully-crafted sentences.

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Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Next, interpret the meaning or explain the significance of your results, lifting the reader’s gaze from the study’s specific findings to more general applications. Then, compare these study findings with other research. Are these findings in agreement or disagreement with those from other studies? Does this study impart additional nuance to well-accepted theories? Situate your findings within the broader context of scientific literature, then explain the pathways or mechanisms that might give rise to, or explain, the results.

Journals vary in their approach to strengths and limitations sections: some are embedded paragraphs within the discussion section, while some mandate separate section headings. Keep in mind that every study has strengths and limitations. Candidly reporting yours helps readers to correctly interpret your research findings.

The next element of the discussion is a summary of the potential impacts and applications of the research. Should these results be used to optimally design an intervention? Does the work have implications for clinical protocols or public policy? These considerations will help the reader to further grasp the possible impacts of the presented work.

Finally, the discussion should conclude with specific suggestions for future work. Here, you have an opportunity to illuminate specific gaps in the literature that compel further study. Avoid the phrase “future research is necessary” because the recommendation is too general to be helpful to readers. Instead, provide substantive and specific recommendations for future studies. Table Table4 4 provides common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations

Pitfall	Recommendation
The author repeats detailed results or presents new results in the discussion section.	Recall from Fig. that the discussion section should take the shape of a triangle as it moves from a specific restatement of the main findings to a broader discussion of the scientific literature and implications of the study. Specific values should not be repeated in the discussion. It is also not appropriate to include new results in the discussion section.
The author fails to describe the implication of the study’s limitations.	No matter how well-conducted and thoughtful, all studies have limitations. Candidly describe how the limitations affect the application of the findings.
Statements about future research are too generic.	Is the relationship between exposure and outcome not well-described in a population that is severely impacted? Or might there be another variable that modifies the relationship between exposure and outcome? This is your opportunity to suggest areas requiring further study in your field, steering scientific inquiry toward the most meaningful questions.

Follow the Journal’s Author Guidelines

After you select a target journal, identify the journal’s author guidelines to guide the formatting of your manuscript and references. Author guidelines will often (but not always) include instructions for titles, cover letters, and other components of a manuscript submission. Read the guidelines carefully. If you do not follow the guidelines, your article will be sent back to you.

Finally, do not submit your paper to more than one journal at a time. Even if this is not explicitly stated in the author guidelines of your target journal, it is considered inappropriate and unprofessional.

Your title should invite readers to continue reading beyond the first page [ 4 , 5 ]. It should be informative and interesting. Consider describing the independent and dependent variables, the population and setting, the study design, the timing, and even the main result in your title. Because the focus of the paper can change as you write and revise, we recommend you wait until you have finished writing your paper before composing the title.

Be sure that the title is useful for potential readers searching for your topic. The keywords you select should complement those in your title to maximize the likelihood that a researcher will find your paper through a database search. Avoid using abbreviations in your title unless they are very well known, such as SNP, because it is more likely that someone will use a complete word rather than an abbreviation as a search term to help readers find your paper.

After you have written a complete draft, use the checklist (Fig. (Fig.3) 3 ) below to guide your revisions and editing. Additional resources are available on writing the abstract and citing references [ 5 ]. When you feel that your work is ready, ask a trusted colleague or two to read the work and provide informal feedback. The box below provides a checklist that summarizes the key points offered in this article.

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Checklist for manuscript quality

(PDF 362 kb)

Acknowledgments

Ella August is grateful to the Sustainable Sciences Institute for mentoring her in training researchers on writing and publishing their research.

Code Availability

Not applicable.

Data Availability

Compliance with ethical standards.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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How to Write & Publish a Research Paper: Step-by-Step Guide

This guide is far more than a list of instructions on what to include in each section of your research paper. In fact, we will:

Use a research paper I wrote specifically as an example to illustrate the key ideas in this guide ( link to the full-text PDF of the research paper ).
Use real-world data (on 100,000 PubMed research papers) to show you how professional scientists write in practice, instead of presenting my own opinion on the subject.
Provide practical tips on how to: improve your writing , find the right journal , and submit your article .

Let’s get started!

Structure of a research paper
Writing the Introduction section
Writing the Methods section
Writing the Results section
Writing the Discussion section
Writing the Abstract
Writing the Title
Writing optional sections
Refining and improving your article
Managing and formatting your References
Submitting your article

1. Structure of a research paper

Most research papers follow the IMRaD structure that consists of 4 main sections:

I ntroduction
D iscussion

The paper also has some essential elements–Title, Abstract, and References–and may contain other optional sections–Conclusion, Acknowledgements, Funding, Conflicts of interest, and Appendix.

These sections often appear in the following order:

The advantages of following the IMRaD structure are:

To make the paper easily scannable by readers (since most won’t read the entire manuscript.
To avoid repeating the same information in different places.

To follow the IMRaD structure, you must learn what information goes where.

So, here’s an overview of what each of the main sections represents:

Section	Content
Introduction	Why you chose this topic and what is your objective
Methods	What you did and how you did it
Results	What you found
Discussion	What your results mean

Together, these 4 sections start with the main topic of the paper and end up with a conclusion regarding that topic:

Role of each of the main sections of a research paper

1.1. Where to start?

When writing a research paper, some people prefer to start with the Results section—since it comes out right from the data they just analyzed. Others start with the Methods section—since information about how they designed the study and analyzed the data is still fresh in their mind. Personally, I prefer to start with the Introduction section for 2 reasons:

While doing a literature review for the introduction, sometimes I discover a problem in my approach or an interesting secondary objective that I did not think about, which as you can imagine, changes a lot of things in other sections of the article.
I want to formulate the hypothesis before analyzing the data in order to avoid HARKing (Hypothesizing after the results are known) which is a major problem in statistics (see: 7 Tricks to Get Statistically Significant p-Values ).

2. Writing the Introduction section

The Introduction targets a non-specialized audience, so when writing it, make sure to use simple and beginner-friendly terms.

2.1. Length of the Introduction section

The introduction section should be:

400 to 760 words long (3 to 5 paragraphs).
The shortest section of the article (half the length of the other sections: Methods, Results, and Discussion).

(These data are based on an analysis I made on 61,518 articles from PubMed )

2.2. Structure of the Introduction section

Here’s what you should include in the Introduction:

Step #1: Describe the general context of your work (your aim should be to convince the reader that the topic of your research is interesting).
Step #2: Summarize the results of previous studies on the topic (report what others have found and provide references. But don’t do an in-depth literature review, a short summary of these findings is enough).
Step #3: Identify the gap , problem, or limitations of previous studies (find the missing pieces of the puzzle).
Step #4: State your objective , hypothesis, question that you want to answer, or problem that you want to solve (make sure that the purpose of your study is clear and understandable, otherwise people won’t care about your results).
Step #5: Present your solution : explain the approach you used to achieve the objective, explain what is different about it and what makes it special. Here you have to sell your approach. But keep it short (leave the details to the methods section).

2.3. Verb tense and voice in the Introduction section

Use the past tense for things that were already done and the present tense for things that continue to be true today.

For instance:

“Previous studies found that the rate of heart disease is increasing “.

“The goal of this study is to explore why the rate of heart disease increased in the past 10 years”.

You should write the Introduction using mainly the active voice.

“ A recent study found conflicting results”.

Should be favored over:

“ Conflicting results were recently found “.

2.4. Example: writing an Introduction section

In this section, we are going to verify that the Introduction section of our example article ( link to the full-text PDF ) follows the step-by-step structure discussed above. (The article studies the influence of title length on its attractiveness).

What follows is the Introduction of that article with the main steps highlighted:

INTRODUCTION

The role of a research title is to draw the reader’s attention while providing an overview of the article’s content. Finding a way to engage readers is important since only 18% of those who read the title proceed to read the abstract (Mabe and Amin, 2002).

Title attractiveness may be affected by its length; but studies on this subject have been inconsistent and sometimes contradictory (Subotic and Mukherjee, 2014; Letchford et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2018; Jacques and Sebire, 2010; Habibzadeh and Yadollahie, 2010; Stremersch et al., 2007; Falahati Qadimi Fumani et al., 2015). This may be due to bias and confounding since these studies did not follow a causal model to eliminate alternative explanations and indirect effects.

The confusion over the effect of title length led to a gap between what professional writers recommend and what researchers do in practice: while professionals recommend keeping titles as short as possible (Zeiger, 1999; Neill, 2007), in practice, titles are getting longer (Milojevi¢, 2017; Whissell, 2012) and more descriptive (mentioning the study objective, the variables involved, the main result, and the study design).

To help resolve this issue, the present study aims to quantify the direct influence of title length on its attractiveness by analyzing data on 9,830 biomedical research papers from PubMed and adjusting for confounding and indirect effects through the use of a causal diagram.

Writing is not just about following a series of rules: you should keep an eye on the flow of your story that ties your paragraphs together.

Here’s an overview of the story of our Introduction section:

Mains ideas in our example introduction section

3. Writing the Methods section

The Methods section is the recipe for the study: it should provide enough information to replicate the study without looking elsewhere (although most of those who read the Methods section will not be interested in replicating your study, instead they just want to make sure that your study is credible).

The Methods is the most technical section of the article. So, unlike the Introduction, don’t shy away from technical terms, since those who are not interested in such details will most likely skip this section.

3.1. Length of the Methods section

The Methods section should be:

760 to 1,620 words long (6 to 14 paragraphs).
The same length as the Results or the Discussion, and about double the length of the Introduction.

(These data are based on an analysis I did on 61,514 articles from PubMed )

3.2. Structure of the Methods section

Here’s what you should include in the Methods section:

The date and duration of the study.
The sampling procedure.
The assignment to different study groups.
The source of the data.
Any approval needed to conduct the study.
Step#3: List the inclusion and exclusion criteria (i.e., the characteristics that participants must have to be included in the study).
The reason behind choosing such procedure.
The order in which things were done (a flow diagram can simplify the description of complex procedures).
The calculation of the minimum sample size needed.
The role of each variable (dependent, independent, or control variable).
The methods used to address bias in the study.
The methods used to handle missing data.
The measures used to summarize the data.
The type of statistical test or model you used to test your hypothesis and the threshold for statistical significance (don’t go into detail about obvious statistical tests or models, but advanced methods should be either described or referenced).
The statistical software used [optional].

3.3. Verb tense and voice in the Methods section

Use the past tense (because the things you did took place in the past).

“The data were downloaded “.

“A linear regression model was used “.

Use the passive voice (to avoid repeating the pronouns: “I” or “We”).

“Variables were summarized using the mean and standard deviation”.

Instead of:

“I summarized the variables using the mean and standard deviation”.

3.4. Example: writing a Methods section

In this section, we are going to verify that the Methods section of our example article ( link to the full-text P D F ) follows the structure discussed above. (Remember that this article is about studying the influence of title length on its attractiveness).

What follows is the Methods section of this article with the main steps highlighted:

For this cross-sectional study, data were downloaded from PubMed Central in March 2021 using a web API created by Comeau et al. (2019). From a collection of about 3 million biomedical research articles from various journals, 105,984 were chosen at random from those uploaded between the years 2016 and 2021.

From these 105,984 articles, a total of 96,154 were discarded for incomplete data, leaving 9,830 articles ready for analysis (Figure 4). Reasons for discarding articles included: unavailable full text, unmentioned study design, missing impact factor of the journal in which the article was published, missing article DOI, and unavailable citation count.

To study the influence of title length on its attractiveness, and in order to avoid defining and measuring Title attractiveness , I substituted this variable with another closely related one: the Citation count for a given article; this can work provided that we block all alternative paths other than the direct effect of Title attractiveness on Citation count . Looking at the causal diagram in Figure 5, we notice that there is only one alternative path, and it can be blocked by adjusting for the Journal in which the article was published. Since the data contained articles from 1,040 different journals (and to avoid complicating the analysis by creating 1,039 dummy variables), I ended up adjusting for the Journal impact factor , a direct descendent of the deconfounding variable Journal , thus representing most of its effect.

Example of a figure format in a research paper

To compute the direct causal effect of Title length on Title attractiveness , alternative explanations of the association between these two such as confounding and indirect effects must also be eliminated. From Figure 5, we see that this can be accomplished by adjusting for the Mention of study design in the title (a confounder) and the use of Comma in the title and Colon in the title (indirect effects).

After determining the variables that we want to adjust for, Poisson regression was used to compute the effect of Title length on Citation count . In our case, a Poisson model has 2 major advantages over linear regression: (1) it fits the data better, since counts follow a Poisson rather than a normal distribution, and (2) it accounts for different publication dates of different articles, which is important to offset the advantage of older articles regarding the time they had to collect citations (this can be accomplished by including Years since publication as an offset in the model).

The Poisson model described above can be summarized with the following equation:

log(Citation count) =β 0 + β 1 × Title length + β 2 × Journal impact factor + β 3 × Mention of study design in the title + β 4 × Comma in the title + β 5 × Colon in the title + log(Years since publication)

Variables in the model, such as Citation count , Title length , and Journal impact factor , were summarized using the median and the interquartile range (IQR), since they follow either a Poisson or a skewed non-normal distribution.

Note that in some cases, you will be forced to include some results in the Methods section. Although the research paper has a separate Results section (which we will discuss next), sometimes we include some results in the Methods section to justify the use of a certain material or method.

For example, in the Methods section above, in order to defend the use of the variable Journal impact factor instead of Journal , I ended up reporting the number of journals in the study (which is a number calculated from the data, so it normally belongs to the Results section):

“Since the data contained articles from 1,040 different journals (and to avoid complicating the analysis by creating 1,039 dummy variables), I ended up adjusting for the Journal impact factor, a direct descendent of the deconfounding variable Journal, thus representing most of its effect.”

4. Writing the Results section

In the Results section, you should describe and summarize your findings without explaining them (the interpretation should be left for the Discussion section).

4.1. Length of the Results section

The Results section should be:

610 to 1,660 words long (5 to 11 paragraphs).
The same length as the Methods or the Discussion, and about double the length of the Introduction.

(These data are based on an analysis I did on 61,458 articles from PubMed )

4.2. Structure of the Results section

Here’s what you should include in the Results section:

At each stage and for each group of the study, report the number of participants (if some were lost to follow-up, provide the reasons).
Describe participants’ characteristics.
Compare participants in different groups.
Describe the main variables in the study.
The statistical significance (the p-value).
The precision (the 95% confidence interval).
The practical significance (the effect size).

4.3. Using figures and tables

A table or a figure are useful to highlight important results or to represent a lot of numbers that, if reported in the text, can be unpleasant for the reader.

Here are a few rules regarding figures and tables:

The supporting text should complement the table or figure but not repeat the same content.
The table or figure should stand alone (i.e., the reader can understand it without referring to the text).
No vertical lines.
A line above the header row.
A line below the header row.
A line at the bottom of the table.
No horizontal lines to separate data rows.

(Refer to the example below to see how your tables should look like)

4.4. Verb tense and voice in the Results section

Use the past tense for completed actions.

“In our sample of 9,830 articles, the median title length composed of 16 words (IQR = 6), had 2.2 yearly citations (IQR = 3.33), and was published in a journal with an impact factor of 2.74 (IQR = 1.67).”

Use the present tense for things that continue to be true today.

“The Poisson model shows a significant negative effect of longer titles on citation count.”

Use the active voice when possible.

4.5. Example: writing a Results section

In this section, we are going to verify that the Results section of our example article ( link to the full-text P D F ) follows the structure discussed above. (Remember that this article is about studying the influence of title length on its attractiveness).

What follows is the Results section of this article with the main steps highlighted:

In our sample of 9,830 articles, the median title composed of 16 words (IQR = 6), had 2.2 yearly citations (IQR = 3.33), and was published in a journal with an impact factor of 2.74 (IQR = 1.67). Also, 4,317 (43.9%) of titles contained at least one colon, 1,442 (14.7%) contained at least one comma, and 2,794 (28.4%) mentioned the study design.

The Poisson model shows a significant negative effect of longer titles on citation count (Table 2). Specifically, each additional word in the title causes a drop of 2.5% in the citation rate (95% confidence interval: [-2.7%, -2.3%]; p < 0.001). Equivalently, we can say that removing one word from the title causes an increase of 2.5% in the citation rate. To put that into perspective, removing one word from the title of the median article (that has 2.2 citations per year) causes a gain of 0.055 (= 2.2 × 0.025) citations per year, equivalent to 1 citation every 19 years.

Example of a table format in a research paper

5. Writing the Discussion section

In the Discussion section, you should explain the meaning of your results, their importance, and implications.

5.1. Length of the Discussion section

The Discussion section should be:

820 to 1,480 words long (5 to 9 paragraphs).
The same length as the Methods or the Results, and about double the length of the Introduction.

(These data are based on an analysis I did on 61,517 articles from PubMed )

5.2. Structure of the Discussion section

Here’s what you should include in the Discussion section:

Step #1: Answer the study objective (i.e., where the Introduction ended). Your first sentence can be: “We/I found that” , “This study shows/proves that” , etc.
Explain its consequences.
Comment on whether it supports or refutes your initial hypothesis (i.e., was this result expected or unexpected?).
Compare it with the results of other studies (if they contradict each other: explain why, and suggest a way for further studies to resolve this contradiction).
Then discuss your secondary finding (if you have any) by following the same steps as you did for the main finding.
Step #3: Point out the strengths of your study (e.g., the use of a new and superior method, a larger sample size, etc.).
How you addressed these limitations in your design and analysis (i.e., justify the methods used in your study).
What future studies should do to address these limitations.
Step #5: Conclude with a takeaway message that reminds the reader of your most important finding and its implications (this Conclusion paragraph is sometimes put in a separate section after the Discussion [for more information, see: Length of a Conclusion Section: Analysis of 47,810 Examples ]).

5.3. Verb tense and voice in the Discussion section

Use the past tense for completed actions. For instance:

“I found that…”.

Use the present tense for things that continue to be true today. For instance:

“This study shows that…”.

5.4. Example: writing a Discussion section

In this section, we are going to verify that the Discussion section of our example article ( link to the full-text PDF ) follows the structure discussed above. (Remember that this article is about studying the influence of title length on its attractiveness).

What follows is the Discussion section of this article with the main steps highlighted:

This study shows that shorter research titles are more engaging by proving that they attract more citations. However, this effect, although statistically significant, is practically negligible since removing one word from a title will attract, on average, a single additional citation every 19 years–so I would not recommend shortening research titles as a strategy for increasing the citation count.

Previous studies on the subject reported conflicting results for articles in different disciplines since they did not use a causal approach to control bias and confounding. For instance, they found that shorter titles attracted more citations in psychology (Subotic and Mukherjee, 2014) and general scientific research (Letchford et al., 2015), but less in economics (Guo et al., 2018) and medicine (Jacques and Sebire, 2010; Habibzadeh and Yadollahie, 2010), and had no effect in marketing research (Stremersch et al., 2007) and scientometrics (Falahati Qadimi Fumani et al., 2015). What distinguishes the present study was the use of a causal diagram to identify and block alternative paths between title length and citation count, removing all but the causal explanation of any association between the two.

However, there are some limitations: (1) the 3 million biomedical research articles that are freely available on PubMed Central from which our sample was drawn may not accurately represent all published articles—thus introducing selection bias; (2) adjusting for the journal impact factor instead of the journal itself (to reduce model complexity) may have resulted in some residual confounding; and (3) the general approach taken to adjust for bias and confounding using a causal diagram (Figure 5) created based on my understanding of the subject may have incorporated an element of subjectivity into the analysis. Future studies can address these issues by: (1) collecting data on articles from different disciplines (to increase the result’s generalizability), (2) including a larger number of articles from each journal (to enable adjusting for Journal instead of Journal impact factor ), and (3) validating, either theoretically or analytically, the structure of the causal diagram (to reduce subjectivity).

Finally, this study proves that shortening a research title is not an effective strategy for earning more citations. Yet, writing shorter titles may still have other benefits, such as: getting more reads on Mendeley (Zahedi and Haustein, 2018; Didegah and Thelwall, 2013), tweets (Haustein et al., 2015), appearances in social media in general (Zagovora et al., 2018), and avoiding truncation when they appear on the results page of an online search engine like Google.

6. Writing the Abstract

The Abstract is a summary of the article.

6.1. Length of the Abstract

The Abstract should be 220 to 320 words long (1 to 4 paragraphs).

(These data are based on an analysis I did on 61,429 articles from PubMed )

6.2. Structure of the Abstract

In the Abstract, you should provide a summary of each section of your paper (It can be divided into subheadings, if the journal allows it):

Step #1: Start with a one sentence introduction to the subject.
Step #2: Mention the study objective .
Step #3: Summarize the Methods section .
Step #4: Highlight key results in numbers (including data is important for researchers who want to cite your article based only on the Abstract).
Step #5: End with a one sentence conclusion (i.e., skip the detailed discussion of the results and go straight to the takeaway message).

6.3. Example: writing an Abstract

In this section, we are going to verify that the Abstract of our example article ( link to the full-text PDF ) follows the structure discussed above. (Remember that this article is about studying the influence of title length on its attractiveness).

What follows is the Abstract of this article with the main steps highlighted:

Attractive titles are expected to drive more reads and thus more citations to a research article, so studying the effect of title length on its attractiveness can be reduced to analyzing its influence on the citation count. Previous studies on the subject showed conflicting results that are probably attributable to bias and confounding, since they mostly focused on predicting citation count based on title length instead of using a causal model to explain the relationship between the two. The present study aims to quantify the direct influence of title length on its attractiveness guided by a causal diagram to identify and eliminate alternative explanations such as indirect effects and confounding. The study used data on 9,830 biomedical research articles from PubMed Central, downloaded through an API created by Comeau and colleagues. Poisson regression modeled the citation rate as a function of title length, adjusting for mediators of indirect effects—such as the use of a comma and a colon in the title—and confounders—such as the journal impact factor and the mention of study design in the title. The model shows that each word removed from the title increases the citation rate by 2.5%. This means that, for the median article that receives 2.2 citations per year, each word removed from the title causes a gain of 0.055 citations per year, equivalent to 1 citation every 19 years. Although statistically significant, this effect is practically negligible—so shortening a research title is not an effective strategy for earning more citations.

7. Writing the Title

The last thing one discovers in composing a work is what to put first. Blaise Pascal

The Title’s role is to describe the content of the article and attract people to read it. Remember that only 18% of those who read the title proceed to read the Abstract [Source: Mabe and Amin, 2002 ].

7.1. Length of the Title

The Title should be 11 to 18 words long (80 to 129 characters).

Keep your Title as short as possible, since:

Google shows only the first 60 characters of titles in their results page, so longer titles will be truncated when they appear in Google search.
High-impact journals tend to publish articles with short titles.

(These data are based on an analysis I did on 104,161 titles from PubMed )

7.2. Structure of the Title

The Title should:

Mention the central question or the purpose of the study (including important variables).
Be front loaded : this means that the keywords should be close to the beginning of the title (remember that readers are scanning the title and they want to determine as fast as possible if they are interested in your article).
Have a meaningful short version . For those searching online, Google will show them only the first 60 characters of your title and the rest is truncated. So, make sure to pack enough information in this part for users to be able to judge whether they want to click it.
Mention the study design [optional].
Avoid abbreviations and jargon . For instance: “ The effects of having CVD on the psychological status “ should be replaced by “Psychological effects of cardiovascular disease” .

7.3. Example: writing a Title

The following figure shows how the Title of our example article follows the structure discussed above:

Example of writing a title for a research paper

8. Writing optional sections

8.1. writing the acknowledgement section.

In this section, you should acknowledge any significant technical contribution, permission, advice, suggestion, or comment you received.

“I would like to thank Prof. John for assistance with choosing an appropriate study design”.

“Thanks are due to all the hospital crew members who contributed their time and effort to make the data collection feasible in the shortest time possible”.

8.2. Writing the Funding section

In this section, you should provide the sources of funding, or the sources of the equipment and materials used in the study, and the role of funders.

“The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article”.

“This work was supported by [name of the funder, and grant number]”.

8.3. Writing the Conflicts of Interest section

In this section, you should state if you have any direct or indirect competing interests that may have influenced the outcome of the study, such as: financial, work, personal, or religious interests.

“The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest”.

“The corresponding author was a former employee in company X that sells the main product used in this study”.

8.4. Writing the Appendix

In this section, you should provide supplementary information that was too large to be included in the main text, such as: data, questionnaires, and additional details on the materials and methods used.

9. Refining and improving your article

The following is a list of useful tips to improve your writing:

Avoid jargon , be concise, and focus on saving your readers’ time. The truth is that nobody enjoys reading, if readers can download information into their brain, they would!
Assume that your readers are beginners : so, use terms that are easy to understand.
Avoid acronyms when possible.
You don’t know the subject.
You don’t want to repeat the pronouns ”I” or ”We” in many places in the same paragraph (although it would be fine to use them sparingly, see: ”I” & ”We” in Academic Writing: Examples from 9,830 Studies ).
You want to emphasize what was done instead of who did it (especially in the Methods section).
To maintain the flow of ideas (for more information, see the video lecture by Steven Pinker below).
Write short sentences and paragraphs : each paragraph should be between 2 and 6 sentences long (65 to 167 words), and should cover a single topic. (For more information, see: Paragraph Length: Data from 9,830 Research Papers )
Get rid of hedge words : e.g. ”These results might suggest that a fair amount of x is suspected to have a meaningful impact on y” . These make you sound hesitant or unsure about what you are talking about.
Avoid using “They” or “Their” when the subject is singular . For a gender-neutral language, revise the sentence to make the subject plural. For instance, use: “Participants were assigned according to their choosing” instead of “Each participant was assigned according to their choosing” .

For more writing tips, I highly recommend this lecture by Steven Pinker:

10. Managing and formatting your References

When it comes to references, you should:

Cite between 25 and 56 references overall (approximately 1 reference for every 95 words or 4 sentences) [Source: How Many References Should a Research Paper Have? Study of 96,685 Articles ].
Aim to find those published within the past 13 years [Source: How Old Should Your Article References Be? Based on 3,823,919 Examples ].
Cite the original source, not secondary sources.
Cite research papers and books instead of websites and videos (unless these contained original data not available elsewhere).
Use a citation management software to collect and organize your references. I recommend Zotero® since it is free, easy to learn, and has a lot of tutorials online.

11. Submitting your article

Here’s a step-by-step description of how to find a journal and submit your article:

Go to: The Directory of Open Access Journals (This is a database of 17,614 journals that publish open-access articles–i.e., if you publish in these journals, your article’s full-text will be available for free to your readers).
Under SEE JOURNALS, select: Without article processing charges in order to exclude journal where you have to pay to publish your article.
Under SUBJECTS, choose: the domain that is closest to the topic of your article.
Under LANGUAGES, select: English.
Select a journal from the suggested list.
Go to the journal’s website, look for their “Instructions for authors”, and format your article accordingly.
Sign-up to their website and submit your article.

Once your article is submitted, the editor takes a look at it and may:

The topic of your article is not interesting for the journal’s audience.
Your work is not important enough to be published in that journal.
Rejected: In this case, you have to send your article to another journal (don’t get discouraged by rejection, sometimes important articles get rejected).
Rejected, but can be resubmitted after making some major changes suggested by the reviewers (for instance, expanding, deleting, or re-writing major parts of the article): in this case, you can either revise and resubmit, or look for another journal.
Accepted, but needs minor changes.
Accepted (without the need for changes).

When you want to revise and resubmit your article, you should prepare 2 things:

A revised manuscript with all the modifications you made highlighted (to make it easy for the reviewers to see what you changed).
A response for the reviewers where you address their comments point by point: you can either agree or disagree with their recommendations (but, in case you disagree, you should explain the reason).

Once your paper is accepted, you will get a final version formatted in the journal’s style. Be careful to look for errors before you accept this final version.

How to publish an article? – Step by step

If you plan to submit an article to one of our journals, or have any questions during the publication process, this helpdesk will guide you through manuscript submission, production and the services you can expect after your article’s publication.

1. Before you start

The following topics will be important during the early stages of writing your article.

Publishing Ethics
Open Access
Impact Factor
Rights, permissions and licensing
Copyright and plagiarism

2. Turning your manuscript into an article

Preparation, publication.

- Find the right journal for your manuscript

- The Springer Journal Selector

- Manuscript preparation (reference styles, artwork guidelines, etc.)

3. After publication

If your article has been published, the following topics are important for you:

Abstracting & Indexing
Online access to my article
Citation Alert
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The 5 Best Platforms to Publish Your Academic Research

Academic research is a central component of scientific advancements and breakthrough innovations. However, your research journey is complex and ever-changing. You must take into consideration funding options, how to securely store your information, choosing where to publish your research, finding manuscript peer reviewers, and many more.

To keep up with the change, you and other researchers require modern, easy-to-navigate research platforms to help you uncover, store, verify, compile, and share content, data, and important insights to continue to carry out breakthrough research.

This article explains how to identify the best platforms for publishing your research and gives you a list of five platforms to help you publish. Towards the end, you’ll also see a mention of how Orvium can further assist you with publishing.

How to Identify the Best Platforms for Publishing

When trying to identify the best platforms for publishing your research, you have to consider several factors, including:

Does the platform support your research journey ? Can you collaborate with other authors and researchers, discover public groups and research papers and manuscripts (including Open Access work), view interactive graphs, images, tables, etc., track citations, and build a professional research profile?
Is the platform easy to use ? Does it offer rich functionalities that are easy to understand, and if so, which ones?
Does it use artificial intelligence and machine learning ? Automated actions (email alerts, etc.) can help you unlock breakthroughs faster and deliver deeper insights.
What security and governance does it have ? Platforms must be secure and compliant according to local regulations since researchers often deal with sensitive data.

The 5 Best Platforms to Publish Academic Research

Researchgate.

ResearchGate is a platform hosting over 135 million publication pages with a community of 20 million scientists. The platform allows you to show off your work, access papers and advice from other researchers, make contacts and even find jobs. Some of its more prominent features include:

Dedicated Q&A section with searchable keywords to target experts in your particular field or area of study
Ability to create a personal profile page where you can display all research-specific details about yourself, including up to five pieces of work (including datasets and conference papers)
In-depth stats on who reads your work and the ability to track your citations
A private messaging service that allows you to send messages to other researchers
A comments section to provide feedback when viewing a paper
A “projects” section to tell others about your upcoming work.

In addition, it's completely free to use!

Academia is a research-sharing platform with over 178 million users, 29 million papers uploaded, and 87 million visitors per month. Their goal is to accelerate research in all fields, ensure that all research is available for free and that the sharing of knowledge is available in multiple formats (videos, datasets, code, short-form content, etc.). Some of their more prominent features include:

Mentions and search alerts that notify you when another researcher cites, thanks, or acknowledges your work, and automatic reports of search queries
Ability to create a personal profile page
“Profile visitor” and “readers” features let you know the title and location of those who visit your profile or read your papers so you can learn about their research interests and get in touch
A “grants” feature to allow you to find new grants and fellowships in your field
Advanced research discovery tools allow you to see full texts and citations of millions of papers.

The platform is based on a “freemium” business model, which provides free access to research for everyone, and paid capabilities to subscribers.

ScienceOpen

ScienceOpen is a discovery platform that empowers researchers to make an impact in their communities. The platform is committed to Open Science, combining decades of experience in traditional publishing, computing, and academic research to provide free access to knowledge to drive creativity, innovation, and development. Some of their more prominent features include:

You can publish your most recent paper as a preprint that’s citable and includes a DOI to share with peers immediately and enhance visibility
A multidimensional search feature for articles with 18 filters and the ability to sort results by Altmetric scores , citations, date, and rating
Ability to create a personal profile with minimal upkeep necessary
Access to a suite of metrics (usage, citations, etc.) of your publications
Ability to follow other researchers to stay up-to-date on their work and expand your network.

The platform is free to use, although some features (like publishing your preprint) may cost money.

IOPscience is a platform that embraces innovative technologies to make it easier for researchers to discover and access technical, scientific, and medical content while managing their own research content. They participate in several programs that offer researchers in developing countries several ways to gain access to journals at little or no cost. Some of their other features include:

An enhanced search filtering feature allows you to find relevant research faster
A social bookmarking feature allows you to interact with other researchers and share articles
Ability to create a personal profile, customize your alerts, view recently published articles within your field or area of interest, and save relevant papers or articles
Ability to receive email alerts and RSS feeds once new content is published.

IOPscience is free to use and functions on an Open Access policy, which you can check here .

Orvium is an open, community-based research platform that allows researchers, reviewers, and publishers to share, publish, review, and manage their research. Orvium protects your work with built-in blockchain integration to ensure that you maintain the copyright of your work and not only. Some of our more notable features include:

Access to a modern web platform with Google indexing, notifications, and mobile-ready features
Ability to manage your entire publication process, with control over when you submit, receive peer reviews, and publish your paper
“Collaboration” and “full traceability” features allow you to track your profile impact, get in touch with other researchers, and have ownership over your work
Recognition badges or economic rewards are given when you peer-review.

Orvium is completely free to use.

Orvium Makes Choosing a Platform Easy

No matter what platform or community you choose to be a part of, you now know what you need to look for when choosing one. You also learned about five excellent platforms where you can publish your academic research. Orvium will remain your one-stop-shop platform for all your research needs. Do you want to know how Orvium and our communities work? Check out our platform or contact us with any questions you may have.

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How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

Affiliations.

1 Department of Maternal and Child Health, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, 135 Dauer Dr, 27599, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
2 Department of Maternal and Child Health, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, 135 Dauer Dr, 27599, Chapel Hill, NC, USA. [email protected].
3 Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2029, USA. [email protected].
PMID: 32356250
PMCID: PMC8520870
DOI: 10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1, we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

Keywords: Manuscripts; Publishing; Scientific writing.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often,…

Major elements of the discussion…

Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the…

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How to Publish a Research Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

How to Publish a Research Paper

Publishing a research paper or getting it published in an academic journal can be one of the most fulfilling accomplishments in your academic career. You’ve spent countless hours learning, researching, thinking and writing, and now you get to share your knowledge with others who share your interests and passion for research. This guide on how to publish a research paper will help you choose the best journal for publishing your work, what information to include in your manuscript and how to format it correctly and more!

Choose your topic

For many scientists, the goal of their research is publication. Every published paper not only contributes to the body of knowledge in a particular field, but also gives credit and recognition for individual accomplishment. Publishing can be an arduous process, however; take this step-by-step guide to help you get started.

Conduct your Literature Review

Find articles from reputable journals and use them to conduct your literature review. To start, you can conduct an academic search in Google Scholar , read the abstracts, and include these articles in your list of sources. Make sure that all the papers are on an appropriate scholarly level (peer reviewed, etc.) and published within 5 years of when you write your paper. Once you have compiled this list of academic sources, it is time to move on the steps.

Write your Introduction

In the introduction, you’ll summarize the paper’s content and specify its goals. After, you’ll establish a clear research question or problem that your research will try to answer. With this all done, you’ll introduce who your target audience is and outline how your findings will affect them. In short, the introduction must tell people what they’re getting themselves into.

Write your Methodology section

I will use the grading scale as an example of how to write a formal methodology section. I have been using this system in all my research writing classes, and it has been accepted by both instructors and readers. As such, I feel confident in saying that it is both efficient and effective. The steps are as follows: To begin, place the question or problem statement in brackets at the top of the page. For instance:

Write your Results section

1.Sit down and think about your research project from beginning to end; ask yourself, What are the major findings? What are my key messages? Once you have answered these questions, it is important to think about how the audience of your paper will react. Will they understand what you’re trying to say or explain? If not, can you simplify it?

2. It is a good idea to start by outlining your ideas in points and then reordering them into an outline that flows in sequential order.

3. This next step is one of the most crucial: having someone who understands English grammar and has excellent writing skills read over your paper for errors before submitting it for publishing.

Write your Discussion section

After thinking about the purpose of your research and reading related papers, formulate an original research question. Make sure your question is clear and has a single answer with some way to measure it, otherwise your results will be ambiguous. Once you have developed the best research question, start writing out how you are going to answer it by outlining what you need. Next, follow these steps when starting on your experimental procedures:

1. set up necessary materials and equipment;

2. construct study setup;

3. collect data; and finally

4. analyze data.

Be sure not to rush this process because you want everything in place before getting into the analysis step so that you can quickly find any errors or mistakes if they exist.

Write your Conclusion and Recommendations

In conclusion, I recommend that you write your introduction at the end of the paper. Then, work on the methods and results sections and finally the discussion section. Once you finish with those three sections, then write your introduction. I also recommend using reference materials like an index card and your computer during the process of writing. Remember that publishing a research paper can be fun and rewarding!

Get References from Sources

A lot of people ask me how to publish a research paper. Fortunately, this is pretty easy these days if you know where to start. Here’s how it works. You need your references from sources, of course. These should be from respected and reliable sources (e.g., journals with peer review) that are relevant for your topic area. Your reviewers may require them for approval purposes and/or help evaluating the quality of your research. You’ll want at least five good references – more is better, but not all papers need more than five good references, especially those on popular topics in academic circles or within a specific discipline.

Start Writing

The first step is coming up with a research question.

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Preparing and submitting your paper, instructions for contributors.

A journal's Author Instructions are an excellent place to find guidance on both broad and specific information about a journal. This should be the author's first resource for varied information on a journal's subject area coverage, accepted article types, manuscript style notes, special forms of submissions and specific post-publication author policies.

Authors will increase production and publication efficiency for their manuscript if they read the instructions for their journal carefully and ensure that their submission follows the desired guidelines. Click here to view a full list of the journals we publish .

Manuscript preparation guides

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Seeking permission to use copyrighted material
Anonymising your manuscript (for double-anonymous peer review)

Cambridge Author Services

To continue to publish the best in global research, it is essential that we support researchers anywhere in the world prepare their research for submission to our journals. In order to help prospective authors to prepare for submission and to reach their publication goals, we also offer a range of high-quality manuscript preparation services – including language editing. Find out more in our author services area .

Submitting your paper

The Instructions for Contributors document for each journal will explain the process for submitting your paper to that particular title, including guidance on additional information you should include alongside your manuscript.

A growing proportion of our journals now use an online submission system – in most cases ScholarOne Manuscripts™ or Editorial Manager® – to help manage the submission and peer-review process. These systems allow authors to submit and track their paper online, and help us to make sure the editorial process is both efficient and fully accountable.

How do I decide which affiliation to list on my manuscript?

As per Cambridge’s author affiliation policy , any article affiliations listed in the manuscript should represent the institution(s) at which the research presented was conducted and/or supported and/or approved. For non-research content, any affiliations should represent the institution(s) with which each author is currently affiliated. Please click here to read our author affiliation FAQs.

Who should I put as the corresponding author?

When submitting your paper, you will be asked to assign a corresponding author. Please make sure you are familiar with the responsibilities of the corresponding author . The author assigned must be able to carry out these responsibilities on behalf of any co-authors, and the corresponding author must meet authorship criteria for the article. More information can be found in our corresponding author FAQs .

Peer review

The peer-review process plays a critical role in both the evaluation and development of scholarly material submitted for publication. Its purpose is to ensure that published papers meet rigorous academic standards, through objective and independent assessment by experts in a given field. Peer review is not simply a filter for acceptance or rejection. For all authors it is an important step in a collaborative editorial process. The ultimate goal is to refine the content and expression of a paper to maximise its contribution to scholarship.

What happens to my paper once I submit it to a journal?

Every journal operates a slightly different review process. Typically, a submitted article will initially be looked at by the journal's editor(s), who will consider its relevance to the scope of the journal, as well as its methodology, the quality of its language and clarity of its argument. The editor(s) will decide whether the submission is suitable to be sent out for review. This process can take 2–3 months for some journals, but can be as quick as a week for others. If you have concerns about the timetable, we encourage you to discuss these with the journal's editor(s).

What happens during the peer-review process?

Your paper will be sent to one or more reviewers who are experts in the field. They will offer comments to support the journal's editor(s) in judging the paper's suitability for publication. In most cases, they will offer you feedback to help you improve your paper.

The objectivity of this process is reinforced by a system of anonymity. The most common types of peer review are: 'single-anonymous', where you will not know the identity of the reviewers; or 'double-anonymous', where neither reviewers nor authors know one another's identity. The exact review process and time it takes will vary in different subject areas and journals. You will often find a statement about the exact process in the Instructions for Contributors for each journal.

The editor(s) will make a decision regarding your paper based on the reviewer reports. It is common for an article not to be accepted in first draft and you may be asked to revise and resubmit. Sometimes the revisions requested are minor; other times they may be more substantial. If this happens, you will be given the reviewer reports and, possibly, some additional comments from the editor(s). These should advise you on what you need to revise before submitting a next draft.

What happens to a paper I revise and resubmit?

If you were asked to make minor revisions, usually the editor(s) will check that you have made the necessary revisions before informing you that your paper has been accepted for publication.

If major revisions were suggested, some journals will send the revised paper back to the original reviewers, who will assess whether the paper is now suitable for publication. The editor(s) will then inform you whether the paper is accepted or whether further revisions are necessary.

What happens if my paper is rejected?

If your paper is rejected after peer review, most editors will provide feedback and may still share the comments made by the reviewers in order to help you understand the reasons for the decision, develop your paper or find an alternative publication to which to submit your paper.

Accepted papers

Once accepted, your manuscript will be prepared for publication. Many journals will ask their authors to prepare a final version of their manuscript according to the journal's particular style. If you are asked to do this you should follow carefully the guidelines sent to you by the editor and any instructions about how to submit images or other files. At this stage you will usually be asked to sign a form to define copyright terms and declare any conflicts of interest.

Some research funding bodies require authors to deposit their manuscript at this stage – the version defined as the 'Accepted Manuscript' – in an institutional or subject repository. The Press' policies to support authors in meeting these obligations can be found here .

Please click here to read our JToPs/Hellosign FAQs .

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How to Submit a Paper for Publication in a Journal

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Whether you’ve done it before, or not, submitting a paper for publication in a journal is, to say the least, a process that brings great anxiety and stress. After all your hard work for many months, or even years, recognition is finally at your grasp. That is why there no room for mistakes.

What to Expect of the Scientific Publishing Process

If you are a beginner, you might be struggling to know exactly what to do. After all, it is a step-by-step process, sometimes with a lot of players and paperwork involved; it’s not always evident what to do next. An excellent, high-quality manuscript is the best way to give a good impression from the beginning, putting your paper on the right track for a successful submission. At Elsevier, with our Language Editing services , we not only revise your manuscript, but guarantee there are no text errors.

If, on the other hand, you have already published articles, you might have enough experience to know that each paper submission in a journal is different. Either the journal is different, or the context has changed, or the peers are new. You never know what can go right or wrong, other than the variable that lies under your control – that the manuscript is error-free and spot-on for successful acceptance. In this case, you might consider Elsevier’s professional Language Editing services to amend your text to the target journal’s requirements, helping you focus on other projects.

Scientific Paper Submission. Are you ready? Let’s go!

For many researchers, putting their paper through the professional journal submission process is stressful. Here is a simple to-do list which might help you go through all of it with some peace of mind:

Use an external editing service, such as Elsevier’s Author Services if you need assistance with language.
Free e-learning modules on preparing your manuscript can be found on Researcher Academy.
Mendeley makes your life easier by helping you organize your papers, citations and references, accessing them in the cloud on any device, wherever you are.
Do not rush submitting your article for publication Carefully re-read and revise your manuscript. Re-reading is essential in the research field and helps identify the most common problems and shortcomings in the manuscript, which might otherwise be overlooked. Often, reading your text out loud will uncover more errors than reading silently to yourself. If you are doubtful about the quality of your text, consider Elsevier’s Professional Language Editing services . Our professional team is trained to provide you with an optimal text for successful submission.
Read the journal’s aims and scope to make sure they match your paper.
Check whether you can submit – some journals are invitation only.
Use the journal’s metrics to measure its impact. In fact, you can also check other additional info – like speed and reach to understand if it’s the right one for you.
If you’re a post doc, check out our free access program.
Read the aims and scope and author guidelines of your target journal carefully Once you think your manuscript is ready for submission, the next important step is to read the aims and scope of the journals in your target research area. Doing so will improve the chances of having your manuscript accepted for publishing.
Submit a cover letter with the manuscript Never underestimate the importance of a cover letter addressed to the editor or editor-in-chief of the target journal. A good cover letter should underline 3 main aspects: the main theme of the paper, its originality/novelty and the relevance of the manuscript to the target journal.
Make a good first impression with your title and abstract The title and abstract are incredibly important components of a manuscript as they are the first elements a journal editor sees. They create interest and curiosity about the whole work.

Now, what happens if your paper gets rejected by the journal ? It is, by no means, the end of the world. There are very real steps you can take to ultimately get published in a reputable journal.

The Science of Article Publishing

Article publishing is every researcher’s aim. It brings visibility and recognition, essential factors for those who intend to build a full career in research. However, most scientists feel handicapped or lost when it comes to conveying their findings or ideas to others. For many, it can be difficult to re-format a certain type of text to another, be aware of formatting requirements and translate their work into visually appealing outcomes. Additionally, keeping track of all the steps needed to submit an article for publication can be overwhelming and take too much time that could be spent doing new research.

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Research paper

How to Write a Research Paper | A Beginner's Guide

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research.

Research papers are similar to academic essays , but they are usually longer and more detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills in scholarly research. Writing a research paper requires you to demonstrate a strong knowledge of your topic, engage with a variety of sources, and make an original contribution to the debate.

This step-by-step guide takes you through the entire writing process, from understanding your assignment to proofreading your final draft.

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Understand the assignment, choose a research paper topic, conduct preliminary research, develop a thesis statement, create a research paper outline, write a first draft of the research paper, write the introduction, write a compelling body of text, write the conclusion, the second draft, the revision process, research paper checklist, free lecture slides.

Completing a research paper successfully means accomplishing the specific tasks set out for you. Before you start, make sure you thoroughly understanding the assignment task sheet:

Read it carefully, looking for anything confusing you might need to clarify with your professor.
Identify the assignment goal, deadline, length specifications, formatting, and submission method.
Make a bulleted list of the key points, then go back and cross completed items off as you’re writing.

Carefully consider your timeframe and word limit: be realistic, and plan enough time to research, write, and edit.

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There are many ways to generate an idea for a research paper, from brainstorming with pen and paper to talking it through with a fellow student or professor.

You can try free writing, which involves taking a broad topic and writing continuously for two or three minutes to identify absolutely anything relevant that could be interesting.

You can also gain inspiration from other research. The discussion or recommendations sections of research papers often include ideas for other specific topics that require further examination.

Once you have a broad subject area, narrow it down to choose a topic that interests you, m eets the criteria of your assignment, and i s possible to research. Aim for ideas that are both original and specific:

A paper following the chronology of World War II would not be original or specific enough.
A paper on the experience of Danish citizens living close to the German border during World War II would be specific and could be original enough.

Note any discussions that seem important to the topic, and try to find an issue that you can focus your paper around. Use a variety of sources , including journals, books, and reliable websites, to ensure you do not miss anything glaring.

Do not only verify the ideas you have in mind, but look for sources that contradict your point of view.

Is there anything people seem to overlook in the sources you research?
Are there any heated debates you can address?
Do you have a unique take on your topic?
Have there been some recent developments that build on the extant research?

In this stage, you might find it helpful to formulate some research questions to help guide you. To write research questions, try to finish the following sentence: “I want to know how/what/why…”

A thesis statement is a statement of your central argument — it establishes the purpose and position of your paper. If you started with a research question, the thesis statement should answer it. It should also show what evidence and reasoning you’ll use to support that answer.

The thesis statement should be concise, contentious, and coherent. That means it should briefly summarize your argument in a sentence or two, make a claim that requires further evidence or analysis, and make a coherent point that relates to every part of the paper.

You will probably revise and refine the thesis statement as you do more research, but it can serve as a guide throughout the writing process. Every paragraph should aim to support and develop this central claim.

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A research paper outline is essentially a list of the key topics, arguments, and evidence you want to include, divided into sections with headings so that you know roughly what the paper will look like before you start writing.

A structure outline can help make the writing process much more efficient, so it’s worth dedicating some time to create one.

Your first draft won’t be perfect — you can polish later on. Your priorities at this stage are as follows:

Maintaining forward momentum — write now, perfect later.
Paying attention to clear organization and logical ordering of paragraphs and sentences, which will help when you come to the second draft.
Expressing your ideas as clearly as possible, so you know what you were trying to say when you come back to the text.

You do not need to start by writing the introduction. Begin where it feels most natural for you — some prefer to finish the most difficult sections first, while others choose to start with the easiest part. If you created an outline, use it as a map while you work.

Do not delete large sections of text. If you begin to dislike something you have written or find it doesn’t quite fit, move it to a different document, but don’t lose it completely — you never know if it might come in useful later.

Paragraph structure

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument or purpose of the paper.

Example paragraph

George Orwell’s 1946 essay “Politics and the English Language” has had an enduring impact on thought about the relationship between politics and language. This impact is particularly obvious in light of the various critical review articles that have recently referenced the essay. For example, consider Mark Falcoff’s 2009 article in The National Review Online, “The Perversion of Language; or, Orwell Revisited,” in which he analyzes several common words (“activist,” “civil-rights leader,” “diversity,” and more). Falcoff’s close analysis of the ambiguity built into political language intentionally mirrors Orwell’s own point-by-point analysis of the political language of his day. Even 63 years after its publication, Orwell’s essay is emulated by contemporary thinkers.

Citing sources

It’s also important to keep track of citations at this stage to avoid accidental plagiarism . Each time you use a source, make sure to take note of where the information came from.

You can use our free citation generators to automatically create citations and save your reference list as you go.

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The research paper introduction should address three questions: What, why, and how? After finishing the introduction, the reader should know what the paper is about, why it is worth reading, and how you’ll build your arguments.

What? Be specific about the topic of the paper, introduce the background, and define key terms or concepts.

Why? This is the most important, but also the most difficult, part of the introduction. Try to provide brief answers to the following questions: What new material or insight are you offering? What important issues does your essay help define or answer?

How? To let the reader know what to expect from the rest of the paper, the introduction should include a “map” of what will be discussed, briefly presenting the key elements of the paper in chronological order.

The major struggle faced by most writers is how to organize the information presented in the paper, which is one reason an outline is so useful. However, remember that the outline is only a guide and, when writing, you can be flexible with the order in which the information and arguments are presented.

One way to stay on track is to use your thesis statement and topic sentences . Check:

topic sentences against the thesis statement;
topic sentences against each other, for similarities and logical ordering;
and each sentence against the topic sentence of that paragraph.

Be aware of paragraphs that seem to cover the same things. If two paragraphs discuss something similar, they must approach that topic in different ways. Aim to create smooth transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and sections.

The research paper conclusion is designed to help your reader out of the paper’s argument, giving them a sense of finality.

Trace the course of the paper, emphasizing how it all comes together to prove your thesis statement. Give the paper a sense of finality by making sure the reader understands how you’ve settled the issues raised in the introduction.

You might also discuss the more general consequences of the argument, outline what the paper offers to future students of the topic, and suggest any questions the paper’s argument raises but cannot or does not try to answer.

You should not :

Offer new arguments or essential information
Take up any more space than necessary
Begin with stock phrases that signal you are ending the paper (e.g. “In conclusion”)

There are four main considerations when it comes to the second draft.

Check how your vision of the paper lines up with the first draft and, more importantly, that your paper still answers the assignment.
Identify any assumptions that might require (more substantial) justification, keeping your reader’s perspective foremost in mind. Remove these points if you cannot substantiate them further.
Be open to rearranging your ideas. Check whether any sections feel out of place and whether your ideas could be better organized.
If you find that old ideas do not fit as well as you anticipated, you should cut them out or condense them. You might also find that new and well-suited ideas occurred to you during the writing of the first draft — now is the time to make them part of the paper.

The goal during the revision and proofreading process is to ensure you have completed all the necessary tasks and that the paper is as well-articulated as possible. You can speed up the proofreading process by using the AI proofreader .

Global concerns

Confirm that your paper completes every task specified in your assignment sheet.
Check for logical organization and flow of paragraphs.
Check paragraphs against the introduction and thesis statement.

Fine-grained details

Check the content of each paragraph, making sure that:

each sentence helps support the topic sentence.
no unnecessary or irrelevant information is present.
all technical terms your audience might not know are identified.

Next, think about sentence structure , grammatical errors, and formatting . Check that you have correctly used transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas. Look for typos, cut unnecessary words, and check for consistency in aspects such as heading formatting and spellings .

Finally, you need to make sure your paper is correctly formatted according to the rules of the citation style you are using. For example, you might need to include an MLA heading or create an APA title page .

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Checklist: Research paper

I have followed all instructions in the assignment sheet.

My introduction presents my topic in an engaging way and provides necessary background information.

My introduction presents a clear, focused research problem and/or thesis statement .

My paper is logically organized using paragraphs and (if relevant) section headings .

Each paragraph is clearly focused on one central idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Each paragraph is relevant to my research problem or thesis statement.

I have used appropriate transitions to clarify the connections between sections, paragraphs, and sentences.

My conclusion provides a concise answer to the research question or emphasizes how the thesis has been supported.

My conclusion shows how my research has contributed to knowledge or understanding of my topic.

My conclusion does not present any new points or information essential to my argument.

I have provided an in-text citation every time I refer to ideas or information from a source.

I have included a reference list at the end of my paper, consistently formatted according to a specific citation style .

I have thoroughly revised my paper and addressed any feedback from my professor or supervisor.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (page numbers, headers, spacing, etc.).

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Relationship between mental health and students’ academic performance through a literature review

Open access
Published: 17 September 2024
Volume 4 , article number 119 , ( 2024 )

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Cynthia Lizeth Ramos-Monsivais 1 ,
Sonia Rodríguez-Cano 2 ,
Estefanía Lema-Moreira ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2286-4902 3 &
Vanesa Delgado-Benito 2

Mindfulness has become increasingly popular to improve physical and mental health. Its implementation transcends boundaries of disciplines that study its impact. The aim of this study is to identify and analyze the benefits of mindfulness on mental health, academic performance, well-being, mindfulness and prosocial behavior of university students, as well as to identify the most effective way to achieve habituation to the practice. An analysis and systematic review of papers published in the Scopus database was conducted. It was found that publications on the implementation of mindfulness in higher education began in 2004. Their study has been developed in 22 countries, 15 are European, 3 Asians, 2 North American, one Latin American and one from Oceania. Spain is the only Spanish-speaking country. Academically, mindfulness stimulates creativity, exploratory thinking, critical thinking, attention regulation, increases concentration and improves the learning experience. In addition, immersive virtual reality experiences were found to positively influence habituation towards mindfulness practice among university students.

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1 Introduction

In recent decades, mindfulness has gained popularity as a technique for reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. As well as increasing the well-being and quality of life of people who practice it [ 1 ]. Its origin is found in the Buddhist tradition, as a way to achieve clarity of thought [ 2 ]. Although this technique has been practiced in the East for more than 25 centuries, in the West its popularity is recent [ 3 ]. However, its application is expanding more and more in different disciplines [ 4 ].

Social-emotional learning has been introduced in education. It refers to the training of attention, through meditation techniques, such as mindfulness, the most recent update of the programs that seek emotional intelligence [ 5 ]. This type of education is also known as contemplative education, which seeks to enhance the learning experience through reflection and personal perception [ 6 ].

Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn defines mindfulness as “awareness that develops by paying concrete, sustained, deliberate, and non-judgmental attention to the present moment” [ 7 , p. 13]. It facilitates maintaining mental calm and training attention [ 8 ]; in addition to increasing mental clarity and awareness [ 9 ].

In terms of operability, three qualities that people develop while practicing mindfulness and three qualities related to how the practice is carried out are recognized. The first are observation, description, and participation. While in the mode of practice, acceptance is required, in the present moment and in an effective manner [ 10 ].

Mindfulness can be practiced formally and informally. In formal practice, a specific time is set aside daily for guided meditations. Informal practice brings awareness to daily activities. That is, paying attention to sensations and perceptions while walking, driving, eating, cleaning, among other activities [ 7 ].

Mindfulness has been shown to improve physical and mental health. In terms of physical health, it favors the increase of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BNDF) [ 11 ]. While in mental health it reduces symptoms of anxiety [ 12 ], stress [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ] and depression [ 12 ]. It also facilitates coping with change and uncertainty [ 14 ] and increases well-being [ 17 ].

1.1 How might the efficacy of mindfulness be evaluated?

Blood tests can be used to measure the effectiveness of mindfulness. A reduction in the levels of cortisol, the stress hormone [ 13 ]; and of increased BNDF can be observed after two weeks of practice [ 11 ]. Increased blood BNDF levels are a potential mediator between meditation practice and brain health [ 13 ]. BNDF measured in the blood by plasma or saliva is called peripheral BNDF [ 18 ].

BNDF is a modulator that regulates neuron growth. It allows the creation of new dendrites which improves communication between neurons; in other words, it promotes greater neuronal plasticity in the central and peripheral nervous system [ 11 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Its main function is at the level of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, structures linked to learning and memory functions [ 13 ].

BNDF is produced in the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Over time, its production tends to decrease. Its absence is related to psychiatric and neurological disorders such as emotional burnout, anxiety, depression and Alzheimer’s disease [ 13 ] However, some activities stimulate its production. Exercising, practicing yoga, undergoing controlled stress, traveling, acquiring new experiences, learning and mindfulness stimulate its production [ 13 , 20 ].

1.2 What are the reasons for integrating mindfulness into higher education?

The increase in mental health illnesses in college students has become a recognized concern [ 16 , 21 ]; which requires innovative interventions to address this reality [ 22 , 23 ]. In this sense, mindfulness emerges as a proposed solution [ 12 ], to prevent and reduce professional burnout [ 24 ]. Thus, there is growing interest in its applications in higher education [ 25 , 26 ].

In addition to the physical and mental health benefits, mindfulness practice promotes better academic performance [ 8 , 27 , 28 ]. Such as increased attention, learning and thinking [ 29 ]; and reduced pre-test anxiety [ 29 , 30 ].

Mindfulness practice also stimulates exploratory thinking [ 4 ], creative thinking [ 4 , 31 ], and critical thinking [ 2 ]. It increases spatial and sensory awareness [ 4 ], academic self-efficacy [ 32 , 33 ], productivity and task quality [ 8 ]; in addition to increasing the feeling of personal accomplishment [ 34 ].

On the other hand, it facilitates information retention [ 35 ], improves concentration [ 22 , 26 , 36 , 37 ], attention self-regulation skills [ 32 , 37 , 38 ] and allows for a perceived improvement in the overall learning experience [ 31 , 37 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. This is because it is essentially training the brain that facilitates focusing attention. A faculty that, for William James, father of American psychology, constituted the root of judgment, character and will [ 42 ].

1.3 Technological immersion in mindfulness

Studies show that technology is increasingly present in the field of mindfulness practice. Evidence of that is the introduction of video games such as the one developed at the University of Wisconsin called tenacity. This is to improve mindfulness through breathing exercises [ 5 ]. Mobile applications such as Headspace and Calm have also been developed to promote meditation techniques [ 43 , 44 ].

In addition to the above, immersive environments incorporating Virtual Reality (VR) have been developed to stimulate mindfulness practice. Home meditation studio, tripp and maloka are some of the applications that virtual reality allows mindfulness practice in totally immersive environments.

1.4 Virtual reality and mindfulness in education

VR makes it possible to experience alternative realities perceived atmospherically [ 45 ]. It is applied in disciplines and sciences such as medicine, engineering, mathematics, dentistry and education [ 46 ]. In education it is used to improve academic performance [ 29 ], and increase attention, creativity, flow state, and habituation to practice [ 47 ].

Pascual et al. [ 48 ] state that, despite there being few studies related to the evaluation of mindfulness interventions using VR, it is considered a more effective platform than standalone mobile meditation apps for encouraging daily practice. Along those lines, results from Miller et al. [ 49 ] study indicates that VR-guided meditation practice is associated with increased positive affect compared to non-VR meditation.

In the case study by Malighetti et al. [ 50 ] it was found that techniques for the development of emotional intelligence such as increased awareness, identification of emotional states, increased resilience and self-control implemented through VR allowed greater mental regulation in terms of eating habits in patients with binge eating disorders. In that order, students with greater emotional regulation have greater self-efficacy [ 51 ].

VR mindfulness promotes mental health [ 52 ]. Studies show that it can reduce insomnia and stress [ 53 ] and improve learning [ 46 ]. Coupled with the above, Kwon et al. [ 30 ] found that incorporating virtual environments through VR is feasible for managing anxiety stemming from academic exams.

Kaplan-Rakowski et al. [ 29 ] study showed that students who meditated with VR performed better academically than those who meditated using videos. While Yang et al.’s [ 47 ] research, immersive virtual reality experiences were found to affect traits associated with students' creativity such as flow state and attention. When students were assigned creative challenges or challenges, those who participated in immersive VR produced better quality products. They also maintained a more stable attention level than the control group.

VR can impact long-term learning. According to Mohring and Brendel [ 45 ] it use in the educational context needs to be reflected upon, because it triggers human perception with far-reaching consequences and people using it hardly question the alternative reality experience it offers. Nevertheless, it can contribute significantly to students’ training through the development of enhanced digital skills and increased mindfulness.

According to Mohring and Brendel [ 45 ] VR can trace the path towards mindfulness in different educational contexts: in teaching and in transforming the relationship between society and the environment. A view that coincides with Whewell et al. [ 54 ] who argue that these immersive experiences contribute to the development of enhanced digital skills, increased student engagement, cultural competence and global mindfulness in university students. VR can foster the conditions for students to become global change agents “within the spheres of entrepreneurship and education” [ 54 , p.1].

However, mindfulness benefits require continuous practice. According to the study by Pascual et al. [ 48 ], meditation sessions are associated with a decrease in anxiety. Therefore, identifying how to introduce and implement an effective program is of the utmost relevance for updating the current educational system.

In that sense, this research aims to identify programs that have been implemented to incorporate mindfulness into higher education. From its beginnings to the present, it analyzes the scientific literature to understand the evolution of its implementation. It identifies the countries where these programs are carried out, the universities that participate, the years they have been carried out and the types of documents published.

Mindfulness's documented benefits for mental health, academic performance, well-being, and students' awareness and prosocial behavior are discussed. Finally, technology, specifically virtual reality, is addressed as a medium that facilitates mindfulness practice stimulation and habituation.

Therefore, the following research questions were defined: 1. How many publications are published per year? 2. In what language are they published? 3. What kind of documents are published? 4. Which universities are involved in the research? 5. In which countries are mindfulness and higher education being studied? 6. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students' mental health? 7. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students' academic performance? 8. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students’ well-being? 9. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students’ conscientiousness and prosocial behaviour? 10. Is virtual reality the most effective medium for fostering mindfulness among higher education students?

An analysis of scientific publications in the scopus database, which could be accessed through an institutional account of the University of Burgos in Spain as part of a research stay, was carried out. The information search was conducted using English keywords. The keywords used to elaborate the search string were mindfulness, meditation, university students and higher education students. This search string yielded 70 publications as of July 19, 2024.

All Scopus database publication types were considered inclusion criteria: articles, book chapters, papers, reviews, books and short surveys. In English and Spanish. All articles whose information was not available, were not aimed at higher education students, or did not address any meditation technique were excluded.

An Excel document with the articles' information was extracted for analysis. One article was not available so 69 documents were considered. It was found that 11 publications did not actually mention meditation techniques and were excluded. Also, 5 publications not directed at higher education students were not considered. This resulted in 53 selected research papers. Figure 1 illustrates the situation.

Flow diagram

To answer questions 6, 7 and 8, a subsequent analysis was carried out to identify the measurement variables used by the authors. Measurement variables were identified in the selected documents. The variables were divided into four categories. Mental health, academic achievement, well-being, and prosocial awareness and attitude.

The mental health category includes 9 variables: reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization burnout and negative mood. Also increased mental health, calmness and positive mood. Of the 53 items, 4 address some mental health elements and 23 also include elements from other categories.

Academic achievement is made up of 16 variables: academic performance, clinical performance, exploratory thinking, critical thinking, creative thinking, productivity, task quality, academic speed, persistence, observation skills, attention regulation skills, information retention, academic self-efficacy and concentration. Additionally, the learning experience and divergent and convergent creative writing will be improved. Of the 53 items, 5 address elements relating to academic achievement and 19 also include elements from other categories.

The well-being category consists of 13 variables: increased life satisfaction, well-being, sense of belonging, emotional self-regulation, quality of life, self-compassion, physical activity, resilience, non-judgmental acceptance, perceived social support, and sense of accomplishment. Also included are better dietary decision making and improved sleep quality. Of the 53 items, 1 addresses well-being items and 20 include items from other categories.

In the category awareness and prosocial behavior, 14 variables were integrated: increased mindfulness skills, spatial awareness, sensory awareness, self-awareness, dispositional mindfulness, empathy, benevolence, prosocial behavior, collectivism, a sense of transcendence, universalalism, mental clarity, responsibility and improved interpersonal relationships. Of the 53 items, one addresses element unique to prosocial awareness and behavior and 21 also include elements from other categories.

To answer question 8, an additional search integrating technology and virtual reality was included. Although the object of this study is directed primarily at higher education students, research that analyses mindfulness incorporation at other educational levels was considered in this question.

The results of the research are presented in this section. We start with the general findings and then answer the research questions.

3.1 General findings

Although all the investigations analysed are directed at higher education students, 27 do not specify the discipline or the educational program in which the students are enrolled. However, it was found that the educational programs where mindfulness effectiveness is most frequently studied is in medicine and nursing with six investigations, engineering with four, and then anaesthesiology, arts and design, sciences, modern dance, law midwifery, writing, pharmacy, literature, music, social work and design pedagogy with one respectively.

Regarding the duration of the programs, of the 53 studies analysed, 31 do not specify the duration of the practice in weeks, days or sessions. However, in six investigations the programs lasted 8 weeks and in five investigations, 6 weeks. The longest program consisted of 12 weeks and the shortest 1 day. About the analysis of keywords, Fig. 2 shows the identified word networks.

Visualization of keyword networks based on a VOSviewer version 1.6.20 elaboration

In this analysis, it was found that of the 418 keywords used, 30 have at least a frequency of occurrence of 5. It is highlighted that the words with a higher frequency of occurrence and greater connectivity are mindfulness and meditation. Next, the research questions are answered.

How many papers are published each year about mindfulness and higher education students?

According to Table 1 , publications on mindfulness in higher education began in 2004. In 2014, these rates began to remain constant. In the United States, the first publication was produced by the doctor Daniel Holland, associated with universities in Pennsylvania, Arkansas, Illinois, and Washington. At the University of Pennsylvania, the first program for developing resilience in children was developed. Furthermore, in the late 1990s, doctors Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, both affiliated with the same university, pioneered positive psychology [ 55 ].

As part of positive education, positive psychology was introduced to institutions. The concept of positive education succeeds the concept of emotional education. In addition to emotions, this approach incorporates other elements such as meditation in order to increase well-being [ 56 ].

What is the language in which mindfulness research is published? There are 53 documents in the collection, 50 of which are in English and three of which are in Spanish

Are there any published documents that discuss mindfulness and students in higher education? Publications were classified into five categories: articles, reviews, book chapters, presentations and books. As shown in Table 2 , each type of document has a different quantity.

There are several different types of documents published. Articles are the most frequently published. Review articles, presentations, book chapters, and books follow.

What are the publications of universities on mindfulness and higher education students?

A summary of the publications produced, the universities that participate in collaborations, and the most important findings are presented in this section according to the type of document, the language, and the year.

3.2 Spanish-language articles

There have been only three articles published in Spanish. These include one by the University of Almería in Spain in 2009, another by the University of Lisbon in Portugal in 2022 and another by the University of Granada in Spain in 2024. A study by Justo and Luque [ 57 ] demonstrated that mindfulness leads to a deepening of reflection and self-awareness, which in turn stimulates prosocial values like benevolence, collectivism, and the sense of universalism and transcendence. Sobral and Caetano [ 58 ] conducted a study in which individual and collective activities were incorporated into two courses, including mindfulness, using students' portfolios and teachers’ notes. On the other hand, in the study by García-Pérez et al. [ 23 ] mindfulness is considered as a starting point to guarantee mental health and improve the well-being of university students.

3.3 Articles in English

In 2014, two English-language publications were published. One by Nottingham Trent University in the United Kingdom and one by Duke University Medical Center in the United States. Greeson et al. [ 59 ] found that the Koru mindfulness training program improved sleep, improved mindfulness skills, increased self-compassion, and decreased stress among college students.

According to Van Gordon et al. [ 3 ], the Meditation, Awareness Training (MAT) program has been evaluated by college students. During the eighth weeks of training, the students demonstrated improved well-being and self-regulation skills in terms of thoughts, feelings, and behavior. A significant increase was also observed in dispositional mindfulness.

In 2015 only one paper was published by Newcastle University in Australia. In this study, after 7 weeks of practicing mindfulness, students showed an improvement in their well-being, sleep quality, increased concentration, mental clarity and a reduction in negative mood was observed [ 22 ].

In 2016, two articles were published, one by Chatham University in the United States, and another where two universities from two different countries participated, the National University of Ireland and Coleraine University in the United Kingdom. In the study by Noone et al. [ 2 ] it was found that dispositional mindfulness facilitates critical thinking. While in the research of Spadaro and Hunker [ 38 ] it was found that after 8 weeks of practicing mindfulness online, nursing students in the United States reduced anxiety and stress. They also increased mindfulness self-regulation skills.

There were three articles published in 2017. The first study was conducted by Ohio State University in the United States, the second by Ryerson University in Canada, and the third by the Department of Psychiatry at MoleMann Hospital for Mental Health in the Netherlands.

Using reflective writing and guided mindfulness meditations, Klatt [ 60 ] conducted research at Ohio University to increase awareness of students' life goals. According to Schwind et al. [ 37 ], mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation practice after eight weeks reduced anxiety, improved learning experience, increased sense of calm, concentration, and attention self-regulation skills among Canadian university students.

While in the research of Van D’Ijk et al. [ 61 ] it was found that after 8 weekly sessions of two hours daily using the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program, students from the Netherlands reduced anxiety and negative emotional states. Improved mental health, life satisfaction and increased mindfulness skills were also observed. However, empathy was not increased.

In 2018, three articles were published. One by the University of Seville in Spain, one by the National University of Ireland and one where an international collaboration between 5 universities took place. The University of Southampton in the UK, the Helvetiapraxis Medical Centre in Switzerland, Kings College London in the UK, the Coburg University of Applied Sciences and Arts in Germany and the Poznan University of Medical Sciences in Poland.

Research conducted by Bernárdez et al. [ 9 ] revealed that software engineering students at the University of Seville in Spain improved their academic self-efficacy after 6 weeks of practicing mindfulness.

Lynch et al. [ 25 ] evaluated mindfulness-based coping with university life (MBCUL), an adaptation of the MBSR program. College students increased their mindfulness skills, decreased stress, anxiety, and depression after eight weeks. The study by Noone and Hogan [ 62 ] found that practicing mindfulness using the headspace mobile app for 6 weeks or 30 sessions increased dispositional mindfulness, but not critical thinking. Students at the National University of Ireland participated in this study.

There were three articles published in 2019. In the United Kingdom, Birmingham City University submitted the first study, in the United States, Lousville University submitted the second, and in Iceland, the University of Rhode Island submitted the third.

A study conducted by Dutt et al. [ 84 ] from the University of Birmingham has demonstrated that mindfulness reduces stress and helps to make better dietary decisions. The University of Rhode Island conducted a study in which Lemay et al. [ 63 ] found that after 6 weeks of practicing viyansa yoga, pharmacy students were able to increase their mindfulness skills and reduce their levels of stress and anxiety. Weingartner et al. [ 39 ] found that mindfulness and compassion training increased mindfulness skills, dispositional mindfulness, and empathy in medical students at Lousville University. As a result, interpersonal relationships, resilience, nonjudgmental acceptance, observational skills, and learning experiences were also improved.

In 2020, four papers were published. In the United States, there are four, one from the University of North Carolina, one from the University of Florida, one from Juiz de Fora in Brazil, and one from the Department of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences at the London School of Economics and Political Science.

At the University of North Carolina, a slow sensory experience linked to meditation techniques is introduced in the modern dance program to improve concentration [ 64 ]. According to the study by Bóo et al. [ 27 ], mindfulness increases academic performance, emotional self-regulation, and self-awareness in the UK. However, Damião et al. [ 65 ] found no significant increase in mindfulness skills of medical students at the Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil, following a 6-week mindfulness training program. Stress, anxiety, or depression did not decrease. Quality of life and mental health also showed no change.

A study by Williams et al. [ 40 ] concluded that medical students at the University of Florida improved their mindfulness skills, perceived social support, empathy, and prosocial behavior after 11 weeks participating in the Promoting Resilience in Medicine (PRIMe) program, although they did not reduce stress. Behaviors characterized by empathy and prosociality. As a result, the general well-being and learning experience have also improved.

There were three articles published in 2021. First, the University of Manitoba in Canada, second, Bilkent University in Turkey, and third, Johns Hopkins University in the United States. Altay and Porter [ 4 ] found that mindfulness practice among design psychology students in Turkey increased non-judgmental acceptance, exploratory thinking, creative thinking, spatial awareness, sensory awareness, and empathy.

An evaluation of the effectiveness of the Headspace mobile application was conducted by Carullo et al. [ 33 ]. Over the course of four months, anesthesiology and medical students from the United States practiced mindfulness. Depression levels were reduced and personal accomplishments were increased. The level of emotional exhaustion nor the level of depersonalization burnout, however, did not improve. Based on research conducted by Litwiller et al. [ 21 ] among college students in Canada, mindfulness, meditation, Tai Chi, yoga, exercise, and animal therapy have been found to be effective in reducing stress, anxiety, depression, and negative mood.

The year 2022 saw the publication of nine papers. The first was completed by the Aix-Marseille University in France, the second by the Department of Anthropology at the University of Missouri in the United States, and the third by the University of Central Arkansas in the United States in collaboration with the University of Missouri. It was also submitted by the University of Illinois in the United States, Kirikkale University in Turkey, Arizona State University in the United States, the University of Seville in Spain, Brock University in Canada, and the University of Lisbon in Portugal.

Researchers in Turkey found that mindfulness practice increases life satisfaction among nursing students. According to Bernárdez et al. [ 8 ], mindfulness enhanced academic performance, productivity, task quality, and academic speed in Spanish students. Devillers-Réolon et al. [ 66 ] found that stress, anxiety, and depression were reduced in their research. The ability of French university students to regulate their attention did not improve, despite improvements in their well-being.

Researchers at Arizona State University found that mindfulness practice increased concentration, non-judgmental acceptance, and resilience among arts and design students. An opinion survey conducted by Klonoff-Cohen [ 67 ] revealed that college students in Illinois believe meditation and mindfulness exercises are effective coping mechanisms. The study by Sensiper [ 26 ] from the Anthropology Department concluded that after 10 weeks of structured in-class meditations, mindfulness exercises, contemporary text readings, and reflective writing, college students exhibited reduced anxiety, improved well-being, increased emotional self-regulation, concentration, and dispositional mindfulness.

As part of the research conducted by Sobral and Caetano [ 58 ], the University of Lisbon conducted a self-study on emotional education. Teachers evaluated the students’ portfolios in order to identify recurrent problems, and students evaluated mindfulness practices, collective and individual projects.

Strickland et al. [ 68 ] reported that mindfulness combined with a modified version of Dr. Robert Boice’s blocked writers program increased positive mood and resilience to stress and anxiety in students and teachers in higher education.

According to Woloshyn et al. [ 31 ], mindful writing stimulates creative thinking, increases empathy and prosocial behavior in higher education students and teachers in Canada. A positive emotional state can also be achieved through non-judgmental acceptance, increased self-awareness, self-compassion, and non-judgmental acceptance. In addition, it enhances well-being and the learning experience.

Six papers have been published in 2023. One by the University of Rome in Italy, one by Griffith University in Australia, another is the result of a collaboration between the University of South Carolina and Winthrop University both in the United States; and another due to collaboration between the Institute of Psychology of Lorand University in Hungary, the University of Vienna and the University of Artois in France.

One paper is the result of a collaboration between the University of the West of England in United Kingdom, and Dongguk University in South Korea. And another article was the result of a collaboration between University of Limoges, University of Montpellier and University of Paris Cité in France and University of Brussels in Belgium.

In the research by Fagioli et al. [ 32 ] University students in Italy practice mindfulness online for 28 days. An improved sense of belonging increased academic self-efficacy and self-regulation of attention skills were observed. In the study by García et al. [ 69 ], mindfulness was practiced for 1 week, 5 min daily. This exercise reduced anxiety, increased physical activity and improved sleep in United States students. Nagy et al. [ 70 ] found that mindfulness practice can increase persistence in those with a strong disposition toward a growth mindset or mindfulness.

In the research of Hagège et al. [ 71 ] it was found that the Meditation-Based Ethics of Responsibility (MBER) program had a positive impact on sense of responsibility and convergent and divergent creative writing tasks in undergraduate science students. In undergraduate music therapy students, it was found that eight weeks of practicing mindfulness can reduce stress and improve mindfulness and well-being [ 72 ]. While Pearson’s [ 73 ] looks for strategies on how mindfulness can be introduced into law education programs in Australia.

So far in 2024, three papers have been published. One by the Virginia Tech College of engineering. Another by the collaboration of Idaho State University and the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, in the United States. Another by Kaohsiung Medical University and Meiho University, both from Taiwan.

In the research of Giesler et al. [ 74 ] the Caring Action Leadership Mindfulness model is proposed to increase mental health and sense of belonging in undergraduate social work students. In the study by Liu et al. [ 75 ] it was found that practicing mindfulness for 50 min a week for 8 weeks reduced stress and increased mindfulness skills in nursing students. On the other hand, Martini et al. [ 76 ] found that although most engineering students after practicing mindfulness experienced a reduction in perceived stress, a sense of calm, increased energy, and greater concentration, other students who expressed feeling more tired and distressed after meditation practice.

3.4 Book chapters

Book chapters are rare. One by Queen Margaret University in 2015 and one by the University of Surrey in 2020, both UK universities. In the Oberski et al. [ 35 ] study, it was documented that mindfulness in college students allows for increased information retention and a positive emotional state. In Kilner-Johnson and Udofia’s [ 77 ] research, techniques for incorporating mindfulness in the humanities in higher education are proposed.

On the other hand, only one book was published by the University of Groningen in the Netherlands in 2021. This work addresses the benefits of incorporating mindfulness into higher education courses. It documents the results of the Munich model named mindfulness and meditation in the university context. It also includes practical exercises with instructions for implementation in educational institutions.

3.6 Conferences

Three conferences have been published from the United States. One in 2006 by the University of Arkansas, another by the University of Denver Colorado in 2021, and another by Northeastern University in 2023. Holland [ 6 ] presents a course developed and implemented in some universities in the United States through his personal experience, while Wu [ 41 ] states that sonic meditation for higher education students improves the learning experience. In the study by Grahame et al. [ 78 ] it was found that daily mindfulness practice enables engineering undergraduates to reduce stress.

3.7 Reviews

Six reviews have been published. One was in 2004 by Southeastern Illinois University in the United States. In 2017 there were 2 publications. One by the University of Portland in the United States and one by LaTrobe University in Australia. In 2019 the Medical Department of the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands also published a review. In 2021, a collaboration between three UK universities—Queens University, the University of Suffolk and the University of York was published. In 2024 another was published by Padjadjaran University in Indonesia.

Holland [ 79 ] outlines how mindfulness can be incorporated into higher education and the benefits this can bring for students with disabilities and promote health. McConville et al. [ 33 ] found that mindfulness reduces stress, anxiety, and depression. It also increases mindfulness skills, empathy, a positive emotional state, and academic self-efficacy. Stillwell et al. [ 80 ] found that both the MBSR program, yoga, breath work, meditation, and mindfulness in nursing students reduced stress.

Breedvelt et al. [ 81 ] evaluated the effectiveness of meditation, yoga, and mindfulness on symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress in college students. They concluded that most publications regarding mindfulness have a high risk of bias, are of poor quality, and do not specify which technique provides the benefits. For it is unclear whether it is mindfulness, yoga or another meditation technique that is effective. McVeigh et al. [ 28 ] found that mindfulness practice in nursing students reduces stress, increases clinical academic performance and self-awareness. In the research of Yosep et al. [ 82 ] it was found that digital mindfulness through audios and videos is effective in improving the mental health of university students.

What are the countries where mindfulness and higher education students are most widely published?

Based on the description of the universities in question three, Fig. 3 illustrates the countries and locations where publications on mindfulness and higher education students have been published.

Geographical location of countries where mindfulness research has been conducted. Font: Own elaboration in the Mapchart application [ 83 ]

As can be seen, the United States leads in mindfulness research and higher education students. It is followed by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Spain. Spain is the only Spanish-speaking country on the list.

On the other hand, although the research is carried out in 22 countries, the collaboration networks include 14 countries. Figure 4 shows the collaboration networks detected.

Cross-country collaboration networks based on a VOSviewer version 1.6.20 elaboration

Figure 4 shows a collaborative network of 14 countries composed of four nodes. One is formed by Austria, Belgium, Canada, France and Hungary in red. In green by the United Kingdom, Turkey, South Korea and Ireland. In blue, Germany, Switzerland and Poland and in yellow, Australia and the Netherlands.

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice for higher education students’ mental health?

Mindfulness practice reduces stress [ 21 , 25 , 28 , 33 , 38 , 59 , 63 , 66 , 80 , 84 ] anxiety [ 21 , 25 , 26 , 33 , 37 , 38 , 61 , 63 , 66 , 69 ] and depression [ 21 , 25 , 33 , 34 , 66 ].

Mindfulness reduces negative mood [ 21 , 22 , 61 ]. As well as increasing positive mood [ 31 , 33 , 35 , 68 ]. In research by Bernárdez et al. [ 9 ], mindfulness was found to reduce emotional exhaustion and depersonalization burnout. While Van D’Ijk et al. [ 61 ], that it improves mental health. Schwind et al. [ 37 ] found that it increases the feeling of calm.

3.8 Stress reduction

In the case of Devillers-Réolon et al. [ 66 ] and Spadaro & Hunker [ 38 ] the mindfulness practice was conducted online and lasted for 17 days and 8 weeks respectively. Greeson et al. [ 59 ] study was also practiced online using the Koru program. Although the duration of this is not specified.

In Lynch et al. [ 25 ] research, the MBSR program was used for 8 weeks. While Stiwell et al. [ 80 ] the same program was used, although the duration of time is not specified. Of the five studies in which mindfulness is practiced traditionally through guided meditations, only one, that of Lemay et al. [ 63 ] indicates that the program lasted 6 weeks in 60-min sessions. The other investigations do not indicate weeks or practice sessions.

According to Yogeswaran and Morr [ 16 ] online mindfulness practice can be effective in addressing stress. However, at least for medical students, the evidence was not sufficient to prove its efficacy in decreasing symptoms of depression and anxiety. In contrast, the study by Ahmad et al. [ 12 ] found that, among university students in Toronto, Canada, internet-based Cognitive Behavioral Mindfulness Therapy interventions could reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression and stress after 8 weeks.

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice on higher education students’ academic performance?

Mindfulness increases clinical performance [ 28 ] and academic performance [ 8 , 27 , 28 ]. Stimulates exploratory thinking [ 4 ], creative thinking [ 4 , 31 ] and critical thinking [ 2 ].

It increases productivity, task quality and academic speed [ 8 ]. As well, it also increases academic self-efficacy [ 9 , 32 , 33 ], improves the learning experience [ 31 , 37 , 39 , 40 , 41 ], and improves observation skills [ 39 ].

Coupled with the above, it improves information retention [ 35 ], increases concentration [ 22 , 26 , 36 , 37 ], and attention self-regulation skills [ 32 , 37 , 38 ]. Another finding in relation to academic performance is that mindfulness can increase persistence in people with a strong disposition toward mindfulness or a growth mindset [ 70 ].

3.9 What benefits does mindfulness practice have on higher education students?

Mindfulness practice increased perceived social support [ 31 , 40 ], improves well-being [ 3 , 22 , 26 , 31 , 40 , 66 ] and improve dietary decision-making [ 84 ]. It also increases sense of belonging [ 32 ], life satisfaction [ 61 , 85 ], physical activity [ 69 ]; and improves sleep quality [ 22 , 59 , 69 ]. Damião´s et al. [ 65 ] research showed no improvements in quality of life after the intervention.

Mindfulness allows increasing self-compassion [ 31 , 59 ], sense of personal achievement [ 34 ], self-regulation of thoughts, feelings and behaviors [ 3 , 26 , 27 ]. It stimulates the development of resilience for stress and anxiety management [ 36 , 39 , 68 ]; and it helps to manage the judgmental voice. That is, it facilitates non-judgmental acceptance [ 4 , 31 , 36 , 39 ].

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice on mindfulness and prosocial behavior in higher education students?

Mindfulness allows for increases in self-awareness [ 27 , 28 , 31 ], sensory and spatial awareness [ 4 ], mindfulness skills [ 25 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 59 , 61 , 63 ] and disposition toward mindfulness [ 3 , 26 , 39 , 68 ].

It also stimulates prosocial behavior [ 40 ], collectivism [ 31 , 57 ]. It increases empathy [ 4 , 31 , 33 , 39 , 40 ] and benevolence [ 57 ]. It improves interpersonal relationships [ 31 , 39 , 40 ], clarity of thought [ 22 ]; and increases the sense of universalism and transcendence [ 57 ].

Is virtual reality the most effective way to promote mindfulness among higher education students?

Virtual reality could facilitate mindfulness habituation. In the study by Navarrete et al. [ 86 ] conducted with university medical students in Valencia, Spain, it was found that those who participated in the virtual reality program meditated twice as long as those who only practiced through regular guided meditation. Along these lines, Pascual et al. [ 48 ] found that health professionals who practiced meditation completed more sessions than those who did not use VR.

Likewise, in the study by Modrego-Alarcón et al. [ 15 ] and Miller et al. [ 49 ] it was found that VR students acquired greater immersion and mindfulness practice. Therefore, immersive virtual reality environments favor habituation toward mindfulness practice.

4 Discussion

The benefits of mindfulness in higher education students at the psychoemotional level have been widely documented [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 87 ]. One of the most frequently highlighted benefits of mindfulness in higher education students is the positive effect on self-esteem, as evidenced by the findings of several studies [ 88 , 89 ]. Additionally, mindfulness has been shown to reduce stress levels [ 25 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 59 , 61 , 63 , 90 ]. These types of benefits have also been observed in other demographic groups. For example, a study conducted by Chandna et al. [ 91 ] with an adult population demonstrated that mindfulness practice was associated with significant improvements in self-esteem and self-efficacy.

As previously stated, mindfulness practice has been identified as a potential solution to the emotional difficulties experienced by higher education students in the current context [ 12 ]. The positive effects of mindfulness on students’ psychoemotional well-being have been demonstrated in numerous studies [ 66 , 67 , 85 ]. It can thus be inferred that these benefits will also affect other areas of students’ lives, reducing their difficulties both psychoemotionally and academically, for example.

In terms of academic performance, the findings of Bóo et al. [ 27 ], Bernárdez et al. [ 8 ] and McVeigh et al. [ 28 ] are worthy of note. This is not exclusive to students in higher education. A study by Artika et al. [ 92 ] with a sample of 469 secondary school students indicates that mindfulness is a significant predictor of student participation in the school context, with an associated increase in participation through improved self-esteem. In contrast, Cordeiro et al. [ 93 ] conducted an experimental study with a control group of third-grade students and found that mindfulness significantly enhanced cognitive flexibility and handwriting fluency.

Prosocial behaviour has been identified as another key area of interest by a number of studies [ 4 , 22 , 31 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 57 ]. A study by Akhavan et al. [ 90 ] demonstrates the efficacy of mindfulness practice in a sample of teachers, including enhanced relationships with students and reduced stress.

With regard to the manner in which these mindfulness programmes can be supported, the utilisation of VR has been found to confer considerable benefits [ 15 , 48 , 49 , 86 ]. This is primarily attributable to the degree of adherence to the programme. In their seminal work, Friedlander et al. [ 94 ] introduced the concept of the ‘therapeutic alliance’ to describe this phenomenon of patient adherence in a therapeutic context. They posited that it represents a crucial factor in the efficacy of any therapeutic intervention. In this case, although it is an educational context, the effects of such adherence are similar; therefore, it is worthwhile to explore the potential of the VR format as a key factor for the success of mindfulness.

5 Conclusions

In response to the research questions initially posed, it can be stated that they have been addressed, resulting in comprehensive data pertaining to the volume, language and year of publication of the various research projects. It is notable that there has been a significant increase in publications over the past four years, as well as the prevalence of the article format. As is to be expected, the majority of publications have been in English. It is also evident that universities in countries with an Anglo-Saxon tradition have published the most research on this topic, with the USA being the country with the highest volume of studies.

In answer to questions 6, 7, 8 and 9, it might be stated that mindfulness practice has been shown to promote mental health, academic performance, awareness, prosocial behaviour and well-being in student populations. Mindfulness practice might promote mental health, and well-being in the student population. The positive impact of this practice is not limited to how it is performed. That is, whether it is through traditional guided meditations, mobile applications, videos, online exercises or virtual reality.

However, according to the available literature, habituation is easier to acquire. Therefore, additional benefits can be obtained by increasing the number of sessions completed or minutes of practice. In answer to question 10, in studies where VR was effective for mindfulness practice, students practiced longer than those in the control group. Therefore, VR could be a more effective way to introduce contemplative science by introducing meditation techniques in higher education.

The objective has been fulfilled by analysing the benefits of mindfulness on mental health, academic performance, well-being, mindfulness and prosocial behaviour of university students, as well as identifying the most effective way to achieve habituation to the practice. It is also noteworthy that these benefits are highly relevant, and it would be beneficial to introduce mindfulness practice in the context of higher education.

6 Limitation and implication

One of the issues highlighted is the lack of comprehensive data that would allow for a more thorough comparison. For example, aspects such as the geographical location of the study subjects or the duration of the mindfulness programme applied mean that there are a large number of studies whose effectiveness is not entirely clear. At the same time, this is a topic that is becoming increasingly relevant, but there is still no consensus among researchers.

With regard to prospective implications, it is evident that the implementation of mindfulness in educational settings offers substantial advantages. Consequently, higher education institutions should facilitate the availability of structured mindfulness programmes for students. Undoubtedly, this would prove to be a valuable addition to their psycho-emotional and academic development.

Data availability

The author confirms that all data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Relationship between mental health and students' academic performance
In undergraduate music therapy students, it was found that eight weeks of practicing mindfulness can reduce stress and improve mindfulness and well-being . While Pearson's looks for strategies on how mindfulness can be introduced into law education programs in Australia. So far in 2024, three papers have been published.

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