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Focusing on enduring processes vs. the evolving features of the technology, looking beyond human-to-human communication and individual-level processes, final thoughts: recognizing interdisciplinary influences and boundaries of cmc.

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“What Is Computer-Mediated Communication?”—An Introduction to the Special Issue

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Mike Z Yao, Rich Ling, “What Is Computer-Mediated Communication?”—An Introduction to the Special Issue, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication , Volume 25, Issue 1, January 2020, Pages 4–8, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmz027

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At a time when nearly all social activities could be, and likely are, mediated in some ways by some forms of computing technology, what should be the focus of CMC research? How do we theorize and study computer-mediated (or should we say digitally-mediated) communication when the topics of our research—the technology, the concepts and processes of mediation, our sense of what constitutes communication, as well as the theories and methods used to examine these—are all in flux? Early in the spring of 2018, the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication invited scholars to submit ideas for a dedicated issue to consider these questions. The collection of meta-theoretical discussions, literature reviews/analyses, and concept explications included in this special issue will point to a general direction and offer a launching point for theory construction and systematic research in a continuously evolving field.

The tension between technological developments and related social processes raises the question of how we should conceive of, theorize, and study technology, mediation, and communication. In the quarter-century since the founding of the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication , a central question concerning this area of research has shifted from “what is computer-mediated communication?” to “what isn’t ?” In 1994, personal computers were bulky, desk-top, and hence stationary terminals. The Internet was only finding its purchase in society. Text-based Usenet and Internet Relay Chat (IRC) were common platforms. Email (or electronic-mail) was considered cutting-edge communication. Online social networking sites were still in the distant future, and short message service (SMS) was just debuting as a digitally mediated form of interpersonal communication. As of this writing, among the 7.7 billion people on the planet, 4.33 billion actively use the Internet ( Statista, 2019 ), 5.14 billion are connected via mobile devices using over 9 billion subscriptions ( GSMA Intelligence, 2019 ), and 3.5 billion are on social media ( Hootsuite, 2019 ). American adults are spending over 11 hours a day interacting with various (computerized) media ( Nielsen, 2019 ). In short, the technical landscape has seen a dramatic shift.

At a time when nearly all social activities could be, and likely are, mediated in some ways by some forms of computing technology, what should be the focus of CMC research? How do we theorize and study computer-mediated (or should we say digitally-mediated ) communication when the topics of our research—the technology, the concepts and processes of mediation, our sense of what constitutes communication, as well as the theories and methods used to examine these—are all in flux? Early In the spring of 2018, the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication invited scholars to submit ideas for a dedicated issue to consider these questions. We received 82 proposals. These extended abstracts covered a wide spectrum of theoretical perspectives, research paradigms, and a variety of topical interests across all levels of social and behavioral research. These ranged from philosophy, to geopolitics, to personal relationships, and to neurological activities. The astonishing diversity and richness represented by the initial submissions are indicative of the urgency and relevance of the exercise.

Primarily based on how they would eventually fit into the theme of the special issue as well as the continuity and trajectory of the journal, we selected 18 proposals to be developed into full-length articles. In the next 12 months, these manuscripts went through the journal’s regular peer review process. After surviving multiple rounds of revision and resubmission, nine articles are ultimately published in this themed volume. Contributors to this issue include central figures in their respective subdomains of expertise and junior scholars who have just started their academic careers. With the aim to stimulate dialogue and debate at the broadest level possible, the journal suspended the criteria of requiring articles to have a primarily empirical focus. We trust that this collection of meta-theoretical discussions, literature reviews/analyses, and concept explications will point to a general direction and offer a launching point for theory construction and systematic research in a continuously evolving field.

While the articles in this volume each stand on its own and addresses a set of unique theoretical and methodological issues from different perspectives, we encourage the readers to consider and read them as a dialogue around a few broad questions: what are, and what should be, the core concerns of computer-mediated communication (CMC)? What distinguishes digitally-mediated communication from other forms of communication? How do we maintain focus on the fundamental processes central to digitally-mediated communication as a distinctive field of scholarship while at the same time staying relevant to, and more importantly, informing other fields that are increasingly looking at us for knowledge about the impacts of computing technology in a variety of social and behavioral contexts? With these questions in mind, the nine articles in the special issue cluster around two themes: (a) the focus on enduring cognitive/social processes vs. a focus on the evolving features of the technology, and (b) expanding the scope of the sub-discipline beyond human-to-human communication and individual-level processes.

The digital devices with which we communicate today include personal computers, smartphones, smartwatches, digital assistants (e.g., Alexia, Siri, Echo, etc.), home appliances (e.g., smart thermostats, security cameras, refrigerators, etc.), and even robots. Increasingly (at least in the Global North), people are living in smart homes controlled by computers and driving autonomous vehicles that essentially are computers that carry people around. In a digital age when computing technology is omnipresent and ubiquitous, what should constitute a “computer” in digitally-mediated communication research? A device, a software application, the network, or the virtual worlds in which people engage in various social activities? It is unwise and infeasible for social scientists to be constantly enamored with every new gadget and application, but it is equally problematic to not recognize, or conveniently ignore, the role of new technologies in redefining and reshaping fundamental social and communicative processes. Several articles in this issue directly tackled this dilemma.

In this issue, Caleb Carr traces the evolution of CMC, as a concept and as a body of research and related theories, to advocate for a shift of attention away from the “computers.” He calls on us to focus on the “mediated” processes in CMC. He proposes three means with which to help contemporize and future-proof the CMC: (a) retiring the term “computer,” (b) reemphasizing that CMC is the study of mediation, and (c) refocus our scholarship from the devices to the human-based processes being explored.

Andrew Flanagin makes a similar case. He suggests that CMC researchers should not dwell on “object-centered” research that overly emphasizes new features and functions of technological tools. Instead, he argues that we should “consider current technological tools or products mainly as manifestations of underlying phenomena rather than as objects of study in their own right” and cultivate a focus on the underlying mechanisms of “mediation” across technologies.

Looking beyond the features and functions of the technological tools, several articles in this special issue focused on core, as well as emergent theoretical constructs in CMC research. Through concept explication, Kun Xu and Tony Liao offer a typology of communicative cues in CMC and examines key differences in how various CMC theories approach this concept. His article neatly ties together several lines of communication and technology research (e.g., CMC and Human-Computer Interaction) around a central construct that can help CMC scholars be more precise in articulating their research.

Jeffery Treem, Paul Leonardi, and Bart van den Hooff present a multidimensional view of communication visibility . They argue that the ability for individual communicators in CMC to choose, often strategically, how they would present or access information visible to others is a distinctive dimension of CMC. They also offer an agenda for incorporating communication visibility into future CMC research.

Eun-Ju Lee examines the idea of authenticity in CMC and discusses three subcomponents of the concept. These include: (a) authenticity of source, (b) authenticity of message, and (c) authenticity of interaction. Building around this concept, she develops an integrated framework and a set of testable propositions for studying authenticity in mass-oriented CMC.

Up to this point, the articles have emphasized the mediating processes of CMC. The focus in these articles is to generate theoretical insight on how communication technologies impact various social, psychological, and communicative phenomena. However, technological tools may not only facilitate, or influence human actions, but could have also disrupted fundamental social and behavioral processes. Historically, the printing press, steam engine, electrical motor, and electronics were all catalysts to major societal changes. In the last decade, the convergence of networked computing, big data processing, and mobile communication have led to an eruption of technological innovations in media and communication. These smart, mobile, and social media devices/platforms have challenged CMC scholars to rethink and reimagine the processes, scale, context, and influence of human communication at every level. Several articles in this special issue examine this issue.

Intelligent computing systems in CMC

Developments in artificial intelligence (AI) allow computer systems to move beyond the automation of labor-intensive and error-prone human tasks to making autonomous recommendations. They can potentially act on these recommendations with little or no human input or intervention. AI technologies are increasingly being used to actively filter and selectively present information in media systems. Computers powered by AI not only mediate but also moderate human communication. They are AI-based sales agents, customer service representatives, DJs, personal shoppers, and even social companions. Two articles in this special issue deeply reflect on the role of AI in CMC.

Shyam Sundar offers a framework that incorporates theoretical and empirical insights from research on computer-mediated human-to-human communication as well as human-computer interactions. He offers this in order to study the psychological impacts of machine agency in human-technology interactions. Jeff Hancock, Mor Naaman, and Karien Levy’s article propose the concept of AI-Mediated Communication (AI-MC) and discuss its incorporation in interpersonal communication. They describe AI-MC as communication that is not simply transmitted via technology, but rather communication that is “modified, augmented, or even generated by a computational agent to achieve communication goals.” They suggest that AI-MC will play out in linguistic patterns and relational dynamics, and eventually in terms of policy, culture, and ethics.

Mobile media and communication

Yet another technology/platform that plays into the structure of contemporary society is mobile telephony. To a greater degree than the computer or the laptop, the smartphone is perhaps the most individualized digital mediation device in the current techno-landscape. At the individual level, the smartphone offers a wide variety of “affordances.” However, the role and the social impact of mobile telephony extends far beyond digital mediation when we consider that it connects almost two-thirds of the world’s population. The smartphone is a device that gives us access to information anywhere at any time. Information and data can be pushed, altered, and pulled from connected smartphones without our consent. In his article, Scott Campbell traces the evolution of mobile communication from communication mediated by portable devices to an entire system of mobile media and communication that has reshaped the fabric of our social lives through “sociality” (connecting and disconnecting from personal relationships), and “spatiality” (connecting and disconnecting from spaces).

Social media and a networked society

Since the publication of JCMC’s special issue on Web 2.0 and user-generated content ( Walther & Jang, 2012 ), social media has gone from being an emerging topic in media and communication research to the main focus of a multitude of disciplines. The analytical techniques developed for studying complex social networks have also moved from the fringe to the very center of social research. There is the broader question of how CMC research plays into other dimensions of social science research on technology.

This is the question examined by Jiawei Sophia Fu and Chih-Hui Lai in the only clearly empirical study included in this special issue. Through bibliometric analysis, they trace the co-citation patterns of research articles on technology and communication published between 1997 and 2017. The results are a systematic mapping of the intellectual network structure of research in this domain. When focusing on the examination of social networks and interpersonal relationships, perhaps a core area of CMC, they find that the “cluster was tightly connected and far removed from other clusters. This indicates that research in this area had its own theoretical frameworks or methods unique to this research sub-stream. It also implies the potential risk of this group of research in limiting the boundary of theory development.” This is indeed an important insight. The community of CMC researchers should take heed.

Given the speed at which new technological innovations are being injected into the media and communication space, and as the human society is being transformed by the computing technologies, the scholarly community that centered on CMC related issues will continue to grow in size and diversity. As a distinct subdomain of communication research, CMC should carefully define its boundaries by maintaining its focus on the underlying processes and constructs central to our field. At the same time, there is a need to recognize that new communication tools and platforms can have unique effects that play out in society.

It is also important to recognize CMC’s inherently interdisciplinary and evolving nature. As illustrated vividly by Fu and Lai (this issue), CMC scholarship does not exist in a vacuum, we are constantly influenced by and at the same time influencing other fields of research. There is a particular need for CMC research to reach out to kindred areas of inquiry. We need to recognize both the anchor of common theories and research in our own field while showing the flexibility and openness to consider the eventual contributions to and from other related research areas.

The collection of articles and analyses included in this special issue do not, and are not meant to be, a comprehensive representation of the diverse interests in contemporary CMC research today. However, being a part of the themed discussion, these articles offer several concrete footholds with which to guide future studies and theory development.

GSMA Intelligence . ( 2019 ). Real time global data and analysis for the mobile industry. Retrieved from https://www.gsmaintelligence.com/

Hootsuite . ( 2019 ). Digital 2019 reports. Retrieved from https://wearesocial.com/blog/2019/01/digital-2019-global-internet-use-accelerates

Nielsen . ( 2019 ). Nielsen total audience report: Q1-2019. Retrieved from https://www.nielsen.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2019/06/q1-2019-nielsen-total-audience-report-one-sheet.pdf

Statista . ( 2019 ). Global digital population as of July 2019. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/

Walther , J. B. , & Jang , J.-W. (Eds.) ( 2012 ). Special issue: Web 2.0 and user-generated content as communication systems . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication , 18 ( 1 ). doi: doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2012.01592.x

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The Computer as a Communication Device

November 9, 2001 by j.c.r. licklider, robert taylor.

This landmark 1968 essay foresaw many future computer applications and advances in communication technology, such as distributed information resources and online interactive communities that are commonplace today as Internet chat rooms and peer-to-peer applications.

Originally published in Science and Technology , April 1968 . Published on KurzweilAI.net November 9, 2001.

In a few years, men will be able to communicate more effectively through a machine than face to face.

That is a rather startling thing to say, but it is our conclusion. As if in confirmation of it, we participated a few weeks ago in a technical meeting held through a computer. In two days, the group accomplished with the aid of a computer what normally might have taken a week.

We shall talk more about the mechanics of the meeting later; it is sufficient to note here that we were all in the same room. But for all the communicating we did directly across that room, we could have been thousands of miles apart and communicated just as effectively-as people-over the distance.

Our emphasis on people is deliberate. A communications engineer thinks of communicating as transferring information from one point to another in codes and signals.

But to communicate is more than to send and to receive. Do two tape recorders communicate when they play to each other and record from each other? Not really-not in our sense. We believe that communicators have to do something nontrivial with the information they send and receive. And we believe that we are entering a technological age in which we will be able to interact with the richness of living information-not merely in the passive way that we have become accustomed to using books and libraries, but as active participants in an ongoing process, bringing something to it through our interaction with it, and not simply receiving something from it by our connection to it.

To the people who telephone an airline flight operations information service, the tape recorder that answers seems more than a passive depository. It is an often-updated model of a changing situation-a synthesis of information collected, analyzed, evaluated, and assembled to represent a situation or process in an organized way.

Still there is not much direct interaction with the airline information service; the tape recording is not changed by the customer’s call. We want to emphasize something beyond its one-way transfer: the increasing significance of the jointly constructive, the mutually reinforcing aspect of communication-the part that transcends “now we both know a fact that only one of us knew before.” When minds interact, new ideas emerge. We want to talk about the creative aspect of communication.

Creative, interactive communication requires a plastic or moldable medium that can be modeled, a dynamic medium in which premises will flow into consequences, and above all a common medium that can be contributed to and experimented with by all.

Such a medium is at hand–the programmed digital computer. Its presence can change the nature and value of communication even more profoundly than did the printing press and the picture tube, for, as we shall show, a well-programmed computer can provide direct access both to informational resources and to the processes for making use of the resources.

Communication: a comparison of models

To understand how and why the computer can have such an effect on communication, we must examine the idea of modeling-in a computer and with the aid of a computer. For modeling, we believe, is basic and central to communication. Any communication between people about the same thing is a common revelatory experience about informational models of that thing. Each model is a conceptual structure of abstractions formulated initially in the mind of one of the persons who would communicate, and if the concepts in the mind of one would-be communicator are very different from those in the mind of another, there is no common model and no communication.

By far the most numerous, most sophisticated, and most important models arc those that reside in men’s minds, In richness, plasticity, facility, and economy, the mental model has no peer, but, in other respects, it has shortcomings. It will not stand still for careful study. It cannot be made to repeat a run. No one knows just how it works. It serves its owner’s hopes more faithfully than it serves reason. It has access only to the information stored in one man’s head. It can be observed and manipulated only by one person.

Society rightly distrusts the modeling done by a single mind. Society demands consensus, agreement, at least majority. Fundamentally, this amounts to the requirement that individual models be compared and brought into some degree of accord. The requirement is for communication, which we now define concisely as “cooperative modeling”–cooperation in the construction, maintenance, and use of a model.

How can we be sure that we are modeling cooperatively, that we are communicating, unless we can compare models?

When people communicate face to face, they externalize their models so they can be sure they are talking about the same thing. Even such a simple externalized model as a flow diagram or an outline–because it can be seen by all the communicators–serves as a focus for discussion. It changes the nature of communication: When communicators have no such common framework, they merely make speeches at each other; but when they have a manipulable model before them, they utter a few words, point, sketch, nod, or object.

The dynamics of such communication are so model-centered as to suggest an important conclusion: Perhaps the reason present-day two-way telecommunication falls so far short of face-to-face communication is simply that it fails to provide facilities for externalizing models. Is it really seeing the expression in the other’s eye that makes the face-to-face conference so much more productive than the telephone conference call, or is it being able to create and modify external models?

The project meeting as a model

In a technical project meeting, one can see going on, in fairly clear relief, the modeling process that we contend constitutes communication. Nearly every reader can recall a meeting held during the formulative phase of a project. Each member of the project brings to such a meeting a somewhat different mental model of the common undertaking-its purposes, its goals, its plans, its progress, and its status. Each of these models interrelates the past, present, and future states of affairs of (1) himself, (2) the group he represents; (3) his boss; (4) the project.

Many of the primary data the participants bring to the meeting are in undigested and uncorrelated form. To each participant, his own collections of data are interesting and important in and of themselves. And they are more than files of facts and recurring reports. They are strongly influenced by insight, subjective feelings, and educated guesses. Thus, each individual’s data are reflected in his mental model. Getting his colleagues to incorporate his data into their models is the essence of the communications task.

Suppose you could see the models in the minds of two would-be communicators at this meeting. You could tell, by observing their models, whether or not communication was taking place. If, at the outset, their two models were similar in structure but different simply in the values of certain parameters, then communication would cause convergence toward a common pattern. That is the easiest and most frequent kind of communication.

If the two mental models were structurally dissimilar, then the achievement of communication would be signaled by structural changes in one of the models or in both of them. We might conclude that one of the communicating parties was having insights or trying out new hypotheses in order to begin to understand the other-or that both were restructuring their mental models to achieve commonality.

The meeting of many interacting minds is a more complicated process. Suggestions and recommendations may be elicited from all sides. The interplay may produce, not just a solution to a problem, but a new set of rules for solving problems. That, of course, is the essence of creative interaction. The process of maintaining a current model has within it a set of changing or changeable rules for the processing and disposition of information.

The project meeting we have just described is representative of a broad class of human endeavor which may be described as creative informational activity. Let us differentiate this from another class which we will call informational housekeeping. The latter is what computers today are used for in the main; they process payroll checks, keep track of bank balances, calculate orbits of space vehicles, control repetitive machine processes, and maintain varieties of debit and credit lists. Mostly they have not been used to make coherent pictures of not well understood situations.

We referred earlier to a meeting in which the participants interacted with each other through a computer. That meeting was organized by Doug Engelbart of Stanford Research Institute and was actually a progress-review conference for a specific project. The subject under discussion was rich in detail and broad enough in scope that no one of the attendees, not even the host, could know all the information pertaining to this particular project.

Face to face through a computer

Tables were arranged to form a square work area with five on a side. The center of the area contained six television monitors which displayed the alphanumeric output of a computer located elsewhere in the building but remotely controlled from a keyboard and a set of electronic pointer controllers called “mice.” Any participant in the meeting could move a near-by mouse, and thus control the movements of a tracking pointer on the TV screen for all other participants to see.

Each person working on the project had prepared a topical outline of his particular presentation for the meeting, and his outline appeared on the screens as he talked–providing a broad view of his own model. Many of the outline statements contained the names of particular reference files which the speaker could recall from the computer to appear in detail on the screens, for, from the beginning of the project, its participants had put their work into the computer system’s files.

So the meeting began much like any other meeting in the sense that there was an overall list of agenda and that each speaker had brought with him (figuratively in his briefcase but really within the computer) the material he would be talking about.

The computer system was a significant aid in exploring the depth and breadth of the material. More detailed information could be displayed when facts had to be pinpointed; more global information could be displayed to answer questions of relevance and interrelationship. A future version of this system will make it possible for each participant, on his own TV screen, to thumb through the speaker’s files as the speaker talks–and thus check out incidental questions without interrupting the presentation for substantiation.

Obviously, collections of primary data can get too large to digest. There comes a time when the complexity of a communications process exceeds the available resources and the capability to cope with it; and at that point one has to simplify and draw conclusions.

It is frightening to realize how early and drastically one does simp1ify, how prematurely one does conclude, even when the stakes are high and when the transmission facilities and information resources are extraordinary. Deep modeling to communicate–to understand–requires a huge investment. Perhaps even governments cannot afford it yet.

But someday governments may not be able not to afford it. For, while we have been talking about the communicant ion process as a cooperative modeling effort in a mutual environment, there is also an aspect of communication with or about an uncooperative opponent. As nearly as we can judge from reports of recent international crises, out of the hundreds of alternatives that confronted the decision makers at each decision point or ply in the “game,” on the average only a few, and never more than a few dozen could be considered, and only a few branches of the game could be explored deeper than two or three such plies before action had to be taken. Each side was busy trying to model what the other side might be up to–but modeling takes time, and the pressure of events forces simplification even when it is dangerous.

Whether we attempt to communicate across a division of interests, or whether we engage in a cooperative effort, it is clear that we need to be able to model faster and to greater depth. The importance of improving decision-making processes–not only in government, but throughout business and the professions–is so great as to warrant every effort.

The computer–switch or interactor?

As we see it, group decision-making is simply the active, executive, effect-producing aspect of the kind of communication we are discussing. We have commented that one must oversimplify. We have tried to say why one must oversimplify. But we should not oversimplify the main point of this article. We can say with genuine and strong conviction that a particular form of digital computer organization, with its programs and its data, constitutes the dynamic, moldable medium that can revolutionize the art of modeling and that in so doing can improve the effectiveness of communication among people so much as perhaps to revolutionize that also.

But we must associate with that statement at once the qualification that the computer alone can make no contribution that will help us, and that the computer with the programs and the data that it has today can do little more than suggest a direction and provide a few germinal examples. Emphatically we do not say: “Buy a computer and your communication problems will be solved.”

What we do say is that we, together with many colleagues who have had the experience of working on-line and interactively with computers, have already sensed more responsiveness and facilitation and “power” than we had hoped for, considering the inappropriateness of present machines and the primitiveness of their software. Many of us are therefore confident (some of us to the point of religious zeal) that truly significant achievements, which will markedly improve our effectiveness in communication, now are on the horizon.

Many communications engineers, too, are presently excited about the application of digital computers to communication. However, the function they want computers to implement is the switching function. Computers will either switch the communication lines, connecting them together in required configurations, or switch (the technical term is “store and forward”) messages.

The switching function is important but it is not the one we have in mind when we say that the computer can revolutionize communication. We are stressing the modeling function, not the switching function. Until now, the communications engineer has not felt it within his province to facilitate the modeling function, to make an interactive, cooperative modeling facility. Information transmission and information processing have always been carried out separately and have become separately institutionalized. There are strong intellectual and social benefits to be realized by the melding of these two technologies. There are also, however, powerful legal and administrative obstacles in the way of any such melding.

Distributed intellectual resources

We have seen the beginnings of communication through a computer–communication among people at consoles located in the same room or on the same university campus or even at distantly separated laboratories of the same research and development organization. This kind of communication–through a single multiaccess computer with the aid of telephone lines–is beginning to foster cooperation and promote coherence more effectively than do present arrangements for sharing computer programs by exchanging magnetic tapes by messenger or mail. Computer programs are very important because they transcend mere “data”–they include procedures and processes for structuring and manipulating data. These are the main resources we can now concentrate and share with the aid of the tools and techniques of computers and communication, but they are only a part of the whole that we can learn to concentrate and share. The whole includes raw data, digested data, data about the location of data–and documents–and most especially models.

To appreciate the import ante the new computer-aided communication can have, one must consider the dynamics of “critical mass,” as it applies to cooperation in creative endeavor. Take any problem worthy of the name, and you find only a few people who can contribute effectively to its solution. Those people must be brought into close intellectual partnership so that their ideas can come into contact with one another. But bring these people together physically in one place to form a team, and you have trouble, for the most creative people are often not the best team players, and there are not enough top positions in a single organization to keep them all happy. Let them go their separate ways, and each creates his own empire, large or small, and devotes more time to the role of emperor than to the role of problem solver. The principals still get together at meetings. They still visit one another. But the time scale of their communication stretches out, and the correlations among mental models degenerate between meetings so that it may take a year to do a week’s communicating. There has to be some way of facilitating communicant ion among people wit bout bringing them together in one place.

A single multiaccess computer would fill the bill if expense were no object, but there is no way, with a single computer and individual communication lines to several geographically separated consoles, to avoid paying an unwarrantedly large bill for transmission. Part of the economic difficulty lies in our present communications system. When a computer is used interactively from a typewriter console, the signals transmitted between the console and the computer are intermittent and not very frequent. They do not require continuous access to a telephone channel; a good part of the time they do not even require the full information rate of such a channel. The difficulty is that the common carriers do not provide the kind of service one would like to have–a service that would let one have ad lib access to a channel for short intervals and not be charged when one is not using the channel.

It seems likely that a store-and-forward (i.e., store-for-just-a-moment-and-forward-right-away) message service would be best for this purpose, whereas the common carriers offer, instead, service that sets up a channel for one’s individual use for a period not shorter than one minute.

The problem is further complicated because interaction with a computer via a fast and flexible graphic display, which is for most purposes far superior to interaction through a slow-printing typewriter, requires markedly higher information rates. Not necessarily more information, but the same amount in faster bursts–more difficult to handle efficiently with the conventional common-carrier facilities.

It is perhaps not surprising that there are incompatibilities between the requirements of computer systems and the services supplied by the common carriers, for most of the common-carrier services were developed in support of voice rather than digital communication. Nevertheless, the incompatibilities are frustrating. It appears that the best and quickest way to overcome them-and to move forward the development of interactive communities of geographically separated people-is to set up an experimental network of multiaccess computers. Computers would concentrate and interleave the concurrent, intermittent messages of many users and their programs so as to utilize wide-band transmission channels continuously and efficiently, with marked reduction in overall cost.

Computer and information networks

The concept of computers connected to computers is not new. Computer manufacturers have successfully installed and maintained interconnected computers for some years now. But the computers in most instances are from families of machines compatible in both software and hardware, and they are in the same location. More important, the interconnected computers are not interactive, general-purpose, multiaccess machines of the type described by David [1] and Licklider [2]. Although more interactive multi-access computer systems are being delivered now, and although more groups plan to be using these systems within the next year, there are at present perhaps only as few as half a dozen interactive multiaccess computer communities .

These communities are socio-technical pioneers, in several ways out ahead of the rest of the computer world: What makes them so? First, some of their members are computer scientists and engineers who understand the concept of man-computer interaction and the technology of interactive multiaccess systems. Second, others of their members are creative people in other fields and disciplines who recognize the usefulness and who sense the impact of interactive multiaccess computing upon their work. Third, the communities have large multiaccess computers and have learned to use them. And, fourth, their efforts are regenerative.

In the half-dozen communities, the computer systems research and development and the development of substantive applications mutually support each other. They are producing large and growing resources of programs, data, and know-how. But we have seen only the beginning. There is much more programming and data collect ion–and much more learning how to cooperate–to be done before the full potential of the concept can be realized.

Obviously, multiaccess systems must be developed interactively. The systems being built must remain flexible and open-ended throughout the process of development, which is evolutionary.

Such systems cannot be developed in small ways on small machines. They require large, multiaccess computers, which are necessarily complex. Indeed, the sonic barrier in the development of such systems is complexity.

These new computer systems we are describing differ from other computer systems advertised with the same labels: interactive, time-sharing, multiaccess. They differ by having a greater degree of open-endedness, by rendering more services, and above all by providing facilities that foster a working sense of community among their users. The commercially available time-sharing services do not yet offer the power and flexibility of soft ware resources–the “general purposeness”–of the interactive multiaccess systems of the System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, the University of California at Berkeley, Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge and Lexington, Mass.–which have been collectively serving about a thousand people for several years.

The thousand people include many of the leaders of the ongoing revolution in the computer world. For over a year they have been preparing for the transition to a radically new organization of hardware and software, designed to support many more simultaneous users than the current systems, and to offer them–through new languages, new file-handling systems, and new graphic displays–the fast, smooth interaction required for truly effective man-computer partnership.

Experience has shown the importance of making the response time short and the conversation free and easy. We think those attributes will be almost as important for a network of computers as for a single computer.

Today the on-line communities are separated from one another functionally as well as geographically. Each member can look only to the processing, storage and software capability of the facility upon which his community is centered. But now the move is on to interconnect the separate communities and thereby transform them into, let us call it, a supercommunity. The hope is that interconnection will make available to all the members of all the communities the programs and data resources of the entire supercommunity. First, let us indicate how these communities can be interconnected; then we shall describe one hypothetical person’s interaction with this network, of interconnected computers.

Message processing

The hardware of a multiaccess computer system includes one or more central processors, several kinds of memory–core, disks, drums, and tapes–and many consoles for the simultaneous on-line users. Different users can work simultaneously on diverse tasks. The software of such a system includes supervisory programs (which control the whole operation), system programs for interpretation of the user’s commands, the handling of his files, and graphical or alphanumeric display of information to him (which permit people not skilled in the machine’s language to use the system effectively), and programs and data created by the users themselves. The collection of people, hardware, and software–the multiaccess computer together with its local community of users–will become a node in a geographically distributed computer network. Let us assume for a moment that such a network has been formed.

For each node there is a small, general-purpose computer which we shall call a “message processor.” The message processors of all the nodes are interconnected to form a fast store-and-forward network. The large multi-access computer at each node is connected directly to the message processor there. Through the network of message processors, therefore, all the large computers can communicate with one another. And through them, all the members of the supercommunity can communicate–with other people, with programs, with data, or with selected combinations of those resources. The message processors, being all alike, introduce an element of uniformity into an otherwise grossly non-uniform situation, for they facilitate both hardware and software compatibility among diverse and poorly compatible computers. The links among the message processors are transmission and high-speed digital switching facilities provided by common carrier. This allows the linking of the message processors to be reconfigured in response to demand.

A message can be thought of as a short sequence of “bits” flowing through the network from one multiaccess computer to another. It consists of two types of information: control and data. Control information guides the transmission of data from source to destination. In present transmission systems, errors are too frequent for many computer applications. However, through the use of error detection and correction or retransmission procedures in the message processors, messages can be delivered to their destinations intact even though many of their “bits” were mutilated at one point or another along the way. In short, the message processors function in the system as traffic directors, controllers, and correctors.

Today, programs created at one installation on a given manufacturer’s computer are generally not of much value to users of a different manufacturer’s computer at another installation. After learning (with difficulty) of a distant program’s existence, one has to get it, understand it, and recode it for his own computer. The cost is comparable to the cost of preparing a new program from scratch, which is, in fact, what most programmers usually do. On a national scale, the annual cost is enormous. Within a network of interactive, multiaccess computer systems, on the other hand, a person at one node will have access to programs running at other nodes, even though those programs were written in different languages for different computers.

The feasibility of using programs at remote locations has been shown by the successful linking of the AN/FSQ-32 computer at Systems Development Corporation in Santa Monica, Calif., with the TX-2 computer across the continent at the Lincoln Laboratory in Lexington, Mass. A person at a TX-2 graphic console can make use of a unique list-processing program at SDC, which would be prohibitively expensive to translate for use on the TX-2. A network of 14 such diverse computers, all of which will be capable of sharing one another’s resources, is now being planned by the Defense Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency, and its contractors.

The system’s way of managing data is crucial to the user who works in interaction with many other people. It should put generally useful data, if not subject to control of access, into public files. Each user, however, should have complete control over his personal files. He should define and distribute the “keys” to each such file, exercising his option to exclude all others from any kind of access to it; or to permit anyone to “read” but not modify or execute it; or to permit selected individuals or groups to execute but not read it; and so on-with as much detailed specification or as much aggregation as he likes. The system should provide for group and organizational files within its overall information base.

At least one of the new multiaccess systems will exhibit such features. In several of the research centers we have mentioned, security and privacy of information are subjects of active concern; they are beginning to get the attention they deserve.

In a multiaccess system, the number of consoles permitted to use the computer simultaneously depends upon the load placed on the computer by the users’ jobs, and may be varied automatically as the load changes. Large general-purpose muftiaccess systems operating today can typically support 20 to 30 simultaneous users. Some of these users may work with low-level “assembly” languages while others use higher-level “compiler” or “interpreter” languages. Concurrently, others may use data management and graphical systems. And so on.

But back to our hypothetical user. He seats himself at his console, which may be a terminal keyboard plus a relatively slow printer, a sophisticated graphical console, or any one of several intermediate devices. He dials his local computer and “logs in” by presenting his name, problem number, and password to the monitor program. He calls for either a public program, one of his own programs, or a colleague’s program that he has permission to use. The monitor links him to it, and he then communicates with that program.

When the user (or the program) needs service from a program at another node in the network, he (or it) requests the service by specifying the location of the appropriate computer and the identity of the program required. If necessary, he uses computerized directories to determine those data. The request is translated by one or more of the message processors into the precise language required by the remote computer’s monitor. Now the user (or his local program) and the remote program can interchange information. When the information transfer is complete, the user (or his local program) dismisses the remote computer, again with the aid of the message processors. In a commercial system, the remote processor would at this point record cost information for use in billing.

Who can afford it?

The mention of billing brings up an important matter. Computers and long-distance calls have “expensive” images. One of the standard reactions to the idea of “on-line communities” is: “It sounds great, but who can afford it?”

In considering that question, let us do a little arithmetic. The main elements of the cost of computer-facilitated communication, over and above the salaries of the communicators, are the cost of the consoles, processing, storage, transmission, and supporting software. In each category, there is a wide range of possible costs, depending in part upon the sophistication of the equipment, programs, or services employed and in part upon whether they are custom-made or mass-produced.

Making rough estimates of the hourly component costs per user, we arrived at the following: $1 for a console, $5 for one man’s share of the services of a processor, 70 cents for storage, $3 for transmission via line leased from a common carrier, and $1 for software support-a total cost of just less than $11 per communicator hour.

The only obviously untenable assumption underlying that result, we believe, is the assumption that one’s console and the personal files would be used 160 hours per month. All the other items are assumed to be shared with others, and experience indicates that time-sharing leads on the average to somewhat greater utilization than the 160 hours per month that we assumed, Note, however, that the console and the personal files are items used also in individual problem solving and decision making. Surely those activities, taken together with communication, would occupy at least 25% of the working hours of the on-line executive, scientist or engineer. If we cut the duty factor of the console and files to one quarter of 160 hours per month, the estimated total cost comes to $16 per hour.

Let us assume that our $16/hr interactive computer link is set up between Boston, Mass., and Washington, D.C. Is $16/hr affordable? Compare it first with the cost of ordinary telephone communication: Even if you take advantage of the lower charge per minute for long calls, it is less than the daytime direct-dial station-to-station toll. Compare it with the cost of travel: If one flies from Boston to Washington in the morning and back in the evening, he can have eight working hours in the capital city in return for about $64 in air and taxi fares plus the spending of four of his early morning and evening hours en route. If those four hours are worth $16 each, then the bill for the eight hours in Washington is $128-again $16 per hour. Or look at it still another way: If computer-aided communication doubled the effectiveness of a man paid $16 per hour then, according to our estimate, it would be worth what it cost if it could be bought right now. Thus we have some basis for arguing that computer-aided communication is economically feasible. But we must admit that the figure of $16 per hour sounds high, and we do not want to let our discussion depend upon it.

Fortunately, we do not have to, for the system we envision cannot be bought at this moment. The time scale provides a basis for genuine optimism about the cost picture. It will take two years, at least, to bring the first interactive computer networks up to a significant level of experimental activity. Operational systems might reach critical size in as little as six years if everyone got onto the bandwagon, but there is little point in making cost estimates for a nearer date. So let us take six years as the target.

In the computer field, the cost of a unit of processing and the cost of a unit of storage have been dropping for two decades at the rate of 50% or more every two years. In six years, there is time for at least three such drops, which cut a dollar down to 12 1/2 cents. Three halvings would take the cost of processing, now $5 per hour on our assumptions, down to less than 65 cents per hour.

Such advances in capability, accompanied by reduction in cost, lead us to expect that computer facilitation will be affordable before many people are ready to take advantage of it. The only areas that cause us concern are consoles and transmission.

In the console field, there is plenty of competition; many firms have entered the console sweepstakes, and more are entering every month. Lack of competition is not the problem. The problem is the problem of the chicken and the egg–in the factory and in the market. If a few companies would take the plunge into mass manufacture, then the cost of a satisfactory console would drop enough to open up a mass market. If large on-line communities were already in being, their mass market would attract mass manufacture. But at present there is neither mass manufacture nor a mass market, and consequently there is no low-cost console suitable for interactive on-line communication.

In the field of transmission, the difficulty may be lack of competition. At any rate, the cost of transmission is not falling nearly as fast as the cost of processing and storage. Nor is it falling nearly as fast as we think it should fall. Even the advent of satellites has affected the cost picture by less than a factor of two. That fact does not cause immediate distress because (unless the distance is very great) transmission cost is not now the dominant cost. But, at the rate things are going, in six years it will be the dominant cost. That prospect concerns us greatly and is the strongest damper to our hopes for near-term realization of operationally significant interactive networks and significant on-line communities.

On-line interactive communities

But let us be optimistic. What will on-line interactive communities be like? In most fields they will consist of geographically separated members, sometimes grouped in small clusters and sometimes working individually. They will be communities not of common location, but of common interest . In each field, the overall community of interest will be large enough to support a comprehensive system of field-oriented programs and data.

In each geographical sector, the total number of users–summed over all the fields of interest–will be large enough to support extensive general-purpose information processing and storage facilities. All of these will be interconnected by telecommunications channels. The whole will constitute a labile network of networks–ever-changing in both content and configuration.

What will go on inside? Eventually, every informational transaction of sufficient consequence to warrant the cost. Each secretary’s typewriter, each data-gathering instrument, conceivably each dictation microphone, will feed into the network.

You will not send a letter or a telegram; you will simply identify the people whose files should be linked to yours and the parts to which they should be linked–and perhaps specify a coefficient of urgency. You will seldom make a telephone call; you will ask the network to link your consoles together.

You will seldom make a purely business trip, because linking consoles will be so much more efficient. When you do visit another person with the object of intellectual communication, you and he will sit at a two-place console and interact as much through it as face to face. If our extrapolation from Doug Engelbart’s meeting proves correct, you will spend much more time in computer-facilitated teleconferences and much less en route to meetings.

A very important part of each man’s interaction with his on-line community will be mediated by his OLIVER. The acronym OLIVER honors Oliver Selfridge, originator of the concept. An OLIVER is, or will be when there is one, an “on-line interactive vicarious expediter and responder,” a complex of computer programs and data that resides within the network and acts on behalf of its principal, taking care of many minor matters that do not require his personal attention and buffering him from the demanding world. “You are describing a secretary,” you will say. But no! Secretaries will have OLIVERS.

At your command, your OLIVER will take notes (or refrain from taking notes) on what you do, what you read, what you buy and where you buy it. It will know who your friends are, your mere acquaintances. It will know your value structure, who is prestigious in your eyes, for whom you will do what with what priority, and who can have access to which of your personal files. It will know your organization’s rules pertaining to proprietary information and the government’s rules relating to security classification.

Some parts of your OLIVER program will be common with parts of other people’s OLIVERS; other parts will be custom-made for you, or by you, or will have developed idiosyncrasies through “learning” based on its experience in your service.

Available within the network will be functions and services to which you subscribe on a regular basis and others that you call for when you need them. In the former group will be investment guidance, tax counseling, selective dissemination of information in your field of specialization, announcement of cultural, sport, and entertainment events that fit your interests, etc. In the latter group will be dictionaries, encyclopedias, indexes, catalogues, editing programs, teaching programs, testing programs, programming systems, data bases, and-most important-communication, display, and modeling programs.

All these will be-at some late date in the history of networking- systematized and coherent; you will be able to get along in one basic language up to the point at which you choose a specialized language for its power or terseness.

When people do their informational work “at the console” and “through the network,” telecommunication will be as natural an extension of individual work as face-to-face communication is now. The impact of that fact, and of the marked facilitation of the communicative process, will be very great–both on the individual and on society.

First, life will be happier for the on-line individual because the people with whom one interacts most strongly will be selected more by commonality of interests and goals than by accidents of proximity. Second, communication will be more effective and productive, and therefore more enjoyable. Third, much communication and interaction will be with programs and programmed models, which will be (a) highly responsive, (b) supplementary to one’s own capabilities, rather than competitive, and (c) capable of representing progressively more complex ideas without necessarily displaying all the levels of their structure at the same time-and which will therefore be both challenging and rewarding. And, fourth, there will be plenty of opportunity for everyone (who can afford a console) to find his calling, for the whole world of information, with all its fields and disciplines, will be open to him-with programs ready to guide him or to help him explore.

For the society, the impact will be good or bad, depending mainly on the question: Will “to be on line” be a privilege or a right? If only a favored segment of the population gets a chance to enjoy the advantage of “intelligence amplification,” the network may exaggerate the discontinuity in the spectrum of intellectual opportunity.

On the other hand, if the network idea should prove to do for education what a few have envisioned in hope, if not in concrete detailed plan, and if all minds should prove to be responsive, surely the boon to humankind would be beyond measure.

Unemployment would disappear from the face of the earth forever, for consider the magnitude of the task of adapting the network’s software to all the new generations of computer, coming closer and closer upon the heels of their predecessors until the entire population of the world is caught up in an infinite crescendo of on-line interactive debugging.

Acknowledgments

Evan Herbert edited the article and acted as intermediary during its writing between Licklider in Boston and Taylor in Washington.

Roland B. Wilson drew the cartoons to accompany the original article.

[1] Edward E. David, Jr., “Sharing a Computer,” International Science and Technology , June, 1966.

[2] J. C. R. Licklider, “Man-Computer Partnership,” International Science and Technology , May, 1965.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Computer-Mediated Communication

Introduction, general overviews.

Virtual Identity
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Computer-Mediated Communication by Eun-Ju Lee , Soo Youn Oh LAST REVIEWED: 11 September 2023 LAST MODIFIED: 15 January 2015 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756841-0160

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is an umbrella term that encompasses various forms of human communication through networked computers, which can be synchronous or asynchronous and involve one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many exchanges of text, audio, and/or video messages. Early research has focused largely on how mediation by technology alters the processes and outcomes of social interaction and group processes, addressing issues such as how people express and construe self-identity, form and manage impressions, develop and maintain relationships, build communities, collaborate at a distance and make collective decisions, mostly in contrast to non-mediated, face-to-face communication. As such, core theories that guided earlier studies highlight the dearth of socio-contextual information as the defining characteristic of CMC working to its disadvantage. However, they were soon challenged by alternative models underscoring individual users’ active accommodation to the limited channel capacity and even more strategic appropriation of the constraints of the medium. In a similar vein, the dichotomous view that differentiates the “real” from the “virtual” gradually was replaced by the perspective that underscores the blurring boundary and the fluid interaction between the two. At the same time, researchers have also investigated who turns to online communication as opposed to offline, face-to-face interaction, and with what consequences. Going beyond dyadic interaction between unacquainted individuals, social and psychological implications of CMC have also been examined in various contexts, such as distributed workgroups (computer-supported cooperative work: CSCW), social network sites (SNSs), and online games.

In their lead article of the Symposium on the Net, the authors of Newhagen and Rafaeli 1996 set agendas for Internet communication researchers, calling for their attention to several interface- or architecture-related qualities of the Internet. About two decades later, Walther, et al. 2005 organized technological changes as well as research findings in line with these agendas and criticized the lack of theory development and monolithic treatment of the Internet. While these articles cover a wide range of topics related to CMC, the oft-cited research article Parks and Floyd 1996 centers on the prevalence of interpersonal relationships formed online. Such interpersonal focus has since characterized CMC research in the field of communication, as thoroughly reviewed in Baym 2010 with an emphasis on the seamless integration of online communication as a part of people’s everyday experience. With the maturation of CMC research as a subfield, Walther and Parks 2002 summarizes the most prominent CMC theories in terms of how they predict and explain the effects of cue deprivation in CMC. More recent scholarly efforts include edited volumes that offer a comprehensive purview of how technology affects communication on an interpersonal level (e.g., Konijn, et al. 2008 ; Wright and Webb 2011 ) and a thought-provoking report on how constant and ubiquitous connections afforded by digital technologies may bring changes to the very notion of “social” interaction ( Turkle 2011 ).

Baym, Nancy. 2010. Personal connections in the digital age . Malden, MA: Polity.

The author provides theoretical frameworks by which to understand how digital media change our self-identity, interpersonal relationships, and community life, and argues that what happens online may be newer, but is no less real. Recommended as a textbook for undergraduates.

Konijn, Elly A., Sonja Utz, Martin Tanis, and Susan B. Barnes, eds. 2008. Mediated interpersonal communication . New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis.

This anthology contains a wide range of reviews examining not only human-human interaction via computer, but also human-computer interaction and human interaction with media characters, with an emphasis on underlying psychological mechanisms. Suitable for upper-level undergraduates and graduates.

Newhagen, John E., and Sheizaf Rafaeli. 1996. Why communication researchers should study the Internet: A dialogue. Journal of Communication 46:4–13.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1996.tb01458.x

The authors caution against research focusing exclusively on the novelty of the Internet and identify several technological attributes of the Internet that call for communication researchers’ attention.

Parks, Malcolm R., and Kory Floyd. 1996. Making friends in cyberspace. Journal of Communication 46:80–97.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1996.tb01462.x

Noting the conflicting perspectives on relationships developed online, the authors show that personal relationships are common online and that many of them are highly developed, often with the help of other supplementary channels.

Turkle, Sherry. 2011. Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other . New York: Basic Books.

Based on a multitude of ethnographic studies, the author argues that technological development and increased connectivity ironically lead people to ascribe human qualities to objects (e.g., social robots) while treating humans as things. Recommended as a textbook for undergraduates.

Walther, Joseph B., Geri Gay, and Jeffrey T. Hancock. 2005. How do communication and technology researchers study the Internet? Journal of Communication 55:632–657.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02688.x

The authors organize notable studies and theories in the area of communication technology, according to the five defining characteristics of the Internet proposed in Newhagen and Rafaeli 1996 .

Walther, Joseph B., and Malcolm R. Parks. 2002. Cues filtered out, cues filtered in: Computer-mediated relationships. In Handbook of interpersonal communication . 3d ed. Edited by Mark L. Knapp and John A. Daly, 529–563. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

A comprehensive review of CMC theories centering on relational dynamics that offers a discussion on how CMC is used for mental health, social functioning, social support, and relationship development.

Wright, Kevin B., and Lynne M. Webb, eds. 2011. Computer-Mediated Communication in personal relationships . New York: Peter Lang.

A collection of essays examining the development and maintenance of personal relationships via CMC in varying contexts, including romantic relationships, friendship, family communication, and social support groups. Suitable for undergraduates and graduates.

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CS402: Computer Communications and Networks

Course introduction.

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Unit 1 introduces you to an explanation of computer networks and some basic terminology fundamental to understanding computer networks. You will also familiarize yourself with the concept of layers, which compose the framework around which networks are built. Next, Unit 2 explains the concept of protocols. A computer communication (or network) protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices.

The rest of the course implements a top-down approach to teach you the details about each layer and the relevant protocols used in computer networks. Beginning in Unit 3, you will explore the concept of application layer protocols, which include the Domain Name System, e-mail protocols, and the Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Unit 3 ends with an overview of how to use socket programming to develop network applications. In Unit 4, you will learn transport layer protocols, including the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). You will go on to study the network layer Internet Protocol (IP) and packet routing protocols in Unit 5. Next is Unit 6, devoted to a discussion on link layer protocols, and the course concludes with an overview of voice and video protocols, network security, and cloud computing in Unit 7. As you move through the course, notice how the layers build on top of one another and work together to create the amazing tool of computer networks, which many of us depend upon daily.

Course Syllabus

First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the learning materials and instructions on how to use them.

Unit 1: Networking Fundamentals

When you think of networking, what is the first word that comes to mind? If you answered "internet", you are correct. The Internet is an example of a massive computer network. Computer networks make it possible for one device to communicate with another device. Another example of a computer network is the local area network or LAN. If you can access all of the desktops, laptops, wireless devices, and printers in your workplace, college, or home, you have a LAN.

This unit will introduce the basic concept of a computer network and arm you with the tools you will need to work through the more technical aspects of this course. You will look at the different types of networks, with the primary focus on the LAN. The unit continues with an introduction to layers, which are central to understanding how computer networks operate. You will also become familiar with Request for Comments (RFC) documents, which are standards that define all of the Internet protocols. RFCs are created by The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

The concepts presented in this course will provide the background information needed to develop network applications, take a network certification course, or communicate with networks neighboring your LAN.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

Unit 2: The Basics of Protocols

In life, protocols define how we interact with others – for example, how we behave in a public place. In computer science, protocols are formal sets of rules that dictate how computers communicate with one another over a network medium. Protocols constitute the backbone of networking. The standard networking protocol and distributed application model is the International Standard Organization's Open System Interconnect (ISO/OSI) model. The Internet protocol stack TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model presents a group of protocols optimized for inter-computer communications, particularly communications between multiple applications that may run on one computer. This unit provides an overview of the TCP/IP stack and its different layers, identifies the function of each layer, introduces the basics of how computers talk to one another in cyberspace using TCP/IP protocols, describes the techniques for wide area networks, and discusses standard transmission media for the Internet.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 2 hours.

Unit 3: The Application Layer

In this unit, we will examine the application layer of the TCP/IP stack. The application layer is where all network processes and applications run. We will explore five of this layer's prominent applications: the Domain Name System (DNS), e-mail protocols, the World Wide Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), and Secure Shell (SSH). Finally, we will discuss socket programming and how it can be used to develop network applications.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.

Unit 4: The Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)

When we talk about networks, we are talking about data transport. The TCP/IP stack provides a TCP/UDP layer that handles the data transport between machines across networks. In this unit, you will learn the TCP and UDP protocols by examining the structure of TCP and UDP segments and identifying how this layer serves as the application layer in the TCP/IP stack.

Each application relies on the transport layer that is described in this unit. It is a key layer in today's networks, containing all the mechanisms necessary to deliver reliable data over an unreliable network. First, we will develop a simple, reliable transport layer protocol. Then, we will link the details of the TCP and UDP protocols used in TCP/IP networks. We will also study Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) and Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP). These protocols are the fundamental protocols for modern multimedia applications over the Internet.

Unit 5: The Network Layer

In this unit, we will learn how packets (groupings of data) travel on a network and how each machine can be addressed uniquely so that data transport between two nodes is reliable. We will learn that networks can run out of space, meaning that unique addresses for different machines are no longer available. In these situations, computer scientists must manage IP addressing using CIDR and subnetting – techniques we will learn about in this unit.

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from any source to any destination through intermediate routers. Follow the links to explore in detail the IPv4, IPv6, RIP, OSPF, and BGP protocols used in today's Internet.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 10 hours.

Unit 6: The Link Layer

The final layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack that we discuss is the link layer. This unit will explain how you can address machines on a network from that layer, use IP addresses to determine physical addresses, and identify the mechanisms in the link layer that can correct packet collisions when data is transferred over the wire. This unit discusses the link layer by focusing on how multiple hosts share one transmission medium. The unit ends with a detailed discussion of the two types of computer networks that are important today from a deployment perspective: Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 7 hours.

Unit 7: Multimedia, Security, and Cloud Computation over the Internet

Multimedia over the Internet is incredibly popular. This unit discusses the protocols for transmitting multimedia content like voice and video over the Internet. It discusses security, reliability, and fault tolerance issues related to Internet applications. We also introduce cloud computing and briefly discuss network remote access and directory services.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 6 hours.

Study Guide

This study guide will help you get ready for the final exam. It discusses the key topics in each unit, walks through the learning outcomes, and lists important vocabulary. It is not meant to replace the course materials!

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Certificate Final Exam

Take this exam if you want to earn a free Course Completion Certificate.

To receive a free Course Completion Certificate, you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on this final exam. Your grade for the exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again as many times as you want, with a 7-day waiting period between each attempt.

Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a free Course Completion Certificate .

Saylor Direct Credit

Take this exam if you want to earn college credit for this course . This course is eligible for college credit through Saylor Academy's Saylor Direct Credit Program .

The Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam requires a proctoring fee of $5 . To pass this course and earn a Proctor-Verified Course Certificate and official transcript , you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on the Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam. Your grade for this exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again a maximum of 3 times , with a 14-day waiting period between each attempt.

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Chapter 6: 21st-century media and issues

6.14.2 Literacy in computer science (research essay)

John Parker

English 102, April 2021

Introduction.

Computer Science is one of the fastest growing fields as the world transitions to increased automation. Schools of all levels are putting a greater emphasis on educating the younger generation on programming. This suggests that schools are growing their STEM departments, which house the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. In order to understand why many educators are approaching the field of Computer Science in this way, it must be understood what Computer Science is. It is most commonly defined as the study of computer software and computing systems. More specifically, it deals with creating, reading, and error-checking programming or code. While it is true that STEM is very important within the field of programming, there are other important aspects of coding that are not frequently considered by many educators. Coding includes being able to read, write, and communicate in a unique way, which implies that literacy involved in the field. Any form of literacy that is not directly learning how to read, write, or communicate in standard English is often not considered to be literacy, which is a major reason that its importance within programming is not recognized. The fact that many educators within the field of Computer Science do not realize the importance of literacy alludes to the idea that the teaching of programming may be flawed in its methods and implementation.

Computer Science is very important in my life, as I am currently pursuing a degree in the field. I have been programming for just over a year now and have experience in Python and Java programming languages. I have taken three courses on programming/computer science in college, in which I have learned so much about programming and Computer Science in general. In addition to coursework, I frequently work on coding projects for my own entertainment and read/watch articles and videos on programming. Any knowledge that I gain on the most effective ways to learn programming is very important to my future. Even more important than gaining this knowledge for myself, being able to spread this knowledge to grow the field is paramount. Although I am not an expert in programming, I have had many learning experiences with programming that qualify me to discuss my personal experiences with learning how to program. Since the focus of this essay deals with the teaching methods and learning experiences of programming, the relative freshness of my learning experiences with programming provides me with an advantage over industry professionals in this discussion.

Writing in Computer Science

Although it may be somewhat difficult to discover the parallels between computer programming and literacy, the literacy aspect of writing can be understood very easily. When thinking of what a programmer does, one of the simplest and high-level descriptions could be “someone who writes code.” The main similarity between the two practices is the exist in the process of creating a finalized piece of work, whether it be a novel for an application. In Felienne Hermans and Marlies Aldewereld’s article, “Programming is Writing is Programming,” the authors describe the beginning of the writing process and programming workflow to include a high-level plan (1). The next step in both processes is to convert these high-level designs into low-level, workable steps. For writers, these low-level steps include sentences and words; for programmers, they include methods, functions, and lines of code. For both practices, intermediate steps are needed manage the organization of the work, such as chapters in writing and classes and objects in programming (Hermans and Marlies 2). In the programming course that I am currently enrolled in, every coding assignment that is submitted must be accompanied by pseudocode, which is essentially a plan for how the final code will look. This pseudocode, which is written in a mix of English and Java syntax, begins with high-level plans that are broken down into smaller, more manageable steps. The process of writing pseudocode was not all that difficult to me when I realized that it was just like the outlines that I have been writing for English courses for years. These outlines broke up the goal of the essay into manageable portions and consisted of some wording that would be directly added to the essay and some rough ideas that would need to be converted into cohesive writing.

In Ziva R. Hassenfeld’s et al article, “If you can Program you can Write,” explores the constructs shared by computer programming and writing in great detail. The authors discuss the similar constructs between the two practices as, “planning and prewriting, creating and drafting, testing and evaluating, and debugging and editing and revising” (Hassenfeld et al. 68). The study described in this article, which focuses on the correlation between elementary student’s ability to write and ability to learn programming, showed that these similarities between the two practices produce a correlation between students’ ability to write and their ability to program (Hassenfeld et al. 75). In the section titled “Programming as Literacy” of Annette Vee’s novel, “Coding Literacy: How Computer Programming is Changing Writing,” she discusses an extremely interesting way to observe the similarities between writing and programming. Vee dives into exploring the ways in which programming is treated like writing within United States law. The United States Congress amended the 1976 Copywrite Act in 1980 to categorize computer code as a “literary work” and a “form of writing” (Vee 450). Since a law protecting writing and forms of creative expression, it can be alluded that the United States law views computer programming as a form of writing.

Reading in Computer Science

Reading is also extremely prevalent within the world of programming and Computer Science in general. Peg Grafwallner’s article, “Encoding Literacy in Computer Science,” examines an instructional coach and computer science teacher’s attempt to implement literacy lessons into a computer science class. The article states that reading within Computer Science requires students to focus on one specific area at a time, thinking in a linear and conceptual manner (Grafwallner). The computer science class discussed in this article was taught with an emphasis on literacy through directions, ultimately proving to boost the success of the students’ ability to program. The ability to read instructions was determined to be the most vital skill in programming (Grafwallner).

In Marthie Schoeman’s article, “Reading Skills Can Predict the Programming Performance of Novices,” the relationship between reading and ability to code is discussed extensively. In the study described in the article, the reading level of students were determined using eye-tracking technology. The students then took an introductory course in computer programming that would be followed by a final examination (Schoeman 44). The results of the study show that students with low reading skills failed the programming component, while those with higher reading skills did better overall. These results depict the fact that reading skills do play a role in one’s ability to learn programming (Schoeman 48). This relation can be attributed to the fact that programming is a form high-level written language in its own sense. In my own experiences, reading programming has proved to be one of the most vital skills that a computer programmer can possess. One of the main points of emphasis within Computer Science classes is being able to read and debug others’ code. Since there are so many different ways that a program can be created, I initially struggled with reading others’ code. The skill of reading code is very similar to reading literary works, as some authors are naturally easier to follow along with than others. Reading code is a vital aspect of computer programming and is a skill that I am still working on improving.

Communication in Computer Science

Although communication is not necessarily involved in the creation of all computer programs, communication in vital within the professional setting of Computer Science, in addition to engaging in programming within a team environment. In Gilles Dubochet’s article, “Computer Code as a Medium for Human Communication,” it is stated that communication between a human and a computer is the main objective of computer programming. The article goes on to state that computer programming itself has become a channel for human communication (Dubochet 1). The article explores the increase in team usage in the field of computer science, suggesting that the ability to understand the code that other’s write is extremely important (2). Understanding the code that others write is not only dependent on one’s ability to read and understand coding syntax and standards, but also the ability of the person reading the code and the person who wrote the code to communicate effectively with one another. The article suggests that communication is not only prevalent through oral dialect, but that programming languages are becoming a channel for communication between programmers (Dubochet 13). In other words, programmers are able to convey their thoughts through a programming language.

At the start of my college career, I did not expect for communication to be as prevalent as it was within my Computer Science courses. Throughout the entire Fall Semester of my introduction to programming course, a team of students that we were assigned to were required to code a robot. Due to the business of the group members’ schedules, we often had to do portions of the project on our own. This meant that I would often log in to add a portion to the code and would be confused by the code that was just written above. Through a simple phone call or text, all of the team members were able to understand the others’ work. The communication between our team was extremely important for this reason, as the project would have fallen apart without it. Throughout the semester, our team began to “comment” our code, which is simply inserting explanation within the code that do not affect how the code runs. If “//” is used before a line, the programming software environment understands that this is just for programmers to read. This simple addition to our code meant that we were actually able to communicate directly through the code, without having to text, call, or talk at all.

Marc Riemer breaks down the importance of communication and language skills in a broader field of engineering in the article titled, “Communication Skills for the 21st Century Engineer.” Riemer discusses the importance of communication skills in engineering, primarily focusing on the English language. He states that English is the most widespread language in the world and that effective communication in English is a skill that develops more successful engineers (91). Riemer examines the importance of communication between engineers and stakeholders (95). After engineers’ years of education in upper-level concepts, it can be difficult to decipher what stakeholders are familiar and not familiar with. Being able to effectively break down the concepts into more common terminology plays a major role in one’s success within the field of Computer Science as well as all other engineering disciplines. The findings of this article suggest that an increase in communication and language courses in college curriculums will produce more successful engineers (Riemer 98). Although this article focuses more broadly on engineering, Computer Science is a major branch of engineering that shares in the same challenges of communication as all other major fields of engineering.

Computer Programming as a Language in Itself

Computer Programming is much more than a computational practice, as learning programming languages comes with many of the same challenges as learning human languages, uncovering the fact that computer programming is its own unique form of literacy or language. When I was applying for colleges and deciding on a major, I honestly did not know what I wanted to do. I knew that I loved math and problem solving and would want to pursue a career in math-based field. The reason that I chose to pursue a career in Computer Science was purely for this reason, as I have never taken a coding course or had any prior experience. Once I began coding in my collegiate level courses, I fell in love with the problem-solving aspect. I was grasping the various coding techniques and problem-solving methods, but found that the portion I was struggling with the most was syntax and coding conventions. I thought that learning to program would be like learning Calculus, but, in reality, it was actually like learning a new language.

The world of programming is extremely complex, with syntax and grammar of its own, comparable to the grammar and structure used in human languages. The article, “Classifying Programming languages,” is an excellent source for understanding how programming languages are classified and the many similarities and differences between. The authors state that there are eight major categories of programming languages, categorized by “linguistic structure, expressive features, possibility of efficient implementation, direct support for certain programming models, and similar concerns” (“Classifying Programming Languages”). This practice of categorizing languages based on various features is used extensively in human languages also. For example, the Romance Languages are all rooted in Latin and have similar sounds, sentence structure, etc. The article goes on to explain there are many styles of programming that can be used within one language (“Classifying Programming Languages”). This is also a construct that is common throughout human languages, as there are many styles of writing within the English language. Programming languages also have their own grammar and syntax. The grammar portion of coding could be described through common code standards, such as camel case being used for variable names or uppercase being used for constant names. The syntax portion of coding is slightly different than in English, as errors in syntax within programming will cause the program to crash, losing functionality.

In Ana Harris’ article, “Human Languages vs. Programming Languages,” she breaks down the criteria for something to be considered a language. Harris states that the main function of language is communication. She goes on to explain that the function of programming languages is to communicate a series of an instructions to a computer or machine, alluding to the idea that programming languages are indeed unique forms of literacy/language. Harris zooms in on another major similarity between human languages and programming languages, being structure. She discusses the concepts of semantics (meaning connected to a certain concept) and syntax (rules for aligning words and phrases) from the perspective of a linguist. She states that programming uses semantics, as every program has a specific intention, and syntax, which includes following rules for the use of variables, functions, parenthesis, colons, etc. (Harris). These many similarities allow for programming to be considered its own unique form of literacy or language.

Connection between Literacy Skills and Programming Ability

Due to the many parallels between computer programming and literacy, it can be gathered that programming ability and literacy skills benefit one another. Although I enjoy and excel in mathematics and problem solving more-so, I have always loved reading and writing. Throughout my journey of learning programming, this love and ability has helped to excel in the field. Although many of my peers are more advanced than myself in mathematics, this ability has proved to give me a slight upper hand in some aspects of coding. Many of my peers who lack in this ability often have trouble with their code simply because they missed a portion of the instruction when reading, misunderstood what was being asked of them, or they had trouble recalling the semantics and syntax required for the program.

In Sharin Jacob and Mark Warschauer’s article, “Computational Thinking and Literacy,” the authors discuss how literary skills can lead to stronger computational skills. The authors describe in detail how computational thinking (computer programming) is a form of literacy, which was discussed earlier extensively (Jacob and Warschauer 3). The authors then switch gears to focus on how literacy skills can improve programming ability. The article describes the importance of verbal analysis of game architecture to their implementation of game design. The example that the authors use to back up this statement is as follows: The statement “the hunter killed the monkey” is implemented into the coding as “the monkey disappears when it touches the hunter” (Jacob and Warschauer 8). This example shows the importance of one literary element, transitive verb structures, to the success of a game developer. Jacob and Warschauer state, “students cannot master programming syntax without understanding the semantic meaning of commands if they cannot produce correct linguistic forms without considering their corresponding meanings” (10). The authors are saying that students are required to use the same skills within literacy courses that they are required to use within programming, just manifest in different ways. Therefore, skills that are taught in literacy primarily can assist in improving programming ability.

Marthie Schoeman’s article discussed above, “Reading Skills Can Predict the Programming Performance of Novices,” further displays how literacy skill can affect programming performance. This article discusses a study of the relationship between reading skills and the ability to code. The method of the study involved performing an initial eye tracking test on participants as they were reading to determine their reading proficiency. The participants were then given a short introductory course in programming, which would be followed by a knowledge exam (Schoeman 42). The results of the study displayed that those students with low reading skills failed the programming component, while students with higher reading skills did better overall (Shoeman 48). These results suggest that the literary skill of reading does indeed play a role in one’s ability to learn programming.

All of the findings discussed throughout the entirety of this essay display the fact that teaching programming to young people more similarly to the ways in which that literacy is taught may be more effective than just the typical STEM approach. Marina Bers’ article, “Coding as Another Language,” discusses a new method of teaching computer science to young children starting in kindergarten called “Coding as Another Language” (499). The method of teaching coding described in this article deviates from the typical STEM approach, offering the proposition that computer science teaching can be enhanced by incorporating the design of literacy instruction, due to the parallels that exists between natural languages and programming languages (Bers 504). According to Bers, research shows that teaching children how to read and write artificial languages in the same way as natural languages leads to a greater cognitive understanding of programming (503).

In Ziva R. Hassenfeld’s et al. article, “If you can Program you can Write,” the authors examine a study of elementary students learning through the “Coding as Another Language” curriculum. The article discusses results from a test on literacy and an assessment of students’ understanding of an introductory program language, drawing conclusions based upon their correlation (Hassenfeld et al. 73). The results of this study show that there is a connection between students’ literacy levels and their height of achievement in grasping an introductory programming language (Hassenfeld et al. 75). This indicates that there are fundamental understandings and constructs that are shared by literacy and computer programming, which are described in detail earlier. All of these articles suggest that the instruction of programming in early years is more effective when taught more similarly to literacy instruction than just being taught in the typical STEM approach.

The future of Computer Science is limitless, due to the increase in automation throughout societies. As the field continues to grow, programming education will become more and more prevalent within elementary and high schools across the country. The ways in which programming is taught needs to transition to a more literacy-based approach for younger children to improve the effectiveness of the education. If the instruction of programming evolves according to the findings displayed in this essay, so will the growth of the field of Computer Science. Just as most people hold the belief that literacy is not involved in the field of Computer Science, many people are unaware of its presence within all STEM fields, whether it be biology, nursing, or engineering. If the style of teaching programming is holding back the future of programming so drastically by ignoring literacy approaches, imagine how much the world is being held back by this issue.

Although approaching the instruction of computer programming from a literacy point of view is more effective than just the STEM approach overall, there are still many individuals that have disadvantages in learning programming no matter what teaching method that is used. According to Antonio Byrd’s article, “Between Learning and Opportunity: A Study of African American Coders’ Networks of Support,” racially marginalized individuals are not as likely to develop coding literacy skills for problem-solving applications (Byrd 31). A core issue for these marginalized communities gaining access to programming knowledge and experience is financial stability. Computer Programming boot camps and college education are both very expensive investments, which is often not an option for individuals from marginalized communities. Byrd expands on this by stating that even those that do not need to pay tuition for coding bootcamps are required to give of their emotional and physical labor (34). Since coding bootcamps require many hours of work a week, many individuals often have to take time away from their jobs and/or their families. This is something that many marginalized people can simply not afford. The study described in this article takes place at Clearwater Academy, where marginalized students do not pay tuition, which taught courses on programming languages such as JavaScript, HTML, and CSS (Byrd 35). The results of this confirm that African American adult’s access to coding literacy is limited by the social, emotional, and economic repercussions of white supremacy (Byrd 49). Unfortunately, there is no one easy solution that completely resolves this issue, as it stems from years of oppression and discrimination. In order to best combat this issue, universities, training centers, and employers need to take steps to accommodate the needs of marginalized groups. Taking steps in this direction will cultivate the field of Computer Science to grow exponentially and move towards equality.

Works Cited

Bers, Marina Umaschi. “Coding as another language: a pedagogical approach for teaching computer science in early childhood.” Journal of Computers in Education 6.4 (2019): 499-528.

Byrd, Antonio. “Between learning and opportunity: A study of African American coders’ networks of support.” Literacy in Composition Studies 7.2 (2019): 31-56.

Cencelj, Zvonka, et al. “Role and meaning of functional science, technological and engineering literacy in problem-based learning.” Journal of Baltic Science Education 18.1 (2019): 132-146.

“Classifying Programming Languages.” Pltypes, Loyola Marymount University,

cs.lmu.edu/~ray/notes/pltypes/.

Dubochet, Gilles. “Computer Code as a Medium for Human Communication: Are Programming Languages Improving?” Proceedings of the 21st Working Conference on the Psychology of Programmers Interest Group. No. CONF. University of Limerick, 2009.

Grafwallner, Peg. “Encoding Literacy in Computer Science.” Edutopia , George Lucas Educational Foundation, 10 Jan. 2018, www.edutopia.org/article/encoding-literacy-computer-science.

Harris, Ana. “Human Languages vs. Programming Languages.” Medium , Medium, 1 Nov. 2018, medium.com/@anaharris/human-languages-vs-programming-languages-c89410f13252.

Hermans, Felienne, and Marlies Aldewereld. “Programming is writing is programming.” Companion to the first International Conference on the Art, Science and Engineering of Programming . 2017.

Jacob, Sharin Rawhiya, and Mark Warschauer. “Computational thinking and literacy.” Journal of Computer Science Integration 1.1. 2018.

Riemer, Marc J. “Communication skills for the 21st century engineer.” Global J. of Engng. Educ 11.1 (2007): 89-100.

R Hassenfeld, Ziva, et al. “If You Can Program, You Can Write: Learning Introductory Programming Across Literacy Levels.” Journal of Information Technology Education: Research , vol. 19, 2020, pp. 065–085., doi:10.28945/4509.

Schoeman, Marthie. “Reading skills can predict the programming performance of novices: an eye-tracking study.” Perspectives in Education 37.2 (2019): 35-52.

Vee, Annette. “Computer Programming as Literacy.” Coding Literacy , 2017, pp. 445–452., doi:10.7551/mitpress/10655.003.0003.

Understanding Literacy in Our Lives by John Parker is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Communication and Computers

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Some people say that computers have made life effortless and more comfortable, others advocate for the idea that computers have made life more difficult and complicated. However, in my opinion, computers have brought convenience and comfort to our lives since they enable simpler access to information and tremendously increase the quality of communication. Firstly, the computer is a relatively new technology and young people have been learning to use it from early ages Therefore, they are familiar with the technology and prone to incorporate it into every aspect of life.

Now studying can be conducted at home via internet rather than traveling to school, you can look for information without visiting libraries. That way many hassles are avoided and more time is left for personal pleasure when computers are used optimally. Secondly, computers with the Internet have managed to make the access to information and search for it easier. Through computers we can collect the data we need quickly, store it in a hard drive as long as we want and use it whenever we need it.

With the use of computer we spend less time in search for information as well as it enables new sources of information. Additionally many jobs have become much easier to manage by using computers for writing, storing, processing and analyzing, and have become crucial in today’s economy. Moreover, in a globalized world that we live in, computers have revolutionized communication. Nowadays with the use of internet our messages can be delivered to any person in any part of the world instantaneously with just a click of a button from the convenience of your arm chair.

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In addition, internet facilities such as Skype have made visual communication possible. For example, Skype not only allows you to communicate with your family members and friends, but also make interviews with future employers and enroll into universities. As a result, communication has become much more convenient, manageable and accessible. Finally, computer has become an indispensable technology and its achievements have overwhelmed people across the world. More and more people learn how to use them effectively for the improvement of their lives. Naizabekova Aigerim, 301 B

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Computer-Mediated Interpersonal Communication

Communication is one of the people’s needs who are eager to share their knowledge and experiences with others. People have developed numerous channels of communication and the beginning of the 21 st century is one of the most remarkable periods in this respect. Development of technology-enabled people to squeeze the world where people from different parts can communicate easily. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is now becoming more and more widespread. In countries where people can access the Internet quite easily, CMC can soon become more common than face-to-face communication, or at least, some researchers have such fears (Chen, 2012). Many people are afraid of such a proliferation of technology as they say that people are replacing the real world with the digital world, which is seen as absolutely hazardous and inappropriate. At the same time, it is necessary to note that CMC has numerous benefits especially when it comes to intercultural communication and, hence, it is important to further research the effects it has rather than trying to focus on its negative sides that are commonly associated with interpersonal communication.

First, it is important to define some terms that will be used in the paper. Thus, interpersonal communication can be hard to define, as it is a complex concept. Dimbleby and Burton (2007, p. 44) note the communication can be seen as “the channels through which” people “pass messages to others”. People have identified two major channels: non-verbal and verbal communication. Verbal communication is constituted by words while non-verbal communication is the use of body language (gesture, expression, body posture and space, touch), paralanguage (expressing emotions and personality, for example, whistling or sighing to show surprise or satisfaction) and dress (clothes, make-up, hair, jewellery and similar things that reveal people’s personality, social status, beliefs and so on).

Computer-mediated communication is associated with such forms of social media as Facebook, Twitter, Skype, and so on. It is mainly seen as verbal communication, but it is clear that CMC also incorporates non-verbal tools (for example, emoticons, avatars, body language and paralanguage when it comes to Skype). A speech community is another important concept that will be used in the paper. Wood (2012, p. 104) defines a speech community as a group of people who “share norms about how to use talk and what purposes it serves”. Thus, many young people note that they use vocabulary and punctuation (or rather no punctuation) that are common for online communication in their academic works. Clearly, vocabulary and communication patterns common for online communication also penetrate into face-to-face communication.

As has been mentioned above, some people think that CMC negatively affects interpersonal communication. Some people argue that modern people rely heavily on technology and tend to make (as well as maintain) acquaintances online rather than during some social occasions (Dimbleby & Burton, 2007). It is necessary to note that people often feel more comfortable online as there is certain kind of safety and their own space (in many cases, interlocutors do not see each other’s first reactions, and they can think carefully before responding). Many people tend to spend more time in the digital world. The increasing popularity of Facebook, as well as other social networks, suggests that people prefer meeting people online and developing online relationships. Some people argue that this can lead to people’s inability to communicate face-to-face in the real world. They stress that the digital world is not real and people have to spend more time in the real world to be able to be effective members of the society (have families and friends, have jobs, and so on). These people share their concerns that people will simply stop developing proper relationships with people around them, and society of individualistic people will appear.

At the same time, this trend can also be seen as people’s chance to acquire certain skills that will enable them to develop effective patterns in face-to-face communication. People communicating online often become more open and ready to contact others (though some people do not overcome their shyness and still prefer online communication to face-to-face interactions). Thus, meeting people online and communicating with them also means the development of certain communication patterns. Importantly, people relying on CMC develop and/or enter a specific speech community, which can be their way to develop communicative patterns in face-to-face communication. Admittedly, people who understand that they have something in common with their interlocutors feel more comfortable and confident. When they start talking, they often use specific codes that are common for certain speech communities. People understand they pertain to the same group and become more confident and eager to talk. Therefore, it is possible to state that CMC has a positive impact on people’s interpersonal communication in many cases. At this point, it is important to add that those who abuse CMC do not benefit from it as they do not want to (or do not have time to) communicate face-to-face.

It is also believed that CMC is less complex than face-to-face communication, as it mainly consists of verbal messages. Opponents of CMC claim that emotions play an important role in people’s communication and CMC has no room for emotions. Wood (2012, p. 171) claims that emotions are people’s “experience and interpretation of internal sensations” and they are essential for effective interpersonal communication. This is especially true between people pertaining to the same cultural background as they share similar codes and often express similar emotions on particular events, objects, concepts, and so on. Therefore, CMC is seen as less humane and as very different from face-to-face communication. Nonetheless, it has been acknowledged that CMC has become as complex as face-to-face communication as interlocutors see each other and decode each other’s paralanguage and body language (Wood, 2012). People can also use emoticons and different types of data, which can also be seen as paralanguage or a certain type of dress.

For instance, when communicating with the help of such tool as Facebook, people reveal their personalities through words and comments, avatars and pictures or other files (music, news) they post or share. Communication becomes full and, in some instances, it can be even more complex than face-to-face communication. Admittedly, when two people meet, they have only a little information before they start communicating. They can simply understand something about their interlocutors’ personality through analysis of their dress and style. However, when it comes to CMC (for instance, Facebook), people can look through some information about the person: the music he/she likes or dislikes, his/her perception of self (through avatar), comments on some events and so on. Hence, the person gets more information about people prior to communication. In the view of the mentioned above, it is possible to note that CMC is not all negative in interpersonal communication and can help people reveal their personalities and develop appropriate communication patterns (provided, it is not abused).

It is necessary to note that in the sphere of intercultural communication, computer-mediated communication has been seen as effective and beneficial. It has been acknowledged that societies of the developed countries have become highly diverse in many respects. People with different backgrounds have to interact and develop proper relationships. It turns out that CMC can be seen as an effective platform for the development of communication patterns (Mustafa, Hamid, Ahmad & Siarap, 2012). Numerous surveys show that people pertaining to different cultures develop more effective communicative patterns with the help of CMC while they often fail to communicate effectively face-to-face. It is possible to explain this trend with the help of such a concept as a culture. Clearly, people pertaining to one culture have similar codes and can easily find common topics to discuss. Components of cultural patterns as defined by Lustig and Koester (2012) can be seen as the links people pertaining to one culture easily find. These components are values, beliefs, norms as well as social practices (Lustig & Koester, 2012). Face-to-face communication enables people use all of these components to the fullest. Even an expression of emotion is a particular signal that is easily decoded, making communication easy and effective.

However, when it comes to people pertaining to different cultural backgrounds, face-to-face communication is often associated with a number of challenges. People are often unaware of codes and meanings existing in different cultures. Thus, excessive friendliness of Americans (hugs, or even shaking hands in some cases) can be seen by Asians as rudeness and inappropriate behaviour. Another example is the look of a western teenage girl pertaining to some subculture and wearing a short skirt can be seen as inappropriate for Muslims as well as other religious groups (Christians and so on). Clearly, these non-verbal codes can make face-to-face communication absolutely impossible. It can also be difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to communicate face-to-face, as they will have to decode so many signals that appear during verbal and non-verbal communication as even a gesture can have certain meaning. Besides, linguistic issues can also interfere. A misunderstood phrase and inability or unwillingness to clear everything out can make communication ineffective. This all leads to misunderstanding and ineffective or no communication.

Computer mediated communication enables people to avoid many issues associated with intercultural communication. Mustafa et al. (2012) stress that CMC has more options for people and is more favourable for communication of people pertaining to different cultures. Thus, people may first focus on verbal communication only. At that, linguistic issues can be solved with the help of dictionaries available during communication. Thus, people can quickly look up words when communicating with others online (especially when it comes to social networks or even instant messaging). People usually learn about the person as well as some of his/her cultural peculiarities step by step. People share their views and ideas on numerous things and get to know each other (as well as cultures of each other better). After CMC, people can start face-to-face communication, which will be more effective as people have already developed certain communication patterns and can rely on them. Even though there can be some misunderstanding, people will be eager to overcome it and forgive some mistakes as they have already developed certain relationship and are more tolerant towards each other.

Therefore, it is possible to note that both face-to-face as well as CMC have to be seen as two different but important channels of communication in the modern globalised world. When it comes to interpersonal communication, the benefits are not as vivid, though CMC can be beneficial for people who lack confidence to practice and develop proper communication patterns. CMC is especially important for people who start intercultural communication. CMC can be regarded as the necessary practice prior to face-to-face communication. In other words, a business person, who wants (or needs) to start communicating with a person pertaining to a particular culture, can first implement a research about the culture and find a person having the necessary cultural background to communicate with. This communication will unveil many secrets of the culture and will enable the person to obtain the necessary skills in effective communication. It is important to note that this type of communication is especially beneficial for people living in diverse societies (the USA, Canada, the UK and so on). People can become more tolerant and able to develop effective face-to-face communication with other people.

It is also important to remember that these types of communication need further research, as there are still many gaps and under-researched benefits as well as hazards of CMC and face-to-face communication in interpersonal and intercultural communication. For instance, it is unclear where the line between appropriate and abusive use of CMC is. It is also unknown to what extent CMC can be beneficial or hazardous in interpersonal communication. Such social media as Skype pose even more confusion as they are very similar to face-to-face communication though they are still seen as CMC. It can be beneficial to develop specific patterns to teach people to communicate effectively with people pertaining to different cultures. People should consider including this into school curriculum as children and teenagers should be aware of that aspect of people’s lives. Of course, it is important to research both types of communication and their impact on people’s lives to be able to come up with efficient educational strategies.

In conclusion, it is possible to note that interpersonal and intercultural communication can benefit from a combination of CMC and face-to-face communication. It has been acknowledged that CMC has certain benefits and significant downsides when it comes to interpersonal communication and it is somewhat inferior to face-to-face communication. Nonetheless, when it comes to intercultural communication, CMC is more effective than face-to-face communication in many cases. People do not have to decode numerous signals coming during verbal and non-verbal communication or can accumulate knowledge on these signals when using CMC.

People acquire communication skills and, at the same time, are safe from the burden of misunderstanding. In other words, people obtain communicative skills in a more comfortable environment at the comfortable pace. These new skills can be used in face-to-face communication. It is clear that both CMC and face-to-face communication can be used in different settings and facilitate each other. It is also obvious that people need to know more about each type of communication to be able to employ them to the fullest.

Reference List

Chen, G.M. (2012). The impact of new media on intercultural communication in global context. China Media Research , 8 (2), 1-10.

Dimbleby, R., & Burton, G. (2007). More than words: An introduction to communication . New York, NY: Routledge.

Lustig, M.W., & Koester, J. (2012). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across cultures . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Mustafa, H., Hamid, H.A., Ahmad, J., Siarap, K. (2012). Intercultural relationship, prejudice and ethnocentrism in a computer-mediated communication (CMC): A time-series experiment. Asian Social Science , 8 (3), 34-48.

Wood, J. (2012). Interpersonal communication: Everyday encounters . Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

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Effective Guide to Starting A Communication Essay

Table of Contents

Whether you’re writing an essay for your assignment or research purposes, it’s essential to understand and follow the guidelines. If you’re writing a communication essay, you’ll need to conduct your research and present your findings in an organized manner. This guide on how to start an essay about communication will teach you how to write a compelling communication essay introduction.

The introduction of an essay helps to introduce the main ideas clearly and succinctly. It must include a hook that grabs the reader’s attention and background information that gives the reader a better understanding of the topic. The introduction ends with the thesis that summarizes the main focal points.

What Is Communication?

Communication is how two or more people share thoughts, ideas, and emotions. It is the interaction with people and their environment that influences beliefs, ideas, and attitudes. Communication is essential in every aspect of life. Human beings communicate with one another to express or convey thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

Communication is exchanging information via gestures, words, signs, symbols, and expressions. It is the process of giving and receiving information. Effective communication is when one can establish mutually beneficial relationships by exchanging information or ideas. Whether a student or professional, good communication skills can make all the difference in your daily life.

Some communication essay topics are:

The Role of Para social Relationships.
Public Relations on Social Media.
Cross-Cultural Communication on Twitter.
Essential Principles of Online Communication.
Composing Effective Sentences Online.
Discussing Health Issues on the Internet.
Importance of Oral Communication Today.
How to Nail Virtual Dialogue.
Journalists vs. Social Media Influencers.
Non-Verbal Communication Online.

How to Start An Essay About Communication

Before you write your essay, you must create a detailed outline. A typical communication essay comprises an introduction paragraph, a body, and a conclusion. The outline should include the key points that will be covered in these sections.

How to start an essay about communication ? Begin with the introductory paragraph. The introduction should present background information on the topic and state the essay’s thesis or central focus. A good introduction comprises three main parts, highlighted below.

1. The Hook/Opening statement.

The hook is an attention-grabbing phrase or a sentence that will make your reader curious about what you have to say. The opening statement of your essay must grab the reader’s attention, spark their curiosity and compel them to read the rest of the piece. You may begin with a thought-provoking station, a shocking fact, or an interesting anecdote. Whatever you open with must be exciting and hold the readers’ interest.

2. Background Information.

Give details about the topic and provide background information to help the readers better understand the topic. You may begin with a broader scope to convey the hook’s relevance. If you include critical terms in your essay, provide definitions.

3. Thesis Statement.

A thesis statement is an overarching idea or central focus of your essay. It is an essential part of your essay that encompasses the ideas you will expand on. Your thesis should be precise, narrow in scope, well-worded, and flexible. It should summarize the main points that will be discussed in the essay.

Introduction of Essay About Communication Examples

The impact of computer-based communication can be seen as a revolution in communication. The most common communication tools in organizations and social lives are computer-based tools. Many individuals spend time on a computer studying, working, or having fun by playing computer games. Blogs and social media platforms like Facebook are computer-based communication tools that significantly impact communication.

Communication can be as simple as making a bird call at dawn or as complicated as making an international call on a satellite phone. It takes different forms; speech is the most common medium of communication between individuals. However, people communicate via gestures, written words, facial expressions, images, or coded language. Communication remains critical today, where technology and globalization have led to the interconnectedness between people, countries, and continents.

person holding on red pen while writing on book

Wrapping Up

The introduction of your communication essay should be interesting enough to hold the reader’s attention and compel them to read till the end. The introduction allows you to pull the reader into your essay and guide them through your thoughts and discussions. With the tips in this guide, you’re sure to write the perfect introduction for your essay.

Effective Guide to Starting A Communication Essay

Abir Ghenaiet

Abir is a data analyst and researcher. Among her interests are artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. As a humanitarian and educator, she actively supports women in tech and promotes diversity.

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Computer-Mediated Communication: Study Evaluation Essay (Critical Writing)

Introduction, literature review, project description, design and methods, data analysis, conclusion and recommendations, list of references.

The impacts of intercultural awareness in the use of electronic email exchange between Hungarian learners and native English speakers seem to correspond with Laura (2009) that use of email as a communicative device provides a platform needed to authentic communicative events, but the researcher neither tests the hypothesis nor evaluates the program.

Laura (2009) also states that email communication enhances exchange of ideas between native speakers and L2 learners, which improves reading and writing skills and development of cultural awareness in the long run.

This is inconsistence with Kern (1998) reports that indicated no communication improvement of students who learn from interaction with their virtual peers.

Researcher deviation from scientific research procedures in developing research design, population and sample collection can not gain the status of real and useful investigation.

Unfortunately, although research shows that the sample group consisted of 13 pairs of both Hungarian and American students, it did not indicate how the samples were chosen or the demographic location of the research. It is also unclear of what “L2 learners” are despite being used throughout the research.

Also, the research did not indicate the range of sample group composition in terms of age, demographic location, gender and race, which suggests that the study findings provide unclear perspective on the selection of sample group.

In examination of social interaction such as an academic environment for his case, a researcher needs to gain first-hand information about social process, essential measurement tools and appropriate research methods.

For this reason, constant comparative method used as a qualitative analysis tool may hold more promise than their use since the researcher only looked at the end-product.

However, little research on constant comparative method supports the coding process of what Strauss and Corbin (1990) states as “breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing and categorizing data” (p.61) as effective data collection method, little research has reported their efficacy in social environment.

The study did not however describe how participants were trained or record data collected. No published studies have reported on the usefulness of computer-mediated communication as a platform for development of English language speaking and writing skills even though email communication has become common in consumer culture during the past decades.

The theoretical basis for this research included principles drawn from social-based practices of a learning environment to elucidate participants’ needs. Since the researcher was also a teacher of the Hungarian students, results of the study could have been manipulated to fit her perspective.

The research should have begun by introducing the reader of what intercultural communication is and how it relates to intellectual awareness. The author fails to mention what intercultural communication and competence in relation to academic learning environment.

Literature review provided here in discussion of intercultural communication is very limited and also fails to provide substantial evidence on intercultural communication as intellectual awareness tool.

For example, the author emphasises on the importance of computer-mediated communication to help students learn and interact with one another through debate and discussions, but many questions such as is email communication as the primary communication tool in schools remain unanswered in this area.

It is also unknown from this literature whether the learning outcomes frequency or duration of email exchange influences cultural awareness or rather intellectual awareness and how long the effects lasts. In addition, it is unclear whether the positive influence of electronic emailing is affected by professional (the school instructor) and where the training of use of email is used.

None of the articles reviewed discussed specific learning outcomes of electronic emails in terms of the number of students who reported to have benefited from the program; therefore whether specific learning outcomes in relations to intellectual awareness are more or less effective in positively influencing intercultural awareness, language skills and elimination of stereotype remains unclear.

Future research should place emphasise on these variables if our understanding of the related factors influencing the use is to be expanded.

Research period of the project is reported to have started in spring 2005 and does not indicate the period in which the project was completed.

The study sample was randomised, but the criteria on which the participants were selected in terms of age and race and gender were not mentioned which means that the population as a whole was not fully represented.

When it comes to research objective, the author presents two objectives of the project which is confusing to a novice researcher. First; Laura (2009), states the objective of the project to be to develop better intercultural awareness and positive attitudes toward the target cultures, as students discussed information about the cultures, languages, and teacher education systems of the two countries (3).

Secondly, towards the beginning of the essay, in the introduction part, the Laura (2009) stated the objective to investigate the development of intercultural awareness in an electronic mail (email) discussion project between Hungarian learners of English and American speakers (1).

Even when known, neither of the objectives represents the underlying philosophy or may lead to tangible results. This makes it difficult for a reader to determine variables to be measured against each other in the research project.

Also, since the sample consisted of people who were community dwelling (a school setting), who were Hungarian learners and Native American speakers, pursuing language education and needed access to authenticate communicative events.

The results should be not be applied to other factors of learning population since its unclear how the samples were chosen. Future research plan should include randomised sample with clear variables in terms of age and race and use controlled trials with a larger and more inclusive sample than the selected 13 participants.

The author should have introduced measurement tools to be used in data collection and participants should have had a thorough knowledge of specific progression of communicative approaches used in the research. This case report describes the outcome of email communication to have improved their English language and writing skills for students who participated in the study.

It illustrates the importance of electronic email communication to have helped the students developed effective writing skills, improve critical thinking and reasoning skills. All these claims are based on assumptions as the researcher did not introduce variables to be used in the study objective.

Period of research project was not however included in evaluating numbers of individuals at regular intervals. Laura (2009) also required students in the study group to freely choose topic of their preference, which did provide controlled trials of the research hypothesis.

To begin with, she has too many research questions. For example, the study groups are asked by Laura (2009) to choose topics based on teachers education program, personal experience, personal communication, experience of school, experience with other cultures, teacher education program, travelling, minority-majority cultures, festivals, fashion, sports, environment, foreign language learning and teaching (4) to mention just a few.

It seems to me that she decided to implement emails as a teaching tool and at some point she realised ‘ahhh this email exchange thing is very good for raising intercultural awareness too! Oh I can publish it.

Research methodology only uses the reflective papers of her students which is qualitative data and does not include triangulation. Combining both qualitative and quantitative methods (triangulation) may provide enough information that may improve validity of the results.

Triangulation approach uses multiple sources of data collection which extends the quality of data and reliability of the results (Robinson 1992).

The research should have also used methodological sampling paradigms of quantitative exploration for using observable, measurable and quantifiable facts which could have helped explain why some diverse principle and knowledge about the simple world (Perry 2005, p.55; Glense and Peshkin 1992).

Another important potential benefit of using quantitative paradigm is that it produces knowledge that is free from manipulation that can be generalized.

Information on such concerns are meaningful and may assists researchers during their evaluation like in guiding evaluation interviews and develop particular explanations and predictions to generalize from the sample population.

This information may also help a novice researcher to maximise his analytic skills such as structured observation and content analysis (Dorney 2007).

Researcher did not include additional criteria to help rule out difficulties in using language development in relation to vocabulary, grammar and style that were not related to email exchange. She does not take into consideration the Hawthorne effect despite the fact that she is the participants’ teacher.

Too many variables were used in the research. For example, participants belonged to different age groups, are at various language proficiency levels. She does not mention how their level was determined either before or after the project (pretest/ posttest).

She does not tell us how their intercultural competence was measured before and after the project. What were participants’ motives for taking part in the project? Were the Hungarians tested/ marked on their performance or participation? What were the US participants’ motives? She does not question that.

Both intellectual awareness and computer-mediated communication are represented in the studies reviewed, but the constant comparative method did not develop a theory that explained the mergence of electronic email and how they connected to the reality of the research of promoting cultural awareness (Glaser and Strauss (1967, p.28).

In coding procedure, Strauss and Corbin (1990) states that constant comparative method mentioned in open coding involves “the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing and categorizing data “ (p. 61) but Laura (2009, p.6) in this case has only compared the participants texts and refinement of the categories and failed to conceptualize and break down the data.

This means that the data obtained here can not guide subsequent theoretical sampling decisions. As a result, studies that follow constant comparative methods of data dissemination after collecting initial data will allow use of insights from that analysis and offers full perspective of future research of data collection.

The researcher should have allowed contacts with participants spaced over time or tract changes in the text messages until a strong theoretical understanding of the event or phenomenon has emerged.

Follow up times that range from certain period should also be specified. The research methodology adopted raises questions about the validity, reliability and transferability of the findings.

Geographic region: The studies reflect intellectual awareness in an electronic email between Hungarian and American learners findings and offer a broader perspective on how the communication technology improves cultural awareness among other things.

The findings however, failed to provide geographical location of the study and since the author specifically mentions the research to be international email exchange, it would be impossible for one to consider findings only from one country to be reliable and conclusive. The study reviews were completed from February to April, making a total study period of 8-9 weeks.

This study shows incompetence in determining the exact study period, which should be either 8 or 9 weeks. Future research should follow participants beyond the stated period after questionnaires were issued to determine accurately of data obtained (Laura 2009, p.4).

The findings would have been useful if;

it was a longitudinal study
used learner diaries
was not based on a one-to-one interaction through email (some of the participants did not even get on with each other!). A discussion board would have been much more useful (and perhaps more fun for the participants). This would also make the task of cultural exchange more authentic, as it is a totally made-up situation. In real life, we don’t really use emails to learn about each other’s culture. Although the descriptive information of how variables were selected is valuable, it raises questions about what is the expected the learning outcomes and how they can be used for future research. Knowing what to expect during the research analysis may help in evaluating the impacts of intellectual awareness in an electronic email and quality of data obtained and identifying areas for improvement.

The findings on the rates of efficacies of electronic email emphasised the need for development of hypothesis which could be measured at the end of the study. For example, Laura (2009, p.5) reported improved writing skills on Hungarian learners as reported by their American counterparts.

Participants demonstrated their ability to learn English proficiency skills through email exchange, but these findings did not support the use of electronic email communication as the primary learning tool for developing reading and writing skills among Hungarian learners.

Whereas the research is focused on intellectual awareness in electronic email, the study provides evidence that students experienced difficulties in language development in relation to vocabulary, grammar and style.

The research did not show how the school teacher trained in using constant comparative method and the arrangements of significant association with use of email exchange in academic environment to improve communication skills, which is inconsistence with the research objective to determine their relationship. These discrepancies could be attributed from different study population, or types of measurement used.

As indicated earlier in the literature review, language learners can learn effectively and more directly through email exchange, and the research relies on accuracy of data obtained from respondents. The research did not make efforts to reduce response bias in email communication in both Hungarian and American native speakers, the results should, therefore, be applied cautiously.

Threats to biasness can be reduced by having assessment and training administered by professional people and not the students instructor for this case. Additional research is required to determine the extent to which computer-mediated communication led to the observed benefit of improved writing skills and cultural awareness (Laura 2009, p.4).

Lack of training in email use among Hungarian learners and American natives will not have beneficial effects on the ability of students to speak and learn English skills, which could have strong negative effect on research results obtained.

Several study features that were required to determine email features in both written and spoken languages were inappropriate for specific design of the participants (Laura 2009, p.5). The author also reported that the Hungarian learners claimed to have improved their general writing, but did not provide any measurement to determine the credibility of these results.

All these findings indicate critical need for developing specific measurement tool regarding improved language skills before the results could be published.

The findings also suggested that suitable quantitative tool such as ethnographic fieldwork should have been determined at the beginning of the study to eliminate some instances of assumptions. Also, no calculations conducted to determine whether a statistically improvement was provided.

The main research is to develop ethnographic emphasis that understands and interprets participants’ views of the social world, academic environment for this case. Qualitative tool used was not appropriate for addressing views in social phenomenon because it requires people to interact more between perspectives and experiences (Firestone 1987) as opposed to how Laura (2009) generalized all the results.

The difficulties most often cited by participants were different perceptions in discussing education problems due to cultural diversity and age difference (Laura 2009, p.7), which might be the problem most affected by the interventions in this study.

Researchers are encouraged to consider diversity on education difficulties interpretation for participants who present with these issues for future research. The research should also include ethnographic fieldwork to collect data about the way participants acts when interacting.

According to Wolfson (1983), application of ethnographic fieldwork as a primary study measurement would provide most varied data and satisfactory results for research in pragmatics.

The adaptation of appropriate methods for research project is very important. Use of multiple perspectives such as triangular methods increases reliability of data collected, which can be used for future research. Much research has to be done in identifying research design, population and sample collection otherwise we would be far from understanding the complicated nature of research methodology.

All factors identified in this review that includes the relationship between humans and communicative devices must be considered if the expectation of concrete and reliable research is to be met. The fulfilment of this obligation can be accomplished through research, choosing desirable measurement tool, training on measurement toll to be used and addressing concerns of the students.

Although the sample size for this research was small, further research is recommended to refine this area. The researcher also specify if the study used interviews, surveys, questionnaire or observable data at the very beginning of the research and include participants characteristics such as gender, gender ratio and race.

Dorney, Z,.2007, Research Methods in Applied Linguistics , Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Firestone, W. A. !987, ‘Meaning in method: the rhetoric of quantitative and qualitative research’, Educational Research , vol. 16, no.7, pp.16-21.

Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, a. L. 1967, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Aldine De Gruyter, New York.

Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. 1992, Becoming qualitative researcher: an introduction , Longman, London

Kern, R. 1998. Technology, social interaction and FL literacy . In J. Muyskens (Ed.), New ways of learning and teaching: focus on technology and foreign language education , Heinle & Heinle Publishers, Boston.

Laura, F. 2009, ‘Outcomes of an intercultural e-mail based university discussion project, Language and Intercultural Communication, vol. 9, no.1, pp. 1-10

Perry, F. L. 2005, Research in Applied Linguistics , Routledge.

Robinson, M. A 1992, Introspective methodology in interlanguage pragmatics research , HI University of Howaii, Honolulu.

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. 1990, Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques , Sage Publications, Newbury Park.

Woldson, N. 1983, Rules of speaking: language and communication , Longman, London.

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Essay on Communication

Computer Communications Versus Face-To-Face Argumentative Essay Samples

Type of paper: Argumentative Essay

Topic: Communication , Relationships , Internet , Time , Media , Development , Thinking , Skills

Words: 1300

Published: 02/28/2020

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There is a school of thought that communicating with others by email or SMS (text messaging) is a good thing, because it encourages some people – especially those who are shy or introverted – to communicate more readily and in a less inhibited way, than they would be inclined to do in a one-to-one situation face-to-face. A contrasting view is that whilst there might be some truth in that, the major disadvantage is that the consequent lack of direct personal contact hinders the development of interpersonal skills. It is also less likely that two individuals communicating entirely “electronically” would develop a close and/or meaningful relationship. This essay considers and discusses those views and the issues arising. There is no doubt that emailing or texting is not only fast, and “free”, but allows you to communicate without leaving the comfort of your chair. For many purposes, the email as a communication medium is just about ideal. For example, if you get a message from your Bank or a lawyer stating that they need a copy of your ID, or your passport, or some other document, it’s so easy to scan the document and attach it to an email in not much more time than it takes to type these words. And the document is received almost instantaneously, too. Similarly, if you need to let someone know your flight details so you can be met at the airport, the email or text is again ideal for that purpose. In other words, using that medium is a good solution for non-contentious messages where time may be of the essence in imparting the information. However, it is also only too easy to dash off an email or a text (or send a Twitter or Facebook message) without giving the content sufficient thought before pressing the “Send” button. How many people in public life (politicians, movie stars, sports personalities, etc.) have found themselves in deep trouble because of messages compiled and sent on the spur of the moment? And – in this writer’s opinion at least – such people really should know better. In fact, it would not be a bad idea if the employment contracts for such people were to expressly forbid using those media for any messages connected with their professional activities (thereby protecting them from themselves!). There is no doubt that in today’s society far fewer “real” letters are written (or typed), placed in an envelope and mailed, particularly in non-business correspondence. Communicating using that method is undoubtedly slower than emails or instant messaging, but does have the advantage over emails and texts in that the sender is more likely to re-read the contents before sending, affording the sender the opportunity to think again or to correct wording that might be misinterpreted. Also emails or texts – especially texts – use a very concise form of words, which greatly increases the likelihood of misunderstandings arising. It is the speed of electronic communication that makes it so attractive. The telephone is just as fast of course, and offers a major advantage over emails and texts that it is “real time” two-way communication. Though it’s not as good as face-to-face, because – as the name suggests – face-to-face conversation allows both parties involved to observe the other person’s facial expressions which can communicate almost as much as the words themselves. An example of the differences between these methods of communication might be if person A says “I’m thinking of coming to visit you for a few days” in a text or an email, person B’s immediate reaction is completely invisible to person A. That could be an advantage in the sense that it gives person B the opportunity to think of ways to avoid, postpone, or prevent that visit, but has the disadvantage for person A that they might not realise their planned visit is quite simply unwelcome. Considering the same scenario but in a telephone conversation, person A might deduce from a hesitation on person B’s part that maybe the idea of a visit has not been well received. However, in a face-to-face encounter, unless person B happened to be very good at hiding their true feelings, the facial expression would tell person A that they might have to think again. There is also the fact that whereas in many instances one might be prepared to make harsh demands or stipulate rigid or unbending requirements on another person or business in an email, there is much more likely to be increased flexibility “on the table” when discussing matters face-to-face. It is basic human nature that when dealing face-to-face with someone, there is a tendency on both sides to be more tolerant, more understanding of the other person’s position and an instinctive wish to be seen as a more reasonable person. Another great advantage of face-to-face communication – in a positive sense – is in developing a romantic relationship. Many, many relationships begin with an exchange of glances, often between two people who would never have met if they had not by chance been in the same place at the same time. Yes, people do also successfully establish relationships that begin online (dating agencies, etc) but that can be a lengthy and costly process with many setbacks and false starts before finding a compatible significant other. And it’s not only romantic relationships that are best achieved and most likely to succeed by face-to-face contact and communication. In many spheres of commercial activity, getting to know your customer is crucial in building trust, and from that a successful long term business relationship. Meeting your customers face-to-face dramatically increases the chances of such a relationship developing and enduring. How many times do you hear the expression “It’s not what you know, but who you know that matters.” Essentially, the meaning of that expression is that interpersonal relationships are all-important. It is evident that the best way to develop interpersonal skills is by regular and frequent social contact. Individuals who work in a customer-facing role in an office or retail environment are much more likely to have good interpersonal skills than (say) someone who lives alone and works in a job that is conducted entirely or predominantly online; i.e. never actually meeting or conversing with their counterparts or customers. In these times when the Internet has “shrunk” our world, online relationships can and often are conducted not just across national borders but between different continents and time zones. In many cases, real time direct contact – even using electronic communication methods – is not practicable due to time differences. As a consequence, solid and lasting relationships between supplier and customer are less likely when the communication medium is purely online.

Conclusions

Electronic communication (email, text messaging including social media) is of huge benefit in today’s technology-oriented society. However, whilst that technology offers tremendous benefits in terms of ease and speed of communication, it has its drawbacks and disadvantages too. It is ideal for rapid, cost-effective transmittal of non-contentious content and documents needed urgently such as verification of ID, etc. It may well be of benefit to shy or introverted individuals who would be more inhibited in a face-to-face situation, but does not as a consequence help such people with interpersonal skills or the establishment and development of meaningful relationships – either in a business or personal sense. Overall, it is very much a case of “horses for courses.” Electronic communication has – rightly – its place in today’s society, but is no substitute for face-to-face contact where that form of communication is the best method. Shy or introverted people may communicate easier and/or better using email or text, but may well suffer in a lack of social skills as a result.

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Essay on Computer

500+ words essay on computer.

A computer is an electronic device that performs complex calculations. It is a wonderful product of modern technology. Nowadays, computers have become a significant part of our life. Whether it is in the sector of education or health, computers are used everywhere. Our progress is entirely dependent on computers powered by the latest technology. This ‘Essay on Computer’ also covers the history of computers as well as their uses in different sectors. By going through the ‘Computer’ Essay in English, students will get an idea of writing a good Essay on Computers. After practising this essay, they will be able to write essays on other topics related to computers, such as the ‘Uses of Computer’ Essay.

The invention of the computer has made our lives easier. The device is used for many purposes, such as securing information, messages, data processing, software programming, calculations, etc. A desktop computer has a CPU, UPS, monitor, keyboard, and mouse to work. A laptop is a modern form of computer in which all the components are inbuilt into a single device. Earlier, computers were not so fast and powerful. After thorough and meticulous research and work by various scientists, modern-day computers have come up.

History of Computers

The history of computer development is often used to reference the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computers is characterised by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers work. Most of the major developments from the 1940s to the present day have resulted in increasingly smaller, more powerful, faster, cheaper and more efficient computing devices.

The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations. These five generations of computers are as follows:

Uses of Computers

Computers are used in various fields. Some of the applications are

1. Business

A computer can perform a high-speed calculation more efficiently and accurately, due to which it is used in all business organisations. In business, computers are used for:

Payroll calculations
Sales analysis
Maintenance of stocks
Managing employee databases

2. Education

Computers are very useful in the education system. Especially now, during the COVID time, online education has become the need of the hour. There are miscellaneous ways through which an institution can use computers to educate students.

3. Health Care

Computers have become an important part of hospitals, labs and dispensaries. They are used for the scanning and diagnosis of different diseases. Computerised machines do scans, which include ECG, EEG, ultrasound and CT Scan, etc. Moreover, they are used in hospitals to keep records of patients and medicines.

Computers are largely used in defence. The military employs computerised control systems, modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. It uses computers for communication, operation and planning, smart weapons, etc.

5. Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields are:

Computation of male/female ratio
Computerisation of PAN card
Income Tax Department
Weather forecasting
Computerisation of voters’ lists
Sales Tax Department

6. Communication

Communication is a way to convey an idea, a message, a picture, a speech or any form of text, audio or video clip. Computers are capable of doing so. Through computers, we can send an email, chat with each other, do video conferencing, etc.

Nowadays, to a large extent, banking is dependent on computers. Banks provide an online accounting facility, which includes checking current balances, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, trustee records, etc. The ATM machines, which are fully automated, use computers, making it easier for customers to deal with banking transactions.

8. Marketing

In marketing, computers are mainly used for advertising and home shopping.

Similarly, there are various other applications of computers in other fields, such as insurance, engineering, design, etc.

Students can practise more essays on different topics to improve their writing skills. Keep learning and stay tuned with BYJU’S for the latest update on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams. Also, download the BYJU’S App for interactive study videos.

Frequently asked Questions on Computer Essay

How has the invention of the computer been useful to students.

Easy and ready access to information has been possible (internet) with the invention of the computer.

How to start writing an essay on a computer?

Before writing an essay, first plan the topics, sub-topics and main points which are going to be included in the body of the essay. Then, structure the content accordingly and check for information and examples.

How to use the computer to browse for information on essays?

Various search engines are available, like Google, where plenty of information can be obtained regarding essays and essay structures.

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Essay on Importance of Communication for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of communication:.

Communication is one of the important tools that aid us to connect with people. Either you are a student or a working professional, good communication is something that will connect you far ahead. Proper communication can help you to solve a number of issues and resolve problems. This is the reason that one must know how to communicate well. The skills of communication essential to be developed so that you are able to interact with people. And able to share your thoughts and reach out to them. All this needs the correct guidance and self-analysis as well.

Meaning of Communication

The word communication is basically a process of interaction with the people and their environment . Through such type of interactions, two or more individuals influence the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes of each other.

Such interactions happen through the exchange of information through words, gestures, signs, symbols, and expressions. In organizations, communication is an endless process of giving and receiving information and to build social relationships.

Importance of Communication

Communication is not merely essential but the need of the hour. It allows you to get the trust of the people and at the same time carry better opportunities before you. Some important points are as follows –

Help to Build Relationships

No matter either you are studying or working, communication can aid you to build a relationship with the people. If you are studying you communicate with classmates and teachers to build a relationship with them. Likewise in offices and organizations too, you make relationships with the staff, your boss and other people around.

Improve the Working Environment

There are a number of issues which can be handled through the right and effective communication. Even planning needs communication both written as well as verbal. Hence it is essential to be good in them so as to fill in the communication gap.

Foster strong team

Communication helps to build a strong team environment in the office and other places. Any work which requires to be done in a team. It is only possible if the head communicates everything well and in the right direction.

Find the right solutions

Through communication, anyone can find solutions to even serious problems. When we talk, we get ideas from people that aid us to solve the issues. This is where communication comes into play. Powerful communication is the strength of any organization and can help it in many ways.

Earns more respect

If your communication skills are admirable, people will love and give you respect. If there is any problem, you will be the first person to be contacted. Thus it will increase your importance. Hence you can say that communications skills can make a big change to your reputation in society.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Don’t Go Overboard With Your Point

The conversation is about to express your thoughts. And to let the other person know what you feel. It is not mean to prove that your point is correct and the other person is wrong. Don’t Overboard other With Your Point.

Watch Your Words

Before you say something to Watch Your Words. At times, out of anger or anxiousness, we say somethings that we must not say. Whenever you are in a professional meeting or in some formal place, where there is a necessity of communicating about your product or work then it is advised to practice the same beforehand

Communication is the greatest importance. It is important to sharing out one’s thoughts and feelings to live a fuller and happier life. The more we communicate the less we suffer and the better we feel about everything around. However, it is all the more necessary to learn the art of effective communication to put across ones point well.

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